text: Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials. Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing temperature. Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which thermal conduction is reduced or thermal radiation is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body.

text: Thermal insulation is the reduction of

entity_name: Heat transfer

text: heat transfer

text: (the transfer of

entity_name: Thermal energy

text: thermal energy

text: between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials. Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing

entity_name: Temperature

text: temperature

text: . Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which

entity_name: Thermal conduction

text: thermal conduction

text: is reduced or

entity_name: Thermal radiation

text: thermal radiation

text: is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body.

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answers: object shapes and materials

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: object shapes and materials

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In contrast, the metal sphere may be large, causing the characteristic length to increase to the point that the Biot number is larger than one. In this case, thermal gradients within the sphere become important, even though the sphere material is a good conductor. Equivalently, if the sphere is made of a thermally insulating (poorly conductive) material, such as wood or styrofoam, the interior resistance to heat flow will exceed that of the fluid/sphere boundary, even with a much smaller sphere. In this case, again, the Biot number will be greater than one.

text: In contrast, the metal sphere may be large, causing the characteristic length to increase to the point that the Biot number is larger than one. In this case, thermal gradients within the sphere become important, even though the sphere material is a good conductor. Equivalently, if the sphere is made of a thermally insulating (poorly conductive) material, such as wood or styrofoam, the interior resistance to heat flow will exceed that of the fluid/sphere boundary, even with a much smaller sphere. In this case, again, the Biot number will be greater than one.

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answers: thermal gradients within the sphere

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: styrofoam

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Applications of mineral wool include thermal insulation (as both structural insulation and pipe insulation, though it is not as fire-resistant as high-temperature insulation wool), filtration, soundproofing, and hydroponic growth medium.

text: Applications of mineral wool include

entity_name: Thermal insulation

text: thermal insulation

text: (as both

entity_name: Building insulation

text: structural insulation

text: and

entity_name: Pipe insulation

text: pipe insulation

text: , though it is not as fire-resistant as

entity_name: High-temperature insulation wool

text: high-temperature insulation wool

entity_name: Filtration

text: filtration

entity_name: Soundproofing

text: soundproofing

text: , and

entity_name: Hydroponics

text: hydroponic

text: growth medium.

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answers: mineral wool

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answers: mineral wool

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: mineral wool

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Al/Ca composite is a high-conductivity, high-strength, lightweight composite consisting of sub-micron-diameter pure calcium metal filaments embedded inside a pure aluminium metal matrix.  The material is still in the development phase, but it has potential use as an overhead high-voltage power transmission conductor.  It could also be used wherever an exceptionally light, high-strength conductor is needed.  Its physical properties make it especially well-suited for DC transmission. Compared with conventional conductors such as aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable (ACSR), all aluminium alloy conductors (AAAC), aluminium conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR), aluminium conductor composite reinforced ACCR and ACCC conductor that conduct AC current well and DC current somewhat less well (due to the skin effect), Al/Ca conductor is essentially a single uniform material with high DC conductivity, allowing the core strands and the outer strands of a conductor cable to all be the same wire type. This conductor is inherently strong so that there is no need for a strong (usually poorly conductive) core to support its own weight as is done in conventional conductors. This eliminates the "bird caging", spooling, and thermal fatigue problems caused by thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the core and outer strands. The Al-Ca phase interfaces strengthen the composite substantially, but do not have a noticeable effect on restricting the mean free path of electrons, which gives the composite both high strength and high conductivity, a combination that is normally difficult to achieve with both pure metals and alloys. The high strength and light weight could reduce the number of towers needed per kilometer for long distance transmission lines. Since towers and their foundations often account for 50% of a powerline's construction cost, building fewer towers would save a substantial fraction of total construction costs.  The high strength  also could increase transmission reliability in wind/ice loading situations.  The high conductivity has the potential to reduce Ohmic losses.

text: Al/Ca composite is a high-conductivity, high-strength, lightweight

entity_name: Composite material

text: composite

text: consisting of sub-micron-diameter pure

entity_name: Calcium

text: calcium

text: metal filament

text: s embedded inside a pure

entity_name: Aluminium

text: aluminium

text: metal matrix.  The material is still in the development phase, but it has potential use as an overhead high-voltage

entity_name: Overhead power line

text: power transmission conductor

text: .  It could also be used wherever an exceptionally light, high-strength

entity_name: Electrical conductor

text: conductor

text: is needed.  Its physical properties make it especially well-suited for

text: DC transmission

text: . Compared with conventional conductors such as

text: aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable

text: (ACSR),

text: all aluminium alloy conductors

text: (AAAC),

text: aluminium conductor alloy reinforced

text: (ACAR),

text: aluminium conductor composite reinforced

text: ACCR

text: and

entity_name: ACCC conductor

text: ACCC conductor

text: that conduct

entity_name: Alternating current

text: AC current

text: well and DC current somewhat less well (due to the

entity_name: Skin effect

text: skin effect

text: ), Al/Ca conductor is essentially a single uniform material with high DC conductivity, allowing the core strands and the outer strands of a conductor cable to all be the same wire type. This conductor is inherently strong so that there is no need for a strong (usually poorly conductive) core to support its own weight as is done in conventional conductors. This eliminates the "bird caging",

entity_name: Spooling

text: spooling

text: , and

entity_name: Fatigue (material)

text: thermal fatigue

text: problems caused by

entity_name: Thermal expansion

text: thermal expansion coefficient

text: mismatch between the core and outer strands. The Al-Ca phase interfaces strengthen the composite substantially, but do not have a noticeable effect on restricting the

entity_name: Mean free path

text: mean free path

text: of electrons, which gives the composite both high strength and high conductivity, a combination that is normally difficult to achieve with both pure metals and alloys. The high strength and light weight could reduce the number of

entity_name: Transmission tower

text: towers

text: needed per kilometer for long distance transmission lines. Since towers and their foundations often account for 50% of a powerline's construction cost, building fewer towers would save a substantial fraction of total construction costs.  The high strength  also could increase transmission reliability in wind/ice loading situations.  The high conductivity has the potential to reduce

entity_name: Joule heating

text: Ohmic loss

text: es.

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answers: thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the core and outer strands

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: Al/Ca composite

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The high strength also could increase transmission reliability in wind/ice loading situations

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Al/Ca composite

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aluminium windows, doors and facades get thermally insulated by using thermal insulation plastics made of glass fibre reinforced polyamide. In 1977 Ensinger GmbH produced first insulation profile for window systems.

text: Aluminium windows, doors and facades get thermally insulated by using thermal insulation plastics made of glass fibre reinforced polyamide. In 1977 Ensinger GmbH produced first insulation profile for window systems.

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answers: glass fibre reinforced polyamide

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: glass fibre

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: glass fibre reinforced polyamide

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Relative to other building components, aluminum has a high heat transfer coefficient, meaning that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum curtain wall mullions.There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal breaks. Thermal breaks are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks provide a significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis of the system.

text: Relative to other building components, aluminum has a high heat transfer coefficient, meaning that aluminum is a very good

text: conductor

text: of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum curtain wall mullions.There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal breaks.

text: Thermal break

text: s are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of

text: polyvinyl chloride

text: (PVC). These breaks provide a significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis of the system.

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answers: polyvinyl chloride

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answers: aluminum

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answers: Thermal breaks are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: polyvinyl chloride

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Multi-layer insulation, or MLI, is thermal insulation composed of multiple layers of thin sheets and is often used on spacecraft. It is one of the main items of the spacecraft thermal design,  primarily intended to reduce heat loss by thermal radiation.  In its basic form, it does not appreciably insulate against other thermal losses such as heat conduction or convection.  It is therefore commonly used on satellites and other applications in vacuum where conduction and convection are much less significant and radiation dominates.  MLI gives many satellites and other space probes the appearance of being covered with gold foil.

text: Multi-layer insulation, or MLI, is

text: thermal insulation

text: composed of multiple layers of thin sheets and is often used on

text: spacecraft

text: . It is one of the main items of the spacecraft

text: thermal design

text: ,  primarily intended to reduce heat loss by

text: thermal radiation

text: .  In its basic form, it does not appreciably insulate against other thermal losses such as

text: heat conduction

text: or

text: convection

text: .  It is therefore commonly used on

text: satellite

text: s and other applications in

text: vacuum

text: where conduction and convection are much less significant and radiation dominates.  MLI gives many satellites and other space probes the appearance of being covered with gold foil.

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answers: thermal insulation composed of multiple layers of thin sheets

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Multi-layer insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package" air, resulting in a low density that can be varied through compression and binder content (as noted above, these air cells are the actual insulator). Glass wool can be a loose fill material, blown into attics, or, together with an active binder sprayed on the underside of structures, sheets and panels that can be used to insulate flat surfaces such as cavity wall insulation, ceiling tiles, curtain walls as well as ducting. It is also used to insulate piping and for soundproofing.

text: Glass wool is a

text: thermal insulation

text: that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package" air, resulting in a low

text: density

text: that can be varied through compression and binder content (as noted above, these air cells are the actual insulator). Glass wool can be a loose fill material, blown into attics, or, together with an active binder sprayed on the underside of structures, sheets and panels that can be used to insulate flat surfaces such as

text: cavity wall insulation

text: ceiling tiles

text: curtain wall

text: s as well as

text: ducting

text: . It is also used to insulate

text: piping

text: and for

text: soundproofing

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answers: Glass wool

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answers: Glass wool

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Glass wool

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Glass wool

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Diamond is an extremely effective thermal conductor and usually an electrical insulator. The former property is widely exploited in the use of an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. As most simulants are thermal insulators, the thermistor's heat will not be conducted. This test takes about 2–3 seconds. The only possible exception is moissanite, which has a thermal conductivity similar to diamond: older probes can be fooled by moissanite, but newer Thermal and Electrical Conductivity testers are sophisticated enough to differentiate the two materials.The latest development is nano diamond coating, an extremely thin layer of diamond material. If not tested properly it may show the same characteristics as a diamond.

text: Diamond is an extremely effective

text: thermal conductor

text: and usually an

text: electrical

text: insulator

text: . The former property is widely exploited in the use of an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered

text: thermistor

text: s mounted in a fine

text: copper

text: tip. One thermistor functions as a

text: heat

text: ing device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. As most simulants are thermal insulators, the thermistor's heat will not be conducted. This test takes about 2–3 seconds. The only possible exception is moissanite, which has a thermal conductivity similar to diamond: older probes can be fooled by moissanite, but newer Thermal and Electrical Conductivity testers are sophisticated enough to differentiate the two materials.The latest development is nano diamond coating, an extremely thin layer of diamond material. If not tested properly it may show the same characteristics as a diamond.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Additionally, California state law requires minimum energy conservation levels for all new and/or existing development projects. The seller of a home is required to include information regarding energy conservation retrofitting and thermal insulation in the sales contract.

text: Additionally, California state law requires minimum energy conservation levels for all new and/or existing development projects. The seller of a home is required to include information regarding energy conservation retrofitting and thermal insulation in the sales contract.

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text: Electrical devices often contain copper conductors because of their multiple beneficial properties, including their high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep resistance, corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, solderability, resistance to electrical overloads, compatibility with electrical insulators and ease of installation.

text: Electrical devices often contain copper conductors because of their multiple beneficial properties, including their high

text: electrical conductivity

text: tensile strength

text: ductility

text: creep

text: resistance,

text: corrosion resistance

text: thermal conductivity

text: coefficient of thermal expansion

text: solderability

text: , resistance to

text: electrical overload

text: s, compatibility with

text: electrical insulator

text: s and ease of installation.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: Some specific products, such as slip rings or thermal insulation are offered also to non space customers

text: Some specific products, such as slip rings or thermal insulation are offered also to non space customers

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answers: slip rings

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: There are no professional architecture or engineering certifications for building science. It is currently a specialization within these broad areas of practice. In the US contractors certified by the Building Performance Institute, an independent organization, advertise that they operate businesses as Building Scientists.  This is questionable due to their lack of scientific background and credentials. This is true in Canada for most of the Certified Energy Advisors. However, many of these trades and technologists require and receive some training in very specific areas of building science (e.g., air tightness, or thermal insulation).

text: There are no professional architecture or engineering certifications for building science. It is currently a specialization within these broad areas of practice. In the US contractors certified by the Building Performance Institute, an independent organization, advertise that they operate businesses as Building Scientists.  This is questionable due to their lack of scientific background and credentials. This is true in Canada for most of the Certified Energy Advisors. However, many of these trades and technologists require and receive some training in very specific areas of building science (e.g., air tightness, or thermal insulation).

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Insulating castables are specialised monolithic refractories that are used on the cold face of applications. They are made from lightweight aggregate materials such as vermiculite, perlite, extend-o-spheres, bubble alumina and expanded clay. Their main function is to provide thermal insulation. They are typically of low density and low thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories have inferior mechanical strength to that of conventional castables.

text: Insulating castables are specialised monolithic refractories that are used on the cold face of applications. They are made from lightweight aggregate materials such as vermiculite, perlite, extend-o-spheres, bubble alumina and expanded clay. Their main function is to provide thermal insulation. They are typically of low density and low thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories have inferior mechanical strength to that of conventional castables.

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answers: bubble alumina

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answers: Insulating castables

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: vermiculite, perlite, extend-o-spheres

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It has remarkable thermal insulative properties, having an extremely low thermal conductivity: from 0.03 W/m·K in atmospheric pressure down to 0.004 W/m·K in modest vacuum, which correspond to R-values of 14 to 105 (US customary) or 3.0 to 22.2 (metric) for  thickness. For comparison, typical wall insulation is 13 (US customary) or 2.7 (metric) for the same thickness. Its melting point is .

text: It has remarkable thermal insulative properties, having an extremely low

text: thermal conductivity

text: : from 0.03

text: W

text: /m·

text: K

text: in atmospheric pressure down to 0.004 W/m·K in modest vacuum, which correspond to

text: R-values

text: of 14 to 105 (US customary) or 3.0 to 22.2 (metric) for  thickness. For comparison, typical wall insulation is 13 (US customary) or 2.7 (metric) for the same thickness. Its

text: melting point

text: is .

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answers: It

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of thermal insulance. This is used for building materials (R-value) and for clothing insulation.

text: The heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of

text: thermal insulance

text: . This is used for building materials (

text: R-value

text: ) and for

text: clothing insulation

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answers: The heat transfer coefficient

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answers: clothing

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulance

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: clothing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Modular buildings often use Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) in construction, which offer a range of advantages over traditional building materials. SIPs panels are a light yet durable combination of panel board and either closed-cell polyurethane (PU) or expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulating foam. They are air-tight, and as such provide excellent thermal performance. They also offer superior damp and cold resistance when compared to timber and other materials, and are immune to both compression shrinking and cold bridging.

text: Modular buildings often use

text: Structural Insulated Panels

text: (SIPs) in construction, which offer a range of advantages over traditional building materials. SIPs panels are a light yet durable combination of panel board and either closed-cell

text: polyurethane

text: (PU) or expanded

text: polystyrene

text: (EPS) insulating foam. They are air-tight, and as such provide excellent thermal performance. They also offer superior damp and cold resistance when compared to timber and other materials, and are immune to both compression shrinking and cold bridging.

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answers: Cold bridging

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answers: SIPs panels

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used.  In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.

text: Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage electrical

text: substations

text: and the

text: electrical grid

text: . Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used.  In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.

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answers: Live tank CTs

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: live tank current transformers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal bridges can also be created by uncoordinated construction, for example by closing off parts of external walls before they are fully insulated.The existence of inaccessible voids within the wall cavity which are devoid of insulation can be a source of thermal bridging.

text: Thermal bridges can also be created by uncoordinated construction, for example by closing off parts of external walls before they are fully insulated.The existence of inaccessible voids within the wall cavity which are devoid of insulation can be a source of thermal bridging.

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answers: devoid of insulation

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answers: thermal bridging

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: external walls

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.

text: Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.

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answers: moderate thermal conductors

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: semiconductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: semiconductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dynamic insulation is a form of insulation where cool outside air flowing through the thermal insulation in the envelope of a building will pick up heat from the insulation fibres.  Buildings can be designed to exploit this to reduce the transmission heat loss (U-value) and to provide pre-warmed, draft free air to interior spaces.  This is known as dynamic insulation since the U-value is no longer constant for a given wall or roof construction but varies with the speed of the air flowing through the insulation (climate adaptive building shell).  Dynamic insulation is different from breathing walls.  The positive aspects of dynamic insulation need to be weighed against the more conventional approach to building design which is to create an airtight envelope and provide appropriate ventilation using either natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation with heat recovery.  The air-tight approach to building envelope design, unlike dynamic insulation, results in a building envelope that provides a consistent performance in terms of heat loss and risk of interstitial condensation that is independent of wind speed and direction.  Under certain wind conditions a dynamically insulated building can have a higher heat transmission loss than an air-tight building with the same thickness of insulation.

text: Dynamic insulation is a form of

text: insulation

text: where cool outside air flowing through the thermal insulation in the

text: envelope

text: of a building will pick up heat from the insulation fibres.  Buildings can be designed to exploit this to reduce the transmission heat loss (

text: U-value

text: ) and to provide pre-warmed, draft free air to interior spaces.  This is known as dynamic insulation since the U-value is no longer constant for a given wall or roof construction but varies with the speed of the air flowing through the insulation (

text: climate adaptive building shell

text: ).  Dynamic insulation is different from

text: breathing

text: walls.  The positive aspects of dynamic insulation need to be weighed against the more conventional approach to building design which is to create an

text: airtight

text: envelope and provide appropriate

text: ventilation

text: using either natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation with heat recovery.  The air-tight approach to building envelope design, unlike dynamic insulation, results in a building envelope that provides a consistent performance in terms of heat loss and risk of

text: interstitial condensation

text: that is independent of wind speed and direction.  Under certain wind conditions a dynamically insulated building can have a higher heat transmission loss than an air-tight building with the same thickness of insulation.

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answers: Dynamic insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: To achieve better thermal performance, insulation was added in the void, and in many applications today the steel trusses have been replaced by composite (fibreglass, plastic, etc.) connection systems.  These systems, which are specially developed for this purpose, also eliminate the differential thermal expansion problem. The best thermal performance is achieved when the insulation is continuous throughout the wall section, i.e., the wythes are thermally separated completely to the ends of the panel.  Using continuous insulation and modern composite connection systems, R-values exceeding R-22 can be achieved.

text: To achieve better thermal performance, insulation was added in the void, and in many applications today the steel trusses have been replaced by composite (fibreglass, plastic, etc.) connection systems.  These systems, which are specially developed for this purpose, also eliminate the differential thermal expansion problem. The best thermal performance is achieved when the insulation is continuous throughout the wall section, i.e., the wythes are thermally separated completely to the ends of the panel.  Using continuous insulation and modern composite connection systems, R-values exceeding R-22 can be achieved.

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answers: Insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: fibreglass, plastic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Nanogels are not to be confused with Nanogel aerogel, a lightweight thermal insulator.

text: Nanogels are not to be confused with Nanogel

text: aerogel

text: , a lightweight thermal insulator.

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answers: Nanogels

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answers: Nanogels

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Nanogel aerogel

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Nanogels

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In order to accomplish formation of small gas cells in man-made thermal insulation, glass and polymer materials can be used to trap air in a foam-like structure. The same principle used in glass wool is used in other man-made insulators such as rock wool, styrofoam, wet suit neoprene foam fabrics, and fabrics such as Gore-Tex and polar fleece. The air-trapping property is also the insulation principle used in nature in down feathers, and insulating hair such as natural wool.

text: In order to accomplish formation of small gas cells in man-made

text: thermal insulation

text: , glass and polymer materials can be used to trap air in a foam-like structure. The same principle used in glass wool is used in other man-made insulators such as

text: rock wool

text: styrofoam

text: wet suit

text: neoprene foam fabrics, and fabrics such as

text: Gore-Tex

text: and

text: polar fleece

text: . The air-trapping property is also the insulation principle used in nature in

text: down feather

text: s, and insulating hair such as natural

text: wool

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answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: EPS concrete combines the construction ease of concrete with the thermal and hydro insulation properties of EPS and can be used for a very wide range of application where lighter loads or thermal insulation or both are desired.

text: EPS concrete combines the construction ease of concrete with the thermal and hydro insulation properties of EPS and can be used for a very wide range of application where lighter loads or thermal insulation or both are desired.

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Designed by Gaz Transport, the tanks consists of a primary and secondary thin membrane made of the material Invar which has almost no thermal contraction. The insulation is made out of plywood boxes filled with perlite and continuously flushed with nitrogen gas.  The integrity of both membranes is permanently monitored by detection of hydrocarbon in the nitrogen. An evolution is proposed by NG2, with the replacement of nitrogen by argon as the flushed inert and insulation gas. Argon has a better insulation power than nitrogen, which could save 10% of boil-off gas.

text: Designed by Gaz Transport, the tanks consists of a primary and secondary thin membrane made of the material

text: Invar

text: which has almost no thermal contraction. The insulation is made out of plywood boxes filled with perlite and continuously flushed with nitrogen gas.  The integrity of both membranes is permanently monitored by detection of hydrocarbon in the nitrogen. An evolution is proposed by NG2, with the replacement of nitrogen by argon as the flushed inert and insulation gas. Argon has a better insulation power than nitrogen, which could save 10% of boil-off gas.

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answers: argon

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answers: plywood boxes filled with perlite

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aluminum frames are excellent for strength, durability and maintenance but they are a poor choice from a thermal insulation point of view. Aluminum is an extremely conductive material. Therefore, thermal insulation profiles are used to create a thermal separation of the inner and outer shells of metal frames. The variety of thermal insulation profiles (insulbar) allows low Uf values (for example 1.3 W/m²K by using a 34mm insulation profile and up to 1.1 W/m²K with contemporary aluminium systems) to be reached. Polyamide insulation profiles with %25 glass fibre content are the right choice for optimum heat insulation and mechanical properties.

text: Aluminum frames are excellent for strength, durability and maintenance but they are a poor choice from a thermal insulation point of view. Aluminum is an extremely conductive material. Therefore, thermal insulation profiles are used to create a thermal separation of the inner and outer shells of metal frames. The variety of thermal insulation profiles (insulbar) allows low Uf values (for example 1.3 W/m²K by using a 34mm insulation profile and up to 1.1 W/m²K with contemporary aluminium systems) to be reached. Polyamide insulation profiles with %25 glass fibre content are the right choice for optimum heat insulation and mechanical properties.

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Polyamide

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Anodic bonding on silicon substrates is divided into bonding using a  thin sheet of glass (a wafer) or a glass layer that is deposited onto the silicon using a technique such as sputtering. The glass wafer is often sodium-containing Borofloat or Pyrex glasses. With an intermediate glass layer, it is also possible to connect two silicon wafers. The glass layers are deposited by sputtering, spin-on of a glass solution or vapor deposition upon the processed silicon wafer. The thickness of these layers range from one to a few micrometers with spin-on glass layers needing 1 µm or less. Hermetic seals of silicon to glass using an aluminum layer with thickness of 50 to 100 nm can reach strengths of 18.0 MPa. This method enables burying electrically isolated conductors in the interface. Bonding of thermally oxidized wafers without a glass layer is also possible.

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answers: aluminum

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The glass layers are deposited by sputtering

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: aluminum

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aerogels are good thermal insulators because they almost nullify two of the three methods of heat transfer (convection, conduction, and radiation). They are good conductive insulators because they are composed almost entirely of gas, which are very poor heat conductors. (Silica aerogel is an especially good insulator because silica is also a poor conductor of heat; a metallic or carbon aerogel, on the other hand, would be less effective.) They are good convective inhibitors because air cannot circulate through the lattice. Aerogels are poor radiative insulators because infrared radiation (which transfers heat) passes through them.

text: Aerogels are good

text: thermal insulators

text: because they almost nullify two of the three methods of

text: heat transfer

text: (convection, conduction, and radiation). They are good

text: conductive

text: insulators because they are composed almost entirely of gas, which are very poor heat conductors. (Silica aerogel is an especially good insulator because silica is also a poor conductor of heat; a metallic or carbon aerogel, on the other hand, would be less effective.) They are good

text: convective

text: inhibitors because air cannot circulate through the lattice. Aerogels are poor

text: radiative

text: insulators because infrared radiation (which transfers heat) passes through them.

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answers: Silica aerogel

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Aerogels are good thermal insulators

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Aerogels

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Two such conductors that offer reduced thermal sag are known as composite core conductors (ACCR and ACCC conductor).  In lieu of steel core strands that are often used to increase overall conductor strength, the ACCC conductor uses a carbon and glass fiber core that offers a coefficient of thermal expansion about 1/10 of that of steel.  While the composite core is nonconductive, it is substantially lighter and stronger than steel, which allows the incorporation of 28% more aluminum (using compact trapezoidal shaped strands) without any diameter or weight penalty.  The added aluminum content helps reduce line losses by 25 to 40% compared to other conductors of the same diameter and weight, depending upon electric current.  The carbon core conductor's reduced thermal sag allows it to carry up to twice the current ("ampacity") compared to all-aluminum conductor (AAC) or ACSR.

text: Two such conductors that offer reduced thermal sag are known as composite core conductors (ACCR and

text: ACCC conductor

text: ).  In lieu of steel core strands that are often used to increase overall conductor strength, the ACCC conductor uses a carbon and glass fiber core that offers a coefficient of thermal expansion about 1/10 of that of steel.  While the composite core is nonconductive, it is substantially lighter and stronger than steel, which allows the incorporation of 28% more aluminum (using compact trapezoidal shaped strands) without any diameter or weight penalty.  The added aluminum content helps reduce line losses by 25 to 40% compared to other conductors of the same diameter and weight, depending upon electric current.  The carbon core conductor's reduced thermal sag allows it to carry up to twice the current ("ampacity") compared to all-aluminum conductor (AAC) or ACSR.

