text: Opening a hot radiator drops the system pressure, which may cause it to boil and eject dangerously hot liquid and steam. Therefore, radiator caps often contain a mechanism that attempts to relieve the internal pressure before the cap can be fully opened.

text: Opening a hot radiator drops the system pressure, which may cause it to boil and eject dangerously hot liquid and steam. Therefore, radiator caps often contain a mechanism that attempts to relieve the internal pressure before the cap can be fully opened.

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text: Infrared (IR) thermography is an analysis technique based on the detection of radiation in the IR wavelength spectrum. According to the black body radiation law, all objects with temperature greater than absolute zero emit IR radiation. The device detecting and composing a 2D image of the IR radiation is generally called an IR camera or a thermographic camera, also referred to as an infrared camera. The result of the thermographic recording is an image or a sequence, which corresponds to the intensity of the thermal radiation of the recorded object. The recording is called a thermogram. The intensity of the thermal radiation of the object is directly connected with the object temperature. The thermogram is therefore an image of the object surface temperature distribution. IR thermography is in the most cases used for non-contact measurement of spatial and time distribution of temperature fields.

text: Infrared (IR) thermography is an analysis technique based on the detection of radiation in the IR wavelength spectrum. According to the black body radiation law, all objects with temperature greater than absolute zero emit IR radiation. The device detecting and composing a 2D image of the IR radiation is generally called an IR camera or a thermographic camera, also referred to as an infrared camera. The result of the thermographic recording is an image or a sequence, which corresponds to the intensity of the thermal radiation of the recorded object. The recording is called a thermogram. The intensity of the thermal radiation of the object is directly connected with the object temperature. The thermogram is therefore an image of the object surface temperature distribution. IR thermography is in the most cases used for non-contact measurement of spatial and time distribution of temperature fields.

method: UNH-qee

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answers: According to the black body radiation law

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answer: 1

text: The engine block was water-cooled using a radiator that most 21st-century car owners minded to lift the hood / bonnet would instantly recognised as such.  But here, too, the approach was not entirely conventional.  Possibly reflecting the colder winter temperatures routinely experienced in central and eastern Europe, the radiator was protected on its outer face by a blind which could be raised or lowered from the driver's seat, a device also employed on certain Russian automobiles.  In cold weather the driver was able to minimise the quantity of cold air passing through the radiator by completely lowering the radiator-blind.  This minimised the period during which the engine operated below its efficient operating speed.   Informed by a facia-mounted engine temperature gauge, the driver was able to anticipate and avoid the risk of overheating by raising the radiator blind as the engine approached its efficient operating temperature of 80 °C (176 °F).

text: The engine block was water-cooled using a radiator that most 21st-century car owners minded to lift the hood / bonnet would instantly recognised as such.  But here, too, the approach was not entirely conventional.  Possibly reflecting the colder winter temperatures routinely experienced in central and eastern Europe, the radiator was protected on its outer face by a blind which could be raised or lowered from the driver's seat, a device also employed on certain

entity_name: Russia

text: Russia

text: n automobiles.  In cold weather the driver was able to minimise the quantity of cold air passing through the radiator by completely lowering the radiator-blind.  This minimised the period during which the engine operated below its efficient operating speed.   Informed by a facia-mounted engine temperature gauge, the driver was able to anticipate and avoid the risk of overheating by raising the radiator blind as the engine approached its efficient

entity_name: Operating temperature

text: operating temperature

text: of 80 °C (176 °F).

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

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text: The DoD directive makes the distinction clear that detection is harder than measurement, and the latter is necessary for MASINT. "P5.2.2.1. Nuclear radiation is not easy to detect. Radiation detection is always a multistep, highly indirect process. For example, in a scintillation detector, incident radiation excites a fluorescent material that de-excites by emitting photons of light. The light is focused onto the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube that triggers an electron avalanche. The electron shower produces an electrical pulse that activates a meter read by the operator. Not surprisingly, the quantitative relationship between the amount of radiation actually emitted and the reading on the meter is a complex function of many factors. Since those factors may only be controlled well within a laboratory, only in a laboratory setting may true measurements be made." This can be a field laboratory.

text: The DoD directive makes the distinction clear that detection is harder than measurement, and the latter is necessary for MASINT. "P5.2.2.1. Nuclear radiation is not easy to detect. Radiation detection is always a multistep, highly indirect process. For example, in a scintillation detector, incident radiation excites a fluorescent material that de-excites by emitting photons of light. The light is focused onto the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube that triggers an electron avalanche. The electron shower produces an electrical pulse that activates a meter read by the operator. Not surprisingly, the quantitative relationship between the amount of radiation actually emitted and the reading on the meter is a complex function of many factors. Since those factors may only be controlled well within a laboratory, only in a laboratory setting may true measurements be made." This can be a field laboratory.

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text: Nuclear accidents, because of the powerful forces involved, are often very dangerous. Historically, the first incidents involved fatal radiation exposure. Marie Curie died from aplastic anemia which resulted from her high levels of exposure. Two scientists, an American and Canadian respectively, Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin, died after mishandling the same plutonium mass. Unlike conventional weapons, the intense light, heat, and explosive force is not the only deadly component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.

text: Nuclear accidents, because of the powerful forces involved, are often very dangerous. Historically, the first incidents involved fatal

entity_name: Acute radiation syndrome

text: radiation exposure

entity_name: Marie Curie

text: Marie Curie

text: died from

entity_name: Aplastic anemia

text: aplastic anemia

text: which resulted from her high levels of exposure. Two scientists, an American and Canadian respectively,

entity_name: Harry Daghlian

text: Harry Daghlian

text: and

entity_name: Louis Slotin

text: Louis Slotin

text: , died after mishandling the

entity_name: Demon core

text: same plutonium mass

text: . Unlike conventional weapons, the intense light, heat, and explosive force is not the only deadly component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from

entity_name: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.

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answers: Historically, the first incidents involved fatal radiation exposure

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answers: Historically, the first incidents involved fatal radiation exposure

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answers: Marie Curie

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answers: Historically, the first incidents involved fatal radiation exposure

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The term "radiophobia" is also sometimes used in the arguments against proponents of the conservative LNT concept (Linear no-threshold response model for ionizing radiation) of radiation security proposed by the U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in 1949. The "no-threshold" position effectively assumes, from data extrapolated from the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that even negligible doses of radiation increase ones risk of cancer linearly as the exposure increases from a value of 0 up to high dose rates. This is a controversial model as the LNT model therefore suggests that radiation exposure from naturally occurring background radiation, the radiation exposure from flying at high altitudes in airplanes, as well as lying next to loved ones for extended periods and the eating of bananas, which are also weakly naturally radioactive (both mostly due to Potassium-40, a naturally occurring radioactive material required for human life) all increase one's chance of cancer.

text: The term "radiophobia" is also sometimes used in the arguments against proponents of the conservative

entity_name: Linear no-threshold model

text: LNT concept

text: (Linear no-threshold response model for ionizing radiation) of radiation security proposed by the U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in 1949. The "no-threshold" position effectively assumes, from data extrapolated from the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that even negligible doses of radiation increase ones risk of cancer linearly as the exposure increases from a value of 0 up to high dose rates. This is a controversial model as the LNT model therefore suggests that radiation exposure from naturally occurring

entity_name: Background radiation

text: background radiation

text: , the radiation exposure from flying at high altitudes in airplanes, as well as lying next to loved ones for extended periods and the eating of

entity_name: Banana equivalent dose

text: bananas, which are also weakly naturally radioactive

text: (both mostly due to

text: , a

entity_name: Naturally occurring radioactive material

text: naturally occurring radioactive material

text: required

entity_name: Composition of the human body

text: for human life

text: ) all increase one's chance of cancer.

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answers: It does not say.

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radiation therapy may include photon-beam or proton-beam treatment, or fractionated external beam radiation.  Radiosurgery may be used in lieu of surgery in small tumors located away from critical structures. Fractionated external-beam radiation also can be used as primary treatment for tumors that are surgically unresectable or, for patients who are inoperable for medical reasons.

text: Radiation therapy may include photon-beam or proton-beam treatment, or

entity_name: Radiation therapy

text: fractionated external beam radiation

text: .  Radiosurgery may be used in lieu of surgery in small tumors located away from critical structures. Fractionated external-beam radiation also can be used as primary treatment for tumors that are surgically unresectable or, for patients who are inoperable for medical reasons.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

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text: NASA[National Aeronautics and Space Administration] robots are robotic devices used to aid, augment, or substitute for astronauts in order to do difficult or rote tasks such as repairs in dangerous environments (such as those with radiation or micrometeorite risks), routine procedures (video capture), etc.

text: NASA[National Aeronautics and Space Administration] robots are

text: robot

text: ic devices used to aid, augment, or substitute for

text: astronaut

text: s in order to do difficult or rote tasks such as repairs in dangerous environments (such as those with radiation or micrometeorite risks), routine procedures (video capture), etc.

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text: Remote spectral measurements present several challenges compared to laboratory measurements. The space in between the sample of interest and the instrument may also have spectral absorptions. These absorptions can mask or confound the absorption spectrum of the sample. These background interferences may also vary over time. The source of radiation in remote measurements is often an environmental source, such as sunlight or the thermal radiation from a warm object, and this makes it necessary to distinguish spectral absorption from changes in the source spectrum.

text: Remote spectral measurements present several challenges compared to laboratory measurements. The space in between the sample of interest and the instrument may also have spectral absorptions. These absorptions can mask or confound the absorption spectrum of the sample. These background interferences may also vary over time. The source of radiation in remote measurements is often an environmental source, such as sunlight or the thermal radiation from a warm object, and this makes it necessary to distinguish spectral absorption from changes in the source spectrum.

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text: Radiation therapy is commonly used in prostate cancer treatment. It may be used instead of surgery or after surgery in early stage prostate cancer (adjuvant radiotherapy). Radiation treatments also can be combined with hormonal therapy for intermediate risk disease, when surgery or radiation therapy alone is less likely to cure the cancer. Some radiation oncologists combine external beam radiation and brachytherapy for intermediate to high-risk situations. Radiation therapy is often used in conjunction with hormone therapy for high-risk patients. Others use a "triple modality" combination of external beam radiation therapy, brachytherapy, and hormonal therapy.  In advanced stages of prostate cancer, radiation is used to treat painful bone metastases or reduce spinal cord compression.

text: Radiation therapy is commonly used in prostate cancer treatment. It may be used instead of surgery or after surgery in early stage prostate cancer (adjuvant radiotherapy). Radiation treatments also can be combined with hormonal therapy for intermediate risk disease, when surgery or radiation therapy alone is less likely to cure the cancer. Some radiation oncologists combine external beam radiation and brachytherapy for intermediate to high-risk situations. Radiation therapy is often used in conjunction with hormone therapy for high-risk patients. Others use a "triple modality" combination of external beam radiation therapy, brachytherapy, and hormonal therapy.  In advanced stages of prostate cancer, radiation is used to treat painful bone metastases or reduce spinal cord compression.

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text: EWG launched a cell phone radiation report in September 2009 that stated while the long-term effects of cell phone radiation are still being studied, there is sufficient research that shows higher risk for brain and salivary gland tumors among heavy cell phone users. EWG encouraged consumers to look up their cell phone's radiation level, and to wear a headset when talking on the phone to limit their exposure. In August 2013, EWG released a web page ("Cell Phone Radiation Damages Sperm, Studies Show") which reviews and tabulates studies showing relationships between mobile phone use and low sperm count and sperm quality.  The relationships shown are not argued to be due to ionisation of atoms or damage to DNA, but some other biological mechanism - relationships are demonstrated in population surveys, in studies on individuals, and on sperm in vitro in the laboratory environment  Contradicting the alarmism of EWG on this issue are physicists who argue that the microwave radiation used by cell phones would merely warm your head slightly (less than a hat), in contrast to high frequency radiation (not used by cell phones), such as x-rays, which can ionize atoms and damage DNA.

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answers: cell phone

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answers: cell phone radiation

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answers: DNA

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Individuals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support . The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate  small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.

text: There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far

text: infrared

text: through visible light frequencies to the far

text: ultraviolet

text: . The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support . The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate  small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in

text: chlorophyll a

text: and

text: chlorophyll b

text: concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.

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answers: The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images

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answers: Reflected sunlight

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answers: Infrared

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answers: the object or surrounding area

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Plants

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Epsilon radiation is tertiary radiation caused by secondary radiation (e.g., delta radiation). Epsilon rays are a form of particle radiation and are composed of electrons. The term was coined by J. J. Thomson, but is very rarely used today.

text: Epsilon radiation is

text: tertiary radiation

text: caused by

text: secondary radiation

text: (e.g.,

text: delta radiation

text: ). Epsilon rays are a form of

text: particle radiation

text: and are composed of

text: electron

text: s. The term was coined by

text: J. J. Thomson

text: , but is very rarely used today.