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answers: ACCC conductor uses a carbon and glass fiber core that offers a coefficient of thermal expansion about 1/10 of that of steel

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: ACCC conductor

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The carbon core conductor's reduced thermal sag

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: ACCC conductor

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A thermal bag is a type of thermally insulated shipping container in the form of a bag which can be carried, usually made of thermally insulating materials. It is used to help maintain the temperature of its contents, keeping cold items cold, and hot items hot.

text: A thermal bag is a type of thermally

text: insulated shipping container

text: in the form of a bag which can be carried, usually made of

text: thermally insulating

text: materials. It is used to help maintain the temperature of its contents, keeping cold items cold, and hot items hot.

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answers: thermally insulating materials

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answers: thermal bag

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Microwaves are used for heating of various materials in cooking and various industrial processes. The rate of heating of the material depends on the energy absorption, which depends on the dielectric constant of the material. The dependence of dielectric constant on temperature varies for different materials; some materials display significant increase with increasing temperature. This behavior, when the material gets exposed to microwaves, leads to selective local overheating, as the warmer areas are better able to accept further energy than the colder areas—potentially dangerous especially for thermal insulators, where the heat exchange between the hot spots and the rest of the material is slow. These materials are called thermal runaway materials. This phenomenon occurs in some ceramics.

text: Microwave

text: s are used for

text: heating

text: of various materials in cooking and various industrial processes. The rate of heating of the material depends on the energy absorption, which depends on the

text: dielectric constant

text: of the material. The dependence of dielectric constant on temperature varies for different materials; some materials display significant increase with increasing temperature. This behavior, when the material gets exposed to microwaves, leads to selective local overheating, as the warmer areas are better able to accept further energy than the colder areas—potentially dangerous especially for thermal insulators, where the heat exchange between the hot spots and the rest of the material is slow. These materials are called thermal runaway materials. This phenomenon occurs in some

text: ceramics

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answers: ceramics

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A common misconception is that thermal pads are for creating a more comfortable sleeping or picnic spot.  This is what gives rise to their other name 'ground pads'.  In fact, the purpose of the thermal pad is to prevent the loss of body heat into the ground while sleeping.  The foam pad, which is filled with air bubbles, slows down the conduction of heat through the pad since air is one of the best (and cheapest) insulators.

text: A common misconception is that thermal pads are for creating a more comfortable sleeping or picnic spot.  This is what gives rise to their other name 'ground pads'.  In fact, the purpose of the thermal pad is to prevent the loss of

text: body heat

text: into the ground while sleeping.  The foam pad, which is filled with air bubbles, slows down the

text: conduction of heat

text: through the pad since air is one of the best (and cheapest)

text: insulator

text: s.

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answers: air

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The expansion side of the heat pump is thermally coupled to the heat source, which is often the external environment. The compression side of the Stirling device is placed in the environment to be heated, for example a building, and heat is "pumped" into it. Typically there will be thermal insulation between the two sides so there will be a temperature rise inside the insulated space.

text: The expansion side of the heat pump is thermally coupled to the heat source, which is often the external environment. The compression side of the Stirling device is placed in the environment to be heated, for example a building, and heat is "pumped" into it. Typically there will be

text: thermal insulation

text: between the two sides so there will be a temperature rise inside the insulated space.

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: building

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Translational motion in solids, however, takes the form of phonons (see Fig. 4 at right). Phonons are constrained, quantized wave packets that travel at a given substance's speed of sound. The manner in which phonons interact within a solid determines a variety of its properties, including its thermal conductivity. In electrically insulating solids, phonon-based heat conduction is usually inefficient and such solids are considered thermal insulators (such as glass, plastic, rubber, ceramic, and rock). This is because in solids, atoms and molecules are locked into place relative to their neighbors and are not free to roam.

text: Translational motion in solids, however, takes the form of

text: phonon

text: s (see Fig. 4 at right). Phonons are constrained, quantized wave packets that travel at a given substance's speed of sound. The manner in which phonons interact within a solid determines a variety of its properties, including its thermal conductivity. In electrically insulating solids, phonon-based heat conduction is usually inefficient and such solids are considered thermal insulators (such as glass, plastic, rubber, ceramic, and rock). This is because in solids, atoms and molecules are locked into place relative to their neighbors and are not free to roam.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Much of the mug design aims at thermal insulation: the thick walls of a mug, as compared to the thinner walls of teacups, insulate the beverage to prevent it from cooling or warming quickly. The mug bottom is often not flat, but either concave or has an extra rim, to reduce the thermal contact with the surface on which a mug is placed. These features often leave a characteristic circular stain on the surface. Finally, the handle of a mug keeps the hand away from the hot sides of a mug. The small cross section of the handle reduces heat flow between the liquid and the hand. For the same reason of thermal insulation, mugs are usually made of materials with low thermal conductivity, such as earthenware, bone china, porcelain or glass.

text: Much of the mug design aims at thermal insulation: the thick walls of a mug, as compared to the thinner walls of teacups, insulate the beverage to prevent it from cooling or warming quickly. The mug bottom is often not flat, but either concave or has an extra rim, to reduce the thermal contact with the surface on which a mug is placed. These features often leave a characteristic circular stain on the surface. Finally, the handle of a mug keeps the hand away from the hot sides of a mug. The small cross section of the handle reduces heat flow between the liquid and the hand. For the same reason of thermal insulation, mugs are usually made of materials with low

text: thermal conductivity

text: , such as

text: earthenware

text: bone china

text: porcelain

text: or glass.

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: the thick walls of a mug

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/(m·K).

text: Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good

text: thermal insulation

text: , with a

text: thermal conductivity

text: of the order of 0.05

text: W

text: /(m·

text: K

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answers: Glass fibers

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance. For example, doubling the thickness of fiberglass batting will double its R-value, perhaps from 2.0 mK/W for 110 mm of thickness, up to 4.0 mK/W for 220 mm of thickness.  Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit with a fixed voltage. However, this only holds approximately because the effective thermal conductivity of some insulating materials depends on thickness.  The addition of materials to enclose the insulation such as sheetrock and siding provides additional but typically much smaller R-value.

text: Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance. For example, doubling the thickness of fiberglass batting will double its R-value, perhaps from 2.0 mK/W for 110 mm of thickness, up to 4.0 mK/W for 220 mm of thickness.  Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit with a fixed voltage. However, this only holds approximately because the effective thermal conductivity of some insulating materials depends on thickness.  The addition of materials to enclose the insulation such as sheetrock and siding provides additional but typically much smaller R-value.

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answers: Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit with a fixed voltage

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: fiberglass batting

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The addition of materials to enclose the insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: fiberglass batting

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Manufacturers rate the performance of their duvets in togs, a measurement of thermal insulation. This enables the purchaser to select a duvet appropriate to the season: the higher the tog rating, the warmer the duvet.

text: Manufacturers rate the performance of their duvets in

text: togs

text: , a measurement of

text: thermal insulation

text: . This enables the purchaser to select a duvet appropriate to the season: the higher the tog rating, the warmer the duvet.

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answers: The warmer the duvet

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answers: duvets

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: duvets

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For conductors, a significant portion of the thermal current is carried by the electrons. In particular, the Righi–Leduc Effect<ref>After the Italian physicist Augusto Righi (1850–1920) and the French physicist Sylvestre Anatole Leduc (1856–1937). See:

text: For

text: conductors

text: , a significant portion of the thermal current is carried by the electrons. In particular, the Righi–Leduc Effect<ref>After the Italian physicist

text: Augusto Righi

text: (1850–1920) and the French physicist

text: Sylvestre Anatole Leduc

text: (1856–1937). See:

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answers: NDQ_018668

answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When determining the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly such as a wall or roof, the insulating effect of the surface air film is added to the thermal resistance of the other materials.

text: When determining the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly such as a wall or roof, the insulating effect of the surface air film is added to the thermal resistance of the other materials.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: surface air film

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The insulating effect

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: surface air film

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiant barriers (also known as reflective insulation) are a type of thermal (heat) insulations that inhibits heat transfer by thermal radiation. Thermal energy may also be transferred via conduction or convection, however, and radiant barriers do not necessarily protect against heat transfer via conduction (without airspace facing the heat source) or convection (perforated).

text: Radiant barriers (also known as reflective insulation) are a type of thermal (heat) insulations that inhibits

text: heat transfer

text: by

text: thermal radiation

text: . Thermal energy may also be transferred via

text: conduction

text: or

text: convection

text: , however, and radiant barriers do not necessarily protect against heat transfer via conduction (without airspace facing the heat source) or convection (perforated).

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answers: conduction

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: radiant barriers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Johnson–Nyquist noise (sometimes thermal, Johnson or Nyquist noise) is unavoidable, and generated by the random thermal motion of charge carriers (usually electrons), inside an electrical conductor, which happens regardless of any applied voltage.

text: Johnson–Nyquist noise (sometimes thermal, Johnson or Nyquist noise) is unavoidable, and generated by the random thermal motion of charge carriers (usually

text: electron

text: s), inside an

text: electrical conductor

text: , which happens regardless of any applied

text: voltage

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answers: electrical conductor

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal bridging is prevented by careful design applying materials to achieve a uniform thermal resistance such as thermal breaks and continuous insulation.

text: Thermal bridging is prevented by careful design applying materials to achieve a uniform

text: thermal resistance

text: such as

text: thermal break

text: s and continuous insulation.

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answers: thermal breaks and continuous insulation

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answers: Thermal bridging

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answers: thermal breaks

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Due to a lack of standardization in the past regarding the dimensions (length) given to the ring conductor and the insulating portions on either side of it in 6.35 mm ( in) phone connectors and the width of the conductors in different brands and generations of sockets there are occasional issues with compatibility between differing brands of plug and socket. This can result in a contact in the socket bridging (shorting) the ring and sleeve contacts on a phone connector, or where a phone plug is inserted into a two-conductor TS socket in some cases the intended 'sleeve' contact in the socket making contact with only the 'ring' portion of the plug.

text: Due to a lack of standardization in the past regarding the dimensions (length) given to the ring conductor and the insulating portions on either side of it in 6.35 mm ( in) phone connectors and the width of the conductors in different brands and generations of sockets there are occasional issues with compatibility between differing brands of plug and socket. This can result in a contact in the socket bridging (shorting) the ring and sleeve contacts on a phone connector, or where a phone plug is inserted into a two-conductor TS socket in some cases the intended 'sleeve' contact in the socket making contact with only the 'ring' portion of the plug.

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answers: 6.35 mm

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answers: sleeve contacts

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answers: The insulating portions on either side of it

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answers: sleeve

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators. Cables used for underground transmission or  building wiring are insulated with cross-linked polyethylene or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling; small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or residential construction.

text: Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators. Cables used for underground transmission or

text: building wiring

text: are insulated with

text: cross-linked polyethylene

text: or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling; small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or residential construction.

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answers: Small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or residential construction

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: cross-linked polyethylene

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulators

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answers: porcelain, glass or polymer

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It has been noticed that the elements in the boron group have similar physical properties, although most of boron's are exceptional. For example, all of the elements in the boron group, except for boron itself, are soft. Moreover, all of the other elements in group 13 are relatively reactive at moderate temperatures, while boron's reactivity only becomes comparable at very high temperatures. One characteristic that all do have in common is having three electrons in their valence shells. Boron, being a metalloid, is a thermal and electrical insulator at room temperature, but a good conductor of heat and electricity at high temperatures. Unlike boron, the metals in the group are good conductors under normal conditions. This is in accordance with the long-standing generalization that all metals conduct heat and electricity better than most non-metals.

text: It has been noticed that the elements in the boron group have similar

text: physical properties

text: , although most of boron's are exceptional. For example, all of the elements in the boron group, except for boron itself, are

text: soft

text: . Moreover, all of the other elements in group 13 are relatively reactive at moderate

text: temperature

text: s, while boron's reactivity only becomes comparable at very high temperatures. One characteristic that all do have in common is having three electrons in their

text: valence shell

text: s. Boron, being a metalloid, is a thermal and electrical insulator at room temperature, but a good conductor of heat and electricity at high temperatures. Unlike boron, the metals in the group are good conductors under normal conditions. This is in accordance with the long-standing

text: generalization

text: that all metals conduct heat and electricity better than most non-metals.

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answers: metals conduct heat and electricity better than most non-metals

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: metals

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answers: thermal and electrical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: metalloid

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 2008, the company acquired the Construction Gear Store, which sells insulated work boots, rugged clothing, tool belts, thermal undergarments, and other items.

text: In 2008, the company acquired the Construction Gear Store, which sells insulated

text: work boots

text: , rugged

text: clothing

text: , tool belts, thermal undergarments, and other items.

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answers: insulated work boots

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answers: thermal undergarments

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answers: work boots

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 1928, while at Bell Telephone Laboratories he published the journal paper "Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors". In electronic systems, thermal noise (now also called Johnson noise) is the noise generated by thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. Johnson's papers showed a statistical fluctuation of electric charge occur in all electrical conductors, producing random variation of potential between the conductor ends (such as in vacuum tube amplifiers and thermocouples). Thermal noise power, per hertz, is equal throughout the frequency spectrum. Johnson deduced that thermal noise is intrinsic to all resistors and is not a sign of poor design or manufacture, although resistors may also have excess noise.

text: In 1928, while at

text: Bell Telephone Laboratories

text: he published the

text: journal

text: paper "Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors". In electronic systems,

text: thermal noise

text: (now also called Johnson noise) is the

text: noise

text: generated by thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. Johnson's papers showed a statistical fluctuation of

text: electric charge

text: occur in all

text: electrical conductor

text: s, producing random variation of

text: potential

text: between the conductor ends (such as in

text: vacuum tube

text: amplifier

text: s and

text: thermocouple

text: s). Thermal noise power, per

text: hertz

text: , is equal throughout the

text: frequency

text: spectrum

text: . Johnson deduced that thermal noise is intrinsic to all resistors and is not a sign of poor design or manufacture, although resistors may also have excess noise.

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answers: Johnson noise

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.

text: Thermal insulation is the reduction of

text: heat transfer

text: (the transfer of

text: thermal energy

text: between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.

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answers: Thermal insulation

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answers: object shapes and materials

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.

text: Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the

text: Wiedemann–Franz law

text: , which states that the ratio of

text: thermal conductivity

text: to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical

text: resistivity

text: of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.

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answers: metals make relatively good conductors of heat

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answers: Metals

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: metals make relatively good conductors of heat

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: metals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The MAX phases are electrically and thermally conductive due to their metallic-like nature of bonding.  Most of the MAX phases are better electric and thermal conductors than Ti. This is also related to the electronic structure.

text: The MAX phases are

text: electrically

text: and

text: thermally

text: conductive due to their

text: metallic-like nature of bonding

text: .  Most of the MAX phases are better electric and thermal conductors than Ti. This is also related to the electronic structure.

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answers: thermally conductive

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Ti

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal bridges are points in the building envelope that allow heat conduction to occur. Since heat flows through the path of least resistance, thermal bridges can contribute to poor energy performance. A thermal bridge is created when materials create a continuous path across a temperature difference, in which the heat flow is not interrupted by thermal insulation. Common building materials that are poor insulators include glass and metal.

text: Thermal bridges are points in the building envelope that allow heat conduction to occur. Since heat flows through the path of least resistance, thermal bridges can contribute to poor energy performance. A

text: thermal bridge

text: is created when materials create a continuous path across a temperature difference, in which the heat flow is not interrupted by thermal insulation. Common building materials that are poor insulators include

text: glass

text: and

text: metal

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answers: Thermal bridges are points in the building envelope

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answers: glass

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermography is applied in the building sector to assess the quality of the thermal insulation of a room or building. By means of a thermographic camera thermal bridges and inhomogeneous insulation parts can be identified. However, it does not produce any quantitative data. This method can only be used to approximate the U-value or the inverse R-value.

text: Thermography is applied in the building sector to assess the quality of the thermal insulation of a room or building. By means of a thermographic camera thermal bridges and inhomogeneous insulation parts can be identified. However, it does not produce any quantitative data. This method can only be used to approximate the U-value or the inverse R-value.

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answers: Thermography

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answers: inhomogeneous insulation parts

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: inhomogeneous insulation parts

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: At the hot interface of a heat pipe a liquid in contact with a thermally conductive solid surface turns into a vapor by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid – releasing the latent heat. The liquid then returns to the hot interface through either capillary action, centrifugal force, or gravity, and the cycle repeats. Due to the very high heat transfer coefficients for boiling and condensation, heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. The effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length, and can approach  for long heat pipes, in comparison with approximately  for copper.

text: At the hot interface of a heat pipe a

text: liquid

text: in contact with a thermally conductive solid surface turns into a

text: vapor

text: by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid – releasing the

text: latent heat

text: . The

text: liquid

text: then returns to the hot interface through either

text: capillary action

text: centrifugal force

text: , or gravity, and the cycle repeats. Due to the very high heat transfer coefficients for

text: boiling

text: and

text: condensation

text: , heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. The effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length, and can approach  for long heat pipes, in comparison with approximately  for

text: copper

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answers: effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length

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answers: copper

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answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Typha are used as thermal insulation in buildings as an organic alternative to conventional insulating materials such as glass wool or stone wool.

text: Typha are used as

text: thermal insulation

text: in buildings as an organic alternative to conventional insulating materials such as

text: glass wool

text: or

text: stone wool

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answers: Typha

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: glass wool or stone wool

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Typha

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The safety mechanism starts by enclosing the electronics and mechanical components used to arm and fire the nuclear weapon with a mechanical and electrical isolation barrier, forming the exclusion zone.  This is insulated from mechanical, thermal, and electrical disruptions (such as static electricity, lightning, fire).

text: The safety mechanism starts by enclosing the electronics and mechanical components used to arm and fire the nuclear weapon with a mechanical and electrical isolation barrier, forming the exclusion zone.  This is insulated from mechanical, thermal, and electrical disruptions (such as

text: static electricity

text: lightning

text: fire

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answers: electrical disruptions

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answers: down jacket

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answers: electrical disruptions

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For pipe insulation, the R-value varies not only with the insulation thickness and thermal conductivity ("k-value") but also with the pipe outer diameter and the average material temperature.  For this reason, it is more common to use the thermal conductivity value when comparing the effectiveness of pipe insulation, and R-values of pipe insulation are not covered by the US FTC R-value rule.

text: For pipe insulation, the

text: R-value

text: varies not only with the insulation thickness and thermal conductivity ("k-value") but also with the pipe outer diameter and the average material temperature.  For this reason, it is more common to use the thermal conductivity value when comparing the effectiveness of pipe insulation, and

text: R-values

text: of pipe insulation are not covered by the US FTC R-value rule.

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answers: thermal conductivity

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answers: insulation thickness

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: From the basic principles that electric current leads to thermal heating and thermal power transfer to the ambient environment requires some temperature difference, it follows that the current leads to a temperature rise in the conductors. The ampacity, or maximum allowable current, of an electric power cable depends on the allowable temperatures of the cable and any adjacent materials such as insulation or termination equipment. For insulated cables, the insulation maximum temperature is normally the limiting material property that constrains ampacity. For uninsulated cables (typically used in overhead installation), the tensile strength of the cable (as affected by temperature) is normally the limiting material property. The Neher–McGrath method is the electrical industry standard for calculating cable ampacity, most often employed via lookup in tables of precomputed results for common configurations.

text: From the basic principles that

text: electric current

text: leads to thermal heating and thermal power transfer to the ambient environment requires some temperature difference, it follows that the current leads to a temperature rise in the conductors. The

text: ampacity

text: , or maximum allowable current, of an

text: electric power cable

text: depends on the allowable temperatures of the cable and any adjacent materials such as

text: insulation

text: or

text: termination

text: equipment. For insulated cables, the insulation maximum temperature is normally the limiting material property that constrains ampacity. For uninsulated cables (typically used in overhead installation), the tensile strength of the cable (as affected by temperature) is normally the limiting material property. The Neher–McGrath method is the electrical industry standard for calculating cable ampacity, most often employed via lookup in tables of precomputed results for common configurations.

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answers: thermal power transfer to the ambient environment requires some temperature difference

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answers: conductors

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the earth/moon and the infrared radiation of the earth/moon. Therefore it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.All influences have to be combined with the temperature range of the electrical parts in the spacecraft. Precisely because we are using commercial off-the-shelf-products, it is indispensable to hold the satellite in an "earth like" environment. Therefore we are using some several insulation techniques like foils, coatings and so on to get the satellite in this marginal temperature range as well as to guarantee a good environment for micro controllers, sensors and the payload.

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answers: foils

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answers: insulation techniques

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: foils

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most of the activities of the X-37B project are secret. The official U.S. Air Force statement is that the project is "an experimental test program to demonstrate technologies for a reliable, reusable, unmanned space test platform for the U.S. Air Force." The primary objectives of the X-37B are twofold: reusable spacecraft technology, and operating experiments which can be returned to Earth. The Air Force states that this includes testing avionics, flight systems, guidance and navigation, thermal protection, insulation, propulsion, and re-entry systems.

text: Most of the activities of the X-37B project are secret. The official

text: U.S. Air Force

text: statement is that the project is "an experimental test program to demonstrate technologies for a reliable, reusable, unmanned space test platform for the U.S. Air Force." The primary objectives of the X-37B are twofold: reusable spacecraft technology, and operating experiments which can be returned to Earth. The Air Force states that this includes testing

text: avionics

text: , flight systems, guidance and navigation, thermal protection, insulation, propulsion, and re-entry systems.

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answers: X-37B

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A vacuum insulated panel (VIP) is a form of thermal insulation consisting of a gas-tight enclosure surrounding a rigid core, from which the air has been evacuated.  It is used in building construction to provide better insulation performance than conventional insulation materials.

text: A vacuum insulated panel (VIP) is a form of

text: thermal insulation

text: consisting of a gas-tight enclosure surrounding a rigid core, from which the air has been evacuated.  It is used in

text: building construction

text: to provide better insulation performance than conventional insulation materials.

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answers: vacuum insulated panel

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Clothing insulation is the thermal insulation provided by clothing and it is measured in clo. The measuring unit was developed in 1941. Shortly afterward, thermal manikins were developed by the US Army for the purposes of carrying out insulation measurements on the gear they were developing. The first thermal manikins were standing, made of copper, and were one segment, measuring whole-body heat loss. Over the years these were improved upon by various companies and individuals employing new technologies and techniques as understanding of thermal comfort increased. In the mid-1960s, seated and multi-segmented thermal manikins were developed, and digital regulation was employed, allowing for much more accurate power application and measurement. Over time breathing, sneezing, moving (such as continuous walking or biking motions) and sweating were all employed in the manikins, in addition to male, female, and child sizes depending on the application.  Nowadays most manikins used for research purposes will have a minimum of 15 zones, and as many as 34 with options (often as a purchasable add-on to the base manikin) for sweating, breathing, and movement systems although simpler manikins are also in use in the clothing industry. Additionally, in the early 2000s several different computer models of manikins were developed  in Hong Kong, the UK, and Sweden.

text: Clothing insulation

text: is the

text: thermal insulation

text: provided by

text: clothing

text: and it is measured in clo. The measuring unit was developed in 1941. Shortly afterward, thermal manikins were developed by the US Army for the purposes of carrying out insulation measurements on the gear they were developing. The first thermal manikins were standing, made of

text: copper

text: , and were one segment, measuring whole-body heat loss. Over the years these were improved upon by various companies and individuals employing new technologies and techniques as understanding of

text: thermal comfort

text: increased. In the mid-1960s, seated and multi-segmented thermal manikins were developed, and digital regulation was employed, allowing for much more accurate power application and measurement. Over time breathing, sneezing, moving (such as continuous walking or biking motions) and sweating were all employed in the manikins, in addition to male, female, and child sizes depending on the application.  Nowadays most manikins used for research purposes will have a minimum of 15 zones, and as many as 34 with options (often as a purchasable add-on to the base manikin) for sweating, breathing, and movement systems although simpler manikins are also in use in the clothing industry. Additionally, in the early 2000s several different computer models of manikins were developed  in Hong Kong, the UK, and Sweden.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The R-value is a measure of thermal resistance for materials and assemblies of materials (such as insulation panels, floors, and walls) in the building and construction industry. It gives an indication of how quickly they will lose heat (their thermal resistance). The higher the value of R, the better the thermal performance and heat retention of the material or assembly, and the slower any heat loss. The R-value for a given material or assembly depends on its resistance to heat conduction, as well as the thickness and (for loose or porous material) any heat losses due to convection and radiative heat transfer. However it does not account for the radiative or convective properties of the material's surface, which may be an important factor for some applications. R varies with temperature but in construction it is common to treat it as being constant for a given material (or assembly). It is closely related to the thermal transmittance (U-value) of a material or assembly, but is easier to manipulate in some calculations since it can be simply added for materials and assemblies that are arranged in layers, or scaled proportionately if the thickness of a material changes. R-values expressed in United States customary units are about 5.67 times larger than those expressed in metric (SI) units.

text: The R-value is a measure of

text: thermal resistance

text: for materials and assemblies of materials (such as

text: insulation

text: panels, floors, and walls) in the building and

text: construction

text: industry. It gives an indication of how quickly they will lose heat (their thermal resistance). The higher the value of R, the better the thermal performance and heat retention of the material or assembly, and the slower any heat loss. The R-value for a given material or assembly depends on its resistance to

text: heat conduction

text: , as well as the thickness and (for loose or porous material) any heat losses due to

text: convection

text: and radiative heat transfer. However it does not account for the radiative or convective properties of the material's surface, which may be an important factor for some applications. R varies with temperature but in construction it is common to treat it as being constant for a given material (or assembly). It is closely related to the

text: thermal transmittance

text: U-value

text: ) of a material or assembly, but is easier to manipulate in some calculations since it can be simply added for materials and assemblies that are arranged in layers, or scaled proportionately if the thickness of a material changes. R-values expressed in

text: United States customary units

text: are about 5.67 times larger than those expressed in metric (

text: SI

text: ) units.

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answers: It gives an indication of how quickly they will lose heat

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answers: It gives an indication of how quickly they will lose heat

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answer: 1

text: is normally the limiting conductor temperature derived from the insulation or tensile strength limitations.

text: is normally the limiting conductor temperature derived from the insulation or tensile strength limitations.

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answer: No

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text:
Capacitance can be calculated if the geometry of the conductors and the dielectric properties of the insulator between the conductors are known. A qualitative explanation for this can be given as follows.
 Once a positive charge is put unto a conductor, this charge creates an electrical field, repelling any other positive charge to be moved onto the conductor; i.e., increasing the necessary voltage. But if nearby there is another conductor with a negative charge on it, the electrical field of the positive conductor repelling the second positive charge is weakened (the second positive charge also feels the attracting force of the negative charge). So due to the second conductor with a negative charge, it becomes easier to put a positive charge on the already positive charged first conductor, and vice versa; i.e., the necessary voltage is lowered.
 As a quantitative example consider the capacitance of a capacitor constructed of two parallel plates both of area A separated by a distance d. If d is sufficiently small with respect to the smallest chord of A, there holds, to a high level of accuracy:

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answer: No

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answer: No

answer: 1

text: Passivhaus buildings employ superinsulation to significantly reduce the heat transfer through the walls, roof and floor compared to conventional buildings. A wide range of thermal insulation materials can be used to provide the required high R-values (low U-values, typically in the 0.10 to 0.15 W/(m².K) range). Special attention is given to eliminating thermal bridges.

text: Passivhaus buildings employ

text: superinsulation

text: to significantly reduce the heat transfer through the walls, roof and floor compared to conventional buildings. A wide range of

text: thermal insulation

text: materials can be used to provide the required high

text: R-values

text: (low

text: U-value

text: s, typically in the 0.10 to 0.15 W/(m².K) range). Special attention is given to eliminating

text: thermal bridge

text: s.

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answers: thermal bridges

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Passivhaus

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answers: Passivhaus buildings

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and electrical industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from its unique electrical and thermal properties and its mechanical properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped, and machined to close tolerances. Specifically, mica is unusual in that it is a good electrical insulator at the same time as being a good thermal conductor. The leading use of block mica is as an electrical insulator in electronic equipment. High-quality block mica is processed to line the gauge glasses of high-pressure steam boilers because of its flexibility, transparency, and resistance to heat and chemical attack. Only high-quality muscovite film mica, which is variously called India ruby mica or ruby muscovite mica, is used as a dielectric in capacitors. The highest quality mica film is used to manufacture capacitors for calibration standards. The next lower grade is used in transmitting capacitors. Receiving capacitors use a slightly lower grade of high-quality muscovite.

text: Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and electrical industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from its unique electrical and thermal properties and its mechanical properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped, and machined to close tolerances. Specifically, mica is unusual in that it is a good electrical insulator at the same time as being a good thermal conductor. The leading use of block mica is as an electrical insulator in electronic equipment. High-quality block mica is processed to line the gauge glasses of high-pressure steam boilers because of its flexibility, transparency, and resistance to heat and chemical attack. Only high-quality muscovite film mica, which is variously called India ruby mica or ruby muscovite mica, is used as a dielectric in

text: capacitor

text: s. The highest quality mica film is used to manufacture capacitors for

text: calibration standard

text: s. The next lower grade is used in

text: transmitting capacitor

text: s. Receiving capacitors use a slightly lower grade of high-quality muscovite.

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answers: Its usefulness in these applications

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answers: mica

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The leading use of block mica is as an electrical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: mica

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A semiconductor is a material with a small but non-zero band gap that behaves as an insulator at absolute zero but allows thermal excitation of electrons into its conduction band at temperatures that are below its melting point. In contrast, a material with a large band gap is an insulator. In conductors, the valence and conduction bands may overlap, so they may not have a band gap.

text: A

text: semiconductor

text: is a material with a small but non-zero band gap that behaves as an insulator at absolute zero but allows thermal excitation of electrons into its conduction band at temperatures that are below its melting point. In contrast, a material with a large band gap is an

text: insulator

text: . In

text: conductors

text: , the valence and conduction bands may overlap, so they may not have a band gap.

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answers: semiconductor

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answers: insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: semiconductor

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For example, the material of the wall must not undergo a phase transition, such as evaporation or fusion, at the temperature at which it must conduct heat. But when only thermal equilibrium is considered and time is not urgent, so that the conductivity of the material does not matter too much, one suitable heat conductor is as good as another. Conversely, another aspect of the zeroth law is that, subject again to suitable restrictions, a given diathermal wall is indifferent to the nature of the heat bath to which it is connected. For example, the glass bulb of a thermometer acts as a diathermal wall whether exposed to a gas or to a liquid, provided they do not corrode or melt it.

text: For example, the material of the wall must not undergo a phase transition, such as evaporation or fusion, at the temperature at which it must conduct heat. But when only thermal equilibrium is considered and time is not urgent, so that the conductivity of the material does not matter too much, one suitable heat conductor is as good as another. Conversely, another aspect of the zeroth law is that, subject again to suitable restrictions, a given diathermal wall is indifferent to the nature of the heat bath to which it is connected. For example, the glass bulb of a thermometer acts as a diathermal wall whether exposed to a gas or to a liquid, provided they do not corrode or melt it.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: glass bulb of a thermometer

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: diathermal

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: diathermal wall

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are two main thermal considerations. The first is the question of insulating a floor slab. In older buildings, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can drain heat from a room. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of insulation such as expanded polystyrene, and the slab may contain underfloor heating pipes. However, there are still uses for an uninsulated slab, typically in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature. In those cases, casting the slab directly onto a rocky substrate will maintain the slab at or near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year, and can prevent both freezing and overheating.

text: There are two main thermal considerations. The first is the question of insulating a floor slab. In older buildings, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can drain heat from a room. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of

text: insulation

text: such as

text: expanded polystyrene

text: , and the slab may contain

text: underfloor heating

text: pipes. However, there are still uses for an uninsulated slab, typically in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature. In those cases, casting the slab directly onto a rocky substrate will maintain the slab at or near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year, and can prevent both freezing and overheating.

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answers: concrete slabs

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answers: expanded polystyrene

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Hermann was born in Dresden, a son of August Moritz Hermann Heinicke, a brush manufacturer, in a family with a great musical tradition. At the age of 10 he entered the Conservatorium and studied violin for four years under Albert Wolfermann (1844–1908), the leading virtuoso of the Royal Opera House. He won the King of Saxony's scholarship and studied for three years under Eduard Rappoldi (1839–1903), Franz Wüllner (1832–1902) and no doubt others; this was extended for another two or three years. His first commercial engagement was with the "Gewerbe Haus", a popular concert hall, after which he was leader then conductor of an orchestra at the thermal springs resort at Buxton, near Manchester, whose soloists had included violinist Lady Hallé (Wilma Neruda) and the Dutch 'cellist Gerard Vollmar (1862–1907). He returned to Germany, and was engaged as leader and deputy conductor of the Berlin Concert House Orchestra, when he read an advertisement placed by Gotthold Reimann for a violin teacher with his College of Music in Wakefield Street, Adelaide. Heinicke was chosen from 124 applicants.

text: Hermann was born in

text: Dresden

text: , a son of August Moritz Hermann Heinicke, a brush manufacturer, in a family with a great musical tradition. At the age of 10 he entered the Conservatorium and studied violin for four years under Albert Wolfermann (1844–1908), the leading virtuoso of the Royal Opera House. He won the King of Saxony's scholarship and studied for three years under

text: Eduard Rappoldi

text: Franz Wüllner

text: (1832–1902) and no doubt others; this was extended for another two or three years. His first commercial engagement was with the "Gewerbe Haus", a popular concert hall, after which he was leader then conductor of an orchestra at the thermal springs resort at

text: Buxton

text: , near

text: Manchester

text: , whose soloists had included violinist Lady Hallé (

text: Wilma Neruda

text: ) and the Dutch 'cellist Gerard Vollmar (1862–1907). He returned to Germany, and was engaged as leader and deputy conductor of the Berlin Concert House Orchestra, when he read an advertisement placed by

text: Gotthold Reimann

text: for a violin teacher with his College of Music in

text: Wakefield Street, Adelaide

text: . Heinicke was chosen from 124 applicants.

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answer: No

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answer: No

answer: 1

text: corresponds to non-occupied bonds. We consider the two following well-known cases of a conductor-insulator mixture and a superconductor–conductor mixture.

text: corresponds to non-occupied bonds. We consider the two following well-known cases of a conductor-insulator mixture and a superconductor–conductor mixture.

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answers: superconductor

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answers: non-occupied bonds

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answers: superconductor–conductor

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are many factors that come into play when using R-values to compute heat loss for a particular wall. Manufacturer R values apply only to properly installed insulation.  Squashing two layers of batting into the thickness intended for one layer will increase but not double the R-value. (In other words, compressing a fiberglass batt decreases the R-value of the batt but increases the R-value per inch.) Another important factor to consider is that studs and windows provide a parallel heat conduction path that is unaffected by the insulation's R-value.  The practical implication of this is that one could double the R-value of insulation installed between framing members and realize substantially less than a 50% reduction in heat loss.  When installed between wall studs, even perfect wall insulation only eliminates conduction through the insulation but leaves unaffected the conductive heat loss through such materials as glass windows and studs. Insulation installed between the studs may reduce, but usually does not eliminate, heat losses due to air leakage through the building envelope. Installing a continuous layer of rigid foam insulation on the exterior side of the wall sheathing will interrupt thermal bridging through the studs while also reducing the rate of air leakage.

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answers: Squashing two layers of batting into the thickness intended for one layer will increase but not double the R-value

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: studs

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation installed between the studs may reduce, but usually does not eliminate, heat losses due to air leakage through the building envelope

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: rigid foam insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There is a combination of processes that is used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called thermal oxidation, which forms silicon dioxide on the surface of the silicon. This is used as a gate insulator and field oxide. Other processes are called photomasks and photolithography. This process is what creates the patterns on the circuity in the integrated circuit. Ultraviolet light is used along with a photoresist layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.

text: There is a combination of processes that is used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called

text: thermal oxidation

text: , which forms

text: silicon dioxide

text: on the surface of the

text: silicon

text: . This is used as a

text: gate insulator

text: and

text: field oxide

text: . Other processes are called

text: photomask

text: s and

text: photolithography

text: . This process is what creates the patterns on the circuity in the integrated circuit.

text: Ultraviolet light

text: is used along with a

text: photoresist

text: layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the heat range of the plug. Short insulators are usually "cooler" plugs, while "hotter" plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core.

text: The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the

text: heat range

text: of the plug. Short insulators are usually "cooler" plugs, while "hotter" plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core.

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answers: The dimensions of the insulator

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answers: metal core

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answers: Insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Short insulators

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A 2008 review paper written by Phillips researcher Clemens J. M. Lasance notes that: "Although there is an analogy between heat flow by conduction (Fourier’s law) and the flow of an electric current (Ohm’s law), the corresponding physical properties of thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity conspire to make the behavior of heat flow quite unlike the flow of electricity in normal situations. [...] Unfortunately, although the electrical and thermal differential equations are analogous, it is erroneous to conclude that there is any practical analogy between electrical and thermal resistance. This is because a material that is considered an insulator in electrical terms is about 20 orders of magnitude less conductive than a material that is considered a conductor, while, in thermal terms, the difference between an "insulator" and a "conductor" is only about three orders of magnitude. The entire range of thermal conductivity is then equivalent to the difference in electrical conductivity of high-doped and low-doped silicon."

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answers: a material that is considered an insulator in electrical terms

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: high-doped silicon

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: high-doped

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.Energy from radiation can move into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses photons to transmit electromagnetic waves through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat gain can be significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be reduced by insulated glazing, shading, and orientation.  Windows are particularly difficult to insulate compared to roof and walls. Convective heat transfer through and around window coverings also degrade its insulation properties.  When shading windows, external shading is more effective at reducing heat gain than internal window coverings.

text: Windows are a ready and predictable site for

text: thermal radiation

text: .Energy from radiation can move into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses

text: photon

text: s to transmit

text: electromagnetic waves

text: through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat gain can be significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be reduced by

text: insulated glazing

text: , shading, and orientation.  Windows are particularly difficult to insulate compared to roof and walls.

text: Convective heat transfer

text: through and around

text: window covering

text: s also degrade its insulation properties.  When shading windows, external shading is more effective at reducing heat gain than internal

text: window covering

text: s.

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answers: Convective heat transfer

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answers: Convective heat transfer

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answers: Convective heat transfer

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: insulated glazing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A very flexible coating of an insulator is often applied to electric wire and cable, this is called insulated wire.  Since air is an insulator, in principle no other substance is needed to keep power where it should be. High-voltage power lines commonly use just air, since a solid (e.g. plastic) coating is impractical.  However, wires that touch each other produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to prevent EM wave reflections. Finally, wires that expose voltages higher than 60 V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings help to prevent all of these problems.

text: A very flexible coating of an insulator is often applied to electric wire and cable, this is called insulated wire.  Since air is an insulator, in principle no other substance is needed to keep power where it should be. High-voltage power lines commonly use just air, since a solid (e.g. plastic) coating is impractical.  However, wires that touch each other produce cross connections,

text: short circuit

text: s, and fire hazards. In

text: coaxial cable

text: the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to prevent EM wave reflections. Finally, wires that expose voltages higher than 60 V can cause human shock and

text: electrocution

text: hazards. Insulating coatings help to prevent all of these problems.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: coaxial cable

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Since air is an insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: air

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The properties of these hybrid materials range between the properties of the constituent atoms and between individual hybrid structures. Graphene is considered a zero band semi-conductor and boron nitride is considered a wide gap semi conductor. Combining the two in various arrangements leads to a variable band gap which can be tuned by structure specifics to have various properties. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes when coated with boron nitride exhibit enhanced thermal activity compared to the substituents, but act as an electrical insulator. Graphene layers combined by boron nitride nanotubes exhibit similar band gap changes, but the strain of the ring position in the junction also induces a pseudomagnetic force on the ring structure due to the electron delocalization.

text: The properties of these hybrid materials range between the properties of the constituent atoms and between individual hybrid structures. Graphene is considered a zero band

text: semi-conductor

text: and boron nitride is considered a wide gap semi conductor. Combining the two in various arrangements leads to a variable band gap which can be tuned by structure specifics to have various properties. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes when coated with boron nitride exhibit enhanced thermal activity compared to the substituents, but act as an electrical insulator. Graphene layers combined by boron nitride nanotubes exhibit similar band gap changes, but the strain of the ring position in the junction also induces a pseudomagnetic force on the ring structure due to the electron delocalization.

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answers: Graphene

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: electrical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Multi-walled carbon nanotubes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Copper is one of nature’s most efficient thermal and electrical conductors, which helps to conserve energy. Because of its high thermal conductivity, it is used extensively in building heating systems, direct exchange heat pumps, and solar power and hot water equipment. Its high electrical conductivity increases the efficiency of lighting, electrical motors, fans, and appliances, making a building’s operation more cost effective with less energy and environmental impact.

text: Copper is one of nature’s most efficient thermal and electrical conductors, which helps to conserve energy. Because of its high thermal conductivity, it is used extensively in building

text: heating system

text: s, direct exchange

text: heat pump

text: s, and

text: solar power

text: and hot water equipment. Its high electrical conductivity increases the efficiency of

text: lighting

text: electrical motors

text: , fans, and appliances, making a building’s operation more cost effective with less energy and environmental impact.

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answers: Copper

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It has also been theoretized that tyrannosaurids had such protofeathers. However, rare skin impressions from adult tyrannosaurids in Canada and Mongolia show pebbly scales typical of other dinosaurs. While it is possible that protofeathers existed on parts of the body that have not been preserved, a lack of insulatory body covering is consistent with modern multi-ton mammals, such as elephants, hippopotamus, and most species of rhinoceros. As an object increases in size, its ability to retain heat increases due to its decreasing surface area-to-volume ratio. Therefore, as large animals evolve in or disperse into warm climates, a coat of fur or feathers loses its selective advantage for thermal insulation and can instead become a disadvantage, as the insulation traps excess heat inside the body, possibly overheating the animal. Protofeathers may also have been secondarily lost during the evolution of large tyrannosaurids, especially in warm Cretaceous climates. A precedent can be seen in other dinosaur groups such as ornithischians, in which filamentous structures were lost, and scales reappeared.

text: It has also been theoretized that tyrannosaurids had such protofeathers. However, rare skin impressions from adult tyrannosaurids in Canada and Mongolia show pebbly scales typical of other dinosaurs. While it is possible that protofeathers existed on parts of the body that have not been preserved, a lack of

text: insulatory

text: body covering is consistent with modern multi-ton mammals, such as

text: elephant

text: s,

text: hippopotamus

text: , and most species of

text: rhinoceros

text: . As an object increases in size, its ability to retain heat increases due to its decreasing

text: surface area

text: -to-

text: volume

text: ratio. Therefore, as large animals

text: evolve

text: in or

text: disperse

text: into warm climates, a coat of fur or feathers loses its

text: selective

text: advantage for thermal insulation and can instead become a disadvantage, as the insulation traps excess heat inside the body, possibly overheating the animal. Protofeathers may also have been secondarily lost during the evolution of large tyrannosaurids, especially in warm Cretaceous climates. A precedent can be seen in other dinosaur groups such as

text: ornithischia

text: ns, in which filamentous structures were lost, and scales reappeared.

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answers: as large animals evolve in or disperse into warm climates

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: protofeathers

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulation traps excess heat inside the body

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: tyrannosaurids

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The amount of thermal insulation worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal comfort, because it influences the heat loss and consequently the thermal balance. Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or lead to overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has. Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.

text: The amount of thermal insulation worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal comfort, because it influences the heat loss and consequently the thermal balance. Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or lead to overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has. Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: air movement and relative humidity

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: thicker the garment

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie point and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C. Note that copper has a much higher thermal conductivity than the alloys generally used in thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally anchoring type-T thermocouples.

text: Type T (

text: copper

text: constantan

text: ) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no

text: Curie point

text: and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C. Note that copper has a much higher

text: thermal conductivity

text: than the alloys generally used in thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally anchoring type-T thermocouples.

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answers: Copper–constantan

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: copper

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: no Curie point

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: non-magnetic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In the TN-C system, a common conductor provides both the neutral and protective grounding. The neutral conductor is connected to earth ground at the point of supply, and equipment cases are connected to the neutral. The danger exists that a broken neutral connection will allow all the equipment cases to rise to a dangerous voltage if any leakage or insulation fault exists in any equipment. This can be mitigated with special cables but the cost is then higher.

text: In the TN-C system, a common conductor provides both the neutral and protective grounding. The neutral conductor is connected to earth ground at the point of supply, and equipment cases are connected to the neutral. The danger exists that a broken neutral connection will allow all the equipment cases to rise to a dangerous voltage if any leakage or insulation fault exists in any equipment. This can be mitigated with special cables but the cost is then higher.

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answers: equipment cases

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The bill would require the Department of Energy to submit a report to Congress about the possibility of using thermal insulation in federal buildings as way to save energy and water. The report would have to include a short term and long term (20 years) projection on any energy and water savings the addition of a thermal insulation system would save.

text: The bill would require the Department of Energy to submit a report to Congress about the possibility of using thermal insulation in federal buildings as way to save energy and water. The report would have to include a short term and long term (20 years) projection on any energy and water savings the addition of a thermal insulation system would save.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In practice the thermal transmittance is strongly affected by the quality of workmanship and if insulation is fitted poorly, the thermal transmittance can be considerably higher than if insulation is fitted well

text: In practice the thermal transmittance is strongly affected by the quality of workmanship and if insulation is fitted poorly, the thermal transmittance can be considerably higher than if insulation is fitted well

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answers: insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The 25-pair color code is a color code used to identify individual conductors in twisted-pair wiring for telecommunications. The colors are applied to the insulation that covers each conductor.  The first (or major) color is chosen from one group of 5 colors and the other (or minor) color from a second group of 5 colors, giving 25 combinations of two colors. The code is often seen in RJ21 cables.

text: The 25-pair color code is a

text: color code

text: used to identify individual conductors in

text: twisted-pair

text: wiring

text: for

text: telecommunications

text: . The colors are applied to the insulation that covers each conductor.  The first (or major) color is chosen from one group of 5 colors and the other (or minor) color from a second group of 5 colors, giving 25 combinations of two colors. The code is often seen in

text: cables.

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answers: The 25-pair color code

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: telecommunications

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation that covers each conductor

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: twisted-pair wiring

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Overhead conductors for high-voltage electric power transmission are bare, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Conductors for lower voltages in distribution may have some insulation but are often bare as well. Insulating supports called insulators are required at the points where they are supported by utility poles or transmission towers. Insulators are also required where the wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow insulators with a conductor inside them are called bushings.

text: Overhead conductors for high-voltage

text: electric power transmission

text: are bare, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Conductors for lower voltages in

text: distribution

text: may have some insulation but are often bare as well. Insulating supports called insulators are required at the points where they are supported by

text: utility pole

text: s or

text: transmission tower

text: s. Insulators are also required where the wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as

text: transformer

text: s or

text: circuit breaker

text: s, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow insulators with a conductor inside them are called

text: bushing

text: s.

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answers: Conductors for lower voltages in distribution may have some insulation

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: bare

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulating supports

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: bushings

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In terms of thermal insulation, the roller door has a typical insulation value of 4.9 to 5.2. A sheet steel garage door has a typical insulation value of 6.1 to 6.4.Application that need more thermal insulation typically use foam filled sectional garage door, which provide typical insulation values of 2.7 to 1.3.

text: In terms of thermal insulation, the roller door has a typical insulation value of 4.9 to 5.2. A sheet steel garage door has a typical insulation value of 6.1 to 6.4.Application that need more thermal insulation typically use foam filled sectional garage door, which provide typical insulation values of 2.7 to 1.3.

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answers: thermal insulation

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answer: No

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text: Wetsuits provide both thermal insulation and floatation. Many swimmers lack buoyancy in the leg. The wetsuit reduces density, and therefore improves buoyancy while swimming. It provides insulation by absorbing some of the surrounding water, which then heats up when in direct contact with skin. The wetsuit is the usual choice for those who swim in cold water for long periods of time, as it reduces susceptibility to hypothermia.

text: Wetsuits

text: provide both thermal insulation and floatation. Many swimmers lack buoyancy in the leg. The wetsuit reduces density, and therefore improves buoyancy while swimming. It provides insulation by absorbing some of the surrounding water, which then heats up when in direct contact with skin. The wetsuit is the usual choice for those who swim in cold water for long periods of time, as it reduces susceptibility to

text: hypothermia

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: In June 2011, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) removed from its Report on Carcinogens all biosoluble glass wool used in home and building insulation and for non-insulation products. However, NTP considers fibrous glass dust to be "reasonably anticipated [as] a human carcinogen (Certain Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable))". Similarly, California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment ("OEHHA") published a November, 2011 modification to its Proposition 65 listing to include only "Glass wool fibers (inhalable and biopersistent)." The actions of U.S. NTP and California's OEHHA mean that a cancer warning label for biosoluble fiber glass home and building insulation is no longer required under federal or California law. All fiberglass wools commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation were reclassified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer ("IARC") in October 2001 as Not Classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3).

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answers: Insulation

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: An external wall insulation system (or EWIS) is a thermally insulated, protective, decorative exterior cladding procedure involving the use of expanded polystyrene, mineral wool, polyurethane foam or phenolic foam, topped off with a reinforced cement based, mineral or synthetic finish and plaster.

text: An external wall insulation system (or EWIS) is a thermally insulated, protective, decorative exterior

text: cladding

text: procedure involving the use of expanded

text: polystyrene

text: mineral wool

text: , polyurethane foam or phenolic foam, topped off with a reinforced cement based, mineral or synthetic finish and

text: plaster

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answer: No

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text: This is mainly due to the low value of leakage through the cable insulator, which is even more pronounced in modern cables which have better insulators than in Heaviside's day.  In order to meet the condition, the choices are therefore to try to increase G or L or to decrease R or C.  Decreasing R requires larger conductors.  Copper was already in use in telegraph cables and this is the very best conductor available short of using silver.  Decreasing R means using more copper and a more expensive cable.  Decreasing C would also mean a larger cable (although not necessarily more copper).  Increasing G is highly undesirable; while it would reduce distortion, it would at the same time increase the signal loss.  Heaviside considered, but rejected, this possibility which left him with the strategy of increasing L as the way to reduce distortion.

text: This is mainly due to the low value of leakage through the cable insulator, which is even more pronounced in modern cables which have better insulators than in Heaviside's day.  In order to meet the condition, the choices are therefore to try to increase G or L or to decrease R or C.  Decreasing R requires larger conductors.  Copper was already in use in telegraph cables and this is the very best conductor available short of using silver.  Decreasing R means using more copper and a more expensive cable.  Decreasing C would also mean a larger cable (although not necessarily more copper).  Increasing G is highly undesirable; while it would reduce distortion, it would at the same time increase the signal loss.  Heaviside considered, but rejected, this possibility which left him with the strategy of increasing L as the way to reduce distortion.

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answers: Decreasing R requires larger conductors

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: modern cables

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Helium is not very suitable for dry suit inflation owing to its poor thermal insulation properties – helium is a very good conductor of heat (compared to air which is a rather poor, making it more of an insulator).  Helium's low molecular weight (monatomic MW=4, compared with diatomic nitrogen MW=28) increases the timbre of the breather's voice, which may impede communication. This is because the speed of sound is faster in a lower molecular weight gas, which increases the resonance frequency of the vocal cords. Helium leaks from damaged or faulty valves more readily than other gases because atoms of helium are smaller allowing them to pass through smaller gaps in seals.

text: Helium is not very suitable for

text: dry suit

text: inflation owing to its poor

text: thermal insulation

text: properties – helium is a very good conductor of heat (compared to air which is a rather poor, making it more of an insulator).  Helium's low molecular weight (monatomic MW=4, compared with diatomic nitrogen MW=28) increases the timbre of the breather's voice, which may impede communication. This is because the speed of sound is faster in a lower molecular weight gas, which increases the resonance frequency of the vocal cords. Helium leaks from damaged or faulty

text: valve

text: s more readily than other gases because atoms of helium are smaller allowing them to pass through smaller gaps in

text: seals

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answers: Helium

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: air

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: One method of reducing thermal bridge effects is the installation of an insulation board (e.g. foam board EPS XPS, wood fibre board, etc.) over the exterior outside wall. Another method is using insulated lumber framing for a thermal break inside the wall.

text: One method of reducing thermal bridge effects is the installation of an insulation board (e.g. foam board EPS XPS, wood fibre board, etc.) over the exterior outside wall. Another method is using insulated lumber framing for a thermal break inside the wall.