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answers: very rarely used today

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answers: secondary radiation

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answers: Epsilon radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Radiation Monitoring Center (RMC; ) is the agency of the Atomic Energy Council of the Republic of China which carries out monitoring of natural and man-made ionizing radiation in the environment and within the vicinity of nuclear power plants in Taiwan.

text: The Radiation Monitoring Center (RMC; ) is the agency of the

text: Atomic Energy Council

text: of the

text: Republic of China

text: which carries out monitoring of natural and man-made ionizing radiation in the environment and within the vicinity of nuclear power plants in

text: Taiwan

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answers: natural and man-made

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answers: ionizing radiation

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answers: ionizing

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answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In 2013, a nuclear war occurred. Russia was targeted with atomic bombs, causing severe radiation across Moscow. This forced the survivors to live underground in the metro stations away from the deadly effects of radiation. Many animals were heavily mutated into aggressive beasts, which made travel dangerous.

text: In 2013, a

text: nuclear war

text: occurred.

text: Russia

text: was targeted with atomic bombs, causing severe radiation across

text: Moscow

text: . This forced the survivors to live underground in the metro stations away from the deadly effects of radiation. Many animals were heavily mutated into aggressive beasts, which made travel dangerous.

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text: However, the various RBEs are scientific numbers that represent raw data, and as raw data they go into regulatory consensus weighting factors which represent the best guess as to how relatively dangerous various types of radiation are, in practice. The radiation weighting factors will be approximately the same as the RBEs that result from some experiments, but may be quite different from RBEs that result from other experiments.

text: However, the various RBEs are scientific numbers that represent raw data, and as raw data they go into regulatory consensus weighting factors which represent the best guess as to how relatively dangerous various types of radiation are, in practice. The radiation weighting factors will be approximately the same as the RBEs that result from some experiments, but may be quite different from RBEs that result from other experiments.

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answers: It is not true

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text: One benefit of the wOOx bass radiator (and passive radiators in general) when compared to the more common bass-reflex vents is that there is no possibility of air turbulence noise if the resonant system is greatly excited. As a result, additional equalization applied near the enclosure's tuning frequency can increase system output without generating extraneous noises or greatly increasing cone excursion of the active driver. Many wOOx-equipped mini-stereo systems produced by Philips feature a three-level equalization control which applies additional bass equalization at frequencies which excite the wOOx bass radiator, improving the visceral 'impact' of the bass through the wOOx radiator's extreme air displacement capability. This use of active equalization to increase overall system output is the primary characteristic that differentiates wOOx technology from typical loudspeaker systems equipped with passive radiators.

text: One benefit of the wOOx bass radiator (and passive radiators in general) when compared to the more common bass-reflex vents is that there is no possibility of air turbulence noise if the resonant system is greatly excited. As a result, additional equalization applied near the enclosure's tuning frequency can increase system output without generating extraneous noises or greatly increasing cone excursion of the active driver. Many wOOx-equipped mini-stereo systems produced by Philips feature a three-level equalization control which applies additional bass equalization at frequencies which excite the wOOx bass radiator, improving the visceral 'impact' of the bass through the wOOx radiator's extreme air displacement capability. This use of active equalization to increase overall system output is the primary characteristic that differentiates wOOx technology from typical loudspeaker systems equipped with passive radiators.

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text: With regards to exposure to radiation emitted by backscatter X-rays, and there are fears that people will be exposed to a "dangerous level of radiation if they get backscattered too often"  A petition by both scientists and pilots argue that the screening machines are safe. Ionizing radiation is considered a non-threshold carcinogen, but it is difficult to quantify the risk of low radiation exposures.  Active millimeter wave scanners emit radiation which is non-ionizing, does not have enough energy to directly damage DNA, and is not known to be genotoxic.

text: With regards to exposure to

text: radiation

text: emitted by backscatter X-rays, and there are fears that people will be exposed to a "dangerous level of radiation if they get backscattered too often"  A petition by both scientists and pilots argue that the screening machines are safe. Ionizing radiation is considered a non-threshold

text: carcinogen

text: , but it is difficult to quantify the risk of low radiation exposures.  Active millimeter wave scanners emit radiation which is

text: non-ionizing

text: , does not have enough energy to directly damage DNA, and is not known to be

text: genotoxic

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answers: It is not known to be genotoxic

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called electromagnetic radiation (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source, and has no "feedback" effect on them, and is also not affected directly by them in the present time (rather, it is indirectly produced by a sequences of changes in fields radiating out from them in the past). EMR consists of the radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.

text: An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source, and has no "feedback" effect on them, and is also not affected directly by them in the present time (rather, it is indirectly produced by a sequences of changes in fields radiating out from them in the past). EMR consists of the radiations in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , including

text: radio wave

text: s,

text: microwave

text: infrared

text: visible light

text: ultraviolet light

text: X-rays

text: , and

text: gamma ray

text: s. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.

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answers: The many commercial applications of these radiations

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answers: X-rays

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answers: X-rays

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answers: X-rays

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The user must have an awareness of the types of radiation to be encountered so that the correct instrument is used. A further complication is the possible presence of "mixed radiation fields" where more than one form of radiation is present. Many instruments are sensitive to more than one type of radiation; alpha and beta, or beta and gamma, for instance, and the operator must know how to discriminate between these. The necessary skills in using a hand-held instrument are not only to manipulate the instrument, but also to interpret results of the rate of radiation exposure and the type of radiation being detected.

text: The user must have an awareness of the types of radiation to be encountered so that the correct instrument is used. A further complication is the possible presence of "mixed radiation fields" where more than one form of radiation is present. Many instruments are sensitive to more than one type of radiation; alpha and beta, or beta and gamma, for instance, and the operator must know how to discriminate between these. The necessary skills in using a hand-held instrument are not only to manipulate the instrument, but also to interpret results of the rate of radiation exposure and the type of radiation being detected.

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answers: "mixed radiation fields"

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answers: radiation exposure

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answers: exposure

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The characteristics of this electromagnetic radiation makes it suitable for particle discrimination, particularly of electrons and hadrons in the momentum range between  and .The transition radiation photons produced by electrons have wavelengths in the X-ray range, with energies typically in the range from 5 to . However, the number of produced photons per interface crossing is very small: for particles with  = 2×10, about 0.8 X-ray photons are detected. Usually several layers of alternating materials or composites are used to collect enough transition radiation photons for an adequate measurement—for example, one layer of inert material followed by one layer of detector (e.g. microstrip gas chamber), and so on.

text: The characteristics of this

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: makes it suitable for particle discrimination, particularly of

text: electron

text: s and

text: hadron

text: s in the momentum range between  and .The transition radiation

text: photon

text: s produced by electrons have

text: wavelength

text: s in the X-ray range, with energies typically in the range from 5 to . However, the number of produced photons per interface crossing is very small: for particles with  = 2×10, about 0.8 X-ray photons are detected. Usually several layers of alternating materials or composites are used to collect enough transition radiation photons for an adequate measurement—for example, one layer of

text: inert

text: material followed by one layer of detector (e.g. microstrip gas chamber), and so on.

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answers: several layers of alternating materials

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answers: The characteristics of this electromagnetic radiation

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is not known

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, liver, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas. Radiation is also used to treat leukemia and lymphoma. Radiation dose to each site depends on a number of factors, including the radiosensitivity of each cancer type and whether there are tissues and organs nearby that may be damaged by radiation. Thus, as with every form of treatment, radiation therapy is not without its side effects.

text: Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, liver, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas. Radiation is also used to treat leukemia and lymphoma. Radiation dose to each site depends on a number of factors, including the radiosensitivity of each cancer type and whether there are tissues and organs nearby that may be damaged by radiation. Thus, as with every form of treatment, radiation therapy is not without its side effects.

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answers: Radiation therapy

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answers: nearby tissues and organs

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiation therapy is not without its side effects

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: tissues and organs nearby

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: tissues and organs

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Owned and operated by Cogeco, it broadcasts on 100.1 MHz using a directional antenna with an average effective radiated power of 43,050 watts and a peak effective radiated power of 81,100 watts (class C1).

text: Owned and operated by

text: Cogeco

text: , it broadcasts on 100.1

text: MHz

text: using a

text: directional antenna

text: with an average effective radiated power of 43,050

text: watt

text: s and a peak effective radiated power of 81,100 watts (

entity_name: List of North American broadcast station classes

text: class C1

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answers: It broadcasts on 100.1 MHz

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text: The proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization detector device used to measure particles of ionizing radiation. The key feature is its ability to measure the energy of incident radiation, by producing a detector output that is proportional to the radiation energy; hence the detector's name. It is widely used where energy levels of incident radiation must be known, such as in the discrimination between alpha and beta particles, or accurate measurement of X-ray radiation dose.

text: The proportional counter is a type of

text: gaseous ionization detector

text: device used to measure

text: particle

text: s of

text: ionizing radiation

text: . The key feature is its ability to measure the

text: energy

text: of incident radiation, by producing a detector output that is proportional to the radiation energy; hence the detector's name. It is widely used where energy levels of incident radiation must be known, such as in the discrimination between

text: alpha

text: and

text: beta particle

text: s, or accurate measurement of

text: X-ray

text: radiation

text: dose

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answers: It is widely used where energy levels

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text: Law 19056 about "Radiation Protection and Safety of Persons, Properties and Environment" was also enacted. It intended to establish general parameters for prevention and procedures to "ensure the radiation protection and safety regarding protection of occupationally exposed personnel, to the general public, properties, and the environment, from the adverse effects of radiations, avoiding or minimizing risks and radiation-induced damages, also ensuring the physical protection of the sources and buildings".

text: Law 19056 about "Radiation Protection and Safety of Persons, Properties and Environment" was also enacted. It intended to establish general parameters for prevention and procedures to "ensure the radiation protection and safety regarding protection of occupationally exposed personnel, to the general public, properties, and the environment, from the adverse effects of radiations, avoiding or minimizing risks and radiation-induced damages, also ensuring the physical protection of the sources and buildings".

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text: When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest, due to the high relative biological effectiveness of alpha radiation to cause biological damage. Alpha radiation is an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in experiments with inhaled alpha emitter up to 1000 times more dangerous, than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes.

text: When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest, due to the high

text: relative biological effectiveness

text: of alpha radiation to cause biological damage. Alpha radiation is an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in experiments with inhaled alpha emitter up to 1000 times more dangerous, than an equivalent activity of

text: beta emitting

text: or

text: gamma emitting

text: radioisotopes.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Heterodyne detection is a method of detecting radiation by non-linear mixing with radiation of a reference frequency. It is commonly used in telecommunications and astronomy for detecting and analysing signals.

text: Heterodyne detection is a method of detecting radiation by

text: non-linear mixing

text: with radiation of a reference frequency. It is commonly used in

text: telecommunications

text: and

text: astronomy

text: for detecting and analysing signals.

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text: In 1964, Giacinto Scoles returned to the University of Genoa as Assistant Professor of Physics. In Genoa he stayed until 1971 and in those years established a renowned molecular beams laboratory devoted to the investigation of intermolecular forces in gases. Most significant was the development of the cryogenic bolometer to detect molecular beams.  Bolometers detect tiny heat input (with noise on the order of 10 watts per square root hertz) and had previously been developed as detectors of Infrared Radiation but here they are used to measure the internal and translational energy of a beam of atoms or molecules.  The test apparatus set up together with M. Cavallini and G. Gallinaro [2] offered great advantages with respect to conventional techniques used at that time and reduced the cost of building beam machines.  Scoles and his colleagues published a series of key papers which include the determination of the energy dependence of the integral collision cross section of He scattered by He [3], the observation of “Rainbow Scattering“ between two crossed beams of Argon [4],  the first measurement of orbiting resonances in the scattering between two atoms (Hg and H) [5].

text: In 1964, Giacinto Scoles returned to the University of Genoa as Assistant Professor of Physics. In Genoa he stayed until 1971 and in those years established a renowned molecular beams laboratory devoted to the investigation of intermolecular forces in gases. Most significant was the development of the cryogenic bolometer to detect molecular beams.  Bolometers detect tiny heat input (with noise on the order of 10

text: watt

text: s per

text: square root

text: hertz

text: ) and had previously been developed as detectors of Infrared Radiation but here they are used to measure the internal and translational energy of a beam of atoms or molecules.  The test apparatus set up together with M. Cavallini and G. Gallinaro [2] offered great advantages with respect to conventional techniques used at that time and reduced the cost of building beam machines.  Scoles and his colleagues published a series of key papers which include the determination of the energy dependence of the integral collision cross section of He scattered by He [3], the observation of “Rainbow Scattering“ between two crossed beams of Argon [4],  the first measurement of orbiting resonances in the scattering between two atoms (Hg and H) [5].