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answers: thermal bridge effects

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answers: wood fibre board

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal bridge effects

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: foam board EPS XPS, wood fibre board

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: describes the heat flow resulting from a perpendicular temperature gradient and vice versa, and the Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect describes changes in thermal conductivity when placing a conductor in a magnetic field.

text: describes the heat flow resulting from a perpendicular temperature gradient and vice versa, and the Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect describes changes in

text: thermal conductivity

text: when placing a conductor in a

text: magnetic field

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answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The insulating capability of a material is measured with thermal conductivity (k). Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating capability (R-value). In thermal engineering, other important properties of insulating materials are product density (ρ) and specific heat capacity (c).

text: The insulating capability of a material is measured with

text: thermal conductivity (k)

text: . Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating capability (

text: R-value

text: ). In

text: thermal engineering

text: , other important properties of insulating materials are product

text: density (ρ)

text: and

text: specific heat capacity (c)

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Donald Metz (born 24 November 1940) is an architect known for his earth-integrated house that was built in the 1970s to take advantage of thermal insulation.

text: Donald Metz (born 24 November 1940) is an

text: architect

text: known for his earth-integrated house that was built in the 1970s to take advantage of

text: thermal insulation

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answers: earth

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answers: earth

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: earth

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The procedure usually involves a specialized device which can take the form of an FDA cleared microneedling RF (Radio Frequency) device, manual rolling device or an automated stamping device. The automated microneedling RF devices use different types of motors. The more advanced motors are the micro-memory robotic controlled and others are solenoid driven, or hydraulic driven. The microneedling RF devices can control the depth of penetration anywhere from 0.5mm down to 3.5mm in increments of 0.1mm with the most precise devices and by 0.25mm or 0.5mm on others depending on the type of motor. Radio frequencies can vary depending on the device and the more advanced will have both 1mhz and 2mhz while others only having one frequency. The radio frequency is the energy source that produces small thermal coagulation zones in the dermis to produce collagen and elastin and this is one of the big differences between RF and pens. Needles also vary in the type of metal as some are gold covered and some are insulated and non-insulted. The insulated needles are the most popular as the bottom 0.4mm of the needle is exposed so the RF energy transmits where targeted and not at the epidermis where the most nerve endings are. The insulated needles make for a more comfortable treatment while the non-insulated needles will produce more tightening with a longer downtime and more pain. The microneedling RF devices in the market are under brand names as The Vivace Experience, Lagato, or Profound. The stamping devices, or "microneedling pens", have been listed by the FDA as adulterated and not FDA cleared and are typically powered by a motor and can be adjusted for frequency (stamps/second) and depth of the microneedles. These "pens" are marketed under a number of brand names, such as SkinPen, DermaPen, Micropen, and InnoPen.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: Thermal conduction occurs more quickly in certain solids and liquids than in gases

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: gold

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Microneedling

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: gold covered

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The current of the conductor needs to be just high enough to melt the ice on it without actually going above the thermal limit of the conductor. An ordinary 735 kV line with a bundle of four 1354 MCM conductors per phase, requires a de-icing current of 7200 A per phase. At -10 degrees Celsius and wind velocity at 10 km/h, it would take 30 minutes of current injection on a phase to melt 12mm of radial build-up of ice.

text: The current of the conductor needs to be just high enough to melt the ice on it without actually going above the thermal limit of the conductor. An ordinary 735 kV line with a bundle of four 1354 MCM conductors per phase, requires a de-icing current of 7200 A per phase. At -10 degrees Celsius and wind velocity at 10 km/h, it would take 30 minutes of current injection on a phase to melt 12mm of radial build-up of ice.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: At -10 degrees Celsius

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: ice

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Interstructure condensation may be caused by thermal bridges, insufficient or lacking insulation, damp proofing or insulated glazing.

text: Interstructure condensation may be caused by

text: thermal bridge

text: s, insufficient or lacking insulation,

text: damp proofing

text: or

text: insulated glazing

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answers: thermal bridges

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulated glazing

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: insulated glazing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The particles are electrically active. They can be ferroelectric or, as mentioned above, made from a conducting material coated with an insulator, or electro-osmotically active particles. In the case of ferroelectric or conducting material, the particles would have a high dielectric constant. There may be some confusion here as to the dielectric constant of a conductor, but "if a material with a high dielectric constant is placed in an electric field, the magnitude of that field will be measurably reduced within the volume of the dielectric" (see main page: Dielectric constant), and since the electric field is zero in an ideal conductor, then in this context the dielectric constant of a conductor is infinite.

text: The particles are electrically active. They can be

text: ferroelectric

text: or, as mentioned above, made from a

text: conducting material

text: coated with an

text: insulator

text: , or electro-osmotically active particles. In the case of ferroelectric or conducting material, the particles would have a high

text: dielectric constant

text: . There may be some confusion here as to the dielectric constant of a

text: conductor

text: , but "if a material with a high dielectric constant is placed in an electric field, the magnitude of that field will be measurably reduced within the volume of the dielectric" (see main page:

text: Dielectric constant

text: ), and since the

text: electric field

text: is zero in an ideal conductor, then in this context the dielectric constant of a conductor is infinite.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Conventional heat pipes transfer heat in either direction, from the hotter to the colder end of the heat pipe.  Several different heat pipes act as a thermal diode, transferring heat in one direction, while acting as an insulator in the other:

text: Conventional heat pipes transfer heat in either direction, from the hotter to the colder end of the heat pipe.  Several different heat pipes act as a

text: thermal diode

text: , transferring heat in one direction, while acting as an insulator in the other:

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answers: conventional heat pipes

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: conventional heat pipes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The removal of high-risk asbestos products from non-domestic properties is tightly controlled by the HSE and high-risk products such as thermal insulation must be removed under controlled conditions by licensed contractors. Further guidance on which products this applies to can be found on the HSE website along with a list of licensees.

text: The removal of high-risk asbestos products from non-domestic properties is tightly controlled by the HSE and high-risk products such as thermal insulation must be removed under controlled conditions by licensed contractors. Further guidance on which products this applies to can be found on the HSE website along with a list of licensees.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A koozie or a coozy ( ) is a fabric or foam sleeve that is designed to thermally insulate a beverage container, like a can or bottle.

text: A koozie or a coozy ( ) is a fabric or foam sleeve that is designed to

text: thermally insulate

text: a beverage container, like a

text: can

text: or

text: bottle

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answers: thermally insulate

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answers: fabric or foam

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulate

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answers: foam sleeve

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate across materials of low thermal conductivity than across materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.

text: Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate across materials of low thermal conductivity than across materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in

text: heat sink

text: applications and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as

text: thermal insulation

text: . The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.

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answers: high thermal conductivity

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answers: materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: materials of low thermal conductivity

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: From 1924 to 1943 was a head of a laboratory and a head of a department in the Research Institute of Meteorology in Leningrad. In 1932 became chairman of Thermal Insulation Committee and a member of The Central board of Scientific and Technical Society of Energetic Industry Workers.

text: From 1924 to 1943 was a head of a laboratory and a head of a department in the Research Institute of Meteorology in

text: Leningrad

text: . In 1932 became chairman of Thermal Insulation Committee and a member of The Central board of Scientific and Technical Society of Energetic Industry Workers.

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answers: Thermal Insulation

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answers: Thermal Insulation

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal Insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Energetic Industry Workers

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators, and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape. Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical corona and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with paper, wood, varnish, and mineral oil; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material.

text: The most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and

text: gaseous

text: insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller

text: transformer

text: s,

text: generators

text: , and

text: electric motor

text: s, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass

text: insulating tape

text: . Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent

text: electrical corona

text: and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with

text: paper

text: , wood, varnish, and

text: mineral oil

text: ; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance.

text: Busbar

text: s and

text: circuit breaker

text: s in

text: switchgear

text: may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material.

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answers: polymer varnish film

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The thermal conductance of that particular construction is the inverse of the thermal resistance. Thermal conductivity and conductance are analogous to electrical conductivity (A·m·V) and electrical conductance (A·V).

text: The thermal conductance of that particular construction is the inverse of the thermal resistance. Thermal conductivity and conductance are

text: analogous

text: to

text: electrical conductivity

text: (A·m·V) and

text: electrical conductance

text: (A·V).

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answers: thermal resistance

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answers: Thermal conductivity

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answers: thermal resistance

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Depending on the water temperature, depth and duration of the planned dive, the diver will either use a wetsuit, drysuit or hot water suit. A wetsuit provides thermal insulation by layers of foam neoprene but the diver gets wet.  Hot water diving suits are similar to a wetsuit but are flooded with warm water from a surface water heater that is then pumped to the diver via an umbilical.  A drysuit is another method of insulation, operating by keeping the diver dry under the suit, and relies on either the suit material or the air trapped in thermal undergarments to insulate the diver, and also provides better isolation from environmental contamination. Certain applications require a specific type of dive suit; long dives into deep, cold water normally require a hot water suit or drysuit, whilst diving into potentially contaminated environments requires a drysuit, dryhood, and drygloves at a minimum, thereby keeping the diver completely isolated from the diving environment.

text: Depending on the water temperature, depth and duration of the planned dive, the diver will either use a

text: wetsuit

text: drysuit

text: or

text: hot water suit

text: . A wetsuit provides

text: thermal insulation

text: by layers of foam

text: neoprene

text: but the diver gets wet.  Hot water diving suits are similar to a wetsuit but are flooded with warm water from a surface water heater that is then pumped to the diver via an umbilical.  A

text: drysuit

text: is another method of insulation, operating by keeping the diver dry under the suit, and relies on either the suit material or the air trapped in thermal undergarments to insulate the diver, and also provides better isolation from environmental contamination. Certain applications require a specific type of dive suit; long dives into deep, cold water normally require a hot water suit or drysuit, whilst diving into potentially contaminated environments requires a drysuit, dryhood, and drygloves at a minimum, thereby keeping the diver completely isolated from the diving environment.

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answers: A drysuit

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answers: wetsuit

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: wetsuit

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is hard to say something general about the soil thermal properties at a certain location because these are in a constant state of flux from diurnal and seasonal variations. Apart from the basic soil composition, which is constant at one location, soil thermal properties are strongly influenced by the soil volumetric water content, volume fraction of solids and volume fraction of air. Air is a poor thermal conductor and reduces the effectiveness of the solid and liquid phases to conduct heat. While the solid phase has the highest conductivity it is the variability of soil moisture that largely determines thermal conductivity. As such soil moisture properties and soil thermal propertiess are very closely linked and are often measured and reported together. Temperature variations are most extreme at the surface of the soil and these variations are transferred to sub surface layers but at reduced rates as depth increases. Additionally there is a time delay as to when maximum and minimum temperatures are achieved at increasing soil depth (sometimes referred to as thermal lag).

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answers: Air is a poor thermal conductor

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answers: Air is a poor thermal conductor

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: solids

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In cold conditions, the main aim is to reduce heat flow out of the building. The components of the building envelope - windows, doors, roofs, walls, and air infiltration barriers - are all important sources of heat loss; in an otherwise well insulated home, windows will then become an important source of heat transfer. The resistance to conducted heat loss for standard glazing corresponds to an R-value of about 0.17 mK/W (compared to 2-4 mK/W for glass wool batts). Losses can be reduced by good weatherisation, bulk insulation, and minimising the amount of non-insulative (particularly non-solar facing) glazing. Indoor thermal radiation can also be a disadvantage with spectrally selective (low-e, low-emissivity) glazing. Some insulated glazing systems can double to triple R values.

text: In cold conditions, the main aim is to reduce heat flow out of the building. The components of the building envelope - windows, doors, roofs, walls, and air infiltration barriers - are all important sources of heat loss; in an otherwise well insulated home, windows will then become an important source of heat transfer. The resistance to conducted heat loss for standard

text: glazing

text: corresponds to an

text: R-value

text: of about 0.17 mK/W (compared to 2-4 mK/W for

text: glass wool

text: batts). Losses can be reduced by good

text: weatherisation

text: , bulk insulation, and minimising the amount of non-insulative (particularly non-solar facing) glazing. Indoor thermal radiation can also be a disadvantage with spectrally selective (low-e,

text: low-emissivity

text: ) glazing. Some

text: insulated glazing

text: systems can double to triple R values.

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answers: 2-4 mK/W

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: glass wool batts

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The components of the building envelope

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: standard glazing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Bose's initial prime conductor consisted of an assistant standing on a block of resin (an effective insulator) holding a metal bar in one hand while touching the spinning globe with the other.  The friction-generated charge would have flowed through the assistant to the metal bar and accumulated on the external surface of the bar.  In effect, this was an extension of Stephen Gray's 1720 Flying Boy demonstration, but with the addition of a metal conductor which, over time, became the only effective storage device.

text: Bose's initial prime conductor consisted of an assistant standing on a block of resin (an effective insulator) holding a metal bar in one hand while touching the spinning globe with the other.  The friction-generated charge would have flowed through the assistant to the metal bar and accumulated on the external surface of the bar.  In effect, this was an extension of

text: Stephen Gray

text: 's 1720 Flying Boy demonstration, but with the addition of a metal conductor which, over time, became the only effective storage device.

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answer: 1

text: Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference.

text: Thermal insulators

text: are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both.

text: Thermal resistance

text: is a heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference.

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answers: materials specifically designed

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: White adipose tissue also acts as a thermal insulator, helping to maintain body temperature.

text: White adipose tissue also acts as a thermal insulator, helping to maintain body temperature.

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answers: thermal insulator

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answers: adipose tissue

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Adipose tissue

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain; heat transfer; heat storage; heat transport; and heat insulation. Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the temperature, mass and specific heat of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange. Copper heat exchangers are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks) of solar thermal water systems.

text: Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain;

text: heat transfer

text: heat storage

text: heat transport

text: ; and

text: heat insulation

text: . Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the temperature, mass and

text: specific heat

text: of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange.

text: Copper heat exchangers

text: are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks) of solar thermal water systems.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Depending on the type of insulating material, common maximum allowable temperatures at the surface of the conductor are 60, 75, and 90 °C, often with an ambient air temperature of 30 °C. In the United States, 105 °C is allowed with ambient of 40 °C, for larger power cables, especially those operating at more than 2 kV. Likewise, specific insulations are rated 150, 200, or 250 °C.

text: Depending on the type of insulating material, common maximum allowable temperatures at the surface of the conductor are 60, 75, and 90 °C, often with an ambient air temperature of 30 °C. In the

text: United States

text: , 105 °C is allowed with ambient of 40 °C, for larger power cables, especially those operating at more than 2 kV. Likewise, specific insulations are rated 150, 200, or 250 °C.

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answers: 105 °C

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answers: insulating material

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulating material

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: insulating material

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation.Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.

text: In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher

text: resistance

text: than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation.Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.

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answers: insulation materials

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answers: freeze-frost

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answers: Dry intact skin

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building. Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames. Air leakage accounts for a large percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs. While insulation reduces energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

text: rastra

text: that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

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answers: By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: rastra

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction", but good insulators lateral to the tube axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity along its axis of about 3500 W·m·K; compare this to copper, a metal well known for its good thermal conductivity, which transmits 385 W·m·K. A SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity across its axis (in the radial direction) of about 1.52 W·m·K, which is about as thermally conductive as soil. The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 °C in vacuum and about 750 °C in air.

text: All nanotubes are expected to be very good

text: thermal conductor

text: s along the tube, exhibiting a property known as "

text: ballistic conduction

text: ", but good insulators lateral to the tube axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity along its axis of about 3500 W·m·K; compare this to copper, a metal well known for its good

text: thermal conductivity

text: , which transmits 385 W·m·K. A SWNT has a room-temperature thermal conductivity across its axis (in the radial direction) of about 1.52 W·m·K, which is about as thermally conductive as soil. The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 °C in

text: vacuum

text: and about 750 °C in air.

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answers: All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors

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answers: SWNT

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answers: good insulators

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answers: nanotubes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: This equation shows that the critical radius depends only on the heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the insulation.  If the radius of the insulated cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation, the addition of any amount of insulation will increase heat transfer.

text: This equation shows that the critical radius depends only on the heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the insulation.  If the radius of the insulated cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation, the addition of any amount of insulation will increase heat transfer.

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answers: The critical radius

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answers: thermal conductivity

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Insulation may be categorized by its composition (natural or synthetic materials), form (batts, blankets, loose-fill, spray foam, and panels), structural contribution (insulating concrete forms, structured panels, and straw bales), functional mode (conductive, radiative, convective), resistance to heat transfer, environmental impacts, and more.  Sometimes a thermally reflective surface called a radiant barrier is added to a material to reduce the transfer of heat through radiation as well as conduction. The choice of which material or combination of materials is used depends on a wide variety of factors. Some insulation materials have health risks, some so significant the materials are no longer allowed to be used but remain in use in some older buildings such as asbestos fibers and urea

text: Insulation may be categorized by its composition (natural or synthetic materials), form (batts, blankets, loose-fill, spray foam, and panels), structural contribution (

text: insulating concrete form

text: s, structured panels, and straw bales), functional mode (conductive, radiative, convective),

text: resistance to heat transfer

text: , environmental impacts, and more.  Sometimes a thermally reflective surface called a

text: radiant barrier

text: is added to a material to reduce the transfer of heat through radiation as well as conduction. The choice of which material or combination of materials is used depends on a wide variety of factors. Some insulation materials have health risks, some so significant the materials are no longer allowed to be used but remain in use in some older buildings such as asbestos fibers and urea

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answers: insulation

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answers: natural or synthetic materials

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Steinke hood was designed for the same purpose as the SEIE, but did not include thermal insulation or a life raft. It could not protect submariners from hypothermia and weather exposure, or provide crew visibility at the surface, as the SEIE can.

text: The Steinke hood was designed for the same purpose as the SEIE, but did not include thermal insulation or a life raft. It could not protect submariners from hypothermia and weather exposure, or provide crew visibility at the surface, as the SEIE can.

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answers: Steinke hood

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Steinke hood

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The thermal comfort is a requirement that the enclosure walls must comply. This requirement has a direct influence on the construction of the walls. The thermal regulations are demanding increasingly higher values of thermal resistance to the walls. To meet these demands new products and building systems, which ensure that the thermal resistances requested by the regulations will be provided, are developed. It is likely that in the near future traditional construction solutions with double leaf walls (with new, more thermally efficient bricks and blocks) will be adapted, and there will be increased use of thermal insulation systems for exterior (ETICS), such as use of single leaf walls. Also the use of insulation systems from the inside will increase. The development of new enclosure wall systems should, apart from trying to improve requisites relating to structural stability in case of earthquake, improve the thermal resistance of the solution.

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answers: thermal insulation systems for exterior

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: bricks and blocks

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Electrical cables are categorized by the voltage and current used. Telephone cables have moderate voltage and current associated with cables leading moderate electric current or transmitting electrical signals. The telephone cables have a large number of conductors that are individually insulated. In order to not become excessively thick the paper needs to be thin (30-40 g/m). A normal power cable needs more insulation and therefore paper with higher paper density is used, normally 60-190 g/m. The paper needs to be strong, elastic, uniform and free of holes or debris. These applications are being replaced by plastic insulation.

text: Electrical cables are categorized by the

text: voltage

text: and

text: current

text: used.

text: Telephone cable

text: s have moderate voltage and current associated with cables leading moderate electric current or transmitting electrical signals. The telephone cables have a large number of conductors that are individually insulated. In order to not become excessively thick the paper needs to be thin (30-40 g/m). A normal power cable needs more insulation and therefore paper with higher

text: paper density

text: is used, normally 60-190 g/m. The paper needs to be strong, elastic, uniform and free of holes or debris. These applications are being replaced by

text: plastic

text: insulation.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: plastic insulation

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: plastic insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Class 1 insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device be connected to earth via a grounding wire that is earthed at the main service panel—but only needs basic insulation on the conductors. This equipment needs an extra pin on the power plug for the grounding connection.

text: Class 1 insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device be connected to earth via a grounding wire that is

text: earth

text: ed at the main

text: service panel

text: —but only needs

text: basic insulation

text: on the conductors. This equipment needs an extra pin on the

text: power plug

text: for the grounding connection.

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answers: Class 1

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: metal body

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Class 1 insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: metal body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to electrical resistance. The heat transfers can be worked out by thinking of resistance in series with a fixed potential, except the resistances are thermal resistances and the potential is the difference in temperature from one side of the material to the other. The resistance of each material to heat transfer depends on the specific thermal resistance [R-value]/[unit thickness], which is a property of the material (see table below) and the thickness of that layer. A thermal barrier that is composed of several layers will have several thermal resistors in the analogous with circuits, each in series.

text: Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to

text: electrical resistance

text: . The heat transfers can be worked out by thinking of resistance in series with a fixed potential, except the resistances are thermal resistances and the potential is the difference in temperature from one side of the material to the other. The resistance of each material to heat transfer depends on the specific thermal resistance [R-value]/[unit thickness], which is a property of the material (see table below) and the thickness of that layer. A thermal barrier that is composed of several layers will have several thermal resistors in the analogous with circuits, each in series.

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answers: [R-value]/[unit thickness]

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulating layer

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to electrical resistance

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: insulating layer

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal insulating properties are an important consideration, particularly for climates that experience temperature extremes. The thermal insulating value of a material is directly related to both the porosity of the material and the thickness of the wall. Crushed volcanic rock, pumice or rice hulls yield higher insulation value than clay or sand. Untreated organic materials that could decay should not be used as part of a structural wall mass, but can be used as infill. Scott Howard and others have suggested adding crushed bottles, shredded bags, or other plastic trash as insulating filler in earthbags.	 Thermal mass properties of the fill material are also an important consideration, particularly for climates that experience high temperature fluctuations from night to day. The thermal flywheel effect can make massive earth walls ideal for mild climates. Materials like clay or sand also have excellent heat retention characteristics and, when properly insulated from the home's exterior, make a logical choice for incorporating a passive solar building design in cool climates. Such a design has the capability of keeping a home's internal temperature stable year-round.

text: Thermal insulating properties are an important consideration, particularly for climates that experience temperature extremes. The thermal

text: insulating

text: value of a material is directly related to both the porosity of the material and the thickness of the wall. Crushed

text: volcanic rock

text: pumice

text: or

text: rice hulls

text: yield higher insulation value than clay or sand. Untreated organic materials that could decay should not be used as part of a structural wall mass, but can be used as infill. Scott Howard and others have suggested adding crushed bottles, shredded bags, or other plastic trash as insulating filler in earthbags.	 Thermal mass properties of the fill material are also an important consideration, particularly for climates that experience high temperature fluctuations from night to day. The

text: thermal flywheel effect

text: can make massive earth walls ideal for mild climates. Materials like clay or sand also have excellent heat retention characteristics and, when properly insulated from the home's exterior, make a logical choice for incorporating a

text: passive solar building design

text: in cool climates. Such a design has the capability of keeping a home's internal temperature stable year-round.

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answers: crushed bottles, shredded bags, or other plastic trash

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal insulating

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: crushed volcanic rock, pumice or rice hulls

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Bulk insulators block conductive heat transfer and convective flow either into or out of a building. The denser a material is, the better it will conduct heat. Because air has such low density, air is a very poor conductor and therefore makes a good insulator. Insulation to resist conductive heat transfer uses air spaces between fibers, inside foam or plastic bubbles and in building cavities like the attic. This is beneficial in an actively cooled or heated building, but can be a liability in a passively cooled building; adequate provisions for cooling by ventilation or radiation  are needed.

text: Bulk insulators block conductive heat transfer and convective flow either into or out of a building. The denser a material is, the better it will conduct heat. Because air has such low density, air is a very poor conductor and therefore makes a good insulator. Insulation to resist conductive heat transfer uses air spaces between fibers, inside foam or plastic bubbles and in building cavities like the attic. This is beneficial in an actively cooled or heated building, but can be a liability in a passively cooled building; adequate provisions for cooling by ventilation or radiation  are needed.

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answers: denser a material is, the better it will conduct heat

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: denser a material

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation to resist conductive heat transfer uses air spaces between fibers

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: foam or plastic bubbles

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The orchestra was founded in 1962 by the Yomiuri Shimbun, Nippon Television, and the Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation.  Its first principal conductor was the American conductor Willis Page, who served while on leave from the Nashville Symphony Orchestra.  Hiroshi Wakasugi became the orchestra's first Japanese principal conductor in 1965.  Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos, the orchestra's fourth principal conductor from 1980 to 1983, held the title of principal guest conductor with the orchestra from 1983 to 1990, and was named one of the orchestra's honorary conductors in 1990.  Other conductors with the title of honorary conductor include Kurt Masur, since 1979, and Gennady Rozhdestvensky, since 1990.  Tadaaki Otaka, the orchestra's sixth principal conductor from 1992 to 1998, now has the title of honorary guest conductor.  Gerd Albrecht, the orchestra's seventh principal conductor from 1998 to 2007, now has the title of conductor laureate.  Stanisław Skrowaczewski, the orchestra's eighth principal conductor from 2007 to 2010, now has the title of honorary conductor laureate.

text: The orchestra was founded in 1962 by the

text: Yomiuri Shimbun

text: , Nippon Television, and the Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation.  Its first principal conductor was the American conductor

text: Willis Page

text: , who served while on leave from the

text: Nashville Symphony Orchestra

text: Hiroshi Wakasugi

text: became the orchestra's first Japanese principal conductor in 1965.

text: Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos

text: , the orchestra's fourth principal conductor from 1980 to 1983, held the title of principal guest conductor with the orchestra from 1983 to 1990, and was named one of the orchestra's honorary conductors in 1990.  Other conductors with the title of honorary conductor include

text: Kurt Masur

text: , since 1979, and

text: Gennady Rozhdestvensky

text: , since 1990.

text: Tadaaki Otaka

text: , the orchestra's sixth principal conductor from 1992 to 1998, now has the title of honorary guest conductor.

text: Gerd Albrecht

text: , the orchestra's seventh principal conductor from 1998 to 2007, now has the title of conductor laureate.

text: Stanisław Skrowaczewski

text: , the orchestra's eighth principal conductor from 2007 to 2010, now has the title of honorary conductor laureate.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: Hiroshi Wakasugi

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Hiroshi Wakasugi

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Seebeck effect imaging (SEI) uses a laser to generate thermal gradients in conductors. The thermal gradients induced generate corresponding electric potential gradients. This correlation of thermal and electric gradients is known as the Seebeck effect. The SEI technique is used to locate electrically floating conductors.

text: Seebeck effect

text: imaging (SEI) uses a laser to generate thermal gradients in

text: conductors

text: . The thermal gradients induced generate corresponding

text: electric potential

text: gradients. This correlation of thermal and electric gradients is known as the Seebeck effect. The SEI technique is used to locate electrically floating conductors.

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answers: thermal gradients

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answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz law, as freely moving valence electrons transfer not only electric current but also heat energy.  However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of phonon carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive silver is less thermally conductive than diamond, which is an electrical insulator, but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.

text: In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the

text: Wiedemann–Franz law

text: , as freely moving

text: valence electron

text: s transfer not only electric current but also heat energy.  However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of

text: phonon

text: carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive

text: silver

text: is less thermally conductive than

text: diamond

text: , which is an

text: electrical insulator

text: , but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.

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answers: Diamond, which is an electrical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: diamond

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Foam Glass as Floor Insulation Foamed glass insulation aggregate is used in the same way as coated clay aggregate, but is capable of being used as a load bearing hardcore. It also offers better insulation (lambda/k value = 0.08 – approximately 20% better in thermal performance than lightweight expanded clay aggregate). It therefore needs less depth for a similar thermal performance.

text: Foam Glass as Floor Insulation Foamed glass insulation aggregate is used in the same way as coated clay aggregate, but is capable of being used as a load bearing hardcore. It also offers better insulation (lambda/k value = 0.08 – approximately 20% better in thermal performance than lightweight expanded clay aggregate). It therefore needs less depth for a similar thermal performance.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high thermal conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at terminations and connections.  Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than aluminium, so it is better able to reduce thermal hot spots in electrical wiring systems.

text: Thermal conductivity

text: is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high thermal conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at terminations and connections.  Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than aluminium, so it is better able to reduce thermal hot spots in electrical wiring systems.

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answers: Copper

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answers: Thermal conductivity

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answers: Copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the thermal expansion coefficient specific to the material. Such an expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10. An increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the material. A phonon is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine, phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions and therefore will decrease the total amount of current transferred.

text: Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the

text: thermal expansion coefficient

text: specific to the material. Such an expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10. An increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the material. A

text: phonon

text: is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine, phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions and therefore will decrease the total amount of current transferred.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: The connector is an insulation-displacement connector—in other words, each contact comprises a pair of points which together pierce the insulation of the ribbon cable with such precision that they make a connection to the desired conductor without harming the insulation on the neighboring wires. The center row of contacts are all connected to the common ground bus and attached to the odd numbered conductors of the cable. The top row of contacts are the even-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the even-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to every other even-numbered conductor of the cable. The bottom row of contacts are the odd-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the odd-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to the remaining even-numbered conductors of the cable.

text: The connector is an

text: insulation-displacement connector

text: —in other words, each contact comprises a pair of points which together pierce the insulation of the ribbon cable with such precision that they make a connection to the desired conductor without harming the insulation on the neighboring wires. The center row of contacts are all connected to the common ground bus and attached to the odd numbered conductors of the cable. The top row of contacts are the even-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the even-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to every other even-numbered conductor of the cable. The bottom row of contacts are the odd-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the odd-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to the remaining even-numbered conductors of the cable.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves.  An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers.  They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.

text: Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical

text: conductors

text: without allowing current through themselves.  An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach

text: electric power distribution

text: or

text: transmission

text: lines to

text: utility pole

text: s and

text: transmission tower

text: s.  They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: A thermal bridge, also called a cold bridge or heat bridge, is an area of an object (frequently a building) which has a significantly higher heat transfer than the surrounding materials resulting in an overall reduction in thermal insulation of the object or building. Thermal bridges occur in three ways, through: materials with higher thermal conductivity than the surrounding materials, penetrations of the thermal envelope, and discontinuities or gaps in the insulation material.

text: A thermal bridge, also called a cold bridge or heat bridge, is an area of an object (frequently a building) which has a significantly higher

text: heat transfer

text: than the surrounding materials resulting in an overall reduction in

text: thermal insulation

text: of the object or building. Thermal bridges occur in three ways, through: materials with higher

text: thermal conductivity

text: than the surrounding materials, penetrations of the

text: thermal envelope

text: , and discontinuities or gaps in the insulation material.

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answers: materials with higher thermal conductivity

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: High performance cars often use thermal insulation as a means to increase engine performance.

text: High performance cars often use thermal insulation as a means to increase engine performance.

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: High performance cars

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons.  In mains powered equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous voltage when electrical insulation fails.  In electrical power distribution systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of the safety Earthing system.  Connection to ground also limits the build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices. In some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor (see single-wire earth return).

text: Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons.  In

text: mains

text: powered equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous voltage when

text: electrical insulation

text: fails.  In electrical power distribution systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of the safety

text: Earthing system

text: .  Connection to ground also limits the build-up of

text: static electricity

text: when handling flammable products or

text: electrostatic-sensitive device

text: s. In some

text: telegraph

text: and

text: power transmission

text: circuits, the earth itself can be used as one

text: conductor

text: of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor (see

text: single-wire earth return

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 0

text: There are many definitions of thermal/heat insulation and it is commonly misinterpreted as “Bulk/Mass/Batt Insulation”, which is actually used to resist conduction heat transfer with certain R-values.

text: There are many definitions of thermal/heat insulation and it is commonly misinterpreted as “Bulk/Mass/Batt Insulation”, which is actually used to resist conduction heat transfer with certain R-values.

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answers: conduction

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answers: conduction

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: R-values

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answers: R-values

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Single crystals of the cubic phase of zirconia are commonly used as diamond simulant in jewellery. Like diamond, cubic zirconia has a cubic crystal structure and a high index of refraction. Visually discerning a good quality cubic zirconia gem from a diamond is difficult, and most jewellers will have a thermal conductivity tester to identify cubic zirconia by its low thermal conductivity (diamond is a very good thermal conductor). This state of zirconia is commonly called cubic zirconia, CZ, or zircon by jewellers, but the last name is not chemically accurate. Zircon is actually the mineral name for naturally occurring zirconium silicate (ZrSiO).

text: Single crystals of the cubic phase of zirconia are commonly used as

text: diamond simulant

text: in

text: jewellery

text: . Like diamond, cubic zirconia has a cubic crystal structure and a high

text: index of refraction

text: . Visually discerning a good quality cubic zirconia gem from a diamond is difficult, and most jewellers will have a thermal conductivity tester to identify cubic zirconia by its low

text: thermal conductivity

text: (diamond is a very good thermal conductor). This state of zirconia is commonly called cubic zirconia, CZ, or zircon by

text: jewellers

text: , but the last name is not chemically accurate.

text: Zircon

text: is actually the mineral name for naturally occurring

text: zirconium silicate

text: (ZrSiO).

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answers: Diamond is a very good thermal conductor

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: diamond

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Zirconia

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: zirconia

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For those who cannot afford a thermal inspection, it is possible to get a general feel for the heat loss with a non-contact infrared thermometer and several sheets of reflective insulation. The method involves measuring the temperatures on the inside surfaces of several exterior walls to establish baseline temperatures. After this, reflective barrier insulation is taped securely to the walls in  by  strips and the temperatures are measured in the center of the insulated areas at 1-hour intervals for 12 hours (the reflective barrier is pulled away from the wall to measure the temperature in the center of the area which it has covered). The best manner in which to do this is when the temperature differential (Delta T) between the inside and outside of the structure is at least 40 degrees. A well-insulated wall will commonly change approximately 1 degree per hour if the difference between external and internal temperatures is an average of 40 degrees. A poorly insulated wall can drop as much as 10 degrees in an hour.

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answers: The method involves measuring the temperatures on the inside surfaces

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: reflective barrier insulation

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: A poorly insulated wall

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: reflective barrier insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Using a high voltage terminal kept at a static potential on the order of millions of volts, charged particles can be accelerated.  In simple language, an electrostatic generator is basically a giant capacitor (although lacking plates).   The high voltage is achieved either using the methods of Cockcroft & Walton or Van de Graaff, with the accelerators often being named after these inventors.  Van de Graaff's original design places electrons on an insulating sheet, or belt, with a metal comb, and then the sheet physically transports the immobilized electrons to the terminal.  Although at high voltage, the terminal is a conductor, and there is a corresponding comb inside the conductor which can pick up the electrons off the sheet; owing to Gauss's law, there is no electric field inside a conductor, so the electrons are not repulsed by the platform once they are inside.  The belt is similar in style to a conventional conveyor belt, with one major exception: it is seamless.  Thus, if the belt is broken, the accelerator must be disassembled to some degree in order to replace the belt, which, owing to its constant rotation and being made typically of a rubber, is not a particularly uncommon occurrence.  The practical difficulty with belts led to a different medium for physically transporting the charges: a chain of pellets.  Unlike a normal chain, this one is non-conducting from one end to the other, as both insulators and conductors are used in its construction.  These type of accelerators are usually called Pelletrons.

text: Using a

text: high voltage

text: terminal kept at a static potential on the order of millions of volts,

text: charged particle

text: s can be accelerated.  In simple language, an

text: electrostatic generator

text: is basically a giant

text: capacitor

text: (although lacking plates).   The high voltage is achieved either using the methods of

text: Cockcroft & Walton

text: or

text: Van de Graaff

text: , with the accelerators often being named after these inventors.  Van de Graaff's

text: original design

text: places electrons on an insulating sheet, or belt, with a metal comb, and then the sheet physically transports the immobilized electrons to the terminal.  Although at high voltage, the terminal is a conductor, and there is a corresponding comb inside the conductor which can pick up the electrons off the sheet; owing to

text: Gauss's law

text: , there is no electric field inside a conductor, so the electrons are not repulsed by the platform once they are inside.  The belt is similar in style to a

text: conventional conveyor belt

text: , with one major exception: it is seamless.  Thus, if the belt is broken, the accelerator must be disassembled to some degree in order to replace the belt, which, owing to its constant rotation and being made typically of a

text: rubber

text: , is not a particularly uncommon occurrence.  The practical difficulty with belts led to a different medium for physically transporting the charges: a chain of pellets.  Unlike a normal chain, this one is non-conducting from one end to the other, as both insulators and conductors are used in its construction.  These type of accelerators are usually called

text: Pelletron

text: s.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulators

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Van de Graaff

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: rubber

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Over time, rubber-insulated cables become brittle because of exposure to atmospheric oxygen, so they must be handled with care and are usually replaced during renovations. When switches, socket outlets or light fixtures are replaced, the mere act of tightening connections may cause hardened insulation to flake off the conductors.  Rubber insulation further inside the cable often is in better condition than the insulation exposed at connections, due to reduced exposure to oxygen.

text: Over time, rubber-insulated

text: cable

text: s become brittle because of exposure to atmospheric oxygen, so they must be handled with care and are usually replaced during renovations. When switches, socket outlets or light fixtures are replaced, the mere act of tightening connections may cause hardened insulation to flake off the conductors.  Rubber insulation further inside the cable often is in better condition than the insulation exposed at connections, due to reduced exposure to oxygen.

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answers: Rubber insulation further inside the cable

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: light fixtures

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: rubber-insulated cables

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: rubber

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Hot electrons from higher energy states carry more thermal energy than cold electrons, while electrical conductivity is rather insensitive to the energy distribution of carriers because the amount of charge that electrons carry, does not depend on their energy. This is a physical reason for the greater sensitivity of electronic thermal conductivity to energy dependence of density of states and relaxation time, respectively.

text: Hot electrons from higher energy states carry more thermal energy than cold electrons, while electrical conductivity is rather insensitive to the energy distribution of carriers because the amount of charge that electrons carry, does not depend on their energy. This is a physical reason for the greater sensitivity of electronic thermal conductivity to energy dependence of density of states and relaxation time, respectively.

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answers: Hot electrons

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: cold electrons

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: cold electrons

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The World Health Organization has declared fiber glass insulation as potentially carcinogenic (WHO, 1998). In October 2001, an international expert review by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) re-evaluated the 1988 IARC assessment of glass fibers and removed glass wools from its list of possible carcinogens by downgrading the classification of these fibers from Group 2B (possible carcinogen) to Group 3 (not classifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans).  All fiber glass wools that are commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation are included in this classification.  IARC noted specifically:  "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since the previous IARC Monographs review of these fibers in 1988 provide no evidence of increased risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational exposures during manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any cancer risk."

text: The World Health Organization has declared fiber glass insulation as potentially carcinogenic (WHO, 1998). In October 2001, an international expert review by the

entity_name: International Agency for Research on Cancer

text: International Agency for Research on Cancer

text: (IARC) re-evaluated the 1988 IARC assessment of glass fibers and removed glass wools from its list of possible carcinogens by downgrading the classification of these fibers from Group 2B (possible carcinogen) to Group 3 (not classifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans).  All fiber glass wools that are commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation are included in this classification.  IARC noted specifically:  "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since the previous IARC Monographs review of these fibers in 1988 provide no evidence of increased risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational exposures during manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any cancer risk."

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answers: fiber glass wools

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answers: All fiber glass wools

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: fiber glass wools

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal sleeves were originally simply insulators.  They would prevent ambient conditions such as bright sunlight or winds from heating or cooling one side of a barrel more than the other which would cause a thermal distortion (bending or drooping), reducing accuracy.  More modern variants contain concentric inner and outer insulating sleeves with a gap in between.  Versions have been created which are detachable from a given barrel so that they can be re-used with a replacement barrel.  Proposals exist for types that have advanced external thermal and radar profiles, reducing their thermal and radar signatures making the barrel and thereby the tank harder to detect.

text: Thermal sleeves were originally simply insulators.  They would prevent ambient conditions such as bright sunlight or winds from heating or cooling one side of a barrel more than the other which would cause a thermal distortion (bending or drooping), reducing accuracy.  More modern variants contain concentric inner and outer insulating sleeves with a gap in between.  Versions have been created which are detachable from a given barrel so that they can be re-used with a replacement barrel.  Proposals exist for types that have advanced external thermal and radar profiles, reducing their thermal and radar signatures making the barrel and thereby the tank harder to detect.

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answers: bright sunlight or winds

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal sleeves

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: bright sunlight or winds

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In case of a thermally-insulated bar (except at the ends) in the steady state H is constant. If A is constant as well the expression can be integrated with the result

text: In case of a thermally-insulated bar (except at the ends) in the steady state H is constant. If A is constant as well the expression can be integrated with the result

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answers: H is constant

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answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermally-insulated

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: bars

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The effectiveness of the muscles' action in humans has been questioned, as humans have relatively little body hair to allow for thermal insulation.

text: The effectiveness of the muscles' action in humans has been questioned, as humans have relatively little body hair to allow for thermal insulation.

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answers: body hair

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: body hair

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between0.000005 and 0.0005 m² K/W (the corresponding range of thermal contactconductance is 2000 to 200,000 W/m² K). To know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not,  magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. Thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such as insulators.Thermal contact conductance is an important factor in a variety of applications, largely because many physical systems contain a mechanical combination of two materials. Some of the fields where contact conductance is of importance are:

text: Most experimentally determined values of the thermal contact resistance fall between0.000005 and 0.0005 m² K/W (the corresponding range of thermal contactconductance is 2000 to 200,000 W/m² K). To know whether the thermal contact resistance is significant or not,  magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the layers are compared with typical values of thermal contact resistance. Thermal contact resistance is significant and may dominate for good heat conductors such as metals but can be neglected for poor heat conductors such as insulators.Thermal contact conductance is an important factor in a variety of applications, largely because many physical systems contain a

text: mechanical

text: combination of two materials. Some of the fields where contact conductance is of importance are:

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answers: Thermal contact resistance is significant

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answers: metals

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Photoelectrowetting is a modification of the wetting properties of a surface (typically a hydrophobic surface) using incident light. Whereas ordinary electrowetting is observed in surfaces consisting of a liquid/insulator/conductor stack, photoelectrowetting can be observed by replacing the conductor with a semiconductor to form a liquid/insulator/semiconductor stack. This has electrical and optical properties similar to the metal/insulator/semiconductor stack used in metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) and charge-coupled devices (CCDs). Replacing the conductor with a semiconductor results in asymmetrical electrowetting behavior (in terms of voltage polarity), depending on the semiconductor doping type and density.

text: Photoelectrowetting is a modification of the

text: wetting

text: properties of a surface (typically a

text: hydrophobic

text: surface) using incident light. Whereas ordinary

text: electrowetting

text: is observed in surfaces consisting of a

text: liquid

text: insulator

text: conductor

text: stack, photoelectrowetting can be observed by replacing the conductor with a

text: semiconductor

text: to form a liquid/insulator/semiconductor stack. This has electrical and optical properties similar to the metal/insulator/semiconductor stack used in

text: metal-oxide-semiconductor

text: field effect transistors (

text: MOSFET

text: s) and

text: charge-coupled device

text: s (CCDs). Replacing the conductor with a semiconductor results in asymmetrical electrowetting behavior (in terms of

text: voltage

text: polarity), depending on the semiconductor

text: doping

text: type and density.

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answers: Hydrophobic

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: hydrophobic surface

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The thermal resistance of VIPs per unit thickness compares very favourably to conventional insulation. For instance, standard mineral wool has a thermal conductivity of 0.044 W/(m·K), and rigid polyurethane foam panels about 0.024 W/(m·K). This means that VIPs have about one-fifth the thermal conductivity of conventional insulation, and therefore about five times the thermal resistance (R-value) per unit thickness. Based on a typical k-value of 0.007 W/(m·K), the R-value of a typical 25 mm-thick VIP would be 3.5 m·K/W (20 h·ft²·°F/BTU). To provide the same R-value, 154 mm of rockwool or 84 mm of rigid polyurethane foam panel would be required.

text: The thermal resistance of VIPs per unit thickness compares very favourably to conventional insulation. For instance, standard

text: mineral wool

text: has a thermal conductivity of 0.044 W/(m·K), and rigid polyurethane foam panels about 0.024 W/(m·K). This means that VIPs have about one-fifth the thermal conductivity of conventional insulation, and therefore about five times the thermal resistance (

text: R-value

text: ) per unit thickness. Based on a typical k-value of 0.007 W/(m·K), the R-value of a typical 25 mm-thick VIP would be 3.5 m·K/W (20 h·ft²·°F/BTU). To provide the same R-value, 154 mm of rockwool or 84 mm of rigid polyurethane foam panel would be required.

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answers: thermal conductivity of 0.044 W/(m K)

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: VIPs

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The thermal resistance of VIPs per unit thickness

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: VIPs

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The tog is a measure of thermal resistance of a unit area, also known as thermal insulance. It is commonly used in the textile industry and often seen quoted on, for example, duvets and carpet underlay.

text: The tog is a measure of

text: thermal resistance

text: of a unit area, also known as

text: thermal insulance

text: . It is commonly used in the

text: textile industry

text: and often seen quoted on, for example,

text: duvet

text: s and carpet

text: underlay

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answers: thermal insulance

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: duvets

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulance

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: duvets

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Li has been renowned as a frequent performer of piano concertos with many prestigious orchestras. Among the concertos he has performed include Haydn Piano Concerto No. 11, Saint Saens Piano Concerto No. 2, Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 1, Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 4, Mendelssohn Piano Concerto No. 1, Mozart Piano Concerto No. 21, Schumann Piano Concerto in A minor, Chopin Piano Concerto No. 1, and Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2.  These orchestras include the Cleveland Orchestra (Jahja Ling conductor); Xiamen Philharmonic (China; Tao Lin conductor), Symphony Pro Musica (Mark Churchill conductor), Simon Bolivar Youth Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela (Venezuela; Sarah Ioannides conductor), Boston Philharmonic Orchestra (Benjamin Zander, conductor), Brooklyn Philharmonic (Arkady Leytush conductor), Spartanburg Philharmonic Orchestra (Sarah Ioannides conductor), Miami Symphony Orchestra (Eduardo Marturet conductor), Waltham Symphony Orchestra (Patrick Botti conductor), Nordic Chamber Orchestra Sweden (Christian Lindberg conductor), Princeton Symphony Orchestra (Benjamin Zander, conductor), Albany Symphony Orchestra (David Alan Miller Conductor), Lexington Symphony Orchestra (Jonathan McPhee, conductor), Orchestra "I Solisti di Perugia" (Spoleto, Italy), Southern Arizona Symphony Orchestra (Linus Lerner, conductor), Rdigewood Symphony Orchestra (Arkady Leytush conductor)  and the Youth Philharmonic Orchestra of New England Concervatory (Benjamin Zander, conductor).

text: Li has been renowned as a frequent performer of

text: piano concerto

text: s with many prestigious orchestras. Among the concertos he has performed include Haydn Piano Concerto No. 11, Saint Saens Piano Concerto No. 2,

text: Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 1

text: Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 4

text: Mendelssohn Piano Concerto No. 1

text: Mozart Piano Concerto No. 21

text: Schumann Piano Concerto in A minor

text: Chopin Piano Concerto No. 1

text: , and

text: Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2

text: .  These orchestras include the

text: Cleveland Orchestra

text: Jahja Ling

text: conductor); Xiamen Philharmonic (China; Tao Lin conductor), Symphony Pro Musica (Mark Churchill conductor), Simon Bolivar Youth Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela (Venezuela;

text: Sarah Ioannides

text: conductor),

text: Boston Philharmonic Orchestra

text: Benjamin Zander

text: , conductor),

text: Brooklyn Philharmonic

text: (Arkady Leytush conductor), Spartanburg Philharmonic Orchestra (Sarah Ioannides conductor), Miami Symphony Orchestra (Eduardo Marturet conductor), Waltham Symphony Orchestra (Patrick Botti conductor), Nordic Chamber Orchestra Sweden (Christian Lindberg conductor),

text: Princeton Symphony Orchestra

text: (Benjamin Zander, conductor),

text: Albany Symphony Orchestra

text: (David Alan Miller Conductor),

text: Lexington Symphony Orchestra

text: (Jonathan McPhee, conductor), Orchestra "I Solisti di Perugia" (Spoleto, Italy), Southern Arizona Symphony Orchestra (Linus Lerner, conductor), Rdigewood Symphony Orchestra (Arkady Leytush conductor)  and the Youth Philharmonic Orchestra of New England Concervatory (Benjamin Zander, conductor).

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answers: down jacket

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answers: piano concertos

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Sheep's wool insulation is a very efficient thermal insulator with a higher performance than glass fibre and no reduction in performance even when condensation is present.  It is made from the waste wool that the carpet and textile industries reject, it is available in both rolls and batts for both thermal and acoustic insulation of housing and commercial buildings. Wool has the ability to absorb significant levels of condensation, 40% of its own weight, and yet still be dry. As wool absorbs moisture it heats up and therefore reduces the risk of condensation. It has the unique ability to absorb VOC gases such as formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and lock them up permanently.  Sheep's wool insulation has a long lifetime due to the natural crimp in the fibre, endurance testing has shown it has a life expectancy of over 100 years.

text: Sheep's wool insulation is a very efficient thermal insulator with a higher performance than glass fibre and no reduction in performance even when condensation is present.  It is made from the waste wool that the carpet and textile industries reject, it is available in both rolls and batts for both thermal and acoustic insulation of housing and commercial buildings. Wool has the ability to absorb significant levels of condensation, 40% of its own weight, and yet still be dry. As wool absorbs moisture it heats up and therefore reduces the risk of condensation. It has the unique ability to absorb VOC gases such as formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and lock them up permanently.  Sheep's wool insulation has a long lifetime due to the natural crimp in the fibre, endurance testing has shown it has a life expectancy of over 100 years.

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answers: glass fibre

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: glass fibre

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal insulation in buildings is an important factor to achieving thermal comfort for its occupants. Insulation reduces unwanted heat loss or gain and can decrease the energy demands of heating and cooling systems. It does not necessarily deal with issues of adequate ventilation and may or may not affect the level of sound insulation. In a narrow sense insulation can just refer to the insulation materials employed to slow heat loss, such as: cellulose, glass wool, rock wool, polystyrene, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, wood fibre, plant fibre (cannabis, flax, cotton, cork, etc.), recycled cotton denim, plant straw, animal fibre (sheep's wool), cement, and earth or soil, Reflective Insulation (also known as Radiant Barrier) but it can also involve a range of designs and techniques to address the main modes of heat transfer - conduction, radiation and convection materials. Many of the materials in this list deal with heat conduction and convection by the simple expedient of trapping large amounts of air (or other gas) in a way that results in a material that employs the low thermal conductivity of small pockets of gas, rather than the much higher conductivity of typical solids. (A similar gas-trapping principle is used in animal hair, down feathers, and in air-containing insulating fabrics).

text: Thermal insulation

text: in buildings is an important factor to achieving

text: thermal comfort

text: for its occupants. Insulation reduces unwanted heat loss or gain and can decrease the energy demands of

text: heating and cooling systems

text: . It does not necessarily deal with issues of adequate

text: ventilation

text: and may or may not affect the level of

text: sound insulation

text: . In a narrow sense insulation can just refer to the

text: insulation materials

text: employed to slow heat loss, such as:

text: cellulose

text: glass wool

text: rock wool

text: polystyrene

text: urethane foam

text: vermiculite

text: , perlite, wood fibre, plant fibre (cannabis, flax, cotton, cork, etc.), recycled cotton denim, plant straw, animal fibre (sheep's wool), cement, and earth or soil, Reflective Insulation (also known as Radiant Barrier) but it can also involve a range of designs and techniques to address the main modes of heat transfer - conduction, radiation and convection materials. Many of the materials in this list deal with heat conduction and convection by the simple expedient of trapping large amounts of air (or other gas) in a way that results in a material that employs the low thermal conductivity of small pockets of gas, rather than the much higher conductivity of typical solids. (A similar gas-trapping principle is used in animal hair, down feathers, and in air-containing insulating fabrics).