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text: The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used on equipment where very strong radiation fields can be encountered if the device is dismantled or otherwise tampered with. The intended use of the sign is not in a place where the normal user will see it, but in a place where it will be seen by someone who has started to dismantle a radiation-emitting device or equipment. The aim of the sign is to warn people such as scrap metal workers to stop work and leave the area.

text: The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used on equipment where very strong radiation fields can be encountered if the device is dismantled or otherwise tampered with. The intended use of the sign is not in a place where the normal user will see it, but in a place where it will be seen by someone who has started to dismantle a radiation-emitting device or equipment. The aim of the sign is to warn people such as scrap metal workers to stop work and leave the area.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: The airflow through the main radiator was controlled by pneumatic exit flaps. In early marks of Spitfire (Mk I to Mk VI) the single flap was operated manually using a lever to the left of the pilot's seat. When the two-stage Merlin was introduced in the Spitfire Mk IX the radiators were split to make room for an intercooler radiator; the radiator under the starboard wing was halved in size and the intercooler radiator housed alongside. Under the port wing a new radiator fairing housed a square oil cooler alongside of the other half-radiator unit. The two radiator flaps were now operated automatically via a thermostat.

text: The airflow through the main radiator was controlled by

text: pneumatic

text: exit flaps. In early marks of Spitfire (Mk I to Mk VI) the single flap was operated manually using a lever to the left of the pilot's seat. When the two-stage Merlin was introduced in the

entity_name: Supermarine Spitfire (late Merlin-powered variants)

text: Spitfire Mk IX

text: the radiators were split to make room for an intercooler radiator; the radiator under the starboard wing was halved in size and the intercooler radiator housed alongside. Under the port wing a new radiator fairing housed a square oil cooler alongside of the other half-radiator unit. The two radiator flaps were now operated automatically via a

text: thermostat

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answers: background radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the pilot's seat

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: As with its infrared and ultraviolet radiation dangers, welding creates an intense brightness in the visible light spectrum, which may cause temporary flash blindness.  Some sources state that there is no minimum safe distance for exposure to these radiation emissions without adequate eye protection.

text: As with its infrared and ultraviolet radiation dangers, welding creates an intense brightness in the visible light spectrum, which may cause temporary

text: flash blindness

text: .  Some sources state that there is no minimum safe distance for exposure to these radiation emissions without adequate eye protection.

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answers: NDQ_016705

answers: exposure to these radiation emissions

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: temporary flash blindness

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Some of the public's opinion on the scanners was due to the perpetuation of misinformation from media and online sources. One of the main misconceptions was that scanners emitted unsafe levels of radiation. It has now been well debunked that the mmw scanners used by TSA emit no ionizing radiation.

text: Some of the public's opinion on the scanners was due to the perpetuation of misinformation from media and online sources. One of the main misconceptions was that scanners emitted unsafe levels of radiation. It has now been well debunked that the mmw scanners used by TSA emit no ionizing radiation.

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answer: No

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text: Antenna gain is sometimes measured as decibels relative to a half-wave dipole, which means that the antenna in question is being compared to a dipole, and has a certain amount of gain relative to a dipole antenna tuned to the same operating frequency. In this case, one says the antenna has a gain of "x dBd" (see decibel). More often, gains are expressed relative to an isotropic radiator, which is an imaginary antenna that radiates equally in all directions. In this case one uses dBi instead of dBd (see decibel). As it is impossible to build an isotropic radiator, gain measurements expressed relative to a dipole are more practical when a reference dipole aerial is used for experimental measurements. 0 dBd is often considered equal to 2.15 dBi.

text: Antenna

text: gain

text: is sometimes measured as decibels relative to a half-wave dipole, which means that the antenna in question is being compared to a dipole, and has a certain amount of gain relative to a dipole antenna tuned to the same operating

text: frequency

text: . In this case, one says the antenna has a

text: gain

text: of "x dBd" (see

text: decibel

text: ). More often, gains are expressed relative to an

text: isotropic radiator

text: , which is an imaginary antenna that radiates equally in all directions. In this case one uses dBi instead of dBd (see

text: decibel

text: ). As it is impossible to build an isotropic radiator, gain measurements expressed relative to a dipole are more practical when a reference dipole aerial is used for experimental measurements. 0 dBd is often considered equal to 2.15 dBi.

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answer: No

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text: The term is also used to a lesser extent for unsteered array antennas in which the phase of the feed power and thus the radiation pattern of the antenna is fixed.  For example, AM broadcast radio antennas consisting of multiple mast radiators fed so as to create a specific radiation pattern are also called "phased arrays".

text: The term is also used to a lesser extent for unsteered

text: array antenna

text: s in which the phase of the feed power and thus the radiation pattern of the antenna is fixed.  For example, AM broadcast radio antennas consisting of multiple

text: mast radiator

text: s fed so as to create a specific radiation pattern are also called "phased arrays".

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radiation, most commonly in the form of X-Rays, is used frequently in society in order to produce positive outcomes. The primary use of radiation in healthcare is in the use of radiography for radiographic examination or procedure, and in the use of radiotherapy in the treatment of cancerous conditions. Radiophobia can be a fear which patients experience before and after either of these procedures, it is therefore the responsibility of the healthcare professional at the time, often a Radiographer or Radiation Therapist, to reassure the patients about the stochastic and deterministic effects of radiation on human physiology. Advising patients and other irradiated persons of the various radiation protection measures that are enforced, including the use of lead-rubber aprons, dosimetry and Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) is a common method of informing and reassuring radiophobia sufferers.

text: Radiation, most commonly in the form of X-Rays, is used frequently in society in order to produce positive outcomes. The primary use of radiation in healthcare is in the use of

text: radiography

text: for radiographic examination or procedure, and in the use of

text: radiotherapy

text: in the treatment of cancerous conditions. Radiophobia can be a fear which patients experience before and after either of these procedures, it is therefore the responsibility of the healthcare professional at the time, often a

text: Radiographer

text: or

text: Radiation Therapist

text: , to reassure the patients about the

text: stochastic

text: and

text: deterministic

text: effects of radiation on human physiology. Advising patients and other irradiated persons of the various

text: radiation protection

text: measures that are enforced, including the use of lead-rubber aprons,

text: dosimetry

text: and

text: Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)

text: is a common method of informing and reassuring radiophobia sufferers.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Nearly all types of electromagnetic radiation can be used for spectroscopy, to study and characterize matter.  Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic radiation.

text: Nearly all types of electromagnetic radiation can be used for

text: spectroscopy

text: , to study and characterize matter.  Other technological uses are described under

text: electromagnetic radiation

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Spacecraft waste heat is ultimately rejected to space by radiator surfaces. Radiators can be of different forms, such as spacecraft structural panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the spacecraft, panels deployed after the spacecraft is on orbit, and droplets. All radiators reject heat by infrared (IR) radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends on the surface's emittance and temperature. The radiator must reject both the spacecraft waste heat plus any radiant-heat loads from the environment or other spacecraft surfaces.Most radiators are therefore given surface finishes with high IR emittance ( > 0.8) to maximize heat rejection and low solar absorption ( < 0.2) to limit heat loads from the sun. High-temperature radiators are preferred for better efficiency and size reduction considerations, however, fluid property and droplet cloud property are additional factors.Droplet size formation and droplet density govern emission and reabsorption. A smaller droplet is essential for obtaining effective radiation in the liquid droplet radiator. A droplet with a diameter of 1 μm has been calculated to cool from 500 K to 252 K in two seconds. A dense cloud of the droplet sheet will retard the cooling rate of the droplets because of the reabsorption of the emitted light.

text: Spacecraft waste heat is ultimately rejected to space by radiator surfaces. Radiators can be of different forms, such as spacecraft structural panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the spacecraft, panels deployed after the spacecraft is on orbit, and droplets. All radiators reject heat by

text: infrared

text: (IR) radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends on the surface's emittance and temperature. The radiator must reject both the spacecraft waste heat plus any

text: radiant-heat

text: loads from the environment or other spacecraft surfaces.Most radiators are therefore given surface finishes with high IR emittance ( > 0.8) to maximize heat rejection and low solar absorption ( < 0.2) to limit heat loads from the sun. High-temperature radiators are preferred for better efficiency and size reduction considerations, however,

text: fluid property

text: and droplet cloud property are additional factors.Droplet size formation and droplet density govern emission and

text: reabsorption

text: . A smaller droplet is essential for obtaining effective radiation in the liquid droplet radiator. A droplet with a diameter of 1 μm has been calculated to cool from 500 K to 252 K in two seconds. A dense cloud of the droplet sheet will retard the cooling rate of the droplets because of the reabsorption of the emitted light.

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answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: A dense cloud

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Confusion often arises when considering the radiation that arrives at a target surface. In that case, it generally does not make sense to sum view factors as view factor from A and view factor from B (above) are essentially different units. C may see 10%  of A 's radiation and 50% of B 's radiation and 20% of C 's radiation, but without knowing how much each radiates, it does not even make sense to say that C receives 80% of the total radiation.

text: Confusion often arises when considering the radiation that arrives at a target surface. In that case, it generally does not make sense to sum view factors as view factor from A and view factor from B (above) are essentially different units. C may see 10%  of A 's radiation and 50% of B 's radiation and 20% of C 's radiation, but without knowing how much each radiates, it does not even make sense to say that C receives 80% of the total radiation.

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answers: It generally does not make sense to sum view factors

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: A

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: It does not even make sense to say that C receives 80% of the total radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: a target surface

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It usually does not

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: ibandronate– ICI 182,780– ICI D1694– idarubicin– IDEC-Y2B8 monoclonal antibody– idiopathic– idiopathic myelofibrosis– idoxifene– idoxuridine– ifosfamide– IH636 grape seed extract– IL-1– IL-1-alfa– IL-11– IL-12– IL-2– IL-3– IL-4– IL-6– ileostomy– iloprost– ILX-295501– ILX23-7553– IM-862– imaging procedure– imatinib mesylate– imipenem– imiquimod– immune adjuvant– immune function– immune response– immune system– immune system tolerance– immunoassay– immunocompetence– immunocompetent– immunocompromised– immunodeficiency– immunodeficiency syndrome– immunoglobulin– immunological adjuvant– immunology– immunomodulation– immunophenotyping– immunoscintigraphy– immunostimulant– immunosuppression– immunosuppressive– immunosuppressive therapy– immunotherapy– immunotoxin– in situ cancer– incisional biopsy– incomplete Freund's adjuvant– indinavir– indium In 111 ibritumomab tiuxetan– indium In 111 pentetreotide– indole-3-carbinol– indolent lymphoma– indometacin– induction therapy– infiltrating cancer– infiltrating ductal carcinoma– inflammatory breast cancer– infliximab– infrared coagulation– inguinal orchiectomy– inoperable– inositol– inositol hexaphosphate– instillation– Institutional Review Board– intensification therapy– Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy– intercalator– interferon– interleukin– interleukin-1– interleukin-1-alpha– interleukin-11– interleukin-12– interleukin-2– interleukin-3– interleukin-4– interleukin-4 PE38KDEL cytotoxin– interleukin-4 PE38KDEL immunotoxin– interleukin-6– interleukin-7– intermediate-grade lymphoma– internal radiation– interstitial radiation therapy– intestinal villi– intoplicine– intracarotid infusion– intracavitary– intracavitary radiation– intracellular– intracolonic– intracranial tumor– intradermal– intraductal carcinoma– intraepithelial– intrahepatic– intrahepatic bile ducts– intrahepatic infusion– intralesional– intraluminal intubation and dilation– Intramuscular injection (IM)– intraocular melanoma– intraoperative radiation therapy– intraperitoneal– intraperitoneal chemotherapy– Intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemoperfusion– intraperitoneal infusion– intraperitoneal radiation therapy– intrapleural– intrathecal– intrathecal chemotherapy– intratumoral, meaning within a tumour– intravenous pyelogram– intravenous pyelography– intraventricular infusion– intravesical– invasive cancer– invasive cervical cancer– inverted papilloma– investigational– inviable– iodine I 131 tositumomab– iododoxorubicin– ionomycin– IORT– Incontinentia pigmenti – IRB– irinotecan– irofulven– irradiated– irradiation– irreversible toxicity– iseganan hydrochloride– ISIS 2503– ISIS 3521– ISIS 5132– islet cell– islet cell cancer– islet of Langerhans cell– isoflavone– isointense– isolated hepatic perfusion– isolated limb perfusion– isolated lung perfusion– isotretinoin– itraconazole– IU– IV– IVP– ixabepilone

text: ibandronate

text: ICI 182,780

text: ICI D1694

text: idarubicin

text: IDEC-Y2B8 monoclonal antibody

text: idiopathic

text: idiopathic myelofibrosis

text: idoxifene

text: idoxuridine

text: ifosfamide

text: IH636 grape seed extract

text: ileostomy

text: iloprost

text: imaging procedure

text: imatinib mesylate

text: imipenem

text: imiquimod

text: immune adjuvant

text: immune function

text: immune response

text: immune system

text: immune system tolerance

text: immunoassay

text: immunocompetence

text: immunocompetent

text: immunocompromised

text: immunodeficiency

text: immunodeficiency syndrome

text: immunoglobulin

text: immunological adjuvant

text: immunology

text: immunomodulation

text: immunophenotyping

text: immunoscintigraphy

text: immunostimulant

text: immunosuppression

text: immunosuppressive

text: immunosuppressive therapy

text: immunotherapy

text: immunotoxin

text: in situ cancer

text: incisional biopsy

text: incomplete Freund's adjuvant

text: indinavir

text: indium In 111 ibritumomab tiuxetan

text: indium In 111 pentetreotide

text: indolent lymphoma

text: indometacin

text: induction therapy

text: infiltrating cancer

text: infiltrating ductal carcinoma

text: inflammatory breast cancer

text: infliximab

text: infrared coagulation

text: inguinal orchiectomy

text: inoperable

text: inositol

text: inositol hexaphosphate

text: instillation

text: Institutional Review Board

text: intensification therapy

text: Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy

text: intercalator

text: interferon

text: interleukin

text: interleukin-4 PE38KDEL cytotoxin

text: interleukin-4 PE38KDEL immunotoxin

text: intermediate-grade lymphoma

text: internal radiation

text: interstitial radiation therapy

text: intestinal villi

text: intoplicine

text: intracarotid infusion

text: intracavitary

text: intracavitary radiation

text: intracellular

text: intracolonic

text: intracranial tumor

text: intradermal

text: intraductal carcinoma

text: intraepithelial

text: intrahepatic

text: intrahepatic bile ducts

text: intrahepatic infusion

text: intralesional

text: intraluminal intubation and dilation

text: Intramuscular injection

text: (IM)–

text: intraocular melanoma

text: intraoperative radiation therapy

text: intraperitoneal

text: intraperitoneal chemotherapy

text: Intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemoperfusion

text: intraperitoneal infusion

text: intraperitoneal radiation therapy

text: intrapleural

text: intrathecal

text: intrathecal chemotherapy

text: intratumoral

text: , meaning within a tumour–

text: intravenous pyelogram

text: intravenous pyelography

text: intraventricular infusion

text: intravesical

text: invasive cancer

text: invasive cervical cancer

text: inverted papilloma

text: investigational

text: inviable

text: iodine I 131 tositumomab

text: iododoxorubicin

text: ionomycin

text: IORT

text: Incontinentia pigmenti

text: IRB

text: irinotecan

text: irofulven

text: irradiated

text: irradiation

text: irreversible toxicity

text: iseganan hydrochloride

text: ISIS 2503

text: ISIS 3521

text: ISIS 5132

text: islet cell

text: islet cell cancer

text: islet of Langerhans cell

text: isoflavone

text: isointense

text: isolated hepatic perfusion

text: isolated limb perfusion

text: isolated lung perfusion

text: isotretinoin

text: itraconazole

text: IU

text: IV

text: IVP

text: ixabepilone

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answers: NDQ_016703

answers: ibandronate– ICI 182,780– ICI D1694– idarubicin– IDEC-Y2B8 monoclonal antibody– idiopathic– idiopathic myelofibrosis– idoxifene– idoxuridine– ifosfamide– IH636 grape seed extract– IL-1– IL-1-alfa– IL-11– IL-12– IL-2– IL-3– IL-4– IL-6– ileostomy– iloprost– ILX-295501– ILX23-7553– IM-862– imaging procedure

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: intercalator– interferon– interleukin– interleukin

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Induction therapy– infiltrating cancer– infiltrating ductal carcinoma– inflammatory breast cancer– infliximab– infrared coagulation– inguinal orchiectomy– inoperable– intercalator– interferon– interleukin

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy– intercalator– interferon– interleukin– interleukin

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: IL-1– IL-1-alfa– IL-11– IL-12– IL-2– IL-3– IL-4– IL-6– ileostomy– iloprost– ILX-295501– ILX23-7553– IM-862– imaging procedure

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A passive radiator system makes it easier for the speaker system to create the deepest pitches (e.g., basslines). These deep pitches are hard for the woofer to produce. With a PR system, the movement of the "drone cone" passive radiators reduces the amount that the woofer has to move. If a woofer has to move too much to produce very deep pitches, it can damage the woofer (this is called "overextension"). A passive radiator system can provide an improved bass sound. Another benefit is that, given that PR designers usually use a larger "drone cone" than the real woofer (or use two drone cones), this means speaker designers can use a woofer that is not as large.

text: A passive radiator system makes it easier for the speaker system to create the deepest pitches (e.g.,

text: bassline

text: s). These deep pitches are hard for the woofer to produce. With a PR system, the movement of the "drone cone" passive radiators reduces the amount that the woofer has to move. If a woofer has to move too much to produce very deep pitches, it can damage the woofer (this is called "overextension"). A passive radiator system can provide an improved bass sound. Another benefit is that, given that PR designers usually use a larger "drone cone" than the real woofer (or use two drone cones), this means speaker designers can use a woofer that is not as large.

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answers: It can damage the woofer (this is called "overextension")

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: a woofer

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answers: nonliving things

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Spacecraft, both manned and unmanned, must cope with the high radiation environment of outerspace.  Space radiation produced by the Sun and other galactic sources, and trapped in radiation "belts" is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth.<ref name='behind the scenes'></ref> When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.

text: Spacecraft, both manned and unmanned, must cope with the high radiation environment of outerspace.  Space radiation produced by the Sun and

text: other galactic sources

text: , and trapped in

text: radiation "belts"

text: is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth.<ref name='behind the scenes'></ref> When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.

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answers: usually experienced on Earth

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answers: medical X-rays

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: It can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Strike human tissue

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: At modern transmitters or at low power transmitters situated in very small transmitter buildings the transmitter, matching unit and mast radiator can be very close together and even in the same building. This measure saves on feeders, land area and increases the efficiency of the transmitter if only one mast radiator is in use.

text: At modern transmitters or at low power transmitters situated in very small

text: transmitter building

text: s the transmitter, matching unit and mast radiator can be very close together and even in the same building. This measure saves on feeders, land area and increases the efficiency of the transmitter if only one mast radiator is in use.

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answers: low power transmitters

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answers: mast radiator

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answers: low power transmitters

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: mast radiator

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by radiation (see also: radiation effect). Examples of radiation sensitive materials are silver chloride, photoresists and biomaterials. Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch. Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as quartz and sapphire. The radiation effect depends on the type of the irradiating particles, their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume. Radiation effects can be transient or permanent. The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change. Physical radiation effects depending on diffusion properties can be thermally annealed whereby the original structure of the material is recovered. Chemical radiation effects usually cannot be recovered.

text: Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by

text: radiation

text: (see also:

text: radiation effect

text: ). Examples of radiation sensitive materials are

text: silver chloride

text: photoresist

text: s and

text: biomaterials

text: . Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch. Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as

text: quartz

text: and

text: sapphire

text: . The

text: radiation effect

text: depends on the type of the irradiating particles, their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume.

text: Radiation effect

text: s can be transient or permanent. The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change. Physical

text: radiation effect

text: s depending on

text: diffusion

text: properties can be thermally

text: annealed

text: whereby the original structure of the material is recovered. Chemical radiation effects usually cannot be recovered.

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answers: Pine trees are more radiation susceptible

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Pine trees

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiation effects can be transient or permanent

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: physical or chemical changes

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Pine trees

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: According to the United Nations (UNSCEAR), regular nuclear power plant operation including the nuclear fuel cycle causes radioisotope releases into the environment amounting to 0.0002 millisieverts (mSv) per year of public exposure as a global average. (Such is small compared to variation in natural background radiation, which averages 2.4 mSv/a globally but frequently varies between 1 mSv/a and 13 mSv/a depending on a person's location as determined by UNSCEAR). As of a 2008 report, the remaining legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident (Chernobyl) is 0.002 mSv/a in global average exposure (a figure which was 0.04 mSv per person averaged over the entire populace of the Northern Hemisphere in the year of the accident in 1986, although far higher among the most affected local populations and recovery workers).

text: According to the United Nations (

entity_name: United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

text: UNSCEAR

text: ), regular nuclear power plant operation including the nuclear fuel cycle causes radioisotope releases into the environment amounting to 0.0002

text: millisievert

text: s (mSv) per year of public exposure as a global average. (Such is small compared to variation in natural

text: background radiation

text: , which averages 2.4 mSv/a globally but frequently varies between 1 mSv/a and 13 mSv/a depending on a person's location as determined by UNSCEAR). As of a 2008 report, the remaining legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident (Chernobyl) is 0.002 mSv/a in global average exposure (a figure which was 0.04 mSv per person averaged over the entire populace of the Northern Hemisphere in the year of the accident in 1986, although far higher among the most affected local populations and recovery workers).

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures exposure to ionizing radiation. It has two main uses: for human radiation protection and for measurement of dose in both medical and industrial processes.

text: A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures exposure to

text: ionizing radiation

text: . It has two main uses: for human radiation protection and for measurement of dose in both medical and industrial processes.

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answer: No

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: A semiconductor detector in ionising radiation detection physics is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually silicon or germanium) to measure the effect of incident charged particles or photons.

text: A semiconductor detector in ionising radiation detection physics is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually

text: silicon

text: or

text: germanium

text: ) to measure the effect of incident charged particles or photons.

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air, and specialist techniques are used to measure the levels of contamination by detection of the emitted radiation.

text: Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air, and specialist techniques are used to measure the levels of contamination by detection of the emitted radiation.

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answers: Radioactive contamination

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: The Red Forest is located in the zone of alienation; this area received the highest doses of radiation from the Chernobyl accident and the resulting clouds of smoke and dust, heavily polluted with radiation. The trees died from this radiation. The explosion and fire at the Chernobyl No. 4 reactor contaminated the soil, water and atmosphere with radioactive material equivalent to that of 20 times the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

text: The Red Forest is located in the

text: zone of alienation

text: ; this area received the highest doses of radiation from the Chernobyl accident and the resulting clouds of smoke and dust, heavily polluted with radiation. The trees died from this radiation. The explosion and fire at the Chernobyl No. 4 reactor contaminated the soil, water and atmosphere with radioactive material equivalent to that of 20 times the

text: atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radiometric calibration is a general term used in science and technology for any set of calibration techniques in support of the measurement of electromagnetic radiation and atomic particle radiation. These can be for instance, in the field of Radiometry or the measurement of ionising radiation radiated from a source.

text: Radiometric calibration is a general term used in science and technology for any set of calibration techniques in support of the measurement of electromagnetic radiation and atomic particle radiation. These can be for instance, in the field of

text: Radiometry

text: or the measurement of

text: ionising radiation

text: radiated from a source.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.

text: Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist

text: Heinrich Hertz

text: built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called

text: radio wave

text: s. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree

text: resin

text: . In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of

text: microwave

text: s. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the

text: wireless telegraph

text: and the

text: radio

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Committee Examining Radiation Risks of Internal Emitters (CERRIE), established by the UK Government, carried out a 3-year-long independent expert review into the health risks of internal emitters (i.e., hot particles) and published its findings in 2003. The study failed to reach consensus, but the conclusion of the majority of its members was that the current ICRP risk model, despite being largely derived from studies of survivors of external radiation, adequately estimates the risk of hot particles, and that any differences between internal and external radiation are adequately accommodated by the established parameters in physiological models (relative biological effectiveness, kinetic factors); i.e., that internal radiation does not seem to be significantly more dangerous than an equal amount of externally delivered radiation. However, they noted significant levels of uncertainty regarding dose estimates for internal emitters, especially regarding less common radionuclides such as Pu and Am, and even more common ones such as Sr. Two of the twelve members disagreed with the overall findings, notably Christopher Busby who advocates controversial physico-biological mechanisms such as Second Event Theory and Photoelectric Effect Theory, by which he believes the danger of ingested particles could be greatly enhanced.

text: The

entity_name: Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment

text: Committee Examining Radiation Risks of Internal Emitters

text: (CERRIE), established by the UK Government, carried out a 3-year-long independent expert review into the health risks of internal emitters (i.e., hot particles) and published its findings in 2003. The study failed to reach consensus, but the conclusion of the majority of its members was that the current

entity_name: International Commission on Radiological Protection

text: ICRP

text: risk model, despite being largely derived from studies of survivors of external radiation, adequately estimates the risk of hot particles, and that any differences between internal and external radiation are adequately accommodated by the established parameters in physiological models (

text: relative biological effectiveness

text: , kinetic factors); i.e., that internal radiation does not seem to be significantly more dangerous than an equal amount of externally delivered radiation. However, they noted significant levels of uncertainty regarding dose estimates for internal emitters, especially regarding less common radionuclides such as

text: Pu

text: and

text: Am

text: , and even more common ones such as

text: Sr

text: . Two of the twelve members disagreed with the overall findings, notably

text: Christopher Busby

text: who advocates controversial physico-biological mechanisms such as

entity_section: Second Event Theory and Photoelectric Effect Controversy

text: Second Event Theory and Photoelectric Effect Theory

text: , by which he believes the danger of ingested particles could be greatly enhanced.