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answers: solids

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answers: air-containing insulating fabrics

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: similar gas-trapping principle is used in animal hair, down feathers

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: down feathers, and in air-containing insulating fabrics

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Conductors are typically rated for the maximum current that they can carry at a given temperature rise over ambient conditions. As current flow increases through a conductor it heats up. For insulated conductors, the rating is determined by the insulation. For overhead conductors, the rating is determined by the point at which the sag of the conductors would become unacceptable.

text: Conductors are typically rated for the maximum current that they can carry at a given temperature rise over ambient conditions. As current flow increases through a conductor it heats up. For insulated conductors, the rating is determined by the insulation. For overhead conductors, the rating is determined by the point at which the sag of the conductors would become unacceptable.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulated conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The electron fluid of a conductive metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct electric current through conductive solids, and the thermal and electrical conductivities of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as copper, also conducts heat well. Thermoelectricity is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to diffusion of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.

text: Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good

text: conductors

text: of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically:

text: metallic bond

text: s (as opposed to

text: covalent

text: or

text: ionic bonds

text: ) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The electron fluid of a

text: conductive

text: metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct

text: electric current

text: through conductive solids, and the

text: thermal

text: and

text: electrical conductivities

text: of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as

text: copper

text: , also conducts heat well.

text: Thermoelectricity

text: is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to

text: diffusion

text: of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.

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answers: Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.)

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: metals

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: metals bond chemically

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Phonon flux

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A box cooker has a transparent glass or plastic top, and it may have additional reflectors to concentrate sunlight into the box. The top can usually be removed to allow dark pots containing food to be placed inside. One or more reflectors of shiny metal or foil-lined material may be positioned to bounce extra light into the interior of the oven chamber. Cooking containers and the inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black. Inside walls should be reflective to reduce radiative heat loss and bounce the light towards the pots and the dark bottom, which is in contact with the pots. The box should have insulated sides. Thermal insulation for the solar box cooker must be able to withstand temperatures up to 150 °C (300 °F) without melting or out-gassing. Crumpled newspaper, wool, rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard, etc. can be used to insulate the walls of the cooker. Metal pots and/or bottom trays can be darkened either with flat-black spray paint (one that is non-toxic when warmed), black tempera paint, or soot from a fire. The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 150 °C (300 °F). This is not as hot as a standard oven, but still hot enough to cook food over a somewhat longer period of time.

text: A box cooker has a transparent glass or plastic top, and it may have additional reflectors to concentrate sunlight into the box. The top can usually be removed to allow dark pots containing food to be placed inside. One or more reflectors of shiny metal or foil-lined material may be positioned to bounce extra light into the interior of the oven chamber. Cooking containers and the inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black. Inside walls should be reflective to reduce radiative heat loss and bounce the light towards the pots and the dark bottom, which is in contact with the pots. The box should have insulated sides.

text: Thermal insulation

text: for the solar box cooker must be able to withstand temperatures up to 150 °C (300 °F) without melting or out-gassing. Crumpled newspaper, wool, rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard, etc. can be used to insulate the walls of the cooker. Metal pots and/or bottom trays can be darkened either with flat-black spray paint (one that is non-toxic when warmed), black

text: tempera

text: paint, or soot from a fire. The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 150 °C (300 °F). This is not as hot as a standard oven, but still hot enough to cook food over a somewhat longer period of time.

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answers: Cooking containers and the inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: shiny metal

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: newspaper, wool, rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A dry suit functions by keeping the diver dry. The suit is waterproof and sealed so that water cannot penetrate the suit. Special purpose undergarments are usually worn under a dry suit to keep a layer of air between the diver and the suit for thermal insulation. Some divers carry an extra gas bottle dedicated to filling the dry suit, which may contain argon gas, because it is a better insulator than air. Dry suits should not be inflated with gases containing helium as it is a good thermal conductor.

text: A dry suit functions by keeping the diver dry. The suit is waterproof and sealed so that water cannot penetrate the suit. Special purpose undergarments are usually worn under a dry suit to keep a layer of air between the diver and the suit for thermal insulation. Some divers carry an extra gas bottle dedicated to filling the dry suit, which may contain

text: argon

text: gas, because it is a better insulator than air. Dry suits should not be inflated with gases containing helium as it is a good thermal conductor.

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answers: helium

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answers: helium

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answers: Thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: argon gas

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: with k a constant. For pure metals such as copper, silver, etc. l is large, so the thermal conductivity is high. At higher temperatures the mean free path is limited by the phonons, so the thermal conductivity tends to decrease with temperature. In alloys the density of the impurities is very high, so l  and, consequently k, are small. Therefore, alloys, such as stainless steel, can be used for thermal insulation.

text: with k a constant. For pure metals such as copper, silver, etc. l is large, so the thermal conductivity is high. At higher temperatures the mean free path is limited by the phonons, so the thermal conductivity tends to decrease with temperature. In alloys the density of the impurities is very high, so l  and, consequently k, are small. Therefore, alloys, such as stainless steel, can be used for thermal insulation.

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answers: l is large, so the thermal conductivity is high

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answers: pure metals

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: pure metals

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Argon is used for thermal insulation in energy efficient windows. Argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate a dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.

text: Argon is used for

text: thermal insulation

text: in

text: energy efficient windows

text: . Argon is also used in technical

text: scuba diving

text: to inflate a

text: dry suit

text: because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.

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answers: Argon

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: R is expressed as the thickness of the material normalized to the thermal conductivity, and under uniform conditions it is the ratio of the temperature difference across an insulator and the heat flux (heat transfer per unit area per unit time,

text: R is expressed as the thickness of the material normalized to the

text: thermal conductivity

text: , and under uniform conditions it is the ratio of the temperature difference across an insulator and the

text: heat flux

text: heat transfer

text: per unit area per unit time,

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In heat transfer and thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermal contact with another system if it can exchange energy through the process of heat. Perfect thermal isolation is an idealization as real systems are always in thermal contact with their environment to some extent. The area available for heat flow through interstitial gaps often is 2 to 4 orders of magnitude greater than the contact area; heat flow through gaps can't be neglected especially if the solids are relatively poor conductors or interface medium is a good conductor.

text: In

text: heat transfer

text: and

text: thermodynamics

text: , a

text: thermodynamic system

text: is said to be in thermal contact with another system if it can exchange energy through the process of

text: heat

text: . Perfect thermal isolation is an idealization as real systems are always in thermal contact with their environment to some extent. The area available for heat flow through interstitial gaps often is 2 to 4 orders of magnitude greater than the contact area; heat flow through gaps can't be neglected especially if the solids are relatively poor conductors or interface medium is a good conductor.

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answers: Solids and liquids are relatively poor conductors

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: interface medium

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal contact

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: interface medium

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Properly applied thermal interface materials displace the air that is present in the gaps between the two objects with a material that has a much-higher thermal conductivity. Air has a thermal conductivity of 0.022 W/m•K while TIMs have conductivities of 0.3 W/m•K and higher.

text: Properly applied thermal interface materials displace the air that is present in the gaps between the two objects with a material that has a much-higher thermal conductivity. Air has a thermal conductivity of 0.022 W/m•K while TIMs have conductivities of 0.3 W/m•K and higher.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: TIMs

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: TIMs

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: TIMs

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The cooling-induced metal-insulator transition in SmB is accompanied by a sharp increase in thermal conductivity, peaking at about 15 K. The reason for this increase is that electrons do not contribute to thermal conductivity at low temperatures, which is instead dominated by phonons. The decrease in electron concentration reduced the rate of electron-phonon scattering.

text: The cooling-induced

text: metal-insulator transition

text: in SmB is accompanied by a sharp increase in

text: thermal conductivity

text: , peaking at about 15 K. The reason for this increase is that electrons do not contribute to thermal conductivity at low temperatures, which is instead dominated by

text: phonon

text: s. The decrease in electron concentration reduced the rate of electron-phonon scattering.

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answers: The decrease in electron concentration

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answers: metal

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal insulation is thus optimal with three layers of clothing:

text: Thermal insulation is thus optimal with three layers of clothing:

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answers: three layers

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Down jackets

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: three layers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For insulated cylinders, a critical radius must be reached. Before the critical radius is reached any added insulation increases heat transfer. The convective thermal resistance is inversely proportional to the surface area and therefore the radius of the cylinder, while the thermal resistance of a cylindrical shell (the insulation layer) depends on the ratio between outside and inside radius, not on the radius itself. If the outside radius of a cylinder is increased by applying insulation, a fixed amount of conductive resistance (equal to ln(2)/(2πkL)) is added. However, at the same time, the convective resistance is reduced. This implies that adding insulation below a certain critical radius actually increases the heat transfer. For insulated cylinders, the critical radius is given by the equation

text: For insulated cylinders, a critical radius must be reached. Before the critical radius is reached any added insulation increases heat transfer. The convective thermal resistance is inversely proportional to the surface area and therefore the radius of the cylinder, while the

text: thermal resistance of a cylindrical shell

text: (the insulation layer) depends on the ratio between outside and inside radius, not on the radius itself. If the outside radius of a cylinder is increased by applying insulation, a fixed amount of conductive resistance (equal to ln(2)/(2πkL)) is added. However, at the same time, the convective resistance is reduced. This implies that adding insulation below a certain critical radius actually increases the heat transfer. For insulated cylinders, the critical radius is given by the equation

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answers: ln(2)/(2 kL)

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answers: None

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answers: convective thermal resistance

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most Mg(OH) that is produced industrially, as well as the small amount that is mined, is converted to fused magnesia (MgO).  Magnesia is valuable because it is both a poor electrical insulator and an excellent thermal conductor.

text: Most Mg(OH) that is produced industrially, as well as the small amount that is mined, is converted to fused magnesia (MgO).  Magnesia is valuable because it is both a poor electrical insulator and an excellent thermal conductor.

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answers: NDQ_018666

answers: Magnesia

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: electrical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Mg(OH)

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Insulation thickness or type also has no audible effect as long as the insulation is of good quality and does not chemically react with the wire itself (poor-quality insulation has occasionally been found to accelerate oxidation of the copper conductor, increasing resistance over time). High-power in-car audio systems using 2-ohm speaker circuits require thicker wire than 4 to 8-ohm home audio applications.

text: Insulation thickness or type also has no audible effect as long as the insulation is of good quality and does not chemically react with the wire itself (poor-quality insulation has occasionally been found to accelerate oxidation of the copper conductor, increasing resistance over time). High-power in-car audio systems using 2-ohm speaker circuits require thicker wire than 4 to 8-ohm home audio applications.

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answers: Insulation thickness

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: copper

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation thickness

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A Thermal Interface Material or Mastic (aka TIM) is used to fill the gaps between thermal transfer surfaces, such as between microprocessors and heat sinks, in order to increase thermal transfer efficiency.It has a higher thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction.

text: A Thermal Interface Material or Mastic (aka TIM) is used to fill the gaps between

text: thermal transfer

text: surfaces, such as between

text: microprocessor

text: s and

text: heat sink

text: s, in order to increase thermal transfer

text: efficiency

text: .It has a higher thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction.

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answers: higher thermal conductivity

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answers: heat sinks

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal transfer

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: heat sinks

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All materials carrying an electric charge generate an electric field. When an energized conductor is near any  material at earth potential, it can cause very high field strengths to be formed, especially where the field lines are forced to curve sharply around the earthed material. The bushing controls the shape and strength of the field and reduces the electrical stresses in the insulating material.

text: All materials carrying an

text: electric charge

text: generate an

text: electric field

text: . When an energized conductor is near any  material at earth potential, it can cause very high field strengths to be formed, especially where the

text: field line

text: s are forced to curve sharply around the earthed material. The bushing controls the shape and strength of the field and reduces the electrical stresses in the insulating material.

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answers: bushing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Insulated PEN conductors (combined protective earth + neutral in TN–C systems) should be marked:

text: Insulated PEN conductors (combined protective earth + neutral in

text: TN–C systems

text: ) should be marked:

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answers: PEN conductors

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: PEN conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulated

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: PEN

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Unlike most electrical insulators, diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding and low phonon scattering. Thermal conductivity of natural diamond was measured to be about 22 W/(cm·K), which is five times more than copper. Monocrystalline synthetic diamond enriched to 99.9% the isotope C has the highest thermal conductivity of any known solid at room temperature: 33.2 W/(cm·K). Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating. At lower temperatures conductivity becomes even better, and reaches 410 W/(cm·K) at 104 K (C-enriched diamond).

text: Unlike most electrical insulators, diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding and low phonon scattering. Thermal conductivity of natural diamond was measured to be about 22 W/(cm·K), which is five times more than

text: copper

text: . Monocrystalline synthetic diamond

text: enriched to 99.9% the isotope C

text: has the highest

text: thermal conductivity

text: of any known solid at room temperature: 33.2 W/(cm·K). Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent

text: silicon

text: and other semiconducting materials from overheating. At lower temperatures conductivity becomes even better, and reaches 410 W/(cm·K) at 104 K (C-enriched diamond).

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answers: copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing temperature. Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which thermal conduction is reduced or thermal radiation is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body.

text: Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing

text: temperature

text: . Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which

text: thermal conduction

text: is reduced or

text: thermal radiation

text: is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body.

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answers: contact between objects of differing temperature

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: objects of differing temperature

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: objects of differing temperature

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The R-value is a measure of an insulation sample's ability to reduce the rate of heat flow under specified test conditions.  The primary mode of heat transfer impeded by insulation is conduction, but insulation also reduces heat loss by all three heat transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.  The primary heat loss across an uninsulated air filled space is natural convection, which occurs because of changes in air density with temperature. Insulation greatly retards natural convection making the primary mode of heat transfer conduction.  Porous insulations accomplish this by trapping air so that significant convective heat loss is eliminated, leaving only conduction and minor radiation transfer.  The primary role of such insulation is to make the thermal conductivity of the insulation that of trapped, stagnant air.  However this cannot be realized fully because the glass wool or foam needed to prevent convection increases the heat conduction compared to that of still air. The minor radiative heat transfer is obtained by having many surfaces interrupting a "clear view" between the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation such as visible light is interrupted from passing through porous materials.  Such multiple surfaces are abundant in batting and porous foam.  Radiation is also minimized by low emissivity (highly reflective) exterior surfaces such as aluminum foil.  Lower thermal conductivity, or higher R-values, can be achieved by replacing air with argon when practical such as within special closed-pore foam insulation because argon has a lower thermal conductivity than air.

text: The R-value is a measure of an insulation sample's ability to reduce the rate of heat flow under specified test conditions.  The primary mode of heat transfer impeded by insulation is conduction, but insulation also reduces heat loss by all three heat transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.  The primary heat loss across an uninsulated air filled space is

text: natural convection

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answers: Insulation greatly retards natural convection

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: aluminum foil

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation greatly retards natural convection

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: aluminum foil

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A heat pipe typically consists of a sealed pipe or tube at both the hot and cold ends. Heat pipes utilize evaporative cooling to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the evaporation and condensation of a working fluid or coolant. They are fundamentally better at heat conduction over larger distances than heat sinks because their effective thermal conductivity is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the equivalent solid conductor.

text: A heat pipe typically consists of a sealed pipe or tube at both the hot and cold ends. Heat pipes utilize

text: evaporative cooling

text: to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the evaporation and condensation of a working fluid or coolant. They are fundamentally better at heat conduction over larger distances than heat sinks because their effective thermal conductivity is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the equivalent solid conductor.

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answers: effective thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: heat pipes

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: heat sinks

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: heat sinks

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Since the core material of a VIP is similar in thermal characteristics to materials used in conventional insulation, VIPs therefore achieve a much lower thermal conductivity (k-value) than conventional insulation, or in other words a higher thermal resistance per unit of thickness. Typically, commercially available VIPs achieve a thermal conductivity of 0.004 W/(m·K) across the centre of the panel, or an overall value of 0.006-0.008 W/(m·K) after allowing for thermal bridging (heat conduction across the panel edges) and the inevitable gradual loss of vacuum over time.

text: Since the core material of a VIP is similar in thermal characteristics to materials used in conventional insulation, VIPs therefore achieve a much lower

text: thermal conductivity

text: (k-value) than conventional

text: insulation

text: , or in other words a higher

text: thermal resistance

text: per unit of thickness. Typically, commercially available VIPs achieve a thermal conductivity of 0.004 W/(m·K) across the centre of the panel, or an overall value of 0.006-0.008 W/(m·K) after allowing for thermal bridging (heat conduction across the panel edges) and the inevitable gradual loss of vacuum over time.

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answers: NDQ_018666

answers: heat conduction across the panel edges

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: VIPs

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The insulating material usually used is polyurethane foam or similar, with a coefficient of thermal conductivity k=0.033-0.024 W/mK (thermal conductivity). Outer casing is usually high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Production of preinsulated pipes for district heating in the European Union is regulated by the standard EN253. According to EN253:2003, pipes must be produced to work at constant temperature of  for 30 years, keeping thermal conductivity less than or equal to 0.033 W/mK. There are three insulation thickness levels.

text: The

text: insulating material

text: usually used is

text: polyurethane

text: foam or similar, with a coefficient of thermal conductivity k=0.033-0.024 W/mK (

text: thermal conductivity

text: ). Outer casing is usually

text: high-density polyethylene

text: (HDPE). Production of preinsulated pipes for district heating in the European Union is regulated by the standard EN253. According to EN253:2003, pipes must be produced to work at constant temperature of  for 30 years, keeping thermal conductivity less than or equal to 0.033 W/mK. There are three insulation thickness levels.

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answers: polyurethane foam or similar

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answers: thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: polyurethane foam or similar

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: However, this is a theoretical approach as the level of insulation of a building affects the demand for heating. For example, temperatures often drop below the base temperature during night (daily low temperature in diurnal variation), but because of insulation, heating is unnecessary. In the end of spring and in the beginning of fall or in the winter depending on the climate, sufficient insulation keeps the indoor temperature higher than the outdoor temperature with little or no heating. For example in southern California, during winter heating is not necessary in Los Angeles and San Diego if the insulation is sufficient to take into account the colder night temperatures. Also, buildings include thermal mass such as concrete, that is able to store energy of the sun absorbed in daytime. Thus, even if the heating degree days indicate a demand for heating sufficient insulation of a building can make heating unnecessary.

text: However, this is a theoretical approach as the level of

text: insulation

text: of a building affects the demand for heating. For example, temperatures often drop below the base temperature during night (daily low temperature in diurnal variation), but because of insulation, heating is unnecessary. In the end of spring and in the beginning of fall or in the winter depending on the climate, sufficient insulation keeps the indoor temperature higher than the outdoor temperature with little or no heating. For example in southern California, during winter heating is not necessary in Los Angeles and

text: San Diego

text: if the insulation is sufficient to take into account the colder night temperatures. Also, buildings include

text: thermal mass

text: such as concrete, that is able to store energy of the sun absorbed in daytime. Thus, even if the heating degree days indicate a demand for heating sufficient insulation of a building can make heating unnecessary.

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answers: concrete

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: thermal mass such as concrete

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Some forms of insulation transfer heat more readily when wet, and can therefore also form a thermal bridge in this state.

text: Some forms of insulation transfer heat more readily when wet, and can therefore also form a thermal bridge in this state.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: wet

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: wet

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Clothing insulation is the thermal insulation provided by clothing.

text: Clothing insulation is the

text: thermal insulation

text: provided by

text: clothing

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answers: clothing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are also specific templates to provide user with the most common symbols in use in different branches of designing.For example the architect templates can be used to draw different sized doors with their "opening arcs",building and equipment symbols and furniture. The templates also provide the symbols for thermal insulation.

text: There are also specific templates to provide user with the most common symbols in use in different branches of designing.For example the architect templates can be used to draw different sized doors with their "opening arcs",building and equipment symbols and furniture. The templates also provide the symbols for thermal insulation.

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answer: No

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: Nafion is a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer discovered in the late 1960s by Walther Grot of DuPont. It is the first of a class of synthetic polymers with ionic properties which are called ionomers. Nafion's unique ionic properties are a result of incorporating perfluorovinyl ether groups terminated with sulfonate groups onto a tetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) backbone.  Nafion has received a considerable amount of attention as a proton conductor for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells because of its excellent thermal and mechanical stability.

text: Nafion is a sulfonated

text: tetrafluoroethylene

text: based

text: fluoropolymer

text: copolymer

text: discovered in the late 1960s by Walther Grot of

text: DuPont

text: . It is the first of a class of synthetic polymers with ionic properties which are called

text: ionomer

text: s. Nafion's unique ionic properties are a result of incorporating perfluorovinyl ether groups terminated with sulfonate groups onto a tetrafluoroethylene (

text: Teflon

text: ) backbone.  Nafion has received a considerable amount of attention as a

text: proton conductor

text: for

text: proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells

text: because of its excellent thermal and mechanical stability.

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answers: Nafion

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance,  the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an electric arc through the substance.  Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level.  In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. The air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current; this is called "corona discharge".  However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.In case of some insulators, the conduction may take place at a very high temperature as then the energy acquired by the valence electrons is sufficient to take them into conduction band.

text: When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of

text: electrical breakdown

text: . When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance,  the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an

text: electric arc

text: through the substance.  Electrical breakdown occurs when the

text: electric field

text: in the material is strong enough to accelerate free

text: charge carrier

text: s (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them,

text: ion

text: izing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a

text: chain reaction

text: . Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its

text: resistance

text: drops to a low level.  In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the

text: band gap

text: energy. The air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current; this is called "

text: corona discharge

text: ".  However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an

text: electric arc

text: . Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or

text: vacuum arc

text: involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.In case of some insulators, the conduction may take place at a very high temperature as then the energy acquired by the valence electrons is sufficient to take them into conduction band.

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answers: This is not a complete and concise answer

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: vacuum

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal grease (also called CPU grease, heat paste, heat sink compound, heat sink paste, thermal compound, thermal gel, thermal interface material, or thermal paste) is a kind of thermally conductive (but usually electrically insulating) compound, which is commonly used as an interface between heat sinks and heat sources (e.g., high-power semiconductor devices). The main role of thermal grease is to eliminate air gaps or spaces (which act as thermal insulator) from the interface area so as to maximize heat transfer. Thermal grease is an example of a Thermal interface material.

text: Thermal grease (also called CPU grease, heat paste, heat sink compound, heat sink paste, thermal compound, thermal gel, thermal interface material, or thermal paste) is a kind of thermally conductive (but usually electrically insulating)

text: compound

text: , which is commonly used as an interface between

text: heat sink

text: s and heat sources (e.g., high-power semiconductor devices). The main role of thermal grease is to eliminate air gaps or spaces (which act as thermal insulator) from the interface area so as to maximize heat transfer. Thermal grease is an example of a

text: Thermal interface material

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answers: The main role of thermal grease is to eliminate air gaps or spaces

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answers: thermal grease

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answers: thermal insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: air gaps or spaces

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In a charge trapping flash electrons are stored in a trapping layer just as they are stored in the floating gate in a standard flash memory, EEPROM, or EPROM.  The key difference is that the charge trapping layer is an insulator, while the floating gate is a conductor.

text: In a charge trapping flash electrons are stored in a trapping layer just as they are stored in the floating gate in a standard flash memory, EEPROM, or

text: EPROM

text: .  The key difference is that the charge trapping layer is an insulator, while the floating gate is a conductor.

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answers: NDQ_018668

answers: charge trapping layer

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The fire-tube boiler is characterised by internal tubes connected to the firebox that guide the smoke and hot combustion gases through the pressurised wet area of the boiler. These tubes greatly increase the contact area between the hot and the wet areas of the boiler and this increases the efficiency of the thermal conduction and thermal radiation processes of heat transfer between the two. The combustion gases emerge from the ends of the fire-tubes at the front of the boiler and are discharged via the smokebox to the chimney (stack or smokestack in the US).Surrounding the boiler are layers of insulation or lagging to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.

text: The fire-tube boiler is characterised by internal tubes connected to the firebox that guide the smoke and hot

text: combustion

text: gases through the pressurised wet area of the boiler. These tubes greatly increase the contact area between the hot and the wet areas of the boiler and this increases the efficiency of the

text: thermal conduction

text: and

text: thermal radiation

text: processes of heat transfer between the two. The combustion gases emerge from the ends of the fire-tubes at the front of the boiler and are discharged via the smokebox to the chimney (stack or smokestack in the US).Surrounding the boiler are layers of insulation or

text: lagging

text: to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.

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answers: The fire-tube boiler

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulation or lagging

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: insulation or lagging

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: layers of insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In cables different conditions govern, and installation regulations normally specify that the most severe condition along the run will govern each cable conductor's rating. Cables run in wet or oily locations may carry a lower temperature rating than in a dry installation. Derating is necessary for multiple cables in close proximity. When multiple cables are in close proximity, each contributes heat to the others and diminishes the amount of external cooling affecting the individual cable conductors. The overall ampacity of insulated cable conductors  in a bundle of more than three cables must also be derated, whether in a raceway or cable. Usually the derating factor is tabulated in a nation's wiring regulations.

text: In

text: cables

text: different conditions govern, and installation

text: regulations

text: normally specify that the most severe condition along the run will govern each cable conductor's rating. Cables run in wet or

text: oil

text: y locations may carry a lower temperature rating than in a dry installation. Derating is necessary for multiple cables in close proximity. When multiple cables are in close proximity, each contributes heat to the others and diminishes the amount of external cooling affecting the individual cable conductors. The overall ampacity of insulated cable conductors  in a bundle of more than three cables must also be derated, whether in a

text: raceway

text: or cable. Usually the derating factor is tabulated in a nation's wiring regulations.