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answers: The Committee Examining Radiation Risks of Internal Emitters

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: internal emitters

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: internal radiation does not seem to be significantly more dangerous than an equal amount of externally delivered radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: ingested

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: ingested particles

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: On February 15, 2007, two groups—the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)—jointly announced the adoption of a new ionizing radiation warning symbol to supplement the traditional trefoil symbol. The new symbol, to be used on sealed radiation sources, is aimed at alerting anyone, anywhere to the danger of being close to a strong source of ionizing radiation. It depicts, on a red background, a black trefoil with waves of radiation streaming from it, along with a black skull and crossbones, and a running figure with an arrow pointing away from the scene. The radiating trefoil suggests the presence of radiation, while the red background and the skull and crossbones warn of the danger. The figure running away from the scene is meant to suggest taking action to avoid the labeled material. The new symbol is not intended to be generally visible, but rather to appear on internal components of devices that house radiation sources so that if anybody attempts to disassemble such devices they will see an explicit warning not to proceed any further.

text: On February 15, 2007, two groups—the

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: (IAEA) and the

entity_name: International Organization for Standardization

text: International Organization for Standardization

text: (ISO)—jointly announced the adoption of a new

text: ionizing radiation

text: warning symbol to supplement the traditional trefoil symbol. The new symbol, to be used on sealed radiation sources, is aimed at alerting anyone, anywhere to the danger of being close to a strong source of ionizing radiation. It depicts, on a red background, a black trefoil with waves of radiation streaming from it, along with a black

text: skull and crossbones

text: , and a running figure with an arrow pointing away from the scene. The radiating trefoil suggests the presence of radiation, while the red background and the skull and crossbones warn of the danger. The figure running away from the scene is meant to suggest taking action to avoid the labeled material. The new symbol is not intended to be generally visible, but rather to appear on internal components of devices that house radiation sources so that if anybody attempts to disassemble such devices they will see an explicit warning not to proceed any further.

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answers: The radiating trefoil suggests

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answers: ionizing

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answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: ionizing

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The term passive in this instance refers to the fact that PIR devices do not generate or radiate any energy for detection purposes. They work entirely by detecting the energy given off by other objects. PIR sensors don't detect or measure "heat"; instead they detect the infrared radiation emitted or reflected from an object.

text: The term passive in this instance refers to the fact that PIR devices do not generate or radiate any energy for detection purposes. They work entirely by detecting the energy given off by other objects. PIR sensors don't detect or measure "heat"; instead they detect the infrared radiation emitted or reflected from an object.

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answers: infrared radiation

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answers: other objects

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Infrared radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: LORAN-C transmitters operate at peak powers of 100–4,000 kilowatts, comparable to longwave broadcasting stations.  Most use 190–220 metre tall mast radiators, insulated from ground. The masts are inductively lengthened and fed by a loading coil (see: electrical lengthening). A well known-example of a station using such an antenna is Rantum. Free-standing tower radiators in this height range are also used. Carolina Beach uses a free-standing antenna tower. Some LORAN-C transmitters with output powers of 1,000 kW and higher used supertall 412 metre mast radiators (see below). Other high power LORAN-C stations, like George, used four T-antennas mounted on four guyed masts arranged in a square.

text: LORAN-C transmitters operate at peak powers of 100–4,000 kilowatts, comparable to

text: longwave

text: broadcasting stations.  Most use 190–220 metre tall mast radiators, insulated from ground. The masts are inductively lengthened and fed by a

text: loading coil

text: (see:

text: electrical lengthening

text: ). A well known-example of a station using such an antenna is

text: Rantum

text: . Free-standing

text: tower radiators

text: in this height range are also used.

text: Carolina Beach

text: uses a free-standing antenna tower. Some LORAN-C transmitters with output powers of 1,000 kW and higher used

text: supertall

text: 412 metre mast radiators (see below). Other high power LORAN-C stations, like

text: George

text: , used four T-antennas mounted on four guyed masts arranged in a square.

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answers: insulated from ground

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answers: longwave broadcasting stations

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answers: mast radiators

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: mast radiators

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Liquid-cooled motorcycles have a radiator (similar to the radiator on a car) which is the primary way their heat is dispersed. Coolant is constantly circulated between this radiator and the cylinders when the engine is running. While most off-road motorcycles have no radiator fan and rely on air flowing over the radiators from the forward motion of the motorcycle, many road motorcycles have a small fan attached to the radiator which is controlled by a thermostat. Some off-road motorcycles are liquid-cooled, and anti-dirt protection is attached to the radiator. The cooling effect of this fan is enough to prevent the engine overheating in most conditions, so liquid-cooled bikes are safe to use in a city, where traffic may frequently be at a standstill.

text: Liquid-cooled motorcycles have a

text: radiator

text: (similar to the radiator on a car) which is the primary way their heat is dispersed. Coolant is constantly circulated between this radiator and the cylinders when the engine is running. While most off-road motorcycles have no radiator fan and rely on air flowing over the radiators from the forward motion of the motorcycle, many road motorcycles have a small fan attached to the radiator which is controlled by a thermostat. Some off-road motorcycles are liquid-cooled, and anti-dirt protection is attached to the radiator. The cooling effect of this fan is enough to prevent the engine overheating in most conditions, so liquid-cooled bikes are safe to use in a city, where traffic may frequently be at a standstill.

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answers: Liquid-cooled motorcycles have a radiator

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: There are several ways of measuring absorbed doses from ionizing radiation. People in occupational contact with radioactive substances or who may be exposed to radiation routinely carry personal dosimeters. These are specifically designed to record and indicate the absorbed dose (or derived dosimetric index) received. Traditionally these were badges containing photographic film (film badge dosimeter), which would be chemically developed, following exposure to indicate the total absorbed dose received. Film badges have now been largely replaced with other devices such as the TLD badge which uses Thermoluminescent dosimetry or optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) badges.

text: There are several ways of measuring absorbed doses from ionizing radiation. People in occupational contact with radioactive substances or who may be exposed to radiation routinely carry personal

text: dosimeter

text: s. These are specifically designed to record and indicate the absorbed dose (or derived dosimetric index) received. Traditionally these were badges containing photographic film (

text: film badge dosimeter

text: ), which would be chemically developed, following exposure to indicate the total absorbed dose received. Film badges have now been largely replaced with other devices such as the TLD badge which uses

text: Thermoluminescent dosimetry

text: or

text: optically stimulated luminescence

text: (OSL) badges.

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answers: People

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Krasny Bor transmitter is a large facility for longwave, mediumwave and shortwave broadcasting at Krasny Bor near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Krasny Bor transmitter was established in 1961 and belongs to the most powerful broadcasting stations in the world. It uses four mast radiators and several shortwave antennas. The tallest of these mast radiators is a 271.5 metres high guyed mast, which is equipped with a cage antenna and used for longwave broadcasting. It was built in 2002 as replacement for a 257.5 metres tall guyed mast, destroyed at a helicopter collision on November 5, 2001. Further, there is a 257 metres tall mast radiator, which is insulated against ground and equipped with a cage antenna for medium wave broadcasting, a 106 metres tall steel tube mast radiator carrying several cage antennas in multiple levels and a 93 metres tall guyed mast radiator.

text: Krasny Bor transmitter is a large facility for longwave, mediumwave and shortwave broadcasting at

entity_name: Krasny Bor, Tosnensky District, Leningrad Oblast

text: Krasny Bor

text: near

text: Saint Petersburg

text: , Russia. Krasny Bor transmitter was established in 1961 and belongs to the most powerful broadcasting stations in the world. It uses four mast

text: radiator

text: s and several shortwave

text: antenna

text: s. The tallest of these mast radiators is a 271.5 metres high guyed mast, which is equipped with a

text: cage antenna

text: and used for longwave broadcasting. It was built in 2002 as replacement for a 257.5 metres tall guyed mast, destroyed at a helicopter collision on November 5, 2001. Further, there is a 257 metres tall mast radiator, which is insulated against ground and equipped with a cage antenna for medium wave broadcasting, a 106 metres tall steel tube mast radiator carrying several cage antennas in multiple levels and a 93 metres tall guyed mast radiator.

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answers: It uses four mast radiators

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answers: longwave

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: longwave

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It was built in 2002

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Radiation dose reconstruction refers to the process of estimating radiation doses that were received by individuals or populations in the past as a result of particular exposure situations of concern. The basic principle of radiation dose reconstruction is to characterize the radiation environment to which individuals have been exposed using available information. In cases where radiation exposures can not be fully characterized based on available data, default values based on reasonable scientific assumptions can be used as substitutes.  The extent to which the default values are used depends on the purpose of the reconstruction(s) being undertaken.

text: Radiation dose reconstruction refers to the process of estimating

text: radiation

text: doses that were received by individuals or populations in the past as a result of particular exposure situations of concern. The basic principle of radiation dose reconstruction is to characterize the radiation environment to which individuals have been exposed using available information. In cases where radiation exposures can not be fully characterized based on available data, default values based on reasonable scientific assumptions can be used as substitutes.  The extent to which the default values are used depends on the purpose of the reconstruction(s) being undertaken.

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answers: Individuals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Ludlum Measurements is an American manufacturer of radiation detection and monitoring equipment such as geiger counters.

text: Ludlum Measurements is an American manufacturer of

text: radiation

text: detection and monitoring equipment such as

text: geiger counter

text: s.

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answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

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text: Beowulf notes, however, that the speed at which the Fleet of Worlds is moving (0.8c) would cause nearly as much damage as the Core explosion itself. This suggests radiation may not be the primary danger the Puppeteers flee, also that Puppeteers may, in fact, have a means to deal with radiation affecting entire worlds. In Crashlander it is speculated that the Puppeteers are planning on moving to the now-uninhabited Core, isolated from potentially dangerous species - which would have either fled the galaxy entirely or been destroyed. Their initial path is revealed to be out of the plane of the galaxy, but no mention is made of Louis Wu noticing trajectory when flying there on the Long Shot in Ringworld.

text: Beowulf notes, however, that the speed at which the Fleet of Worlds is moving (0.8c) would cause nearly as much damage as the Core explosion itself. This suggests radiation may not be the primary danger the Puppeteers flee, also that Puppeteers may, in fact, have a means to deal with radiation affecting entire worlds. In

text: Crashlander

text: it is speculated that the Puppeteers are planning on moving to the now-uninhabited Core, isolated from potentially dangerous species - which would have either fled the galaxy entirely or been destroyed. Their initial path is revealed to be out of the plane of the galaxy, but no mention is made of Louis Wu noticing trajectory when flying there on the Long Shot in Ringworld.

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answers: This suggests radiation may not be the primary danger

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answer: No

answer: Yes

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text: Dose due to external radiation tends to decrease with depth because of the shielding effects of outer tissues. The reference depth of 1 cm essentially discounts alpha and beta radiation that are easily shielded by the skin, clothing, and bone surface, while taking minimal credit for any self-shielding from the more penetrating gamma rays. This makes the deep-dose equivalent a conservative measure of internal organ exposure to external radiation, while eye and skin exposure to external radiation must be accounted differently. Deep-dose equivalent does include any contribution from internal contamination.

text: Dose due to external radiation tends to decrease with depth because of the shielding effects of outer tissues. The reference depth of 1 cm essentially discounts alpha and beta radiation that are easily shielded by the skin, clothing, and bone surface, while taking minimal credit for any self-shielding from the more penetrating gamma rays. This makes the deep-dose equivalent a conservative measure of internal organ exposure to external radiation, while eye and skin exposure to external radiation must be accounted differently. Deep-dose equivalent does include any contribution from internal contamination.

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answers: No

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text: In 1997, researchers found that the dose received from background radiation on the island was between 2.4 mSv/year—the same as natural background radiation—and 4.5 mSv/year, assuming that residents consumed a diet of imported foods. Because the local food supply is still irradiated, the group did not recommend resettling the island. A 1998 International Atomic Energy Agency report found that Bikini is still not safe for habitation because of dangerous levels of radiation.

text: In 1997, researchers found that the dose received from background radiation on the island was between 2.4 mSv/year—the same as natural

text: background radiation

text: —and 4.5 mSv/year, assuming that residents consumed a diet of imported foods. Because the local food supply is still irradiated, the group did not recommend resettling the island. A 1998

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: report found that Bikini is still not safe for habitation because of dangerous levels of radiation.

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answers: 2.4 mSv

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answers: natural background radiation

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answers: not safe for habitation

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answers: irradiated

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answers: irradiated

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation therapeutic physics is also known as radiotherapy physics or radiation oncology physics.The majority of medical physicists currently working in the US, Canada, and some western countries are of this group. A Radiation Therapy physicist typically deals with linear accelerator (Linac) systems and kilovoltage x-ray treatment units on a daily basis, as well as more advanced modalities such as TomoTherapy, gamma knife, cyberknife, proton therapy, and brachytherapy.The academic and research side of therapeutic physics may encompass fields such as boron neutron capture therapy, sealed source radiotherapy, terahertz radiation, high-intensity focused ultrasound (including lithotripsy), optical radiation lasers, ultraviolet etc. including photodynamic therapy, as well as nuclear medicine including unsealed source radiotherapy, and photomedicine, which is the use of light to treat and diagnose disease.

text: Radiation therapeutic physics is also known as radiotherapy physics or radiation oncology physics.The majority of medical physicists currently working in the US, Canada, and some western countries are of this group. A Radiation Therapy physicist typically deals with linear accelerator (Linac) systems and kilovoltage x-ray treatment units on a daily basis, as well as more advanced modalities such as

text: TomoTherapy

text: gamma knife

text: cyberknife

text: proton therapy

text: , and

text: brachytherapy

text: .The academic and research side of therapeutic physics may encompass fields such as

text: boron neutron capture therapy

text: sealed source radiotherapy

text: terahertz radiation

text: , high-intensity focused

text: ultrasound

text: (including

text: lithotripsy

text: optical radiation

text: laser

text: s,

text: ultraviolet

text: etc. including

text: photodynamic therapy

text: , as well as

text: nuclear medicine

text: including

text: unsealed source radiotherapy

text: , and

text: photomedicine

text: , which is the use of light to treat and diagnose disease.

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answers: unsealed source radiotherapy

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answers: unsealed source radiotherapy

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: brachytherapy

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A full study analyzing the effects of escape and radiate coevolution has not yet been completed which hinders knowing how applicable this form of coevolution could be to other areas of study, or global concerns, only hypotheses of its effects can be made. Improved agriculture, conservation, biological diversity, and epidemiology are just some of the areas that could potentially be helped through the study of coevolution and its specific hypotheses such as escape and radiate coevolution.A theory as to why we see such vast biological diversity today may be because of escape and radiate coevolution. After the organism escapes, it then radiates into multiple species, and spreads geographically. Evidence of escape and radiate coevolution can be seen through the starburst effect in plant and herbivore clades. When analyzing clades of predator-prey associations, although it varies, the starburst effect is a good indicator that escape and radiate coevolution may be occurring. Eventually this cycle must come to an end because adaptations that  entail costs (allocation of resources, vulnerability to other predators) that at some point outweigh their benefits.Escape and radiate coevolution may support parallel cladogenesis, wherein plant and herbivore phylogenies might match with ancestral insects exploiting ancestral plants. This is significant because it allows researchers to hypothesize about the relationships between ancestral organisms.  Unfortunately, there have not yet been any known examples specifically involving escape and radiate coevolution being used for hypothesizing ancestral relationships.

text: A full study analyzing the effects of escape and radiate coevolution has not yet been completed which hinders knowing how applicable this form of coevolution could be to other areas of study, or global concerns, only hypotheses of its effects can be made. Improved agriculture, conservation, biological diversity, and epidemiology are just some of the areas that could potentially be helped through the study of coevolution and its specific hypotheses such as escape and radiate coevolution.A theory as to why we see such vast biological diversity today may be because of escape and radiate coevolution. After the organism escapes, it then radiates into multiple species, and spreads geographically. Evidence of escape and radiate coevolution can be seen through the starburst effect in plant and herbivore

text: clades

text: . When analyzing clades of predator-prey associations, although it varies, the starburst effect is a good indicator that escape and radiate coevolution may be occurring. Eventually this cycle must come to an end because adaptations that  entail costs (allocation of resources, vulnerability to other predators) that at some point outweigh their benefits.Escape and radiate coevolution may support parallel

text: cladogenesis

text: , wherein plant and herbivore

text: phylogenies

text: might match with ancestral insects exploiting ancestral plants. This is significant because it allows researchers to hypothesize about the relationships between ancestral organisms.  Unfortunately, there have not yet been any known examples specifically involving escape and radiate coevolution being used for hypothesizing ancestral relationships.

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answers: The starburst effect

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answers: the starburst effect

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answers: After the organism escapes, it then radiates

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: adaptations that entail costs

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It then radiates into multiple species

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Natural radiation is found everywhere; it is in the air, water, soil, rocks, minerals and food. The largest amount of radiation comes from radon. Certain places are called 'high background radiation areas' (HBRAs), such as Guarapari, Southwest of France, Ramsar, parts of China, and Kerala Coast. People living in these areas however have not shown any health deficiencies and in some cases are even healthier and live longer than those not in HBRAs.

text: Natural

text: radiation

text: is found everywhere; it is in the

text: air

text: water

text: soil

text: rocks

text: minerals

text: and

text: food

text: . The largest amount of

text: radiation

text: comes from

text: radon

text: . Certain places are called 'high background radiation areas' (HBRAs), such as

text: Guarapari

text: , Southwest of

text: France

text: Ramsar

text: , parts of

text: China

text: , and Kerala Coast. People living in these areas however have not shown any

text: health

text: deficiencies and in some cases are even healthier and live longer than those not in HBRAs.

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answers: radon

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answers: radon

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: High background radiation areas

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: health deficiencies

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ship silencing is an important part of reducing unwanted noise, which can severely limit a naval vessel's active and passive undersea warfare capability and decrease the range or probability of detection by an unfriendly vessel.  The US Navy maintains a Ship Silencing Program to address these problems. The goals of the Ship Silencing Program are a reduction of sonar self noise over the frequency range of passive capable sonar and the reduction in the ship's radiated noise to reduce detection by enemy submarines.  Self-noise is the noise generated by a ship that has an effect on its own sonar and sensors.  Radiated noise is the noise generated by a ship that has an effect on other ship's sensors, especially submarines.  The Masker-Prairie countermeasure systems are key elements in this program to reduce radiated noise and self-noise that are not reduced by controlling the sounds at their source or their transmission to the hull.

text: Ship silencing is an important part of reducing unwanted noise, which can severely limit a naval vessel's active and passive undersea warfare capability and decrease the range or probability of detection by an unfriendly vessel.  The US Navy maintains a Ship Silencing Program to address these problems. The goals of the Ship Silencing Program are a reduction of sonar self noise over the frequency range of passive capable sonar and the reduction in the ship's radiated noise to reduce detection by enemy submarines.  Self-noise is the noise generated by a ship that has an effect on its own sonar and sensors.  Radiated noise is the noise generated by a ship that has an effect on other ship's sensors, especially submarines.  The Masker-Prairie countermeasure systems are key elements in this program to reduce radiated noise and self-noise that are not reduced by controlling the sounds at their source or their transmission to the hull.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Rona's methods were also used as part of the experiments conducted by the Office of Human Radiation Experiments to determine the effects of human exposure to radiation. Early in her career, she had been exposed to the dangers of radium. Rona's requests for protective gas masks were denied, as Stefan Meyer downplayed the hazards of exposure. She purchased protective gear with her own money, not believing there was no danger. When vials of radioactive material exploded and the laboratory became contaminated, Rona was convinced her mask had saved her. Gleditsch had also warned her of the dangers the year Rona was sick and living in Paris, when Joliot-Curie died, emphasizing the risk of radium-related anemia. In her 1978 book about her experiences, Rona wrote about the damage to bones, hands, and lungs of the scientists studying radioactivity. Since they wore no gloves and frequently poured substances between vials without protection, she noted that their thumbs, forefingers, and ring fingers were often damaged. The secrecy surrounding the project makes it difficult to know if any of the scientists not directly working on any project knew specifically what their contributions were being used for.

text: Rona's methods were also used as part of the experiments conducted by the

text: Office of Human Radiation Experiments

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger–Müller tube; which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a hand-held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world's best-known radiation detection instruments.

text: It detects ionizing radiation such as

text: alpha particle

text: s,

text: beta particle

text: s and

text: gamma ray

text: s using the ionization effect produced in a

text: Geiger–Müller tube

text: ; which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a

text: hand-held radiation survey instrument

text: , it is perhaps one of the world's best-known radiation detection instruments.

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text: Measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) by experiments such as COBE, BOOMERanG, WMAP, CBI and many others have greatly advanced our knowledge of cosmology, particularly the early evolution of the universe. It is expected that higher resolution CMB observations will not only improve the precision of current knowledge, but will also allow new types of measurements. At ACT resolutions, the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect (SZ), by which galaxy clusters leave an imprint on the CMB, should be prominent. The power of this method of detection is that it is a redshift-independent measurement of the mass of the clusters, meaning that very distant, ancient clusters are as easy to detect as nearby clusters.

text: Measurements of

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: (CMB) by experiments such as

text: COBE

text: BOOMERanG

text: WMAP

text: CBI

text: and many others have greatly advanced our knowledge of cosmology, particularly the early evolution of the universe. It is expected that higher resolution CMB observations will not only improve the precision of current knowledge, but will also allow new types of measurements. At ACT resolutions, the

text: Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect

text: (SZ), by which

text: galaxy clusters

text: leave an imprint on the CMB, should be prominent. The power of this method of detection is that it is a

text: redshift

text: -independent measurement of the mass of the clusters, meaning that very distant, ancient clusters are as easy to detect as nearby clusters.

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text: Neutron radiation protection relies on radiation shielding. Due to the high kinetic energy of neutrons, this radiation is considered to be the most severe and dangerous radiation to the whole body when it is exposed to external radiation sources. In comparison to conventional ionizing radiation based on photons or charged particles, neutrons are repeatedly bounced and slowed (absorbed) by light nuclei so hydrogen-rich material is more effective at shielding than iron nuclei. The light atoms serve to slow down the neutrons by elastic scattering so they can then be absorbed by nuclear reactions. However, gamma radiation is often produced in such reactions, so additional shielding has to be provided to absorb it. Care must be taken to avoid using nuclei which undergo fission or neutron capture that results in radioactive decay of nuclei that produce gamma rays.

text: Neutron

text: radiation protection

text: relies on

text: radiation shielding

text: . Due to the high kinetic energy of neutrons, this radiation is considered to be the most severe and dangerous radiation to the whole body when it is exposed to external radiation sources. In comparison to conventional ionizing radiation based on photons or charged particles, neutrons are repeatedly bounced and slowed (absorbed) by light nuclei so

text: hydrogen

text: -rich material is more effective at shielding than

text: iron

text: nuclei. The light atoms serve to slow down the neutrons by

text: elastic scattering

text: so they can then be absorbed by

text: nuclear reaction

text: s. However,

text: gamma radiation

text: is often produced in such reactions, so additional shielding has to be provided to absorb it. Care must be taken to avoid using nuclei which undergo

text: fission

text: or

text: neutron capture

text: that results in

text: radioactive decay

text: of nuclei that produce gamma rays.