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answers: when multiple cables are in close proximity

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: cable conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Derating

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A thermal performance analysis in 1998 using “HOT 2000” computer software showed the relationship of domestic wall types and their insulating values. The simulation revealed an R value of 20.5 for the sample cordwood wall. Compare this to the basic 2 x 4 wooden stud wall, and 2 x 6 foam insulated and sheathed wall with R values of 15.8 and 25.7, respectively. Cordwood walls are not the best natural insulators but can be built to thermal efficient standards. The R value of a cordwood wall is directly related to its ratio of wood to mortar and insulation medium. However, R value in cordwood construction is not as significant as it is in stick-frame building due to the high thermal mass which increases a significantly higher "effective R-value.” Builders tailor their design and ratios to the existing climate.

text: A thermal performance analysis in 1998 using “HOT 2000” computer software showed the relationship of domestic wall types and their insulating values. The simulation revealed an R value of 20.5 for the sample cordwood wall. Compare this to the basic 2 x 4 wooden stud wall, and 2 x 6 foam insulated and sheathed wall with R values of 15.8 and 25.7, respectively. Cordwood walls are not the best natural insulators but can be built to thermal efficient standards. The R value of a cordwood wall is directly related to its ratio of wood to mortar and insulation medium. However, R value in cordwood construction is not as significant as it is in stick-frame building due to the high thermal mass which increases a significantly higher "effective R-value.” Builders tailor their design and ratios to the existing climate.

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answers: stick-frame building

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Cordwood walls

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: stick-frame building

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Pipe Insulation is thermal or acoustic insulation used on pipework.

text: Pipe Insulation is

text: thermal

text: or

text: acoustic

text: insulation used on pipework.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In the case of a conductor-insulator mixture we have

text: In the case of a conductor-insulator mixture we have

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Styrofoam is a trademark of The Dow Chemical Company for closed-cell extruded polystyrene foam currently made for thermal insulation and craft applications. The term is often incorrectly used as a generic term for expanded (not extruded) polystyrene foam, such as disposable coffee cups, coolers, or cushioning material in packaging, which are typically white and are made of expanded polystyrene beads.

text: Styrofoam

text: is a trademark of

text: The Dow Chemical Company

text: for closed-cell

text: extruded polystyrene foam

text: currently made for

text: thermal insulation

text: and craft applications. The term is often incorrectly used as a

text: generic term

text: for expanded (not extruded) polystyrene foam, such as disposable coffee cups, coolers, or cushioning material in packaging, which are typically white and are made of expanded

text: polystyrene

text: beads.

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answers: Styrofoam

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The designers, Aprovecho, now state: "The Lorena has been tested over the years by many researchers and has generally been found to use more firewood than an indoor open fire. The stove has other attributes. Its chimney takes smoke out of the kitchen and it is well liked. It is pretty and a nice addition to the house. It is low cost and can be repaired and even built by the home owner. But, it is not a fuel saving or low emission stove". In later designs, the rammed earth has been replaced with thermal insulation, such as pumice or ash.

text: The designers, Aprovecho, now state: "The Lorena has been tested over the years by many researchers and has generally been found to use more firewood than an indoor open fire. The stove has other attributes. Its chimney takes smoke out of the kitchen and it is well liked. It is pretty and a nice addition to the house. It is low cost and can be repaired and even built by the home owner. But, it is not a fuel saving or low emission stove". In later designs, the rammed earth has been replaced with thermal insulation, such as

text: pumice

text: or ash.

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answers: ash

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: pumice or ash

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Another form of modification used is to insulate a standard or aftermarket manifold. This decreases the amount of heat given off into the engine bay, therefore reducing the intake manifold temperature. There are a few types of thermal insulation but three are particularly common:

text: Another form of modification used is to insulate a standard or aftermarket manifold. This decreases the amount of heat given off into the engine bay, therefore reducing the intake manifold temperature. There are a few types of thermal insulation but three are particularly common:

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answers: NDQ_018668

answers: thermal insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The thermal resistance of each insulation layer is calculated using the following equation:

text: The thermal resistance of each insulation layer is calculated using the following equation:

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answers: Thermodynamics

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answers: insulation

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answers: Thermodynamics

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: insulation layers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: HR-01 is designed by Thermalright for the need of mute cooler in demand. With the wind deflector attached, it’s not necessary to install a fan on itself because the back-case fan is enough to play the role of the thermal conductor. The unique aperture on the fin-tube heat sink can increase the windage area of the thermal conductor.

text: HR-01 is designed by Thermalright for the need of mute cooler in demand. With the wind deflector attached, it’s not necessary to install a fan on itself because the back-case fan is enough to play the role of the thermal conductor. The unique aperture on the fin-tube heat sink can increase the windage area of the thermal conductor.

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answers: back-case fan

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answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: back-case fan

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.

text: When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like

text: anti-flash white

text: paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.

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answers: The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: white paint

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: anti-flash white paint

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In order to accomplish gas cell formation in man-made thermal insulation, glass and polymer materials can be used to trap air in a foam-like structure. This principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as (glass wool), cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam (styrofoam), urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, and cork. Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such as wool, down feathers and fleece.

text: In order to accomplish gas cell formation in man-made thermal insulation, glass and polymer materials can be used to trap air in a foam-like structure. This principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as (

text: glass wool

text: cellulose

text: rock wool

text: polystyrene

text: foam (styrofoam),

text: urethane foam

text: vermiculite

text: perlite

text: , and

text: cork

text: . Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such as wool, down feathers and fleece.

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answers: down feathers and fleece

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Trapping air

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: wool, down feathers and fleece

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Electrons can move (slowly) through an insulator by the following method. The electrons are generally trapped in localized states (loosely speaking, they are "stuck" to a single atom, and not free to move around the crystal). Occasionally, random thermal fluctuations will give that electron enough energy to get out of its localized state, and move to the conduction band. Once there, the electron can move through the crystal, for a brief amount of time, before relaxing into another localized state (in other words, "sticking" to a different atom). The Poole–Frenkel effect describes how, in a large electric field, the electron doesn't need as much thermal energy to get into the conduction band (because part of this energy comes from being pulled by the electric field), so it does not need as large a thermal fluctuation and will be able to move more frequently.

text: Electrons can move (slowly) through an insulator by the following method. The electrons are generally trapped in localized states (loosely speaking, they are "stuck" to a single atom, and not free to move around the crystal). Occasionally, random thermal fluctuations will give that electron enough energy to get out of its localized state, and move to the

text: conduction band

text: . Once there, the electron can move through the crystal, for a brief amount of time, before relaxing into another localized state (in other words, "sticking" to a different atom). The Poole–Frenkel effect describes how, in a large

text: electric field

text: , the electron doesn't need as much thermal energy to get into the conduction band (because part of this energy comes from being pulled by the electric field), so it does not need as large a thermal fluctuation and will be able to move more frequently.

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answers: The Poole–Frenkel effect

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: insulators

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The Poole–Frenkel effect

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: crystal

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: From 1994 to 1999, he was Director of Athletics at Cornell University.  Prior to that, Charles was president and CEO of several multinational manufacturing companies, including Ransburg Corporation, Clevepak Corporation, Allied Thermal (a subsidiary of Interpace Corporation), Lapp Insulator (a division of Interpace Corporation), and Lenape Forge (a division of Gulf+Western). He also served as managing director of Peers & Co. (investment banking), CEO of Peers Management Resources, Inc. (management consulting), and vice chairman of Advisory Capital Partners, Inc. (investment advising).

text: From 1994 to 1999, he was Director of Athletics at Cornell University.  Prior to that, Charles was president and CEO of several multinational manufacturing companies, including Ransburg Corporation, Clevepak Corporation, Allied Thermal (a subsidiary of Interpace Corporation), Lapp Insulator (a division of Interpace Corporation), and Lenape Forge (a division of

text: Gulf+Western

text: ). He also served as managing director of Peers & Co. (investment banking), CEO of Peers Management Resources, Inc. (management consulting), and vice chairman of Advisory Capital Partners, Inc. (investment advising).

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answers: Lapp Insulator

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Cables are most commonly a single outer sheath containing separately-insulated  and neutral wires, and a non-insulated protective earth to which sleeving is added when exposed. Standard sizes have a conductor cross sectional area of 1, 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6 and 10 mm. Sizes of 1 or 1.5 mm are typically used for 6 or 10 ampere lighting circuits and 2.5 mm for socket circuits.

text: Cables are most commonly a single outer sheath containing separately-insulated  and neutral wires, and a non-insulated protective earth to which sleeving is added when exposed. Standard sizes have a conductor cross sectional area of 1, 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6 and 10 mm. Sizes of 1 or 1.5 mm are typically used for 6 or 10 ampere lighting circuits and 2.5 mm for socket circuits.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: · It requires thermal insulation.

text: · It requires thermal insulation.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: thermal insulation

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A thermal cooker is a cooking device that uses thermal insulation to retain heat and cook food without the continuous use of fuel or other heat source. It is a modern implementation of a haybox, which uses hay or straw to insulate a cooking pot.

text: A thermal cooker is a

text: cooking

text: device that uses

text: thermal insulation

text: to retain heat and cook food without the continuous use of

text: fuel

text: or other heat source. It is a modern implementation of a

text: haybox

text: , which uses hay or straw to insulate a cooking pot.

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answers: hay or straw

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answers: hay

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answers: thermal insulation

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answers: hay

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In general there are two types of heat carriers in materials: phonons and electrons.  The free electron gas found in metals is a very good conductor of heat and dominates thermal conductivity.  All materials though exhibit heat transfer by phonon transport so heat flows even in dielectric materials such as silica. Interfacial thermal conductance is a measure of how efficiently heat carriers flow from one material to another.  The lowest room temperature thermal conductance measurement to date is the Bi/Hydrogen-terminated diamond with a thermal conductance of 8.5 MW m K.  As a metal, bismuth contains many electrons which serve as the primary heat carriers.  Diamond on the other hand is a very good electrical insulator (although it has a very high thermal conductivity) and so electron transport between the materials is nil.   Further, these materials have very different lattice parameters so phonons do not efficiently couple across the interface.  Finally, the Debye temperature between the materials is significantly different.  As a result, bismuth, which has a low Debye temperature, has many phonons at low frequencies.  Diamond on the other hand has a very high Debye temperature and most of its heat-carrying phonons are at frequencies much higher than are present in bismuth.

text: In general there are two types of heat carriers in materials: phonons and electrons.  The free electron gas found in metals is a very good conductor of heat and dominates thermal conductivity.  All materials though exhibit heat transfer by phonon transport so heat flows even in dielectric materials such as silica. Interfacial thermal conductance is a measure of how efficiently heat carriers flow from one material to another.  The lowest room temperature thermal conductance measurement to date is the Bi/Hydrogen-terminated

text: diamond

text: with a thermal conductance of 8.5 MW m K.  As a metal,

text: bismuth

text: contains many electrons which serve as the primary heat carriers.  Diamond on the other hand is a very good electrical insulator (although it has a very high thermal conductivity) and so electron transport between the materials is nil.   Further, these materials have very different lattice parameters so phonons do not efficiently couple across the interface.  Finally, the

text: Debye temperature

text: between the materials is significantly different.  As a result, bismuth, which has a low Debye temperature, has many phonons at low frequencies.  Diamond on the other hand has a very high Debye temperature and most of its heat-carrying phonons are at frequencies much higher than are present in bismuth.

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answers: metals is a very good conductor of heat and dominates thermal conductivity

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answers: Diamond

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answers: silica

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: have a low thermal transmittance whereas poorly insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance. Losses due to thermal radiation, thermal convection and thermal conduction are taken into account in the U-value. Although it has the same units as heat transfer coefficient, thermal transmittance is different in that the heat transfer coefficient is used to solely describe heat transfer in fluids while thermal transmittance is used to simplify an equation that has several different forms of thermal resistances.

text: have a low thermal transmittance whereas poorly insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance. Losses due to

text: thermal radiation

text: thermal convection

text: and

text: thermal conduction

text: are taken into account in the U-value. Although it has the same units as

text: heat transfer coefficient

text: , thermal transmittance is different in that the heat transfer coefficient is used to solely describe heat transfer in fluids while thermal transmittance is used to simplify an equation that has several different forms of thermal resistances.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Buildings are responsible of the 40% of European energy consumption, consequently, improving the thermal performance of the cladding and associated components is very important. The elemental U-value (thermal transmittance, W/m2K) of a cladding panel, depends on the conductivity and thickness of the insulation which is added, the profile shape and the presence of thermal bridges.  So, metal profile sheets can achieve thermal performance regulations thanks of insulations and profile shape.It is very important to analyze and avoid all possible thermal bridges within the roof and wall cladding assembly, to minimize local heat/cold losses.

text: Buildings are responsible of the 40% of European energy consumption, consequently, improving the thermal performance of the cladding and associated components is very important. The elemental U-value (thermal transmittance, W/m2K) of a cladding panel, depends on the conductivity and thickness of the insulation which is added, the profile shape and the presence of thermal bridges.  So, metal profile sheets can achieve thermal performance regulations thanks of insulations and profile shape.It is very important to analyze and avoid all possible thermal bridges within the roof and wall cladding assembly, to minimize local heat/cold losses.

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answers: metal profile sheets

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable solid fuel rocket derived from the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment.  This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.  Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been  the removal of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage.  The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.  The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner.  By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.

text: The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable

text: solid fuel rocket

text: derived from the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment.  This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.  Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been  the removal of the

text: Space Shuttle External Tank

text: (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage.  The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.  The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner.  By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.

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answers: liner

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any purpose. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation (e.g. for vibrations caused by industrial applications). Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.

text: Building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any purpose. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for

text: thermal

text: purposes, the term also applies to

text: acoustic insulation

text: fire insulation

text: , and

text: impact insulation

text: (e.g. for vibrations caused by industrial applications). Often an

text: insulation material

text: will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems. Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals (second only to silver), power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts. By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors, less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand.

text: Copper

text: plays an important role in renewable energy systems. Since copper is an excellent

text: thermal

text: and

text: electrical conductor

text: among the engineering metals (second only to silver), power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts. By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors, less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand.

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answers: thermal

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answers: silver

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Wood fiber insulation is available as loose fill, flexible batts and rigid panels for all thermal and sound insulation uses.It can be used as internal insulation : between studs, joists or ceiling rafters, under timber floors to reduce sound transmittance, against masonry wallsor externally : using a rain screen cladding or roofing, or directly plastered/rendered, over timber rafters or studs or masonry structures as external insulation to reduce thermal bridges.There are two manufacturing processes:

text: Wood fiber insulation is available as loose fill, flexible batts and rigid panels for all thermal and sound insulation uses.It can be used as internal insulation : between studs, joists or ceiling rafters, under timber floors to reduce sound transmittance, against masonry wallsor externally : using a rain screen cladding or roofing, or directly plastered/rendered, over timber rafters or studs or masonry structures as external insulation to reduce thermal bridges.There are two manufacturing processes:

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answers: thermal bridges

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Wood fiber insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Wood fiber insulation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The metal package can be attached to a heat sink, making it suitable for devices dissipating several watts of heat. Thermal compound is used to improve heat transfer between the device case and the heat sink.  Since the device case is one of the electrical connections, an insulator may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink. Insulating washers may be made of mica or other materials with good thermal conductivity.

text: The metal package can be attached to a heat sink, making it suitable for devices dissipating several watts of heat.

text: Thermal compound

text: is used to improve heat transfer between the device case and the heat sink.  Since the device case is one of the electrical connections, an

text: insulator

text: may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink. Insulating washers may be made of

text: mica

text: or other materials with good

text: thermal conductivity

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answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulating washers may be made of mica

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: mica

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When the laser changes the thermal gradient of a floating conductor, its electrical potential changes. This change in potential will change the bias of any transistors connected to the floating conductor, which affects the heat dissipation of the device. These changes are mapped to a visual image of the device in order to physically locate the floating conductors.

text: When the laser changes the thermal gradient of a floating conductor, its electrical potential changes. This change in potential will change the bias of any transistors connected to the floating conductor, which affects the

text: heat dissipation

text: of the device. These changes are mapped to a visual image of the device in order to physically locate the floating conductors.

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answers: solids and liquids

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: floating conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The laser changes the thermal gradient

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: floating conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial acronym for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is FeSiO(OH). Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.

text: Amosite

text: , CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a

text: trade name

text: for the amphiboles belonging to the

text: cummingtonite

text: grunerite

text: solid solution

text: series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial

text: acronym

text: for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is

text: Fe

text: SiO(OH). Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products,

text: asbestos insulating board

text: and ceiling tiles.

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answers: solid solution series

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: Amosite

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Amosite

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Amosite

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The basic principles of thermal insulation are explained; ideas for expedient cold- and wet-weather clothing are provided.

text: The basic principles of

text: thermal insulation

text: are explained; ideas for expedient cold- and wet-weather clothing are provided.

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text: For frying, a pan with a base that is a good heat conductor is needed to spread the heat quickly and evenly. The sole of the pan will be either a steel plate pressed into the aluminum, or a layer of stainless steel over the aluminum. The high thermal conductivity of aluminum pans makes the temperature more uniform across the pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminum base will not have the same temperature at their sides as an aluminum sided pan will have. Cast iron frying pans work well with induction cooking surfaces but the material is not as good a thermal conductor as aluminum.

text: For frying, a pan with a base that is a good heat conductor is needed to spread the heat quickly and evenly. The sole of the pan will be either a steel plate pressed into the aluminum, or a layer of stainless steel over the aluminum. The high thermal conductivity of aluminum pans makes the temperature more uniform across the pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminum base will not have the same temperature at their sides as an aluminum sided pan will have. Cast iron frying pans work well with induction cooking surfaces but the material is not as good a thermal conductor as aluminum.

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text: The ET thermal protection system consists primarily of spray-on foam insulation (SOFI), plus preformed foam pieces and premolded ablator materials. The system also includes the use of phenolic thermal insulators to preclude air liquefaction. Thermal isolators are required for liquid hydrogen tank attachments to preclude the liquefaction of air on exposed metal, and to reduce heat flow into the liquid hydrogen. While the warmer liquid oxygen results in fewer thermal requirements, the aluminum of the liquid oxygen tank forward areas require protection from aeroheating.  Meanwhile, insulation on the aft surfaces prevents liquified air from pooling in the intertank.  The middle cylinder of the oxygen tank, and the propellant lines, could withstand the expected depths of frost accumulation condensed from humidity, but the orbiter could not take the damage from ice breaking free.  The thermal protection system weighs .

text: The ET thermal protection system consists primarily of spray-on

text: foam

text: insulation

text: (SOFI), plus preformed foam pieces and premolded

text: ablator

text: materials. The system also includes the use of

text: phenolic

text: thermal

text: insulators to preclude air liquefaction. Thermal isolators are required for liquid hydrogen tank attachments to preclude the liquefaction of air on exposed metal, and to reduce heat flow into the liquid hydrogen. While the warmer liquid oxygen results in fewer thermal requirements, the aluminum of the liquid oxygen tank forward areas require protection from

text: aeroheating

text: .  Meanwhile, insulation on the aft surfaces prevents liquified air from pooling in the intertank.  The middle cylinder of the oxygen tank, and the propellant lines, could withstand the expected depths of frost accumulation condensed from humidity, but the orbiter could not take the damage from ice breaking free.  The thermal protection system weighs .

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: A healthy body requires a minimum amount of fat for proper functioning of the hormonal, reproductive, and immune systems, as thermal insulation, as shock absorption for sensitive areas, and as energy for future use. But the accumulation of too much storage fat can impair movement, flexibility, and alter appearance of the body.

text: A healthy body requires a minimum amount of

text: fat

text: for proper functioning of the

text: hormonal

text: reproductive

text: , and

text: immune

text: systems, as

text: thermal insulation

text: , as

text: shock absorption

text: for sensitive areas, and as

text: energy

text: for future use. But the accumulation of too much storage fat can impair movement, flexibility, and alter

text: appearance of the body

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text: In addition, IKEA, a large furniture company, notable for its user-friendly setup and mass production,  has recently begun a cooperation with the UNHCR, to design portable refugee shelters. These models include light-weight polymer panels, laminated with thermal insulation. They take only about four hours to assemble and comes flat-packed with panels, pipes, connectors, and wires. Within, one can find built in lights and a USB outlet.

text: In addition,

text: IKEA

text: , a large furniture company, notable for its user-friendly setup and mass production,  has recently begun a cooperation with the UNHCR, to design portable refugee shelters. These models include light-weight polymer panels, laminated with thermal insulation. They take only about four hours to assemble and comes flat-packed with panels, pipes, connectors, and wires. Within, one can find built in lights and a USB outlet.

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answers: light-weight

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answers: pipes

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answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: light-weight polymer panels

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Boron, silicon, germanium, antimony and tellurium, as well as heavier metals and metalloids such as Sm, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi and Se, can be found in topological insulators. These are alloys or compounds which, at ultracold temperatures or room temperature (depending on their composition), are metallic conductors on their surfaces but insulators through their interiors. Cadmium arsenide CdAs, at about 1 K, is a Dirac-semimetal—a bulk electronic analogue of graphene—in which electrons travel effectively as massless particles. These two classes of material are thought to have potential quantum computing applications.

text: Boron, silicon, germanium, antimony and tellurium, as well as heavier metals and metalloids such as Sm, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi and Se, can be found in

text: topological insulator

text: s. These are alloys or compounds which, at ultracold temperatures or room temperature (depending on their composition), are metallic conductors on their surfaces but insulators through their interiors.

text: Cadmium arsenide

text: CdAs, at about 1 K, is a Dirac-semimetal—a bulk electronic analogue of graphene—in which electrons travel effectively as massless particles. These two classes of material are thought to have potential

text: quantum computing

text: applications.

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answers: insulators

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answers: Cadmium arsenide CdAs

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that a thermal gradient formed between two dissimilar conductors can produce electricity.<ref>See:

text: In 1821,

text: Thomas Johann Seebeck

text: discovered that a thermal gradient formed between two dissimilar conductors can produce electricity.<ref>See:

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answers: thermal gradient

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answers: dissimilar conductors

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answers: thermal gradient

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answers: conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In semiconductors, the Shockley diode equation—the relationship between the flow of electric current and the electrostatic potential across a p–n junction—depends on a characteristic voltage called the thermal voltage, denoted .  The thermal voltage depends on absolute temperature  as

text: In

text: semiconductors

text: , the

text: Shockley diode equation

text: —the relationship between the flow of

text: electric current

text: and the

text: electrostatic potential

text: across a

text: p–n junction

text: —depends on a characteristic voltage called the thermal voltage, denoted .  The thermal voltage depends on absolute temperature  as

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answers: thermal conduction

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answers: n junction

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answers: Shockley diode

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: n junction

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The use of carbon fibres increases the electrical conductivity, provided the fibres contact each other and the voltage source. Silicon carbide matrix is a good thermal conductor. Electrically, it is a semiconductor, and its resistance therefore decreases with increasing temperature. Compared to (poly)crystalline SiC, the amorphous SiC fibres are relatively poor conductors of heat and electricity.

text: The use of carbon fibres increases the

text: electrical conductivity

text: , provided the fibres contact each other and the voltage source. Silicon carbide matrix is a good thermal conductor. Electrically, it is a

text: semiconductor

text: , and its

text: resistance

text: therefore decreases with increasing temperature. Compared to (poly)crystalline SiC, the amorphous SiC fibres are relatively poor conductors of heat and electricity.

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answers: Silicon carbide matrix

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answers: Silicon carbide matrix

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answers: Silicon carbide matrix

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answers: polycrystalline SiC

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Lyulin is notorious for being a "concrete jungle" (according to Bulgarian standards). There are very few houses, and these are old and somewhat rural (there are still one or two shepherds grazing their cattle in some secluded parts of the West Park, and occasionally one can still see a horse-cart on a street); everywhere else it is packed with condominiums, mostly 8 and 13 floors. Most of these are in somewhat poor condition, but are recently being renovated on the citizen's expense (thermal insulation, air-conditioning, paint, etc.). There are many new condos, however, which offer much more comfort, but still, the old buildings are predominant. New blocks of flats are rarely taller than 6 or 8 storeys, come pre-insulated, and have underground garages (a feature that is recently recognized as necessity, as above-ground parking lots are congesting more and more) and maisonettes. The average apartment is small, some 80 sq meters (~850 sq feet), but the maisonettes are much larger.

text: Lyulin is notorious for being a "

text: concrete jungle

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answers: concrete

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: underground garages

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cable faults are damage to cables which effect a resistance in the cable. If allowed to persist, this can lead to a voltage breakdown. There are different types of cable faults, which must first be classified before they can be located. The insulation of the cable plays a significant role in this. While paper-impregnated cables are particularly susceptible to external chemical and thermal influences, in high-voltage PE or XLPE cables the polyethylene insulation of the conductor is affected, leading to partial breakdowns and cracks that “eat away” the insulation.

text: Cable faults are damage to cables which effect a resistance in the cable. If allowed to persist, this can lead to a

text: voltage breakdown

text: . There are different types of cable faults, which must first be classified before they can be located. The insulation of the cable plays a significant role in this. While paper-impregnated cables are particularly susceptible to external chemical and thermal influences, in high-voltage

text: PE

text: or

text: XLPE

text: cables the polyethylene insulation of the conductor is affected, leading to partial breakdowns and cracks that “eat away” the insulation.