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answers: the most severe and dangerous radiation to the whole body

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answers: the whole body

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answers: The whole body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as patent medicine and radioactive quackery. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of acute radiation syndrome, not cancer. Eben Byers, a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers in 1932 after consuming large quantities of radium over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.

text: Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as

text: patent medicine

text: and

entity_name: Quackery involving radioactive substances

text: radioactive quackery

text: . Examples were radium

text: enema

text: treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.

text: Marie Curie

text: spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of

text: acute radiation syndrome

text: , not cancer.

text: Eben Byers

text: , a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers in 1932 after consuming large quantities of

text: radium

text: over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.

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answers: radiation on the human body

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answers: bone

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answers: The biological effects

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Nuclear decommissioning is the process whereby a nuclear power plant site is dismantled to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection. The presence of radioactive material necessitates processes that are occupationally dangerous, hazardous to the natural environment, expensive, and time-intensive.

text: Nuclear decommissioning is the process whereby a

text: nuclear power plant

text: site is dismantled to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection. The presence of

text: radioactive

text: material necessitates processes that are occupationally dangerous, hazardous to the natural environment, expensive, and time-intensive.

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answers: no longer requires measures for radiation protection

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answers: nuclear power plant site

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answers: The presence of radioactive material

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answers: the natural environment

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter. Because the output pulse from a Geiger-Müller tube is always the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the incident radiation, the tube cannot differentiate between radiation types. A further limitation is the inability to measure high radiation rates due to the "dead time" of the tube. This is an insensitive period after each ionization of the gas during which any further incident radiation will not result in a count, and the indicated rate is therefore lower than actual. Typically the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 10 to 10 counts per second depending on the characteristic of the tube being used. Whilst some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for accurate measurements ion chamber instruments are preferred for high radiation rates.

text: There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter. Because the output pulse from a Geiger-Müller tube is always the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the incident radiation, the tube cannot differentiate between radiation types. A further limitation is the inability to measure high radiation rates due to the "dead time" of the tube. This is an insensitive period after each ionization of the gas during which any further incident radiation will not result in a count, and the indicated rate is therefore lower than actual. Typically the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 10 to 10 counts per second depending on the characteristic of the tube being used. Whilst some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for accurate measurements

text: ion chamber

text: instruments are preferred for high radiation rates.

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answers: Geiger-Müller tube

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answers: Geiger counter

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answers: Geiger-Müller tube

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For a good groundwave propagation, mast radiators are built on a large flat area with good ground conductivity and if possible without inclination. The construction of a mast radiator on the top of a building or tower whose height is in the same magnitude range as the wavelengths being transmitted gives a bad groundwave propagation. For this reason, mast radiators are (in contrast to FM broadcasting antennas) not typically installed on the top of buildings or towers. Nevertheless in rare cases, mast radiators for low power transmissions are installed on top of buildings. Some lighthouses, such as Reykjanesviti carry a mast radiator for a longwave radio beacon on the roof. The best-known are WGSO in New Orleans and KSBN (AM) on the Delaney Building in Spokane, Washington. In Europe, the low-power broadcasting station at Campobasso uses a mast radiator on a castle.

text: For a good groundwave propagation, mast radiators are built on a large flat area with good ground conductivity and if possible without inclination. The construction of a mast radiator on the top of a building or tower whose height is in the same magnitude range as the wavelengths being transmitted gives a bad groundwave propagation. For this reason, mast radiators are (in contrast to FM broadcasting antennas) not typically installed on the top of buildings or towers. Nevertheless in rare cases, mast radiators for low power transmissions are installed on top of buildings. Some lighthouses, such as

text: Reykjanesviti

text: carry a mast radiator for a longwave radio beacon on the roof. The best-known are

text: WGSO

text: in

text: New Orleans

text: and

text: KSBN (AM)

text: on the

text: Delaney Building

text: in

text: Spokane, Washington

text: . In Europe, the low-power broadcasting station at

text: Campobasso

text: uses a mast radiator on a castle.

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answers: good ground conductivity and if possible without inclination

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answers: mast radiators are not typically installed on the top of buildings or towers

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answers: mast radiators

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It's impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There has been concern that the plant would be dangerous for workers. Two workers suffered skin burns from radiation, but no serious injuries or fatalities have been documented to have been caused by radiation at Fukushima Dai-ichi.

text: There has been concern that the plant would be dangerous for workers. Two workers suffered skin burns from radiation, but no serious injuries or fatalities have been documented to have been caused by radiation at Fukushima Dai-ichi.

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answers: no serious injuries or fatalities

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answers: nuclear power plants

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: skin burns

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: skin burns

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Used in the measurement of trace amounts of volatile heavy metals such as mercury, cold vapour AFS makes use of the unique characteristic of mercury that allows vapour measurement at room temperature.  Free mercury atoms in a carrier gas are excited by a collimated ultraviolet light source at a wavelength of 253.7 nanometres.  The excited atoms re-radiate their absorbed energy (fluoresce) at this same wavelength.  Unlike the directional excitation source, the fluorescence is omnidirectional and may thus be detected using a photomultiplier tube or UV photodiode.

text: Used in the measurement of trace amounts of volatile heavy metals such as

text: mercury

text: , cold vapour AFS makes use of the unique characteristic of mercury that allows vapour measurement at room temperature.  Free mercury

text: atom

text: s in a carrier gas are excited by a

text: collimated

text: ultraviolet

text: light source at a

text: wavelength

text: of 253.7

text: nanometre

text: s.  The excited atoms re-radiate their absorbed energy (fluoresce) at this same wavelength.  Unlike the directional excitation source, the fluorescence is omnidirectional and may thus be detected using a

text: photomultiplier tube

text: or UV

text: photodiode

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text: Nuclear engineers and radiological scientists are interested in the development of more advanced ionizing radiation measurement and detection systems, and using these to improve imaging technologies. This includes detector design, fabrication and analysis, measurements of fundamental atomic and nuclear parameters, and radiation imaging systems, among other things.

text: Nuclear engineers and radiological scientists are interested in the development of more advanced

text: ionizing radiation measurement and detection

text: systems, and using these to improve imaging technologies. This includes detector design, fabrication and analysis, measurements of fundamental atomic and nuclear parameters, and radiation imaging systems, among other things.

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text: The story begins on September 16, 2030 at 6:19AM when an explosion occurs at LABO.  Watase, the captain of the rescue squad of Rokumei City, is dispatched to LABO along with his teammates after the incident occurs.  Around the same time Natsuhiko, a high school student and resident of Rokumei City, is inside the LABO facility and trying to escape with his friends. During the rescue operation, LABO's nuclear reactor suffers a meltdown, sending the facility to lockdown and trapping the rescue squad and survivors of the explosion inside LABO for nine hours.  Due to the meltdown, lethal radiation has leaked and contaminated the facility, putting the two groups in danger of radiation exposure.  There exists anti-radiation medication (called "AD") that can temporarily lower the effects of radiation exposure but there is not enough of the medication offered until the lockdown lifts.

text: The story begins on September 16, 2030 at 6:19AM when an explosion occurs at LABO.  Watase, the captain of the rescue squad of Rokumei City, is dispatched to LABO along with his teammates after the incident occurs.  Around the same time Natsuhiko, a high school student and resident of Rokumei City, is inside the LABO facility and trying to escape with his friends. During the rescue operation, LABO's nuclear reactor suffers a

text: meltdown

text: , sending the facility to lockdown and trapping the rescue squad and survivors of the explosion inside LABO for nine hours.  Due to the meltdown, lethal

text: radiation

text: has leaked and contaminated the facility, putting the two groups in danger of

text: radiation exposure

text: .  There exists anti-radiation medication (called "AD") that can temporarily lower the effects of radiation exposure but there is not enough of the medication offered until the lockdown lifts.

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text: Radiation therapy, also known as radiotherapy, is often used to treat all stages of prostate cancer. It is also often used after surgery if the surgery was not successful at curing the cancer. Radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation to kill prostate cancer cells. When absorbed in tissue, Ionizing radiation such as gamma and x-rays damage the DNA in cancer cells, which increases the probability of apoptosis (cell death).  Normal cells are able to repair radiation damage, while cancer cells are not.  Radiation therapy exploits this fact to treat cancer.  Two different kinds of radiation therapy are used in prostate cancer treatment: external beam radiation therapy and brachytherapy (specifically prostate brachytherapy).

text: Radiation therapy

text: , also known as radiotherapy, is often used to treat all stages of prostate cancer. It is also often used after surgery if the surgery was not successful at curing the cancer. Radiotherapy uses

text: ionizing radiation

text: to kill prostate cancer cells. When absorbed in tissue,

text: Ionizing radiation

text: such as gamma and x-rays damage the

text: DNA

text: in cancer cells, which increases the probability of apoptosis (cell death).  Normal cells are able to repair radiation damage, while cancer cells are not.  Radiation therapy exploits this fact to treat cancer.  Two different kinds of radiation therapy are used in prostate cancer treatment:

text: external beam radiation therapy

text: and

text: brachytherapy

text: (specifically

text: prostate brachytherapy

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text: ESR's National Centre for Radiation Science aims to ensure radiation science benefits New Zealand’s people, environment and industries by helping protect them from radiation and radioactive contamination, as well as promoting safe and beneficial use of radiation and radioactive materials.

text: ESR's National Centre for Radiation Science aims to ensure radiation science benefits New Zealand’s people, environment and industries by helping protect them from radiation and radioactive contamination, as well as promoting safe and beneficial use of radiation and radioactive materials.

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text: X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.

text: X-ray

text: photon

text: s carry enough energy to

text: ionize

text: atoms and disrupt

text: molecular bond

text: s. This makes it a type of

text: ionizing radiation

text: , and therefore harmful to living

text: tissue

text: . A very high

text: radiation dose

text: over a short period of time causes

text: radiation sickness

text: , while lower doses can give an increased risk of

text: radiation-induced cancer

text: . In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in

text: cancer treatment

text: to kill

text: malignant

text: cells

text: using

text: radiation therapy

text: . It is also used for material characterization using

text: X-ray spectroscopy

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answers: It is also used for material characterization

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answers: This makes it a type of ionizing radiation

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answers: living tissue

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: However, using selective radiators with Si PVs is still a possibility. Selective radiators would eliminate high and low energy photons, reducing heat generated. Ideally, selective radiators would emit no radiation above and below the band edge of the PV converter, increasing conversion efficiency significantly. However, selective emitters today are far from ideal. Consequently, no efficient TPVs have been realized using a Si PVs.

text: However, using selective radiators with Si PVs is still a possibility. Selective radiators would eliminate high and low energy photons, reducing heat generated. Ideally, selective radiators would emit no radiation above and below the band edge of the PV converter, increasing conversion efficiency significantly. However, selective emitters today are far from ideal. Consequently, no efficient TPVs have been realized using a Si PVs.

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text: In the air-to-surface mode the N010 radar offers a mapping capability using either Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), real beam or doppler beam narrowing modes with a resolution of up to 3x3m with zooming and image freezing functions. The radar can detect and track with measurement of range and speed both moving and static ground and naval targets. The Zhuk radar can support low altitude terrain following flying and can also detect dangerous weather patterns during flight. The radar is compatible with a variety of air-to-surface weaponry, including Kh-29 air-to-surface missiles as well as Kh-31 anti-radiation missiles.

text: In the air-to-surface mode the N010 radar offers a mapping capability using either

text: Synthetic aperture radar

text: (SAR), real beam or doppler beam narrowing modes with a resolution of up to 3x3m with zooming and image freezing functions. The radar can detect and track with measurement of range and speed both moving and static ground and naval targets. The Zhuk radar can support low altitude terrain following flying and can also detect dangerous weather patterns during flight. The radar is compatible with a variety of air-to-surface weaponry, including

text: air-to-surface missiles as well as

text: anti-radiation missiles.

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answers: moving and static ground and naval targets

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answers: Synthetic aperture radar

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in Ramsar, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external effective radiation dose of 6 mSv per year, (0.6 rem/yr,) six times the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon. Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was 131 mSv/a, (13.1 rem/yr) and the internal committed dose from radon was 72 mSv/a (7.2 rem/yr). This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.

text: The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in

text: Ramsar

text: , primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external

text: effective radiation dose

text: of 6 mSv per year, (0.6 rem/yr,) six times the

text: ICRP

text: recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon. Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was 131 mSv/a, (13.1 rem/yr) and the internal

text: committed dose

text: from

text: radon

text: was 72 mSv/a (7.2 rem/yr). This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Acoustics is by no means the only subject which finds use for weighting curves however, and they are widely used in deriving measures of effect for sun exposure, gamma radiation exposure, and many other things. In the measurement of gamma rays or other ionising radiation, a radiation monitor or dosimeter will commonly use a filter to attenuate those energy levels or wavelengths that cause the least damage to the human body, while letting through those that do the most damage, so that any source of radiation may be measured in terms of its true danger rather than just its 'strength'. The sievert is a unit of weighted radiation dose for ionising radiation, which supersedes the older unit the REM (roentgen equivalent man).

text: Acoustics is by no means the only subject which finds use for weighting curves however, and they are widely used in deriving measures of effect for sun exposure, gamma radiation exposure, and many other things. In the measurement of

text: gamma rays

text: or other

text: ionising radiation

text: , a radiation monitor or

text: dosimeter

text: will commonly use a filter to attenuate those energy levels or wavelengths that cause the least damage to the human body, while letting through those that do the most damage, so that any source of radiation may be measured in terms of its true danger rather than just its 'strength'. The

text: sievert

text: is a unit of weighted radiation dose for

text: ionising radiation

text: , which supersedes the older unit the

text: REM

text: roentgen

text: equivalent man).