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answers: PE or XLPE cables

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: polyethylene

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In any solid at any temperature, the primary particles (e.g. atoms or molecules) are not stationary, but rather vibrate about mean positions. In insulators the capacity of the solid to store thermal energy is due almost entirely to these vibrations. Many physical properties of the solid (e.g. modulus of elasticity) can be predicted given knowledge of the frequencies with which the particles vibrate. The simplest assumption (by Einstein) is that all the particles oscillate about their mean positions with the same natural frequency ν. This is equivalent to the assumption that all atoms vibrate independently with a frequency ν. Einstein also assumed that the allowed energy states of these oscillations are harmonics, or integral multiples of hν. The spectrum of waveforms can be described mathematically using a Fourier series of sinusoidal density fluctuations (or thermal phonons).

text: phonons

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answers: In insulators

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answers: solids

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Simply put, a Mott Transition is a change in a material's behavior from insulating to metallic due to various factors. This transition is known to exist in various systems: mercury metal vapor-liquid, metal NH solutions, transition metal chalcogenides and transition metal oxides. In the case of transition metal oxides, the material typically switches from being a good electrical insulator to a good electrical conductor. The insulator-metal transition can also be modified by changes in temperature, pressure or composition (doping). As observed by Mott in his 1949 publication on Ni-oxide, the origin of this behavior is correlations between electrons and the close relationship this phenomenon has to magnetism.

text: Simply put, a Mott Transition is a change in a material's behavior from insulating to metallic due to various factors. This transition is known to exist in various systems: mercury metal vapor-liquid, metal NH solutions, transition metal chalcogenides and transition metal oxides. In the case of transition metal oxides, the material typically switches from being a good electrical insulator to a good electrical conductor. The insulator-metal transition can also be modified by changes in temperature, pressure or composition (doping). As observed by Mott in his 1949 publication on Ni-oxide, the origin of this behavior is correlations between electrons and the close relationship this phenomenon has to magnetism.

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answers: transition metal oxides

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Solid materials chosen for insulation have a low thermal conductivity k, measured in watts-per-meter per kelvin (W·m·K). As the thickness of insulation is increased, the thermal resistance also increases.

text: Solid materials chosen for insulation have a low thermal conductivity k, measured in

text: watt

text: s-per-meter per

text: kelvin

text: (W·m·K). As the thickness of insulation is increased, the thermal resistance also increases.

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answers: thermal resistance also increases

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answers: insulation

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal resistance

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Solid materials

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The thickness of thermal insulation is dependent on whatever type is required in order to create a partition with a heat transmission factor of U=0.25-0.3 W/m2K. When calculating the actual insulation requirements, consideration must be given to current Building Regulation standards. Consideration must also be given to exposure and durability, and whether the structure might be subjected to vandalism etc. In many older properties, special attention is required for concrete beams or lintels which act as thermal bridges providing poor insulation.

text: The thickness of thermal insulation is dependent on whatever type is required in order to create a partition with a heat

text: transmission factor

text: of U=0.25-0.3 W/m2K. When calculating the actual insulation requirements, consideration must be given to current Building Regulation standards. Consideration must also be given to exposure and durability, and whether the structure might be subjected to vandalism etc. In many older properties, special attention is required for concrete beams or lintels which act as

text: thermal bridges

text: providing poor insulation.

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answers: thermal bridges

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: concrete beams

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulation

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: concrete beams or lintels

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it, such as the air. Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion design and surface treatment are factors that affect the performance of a heat sink. Heat sink attachment methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or thermal grease improve the heat sink's performance by filling air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the device. A heat sink is usually made out of copper and/or aluminium. Copper is used because it has many desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat exchangers. First and foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly. Aluminum is used in applications where weight is a big concern.

text: A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it, such as the air. Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion design and surface treatment are factors that affect the performance of a heat sink. Heat sink attachment methods and thermal interface materials also affect the

text: die

text: temperature of the integrated circuit.

text: Thermal adhesive

text: or

text: thermal grease

text: improve the heat sink's performance by filling air gaps between the heat sink and the

text: heat spreader

text: on the device. A heat sink is usually made out of copper and/or aluminium. Copper is used because it has many desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat exchangers. First and foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly. Aluminum is used in applications where weight is a big concern.

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answers: Copper is an excellent conductor of heat

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: copper

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Copper is used because it has many desirable properties

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: copper

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ideally, heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as silver, gold, copper, or aluminum alloy. Copper and aluminum are among the most-frequently used materials for this purpose within electronic devices.  Copper (401 W/(m·K) at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum (237 W/(m·K) at 300 K) but is also roughly twice as efficient as a thermal conductor. Aluminum has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by extrusion, thus making complex cross-sections possible. Aluminum is also much lighter than copper, offering less mechanical stress on delicate electronic components. Some heat sinks made from aluminum have a copper core as a trade off. The heat sink's contact surface (the base) must be flat and smooth to ensure the best thermal contact with the object needing cooling. Frequently a thermally conductive grease is used to ensure optimal thermal contact; such compounds often contain colloidal silver. Further, a clamping mechanism, screws, or thermal adhesive hold the heat sink tightly onto the component, but specifically without pressure that would crush the component.

text: Ideally, heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as

text: silver

text: gold

text: copper

text: , or

text: aluminum

text: alloy. Copper and aluminum are among the most-frequently used materials for this purpose within electronic devices.  Copper (401 W/(m·K) at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum (237 W/(m·K) at 300 K) but is also roughly twice as efficient as a

text: thermal conductor

text: . Aluminum has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by

text: extrusion

text: , thus making complex cross-sections possible. Aluminum is also much lighter than copper, offering less mechanical stress on delicate electronic components. Some heat sinks made from aluminum have a copper core as a trade off. The heat sink's contact surface (the base) must be flat and smooth to ensure the best thermal contact with the object needing cooling. Frequently a

text: thermally conductive grease

text: is used to ensure optimal thermal contact; such compounds often contain

text: colloidal silver

text: . Further, a clamping mechanism, screws, or thermal adhesive hold the heat sink tightly onto the component, but specifically without pressure that would crush the component.

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answers: Copper and aluminum alloy

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: silver, gold, copper

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: a thermally conductive grease

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: aluminum alloy

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are used extensively on the surface of superalloy in both commercial and military gas turbine engines to increase component life and engine performance. A coating of about 1-200 µm can reduce the temperature at the superalloy surface by up to 200K. TBCs are really a system of coatings consisting of a bond coat, a thermally grown oxide (TGO), and a thermally insulating ceramic top coat. In most applications, the bond coat is either a MCrAlY (where M=Ni or NiCo) or a Pt modified aluminide coating. A dense bond coat is required to provide protection of the superalloy substrate from oxidation and hot corrosion attack and to form an adherent, slow growing TGO on its surface. The TGO is formed by oxidation of the aluminum that is contained in the bond coat. The current (first generation) thermal insulation layer is composed of 7wt % yttria stabilized zirconia (7YSZ) with a typical thickness of 100–300 µm. Yttria stabilized zirconia is used due to its low thermal conductivity (2.6W/mK for fully dense material), relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion, and good high temperature stability. The electron beam directed vapor deposition (EB-DVD) process used to apply the TBC to turbine airfoils produces a columnar microstructure with several levels of porosity. The porosity between the columns is critical to providing strain tolerance (via a very low in-plane modulus), as it would otherwise spall on thermal cycling due to thermal expansion mismatch with the superalloy substrate. The porosity within the columns reduces the thermal conductivity of the coating.

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answers: Porosity within the columns reduces the thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: yttria stabilized zirconia

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The porosity within the columns reduces the thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: ceramic top coat

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: By far the most common glazing type, glass can be of an almost infinite combination of color, thickness, and opacity.For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are 1/4 inch (6 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm) insulating glass. Presently, 1/4 inch glass is typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of the building (sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a 1/2 inch (12 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases, such as argon or krypton may be used to offer better thermal transmittance values. In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1/8 inch (3 mm) monolithic and 5/8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity, or sound transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios.

text: By far the most common glazing type,

text: glass

text: can be of an almost infinite combination of color, thickness, and

text: opacity

text: .For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are 1/4 inch (6 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm)

text: insulating glass

text: . Presently, 1/4 inch glass is typically used only in

text: spandrel

text: areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of the building (sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a 1/2 inch (12 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some

text: inert gas

text: es, such as argon or krypton may be used to offer better

text: thermal transmittance

text: values. In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1/8 inch (3 mm) monolithic and 5/8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal,

text: relative humidity

text: , or

text: sound transmission

text: requirements, such as laboratory areas or

text: recording studio

text: s.

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answers: The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases

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answers: argon or krypton

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The air inside is usually atmospheric air

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: argon or krypton

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Since a conductor is a flexible object with uniform weight per unit length, the geometric shape of a conductor strung on towers approximates that of a catenary. The sag of the conductor (vertical distance between the highest and lowest point of the curve) varies depending on the temperature and additional load such as ice cover. A minimum overhead clearance must be maintained for safety. Since the temperature of the conductor increases with increasing heat produced by the current through it, it is sometimes possible to increase the power handling capacity (uprate) by changing the conductors for a type with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion or a higher allowable operating temperature.

text: Since a conductor is a flexible object with uniform weight per unit length, the geometric shape of a conductor strung on towers approximates that of a

text: catenary

text: . The sag of the conductor (vertical distance between the highest and lowest point of the curve) varies depending on the temperature and additional load such as ice cover. A minimum overhead clearance must be maintained for safety. Since the temperature of the conductor increases with increasing heat produced by the current through it, it is sometimes possible to increase the power handling capacity (uprate) by changing the conductors for a type with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion or a higher allowable

text: operating temperature

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answers: The sag of the conductor

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answers: a lower coefficient of thermal expansion

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: A minimum overhead clearance must be maintained

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: ice cover

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In such situations, heat can be transferred from the exterior to the interior of a body, across the insulating boundary, by convection, conduction, or diffusion, so long as the boundary serves as a relatively poor conductor with regard to the object's interior. The presence of a physical insulator is not required, so long as the process which serves to pass heat across the boundary is "slow" in comparison to the conductive transfer of heat inside the body (or inside the region of interest—the "lump" described above).

text: In such situations, heat can be transferred from the exterior to the interior of a body, across the insulating boundary, by convection, conduction, or diffusion, so long as the boundary serves as a relatively poor conductor with regard to the object's interior. The presence of a physical insulator is not required, so long as the process which serves to pass heat across the boundary is "slow" in comparison to the conductive transfer of heat inside the body (or inside the region of interest—the "lump" described above).

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answers: conduction

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answers: a physical insulator

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answers: The presence of a physical insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: boundary serves as a relatively poor conductor

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dry suits are often worn for boating, especially sailing, and on personal water craft in the winter months. The primary uses are for protection from spray, and in case of accidental short-term immersion in cold water if the user falls overboard. These dry suits, which are only intended for temporary immersion, are less rugged than diving dry suits. They are usually made of a breathable membrane material to let sweat permeate, keeping the wearer dry and comfortable all day. Membrane type surface dry suits only keep the user dry, and have little thermal insulating properties. Most users will wear a thin thermal undersuit, or street clothes, for warmth; but wearing ordinary fabrics can be dangerous if the suit leaks in cold water because they will lose most of their insulating properties.

text: Dry suits are often worn for

text: boating

text: , especially

text: sailing

text: , and on

text: personal water craft

text: in the winter months. The primary uses are for protection from spray, and in case of accidental short-term immersion in cold water if the user falls overboard. These dry suits, which are only intended for temporary immersion, are less rugged than diving dry suits. They are usually made of a breathable

text: membrane

text: material to let sweat permeate, keeping the wearer dry and comfortable all day. Membrane type surface dry suits only keep the user dry, and have little thermal insulating properties. Most users will wear a thin thermal

text: undersuit

text: , or street clothes, for warmth; but wearing ordinary fabrics can be dangerous if the suit leaks in cold water because they will lose most of their insulating properties.

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answers: Membrane type surface

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: ordinary fabrics

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: thermal insulating properties

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: ordinary fabrics

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A scheme patented in 2004 is intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as a parallel monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse polarity). The parallel monopole periodically relieves current from one pole or the other, switching polarity over a span of several minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded to either 1.37 or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with the parallel monopole always carrying ±1 times its thermal limit current. The combined RMS heating effect is as if each of the conductors is always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows heavier currents to be carried by the bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy transmission. High currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load demand is low, for removal of ice.

text: A scheme patented in 2004 is intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as a parallel monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse polarity). The parallel monopole periodically relieves current from one pole or the other, switching polarity over a span of several minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded to either 1.37 or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with the parallel monopole always carrying ±1 times its thermal limit current. The combined

text: RMS

text: heating effect is as if each of the conductors is always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows heavier currents to be carried by the bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy transmission. High currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load demand is low, for removal of ice.

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answers: solids and liquids

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answers: bipole conductors

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: The parallel monopole

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: bipole conductors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In the United Kingdom, an early form of insulated cable, introduced in 1896, consisted of two impregnated-paper-insulated conductors in an overall lead sheath.  Joints were soldered, and special fittings were used for lamp holders and switches. These cables were similar to underground telegraph and telephone cables of the time. Paper-insulated cables proved unsuitable for interior wiring installations because very careful workmanship was required on the lead sheaths to ensure moisture did not affect the insulation.

text: In the United Kingdom, an early form of insulated cable, introduced in 1896, consisted of two impregnated-paper-insulated conductors in an overall lead sheath.  Joints were soldered, and special fittings were used for lamp holders and switches. These cables were similar to underground telegraph and telephone cables of the time. Paper-insulated cables proved unsuitable for interior wiring installations because very careful workmanship was required on the lead sheaths to ensure moisture did not affect the insulation.

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answer: No

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answer: No

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text: The HL-42 would have survived the circumstances that destroyed the Shuttles Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003. In 1986 the LES would have pulled it clear of the booster explosion; and on top of its launcher it would have been safely out of the way of the falling debris that fatally damaged the thermal insulation on Columbia.

text: The HL-42 would have survived the circumstances that destroyed the Shuttles

text: Challenger

text: in 1986 and

text: Columbia

text: in 2003. In 1986 the LES would have pulled it clear of the booster explosion; and on top of its launcher it would have been safely out of the way of the falling debris that fatally damaged the thermal insulation on Columbia.

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answers: HL-42

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The advent of the SEI layer improved performance, but increased vulnerability to thermal degradation. The layer is composed of electrolyte – carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode and determines many performance parameters. Under typical conditions, such as room temperature and the absence of charge effects and contaminants, after the first charge the layer reaches a fixed thickness, allowing the device can operate for years. However, operation outside such parameters can degrade the device via several reactions.

text: The advent of the SEI layer improved performance, but increased vulnerability to thermal degradation. The layer is composed of electrolyte – carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode and determines many performance parameters. Under typical conditions, such as room temperature and the absence of charge effects and contaminants, after the first charge the layer reaches a fixed thickness, allowing the device can operate for years. However, operation outside such parameters can degrade the device via several reactions.

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answers: the advent of the SEI layer

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answers: insulator

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: carbonate reduction products

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building which enables it to store heat, providing "inertia" against temperature fluctuations. It is sometimes known as the thermal flywheel effect. For example, when outside temperatures are fluctuating throughout the day, a large thermal mass within the insulated portion of a house can serve to "flatten out" the daily temperature fluctuations, since the thermal mass will absorb thermal energy when the surroundings are higher in temperature than the mass, and give thermal energy back when the surroundings are cooler, without reaching thermal equilibrium. This is distinct from a material's insulative value, which reduces a building's thermal conductivity, allowing it to be heated or cooled relatively separate from the outside, or even just retain the occupants' thermal energy longer.

text: In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building which enables it to store heat, providing "inertia" against temperature fluctuations. It is sometimes known as the thermal flywheel effect. For example, when outside temperatures are fluctuating throughout the day, a large thermal mass within the insulated portion of a house can serve to "flatten out" the daily temperature fluctuations, since the thermal mass will absorb thermal energy when the surroundings are higher in temperature than the mass, and give thermal energy back when the surroundings are cooler, without reaching

text: thermal equilibrium

text: . This is distinct from a material's

text: insulative

text: value, which reduces a building's

text: thermal conductivity

text: , allowing it to be heated or cooled relatively separate from the outside, or even just retain the occupants' thermal energy longer.

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answers: thermal mass

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answers: a large thermal mass

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by pulling the extrudate through a water bath. Plastics are very good thermal insulators and are therefore difficult to cool quickly. Compared to steel, plastic conducts its heat away 2,000 times more slowly. In a tube or pipe extrusion line, a sealed water bath is acted upon by a carefully controlled vacuum to keep the newly formed and still molten tube or pipe from collapsing. For products such as plastic sheeting, the cooling is achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls. For films and very thin sheeting, air cooling can be effective as an initial cooling stage, as in blown film extrusion.

text: The product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by pulling the extrudate through a water bath. Plastics are very good thermal insulators and are therefore difficult to cool quickly. Compared to

text: steel

text: , plastic conducts its heat away 2,000 times more slowly. In a tube or pipe extrusion line, a sealed water bath is acted upon by a carefully controlled vacuum to keep the newly formed and still molten tube or pipe from collapsing. For products such as plastic sheeting, the cooling is achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls. For films and very thin sheeting, air cooling can be effective as an initial cooling stage, as in blown film extrusion.

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answers: Plastics are very good thermal insulators

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answers: steel

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Plastics are very good thermal insulators

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Plastics

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield wire or overhead earth wire). The ground conductor is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors. In circuits with earthed neutral, it also serves as a parallel path with the earth for fault currents. Very high-voltage transmission lines may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate cross arm. Older lines may use surge arresters every few spans in place of a shield wire; this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation. Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (optical ground wires/OPGW), used for communication and control of the power system.

text: Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield wire or overhead earth wire). The ground conductor is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors. In circuits with

text: earthed neutral

text: , it also serves as a parallel path with the earth for fault currents. Very high-voltage transmission lines may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate cross arm. Older lines may use

text: surge arrester

text: s every few spans in place of a shield wire; this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation. Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (

text: optical ground wire

text: s/OPGW), used for communication and control of the power system.

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answers: ground conductor

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answers: optical fibers

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answers: The ground conductor is usually grounded

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: optical fibers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A shading insulator, or shinsulator, is used to cover a thermal mass (e.g. roof pond) and insulate the thermal mass as needed, either by re-radiating escaping heat back down towards the thermal mass, or by reflecting solar heat off the panel, reducing heat gathering by the thermal mass.

text: A shading insulator, or shinsulator, is used to cover a

text: thermal mass

text: (e.g. roof pond) and

text: insulate

text: the thermal mass as needed, either by re-radiating escaping heat back down towards the thermal mass, or by reflecting solar heat off the panel, reducing heat gathering by the thermal mass.

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answers: roof pond

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Unlike most electrical insulators, pure diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal. The thermal conductivity of pure diamond is the highest of any known solid. Single crystals of synthetic diamond enriched in  (99.9%), isotopically pure diamond, have the highest thermal conductivity of any material, 30 W/cm·K at room temperature, 7.5 times higher than copper.  Natural diamond's conductivity is reduced by 1.1% by the  naturally present, which acts as an inhomogeneity in the lattice.

text: Unlike most electrical insulators, pure diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong

text: covalent bond

text: ing within the crystal. The thermal conductivity of pure diamond is the highest of any known solid. Single crystals of synthetic diamond enriched in  (99.9%),

text: isotopically pure diamond

text: , have the highest

text: thermal conductivity

text: of any material, 30 W/cm·K at room temperature, 7.5 times higher than

text: copper

text: .  Natural diamond's conductivity is reduced by 1.1% by the  naturally present, which acts as an inhomogeneity in the lattice.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aluminium-conductor steel supported (ACSS) conductor visually appears to be similar to standard ACSR but the aluminium strands are fully annealed. Annealing the aluminium strands reduces the composite conductor strength, but after installation, permanent elongation of the aluminium strands results in a much larger percentage of the conductor tension being carried in the steel core than is true for standard ACSR. This in turn yields reduced composite thermal elongation and increased self-damping.

text: Aluminium-conductor steel supported (ACSS) conductor visually appears to be similar to standard ACSR but the aluminium strands are fully annealed. Annealing the aluminium strands reduces the composite conductor strength, but after installation, permanent elongation of the aluminium strands results in a much larger percentage of the conductor tension being carried in the steel core than is true for standard ACSR. This in turn yields reduced composite thermal elongation and increased self-damping.

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answers: aluminium

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Les Unruh is an American football coach in the United States.

text: Les Unruh is an

text: American football

text: coach in the

text: United States

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text: Inadequate supervision led to sexual abuse of younger pupils by older pupils.

text: Inadequate supervision led to sexual abuse of younger pupils by older pupils.

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text: James Edward Guy Lincoln (born 29 October 1981) is an English cricketer.  Lincoln is a right-handed batsman who bowls right-arm medium-fast.  He was born at Ashford, Surrey.

text: James Edward Guy Lincoln (born 29 October 1981) is an English

text: cricket

text: er.  Lincoln is a right-handed

text: batsman

text: who bowls right-arm

text: medium-fast

text: .  He was born at

text: Ashford

text: , Surrey.

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text: Where wiring, or raceways that hold the wiring, must traverse fire-resistance rated walls and floors, the openings are required by local building codes to be firestopped. In cases where safety-critical wiring must be kept operational during an accidental fire, fireproofing must be applied to maintain circuit integrity in a manner to comply with a product's certification listing.  The nature and thickness of any passive fire protection materials used in conjunction with wiring and raceways has a quantifiable impact upon the ampacity derating, because the thermal insulation properties needed for fire resistance also inhibit air cooling of power conductors.

text: Where wiring, or raceways that hold the wiring, must traverse

text: fire-resistance rated

text: walls and floors, the openings are required by local

text: building code

text: s to be

text: firestop

text: ped. In cases where safety-critical wiring must be kept operational during an accidental fire,

text: fireproofing

text: must be applied to maintain

text: circuit integrity

text: in a manner to comply with a product's

text: certification listing

text: .  The nature and thickness of any

text: passive fire protection

text: materials used in conjunction with wiring and raceways has a quantifiable impact upon the ampacity derating, because the thermal insulation properties needed for fire resistance also inhibit air cooling of power conductors.

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answers: The thermal insulation properties needed for fire resistance also inhibit air cooling

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a metal. If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.

text: Electrical insulation is the absence of

text: electrical conduction

text: . Electronic

text: band theory

text: (a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a

text: metal

text: . If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.

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text: At the university level, VGTU has 12 research laboratories. Four are related to the Scientific Institute of Thermal Insulation, and 8 belong to the Civil Engineering Research Center. Scattered throughout the rest of the university are 21 other research laboratories at both the faculty and department levels.

text: At the university level, VGTU has 12

text: research laboratories

text: . Four are related to the Scientific Institute of Thermal Insulation, and 8 belong to the Civil Engineering Research Center. Scattered throughout the rest of the university are 21 other research laboratories at both the faculty and department levels.

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text: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's 1925 experimental Universal typeface.

text: The Bauhaus

text: typeface

text: design is based on

text: Herbert Bayer

text: 's 1925 experimental Universal typeface.

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text: Stonyville Township, Water Race and Cemetery was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

text: Stonyville Township, Water Race and Cemetery was listed on the

text: Queensland Heritage Register

text: on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

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text: There are a lot of definitions about “Thermal/Heat Insulation” and the common misinterpretation of  “Thermal/Heat Insulation” = “Bulk/Mass/Batt Insulation” which is actually uses to resist Conduction Heat Transfer with certain "R-Value".

text: There are a lot of definitions about “Thermal/Heat Insulation” and the common misinterpretation of  “Thermal/Heat Insulation” = “Bulk/Mass/Batt Insulation” which is actually uses to resist Conduction Heat Transfer with certain "R-Value".

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Overseas, JAPEX works to acquire the rights to already discovered oilfields and to acquire exploration rights in order to find additional oil reserves. JAPEX is involved in projects within the United States, Russia (Sakhalin Islands), Indonesia, Canada, Iran, Libya and had negotiated for Iraq's oil reserves as well.

text: Overseas, JAPEX works to acquire the rights to already discovered oilfields and to acquire exploration rights in order to find additional oil reserves. JAPEX is involved in projects within the United States, Russia (

text: Sakhalin Islands

text: Indonesia

text: , Canada,

text: Iran

text: , Libya and had negotiated for

text: Iraq

text: 's oil reserves as well.

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text: A couple of new malls are also coming up in the city.

text: A couple of new malls are also coming up in the city.

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answers: malls

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: malls

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: malls

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: the thermal conductivity,

text: the thermal conductivity,

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 1: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: NDQ_018663

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answers: solids and liquids, is higher than that of gases.

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: copper is a good thermal conductor

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jackets have a low thermal conductivity.

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: good thermal insulators

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aleksandrs Viļumanis (30 August 1942, Preiļi, Reichskommissariat Ostland) is a Latvian conductor.

text: Aleksandrs Viļumanis (30 August 1942,

text: Preiļi

text: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: ) is a

text: Latvian

text: conductor

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answers: Gases

answers: NDQ_018666

answers: Vi umanis

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: down jacket

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: Latvian

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the thermal conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In thermal conductivity, k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t) through a thickness (L), in a direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference (ΔT) [...]". Thermal conductivity is a material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase, temperature, density, and molecular bonding. Thermal effusivity is a quantity derived from conductivity, which is a measure of its ability to exchange thermal energy with its surroundings.

text: To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the

text: thermal conductivity

text: , also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In

text: thermal conductivity

text: , k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t) through a thickness (L), in a direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference (ΔT) [...]". Thermal conductivity is a material

text: property

text: that is primarily dependent on the medium's

text: phase

text: , temperature, density, and molecular bonding.

text: Thermal effusivity

text: is a quantity derived from conductivity, which is a measure of its ability to exchange thermal energy with its surroundings.

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answers: thermal conductivity

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answers: density, and molecular bonding

answers: NDQ_018667

answers: Thermal conductivity

answers: NDQ_018668

answers: density

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1