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answers: human body

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As the CD V-700s produced for the US government are now at least 45 years old, they are being slowly replaced by more modern instrumentation in US federal and state government stockpiles and are being sold off as government surplus. This makes them inexpensive and very common in the US for use by uranium prospectors, physics teachers, radiation hobbyists and others interested in detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.

text: As the CD V-700s produced for the US government are now at least 45 years old, they are being slowly replaced by more modern instrumentation in US federal and state government stockpiles and are being sold off as government surplus. This makes them inexpensive and very common in the US for use by uranium prospectors, physics teachers, radiation hobbyists and others interested in detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.

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answers: ionizing

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation burns can also occur with high power radio transmitters at any frequency where the body absorbs radio frequency energy and converts it to heat. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) considers 50 watts to be the lowest power above which radio stations must evaluate emission safety. Frequencies considered especially dangerous occur where the human body can become resonant, at 35 MHz, 70 MHz, 80-100 MHz, 400 MHz, and 1 GHz. Exposure to microwaves of too high intensity can cause microwave burns.

text: Radiation burns can also occur with high power

text: radio transmitter

text: s at any frequency where the body absorbs radio frequency energy and converts it to heat. The U.S.

text: Federal Communications Commission

text: (FCC) considers 50 watts to be the lowest power above which radio stations must evaluate emission safety. Frequencies considered especially dangerous occur where the human body can become

text: resonant

text: , at 35 MHz, 70 MHz, 80-100 MHz, 400 MHz, and 1 GHz. Exposure to

text: microwave

text: s of too high intensity can cause

text: microwave burn

text: s.

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answers: The U.S. Federal Communications Commission

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radio transmitters

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radio frequency energy and converts it to heat

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the body

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The human body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: An important difference between the black hole radiation as computed by Hawking and thermal radiation emitted from a black body is that the latter is statistical in nature, and only its average satisfies what is known as Planck's law of black body radiation, while the former fits the data better. Thus thermal radiation contains information about the body that emitted it, while Hawking radiation seems to contain no such information, and depends only on the mass, angular momentum, and charge of the black hole (the no-hair theorem). This leads to the black hole information paradox.

text: An important difference between the black hole

text: radiation

text: as computed by Hawking and

text: thermal radiation

text: emitted from a black body is that the latter is statistical in nature, and only its average satisfies what is known as

text: Planck's law of black body radiation

text: , while the former fits the data better. Thus

text: thermal radiation

text: contains

text: information

text: about the body that emitted it, while Hawking radiation seems to contain no such information, and depends only on the

text: mass

text: angular momentum

text: , and

text: charge

text: of the black hole (the

text: no-hair theorem

text: ). This leads to the

text: black hole information paradox

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answers: The no-hair theorem

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When a dipole with an unbalanced feedline such as coaxial cable is used for transmitting, the shield side of the cable, in addition to the antenna, radiates. This can induce radio frequency (RF) currents into other electronic equipment near the radiating feedline, causing RF interference. Furthermore, the antenna is not as efficient as it could be because it is radiating closer to the ground and its radiation pattern may be asymmetrically distorted. To prevent this, dipoles fed by coaxial cables have a balun between the cable and the antenna, to convert the unbalanced signal provided by the coax to a balanced symmetrical signal for the antenna.

text: When a dipole with an unbalanced feedline such as

text: coaxial cable

text: is used for

text: transmitting

text: , the shield side of the cable, in addition to the antenna, radiates. This can induce

text: radio frequency

text: (RF) currents into other electronic equipment near the radiating feedline, causing RF interference. Furthermore, the antenna is not as efficient as it could be because it is radiating closer to the ground and its radiation pattern may be asymmetrically distorted. To prevent this, dipoles fed by coaxial cables have a

text: balun

text: between the cable and the antenna, to convert the unbalanced signal provided by the coax to a balanced symmetrical signal for the antenna.

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answers: It can induce radio frequency (RF) currents into other electronic equipment near the radiating feedline

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: coaxial cable

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: RF

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: RF interference

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: (RF) currents into other electronic equipment near the radiating feedline

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Since the advent of nuclear power plants, nuclear pollution (the dispersal of radioactive materials) has become a serious problem for the environment. The amount of radiation in radioactive materials may not be safe for living organisms, so it is important for all nuclear pollution to be removed. Nuclear waste naturally remains hazardous for hundreds of years, but when processed with geomelting, radioactive materials are trapped in such a way that prevents radioactive emissions from being released, effectively neutralizing them.

text: Since the advent of nuclear power plants,

text: nuclear pollution

text: (the dispersal of radioactive materials) has become a serious problem for the environment. The amount of radiation in radioactive materials may not be safe for living organisms, so it is important for all nuclear pollution to be removed. Nuclear waste naturally remains hazardous for hundreds of years, but when processed with geomelting, radioactive materials are trapped in such a way that prevents radioactive emissions from being released, effectively neutralizing them.

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answers: Nuclear waste naturally remains hazardous

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answers: nuclear power plants

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answers: may not be safe for living organisms

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: living organisms

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation measurement is fundamental to the science and practice of radiation protection, sometimes known as radiological protection, which is the protection of people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation

text: Radiation measurement is fundamental to the science and practice of

text: radiation protection

text: , sometimes known as radiological protection, which is the protection of people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In the radiation detection application, CR-39 is used as a Solid-State Nuclear Track Detector to detect the presence of ionising radiation. Energetic particles colliding with the polymer structure leave a trail of broken chemical bonds within the CR-39. When immersed in a concentrated alkali solution (typically Sodium Hydroxide) hydroxide ions attack and break the polymer structure, etching away the bulk of the plastic at a nominally fixed rate. However, along the paths of damage left by charged particle interaction the concentration of radiation damage allows the chemical agent to attack the polymer more rapidly than it does in the bulk, revealing the paths of the charged particle ion tracks.  The resulting etched plastic therefore contains a permanent record of not only the location of the radiation on the plastic but also gives spectroscopic information about the source.  Principally used for the detection of alpha radiation emitting radionuclides (especially radon gas), the radiation-sensitivity properties of CR39 are also used for proton and neutron dosimetry and historically cosmic ray investigations.

text: In the radiation detection application, CR-39 is used as a

text: Solid-State Nuclear Track Detector

text: to detect the presence of ionising radiation. Energetic particles colliding with the polymer structure leave a trail of broken chemical bonds within the CR-39. When immersed in a concentrated alkali solution (typically

text: Sodium Hydroxide

text: ) hydroxide ions attack and break the polymer structure, etching away the bulk of the plastic at a nominally fixed rate. However, along the paths of damage left by charged particle interaction the concentration of radiation damage allows the chemical agent to attack the polymer more rapidly than it does in the bulk, revealing the paths of the charged particle

text: ion tracks

text: .  The resulting etched plastic therefore contains a permanent record of not only the location of the radiation on the plastic but also gives spectroscopic information about the source.  Principally used for the detection of alpha radiation emitting radionuclides (especially

text: radon

text: gas), the radiation-sensitivity properties of CR39 are also used for proton and neutron dosimetry and historically

text: cosmic ray

text: investigations.

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answers: It does not

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Japanese government officials say the Daiichi plant may continue to release dangerous radiation into the air for several months.

text: Japanese government officials say the Daiichi plant may continue to release dangerous radiation into the air for several months.

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority پاکستان نيؤكلر ريگيلرٹوى اثھارٹى; Acronym: PNRA), is mandated by Government of Pakistan to regulate use of nuclear energy, radioactive sources and use of ionizing radiations. The mission of PNRA is to protect the public, radiation workers and environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiations by formulating and implementing effective regulations and building a relationship of trust with the licensees and maintain transparency in its actions and decisions.

text: The Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority پاکستان نيؤكلر ريگيلرٹوى اثھارٹى;

text: Acronym

text: : PNRA), is mandated by Government of Pakistan to regulate use of nuclear energy, radioactive sources and use of ionizing radiations. The mission of PNRA is to protect the public, radiation workers and environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiations by formulating and implementing effective regulations and building a relationship of trust with the licensees and maintain transparency in its actions and decisions.

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answers: The Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Paul Morrow voices the danger of the pilots' potential exposure to radiation.  Koenig disagrees, feeling the Eagles' radiation screens are sufficient.  Bergman stresses there is an unknown class of radiation present in the cloud against which they may have no defence.  The Commander disregards his advice and lifts-off in Rescue Eagle Four, with Morrow volunteering to serve as co-pilot.  They are literally flying blind through the plasma cloud, sending out hails and receiving no answer.

text: Paul Morrow

text: voices the danger of the pilots' potential exposure to radiation.  Koenig disagrees, feeling the Eagles' radiation screens are sufficient.  Bergman stresses there is an unknown class of radiation present in the cloud against which they may have no defence.  The Commander disregards his advice and lifts-off in Rescue Eagle Four, with Morrow volunteering to serve as co-pilot.  They are literally flying blind through the plasma cloud, sending out hails and receiving no answer.

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answer: No

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text: The time-domain approach consists of applying two pump pulses. The first pulse creates a coherence between the vibrational modes of the molecule and the second pulse creates a population, effectively storing information in the molecules. After a determined waiting time, ranging from a zero to a few hundred picoseconds, an interaction with a third pulse again creates a coherence, which, due to an oscillating dipole, radiates an infrared signal. The radiated signal is heterodyned with a reference pulse in order to retrieve frequency and phase information; the signal is usually collected in the frequency domain using a spectrometer yielding detection frequency

text: The time-domain approach consists of applying two pump pulses. The first pulse creates a

text: coherence

text: between the vibrational modes of the molecule and the second pulse creates a population, effectively storing information in the molecules. After a determined waiting time, ranging from a zero to a few hundred

text: picosecond

text: s, an interaction with a third pulse again creates a coherence, which, due to an oscillating dipole, radiates an

text: infrared

text: signal. The radiated signal is

text: heterodyne

text: d with a reference pulse in order to retrieve

text: frequency

text: and

text: phase

text: information; the signal is usually collected in the frequency domain using a

text: spectrometer

text: yielding detection frequency

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: In equatorial climates and during temperate summers, overheating (hyperthermia) is as great a threat as cold.  In hot conditions, many warm-blooded animals increase heat loss by panting, which cools the animal by increasing water evaporation in the breath, and/or flushing, increasing the blood flow to the skin so the heat will radiate into the environment. Hairless and short-haired mammals, including humans, also sweat, since the evaporation of the water in sweat removes heat. Elephants keep cool by using their huge ears like radiators in automobiles. Their ears are thin and the blood vessels are close to the skin, and flapping their ears to increase the airflow over them causes the blood to cool, which reduces their core body temperature when the blood moves through the rest of the circulatory system.

text: In

text: equatorial climates

text: and during

text: temperate

text: summers, overheating (

text: hyperthermia

text: ) is as great a threat as cold.  In hot conditions, many warm-blooded animals increase heat loss by panting, which cools the animal by increasing water

text: evaporation

text: in the breath, and/or flushing, increasing the blood flow to the skin so the heat will

text: radiate

text: into the environment. Hairless and short-haired mammals, including humans, also

text: sweat

text: , since the evaporation of the water in sweat removes heat. Elephants keep cool by using their huge

text: ear

text: s like

text: radiator

text: s in automobiles. Their ears are thin and the

text: blood vessel

text: s are close to the skin, and flapping their ears to increase the airflow over them causes the blood to cool, which reduces their core body temperature when the blood moves through the rest of the circulatory system.

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answers: the heat will radiate into the environment

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answers: Animals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The most radical feature of the original car was its use of flat plate heat exchangers mounted flush to the surface of the bodywork in place of conventional water radiators. The absence of standard radiators allowed Murray to compensate somewhat for the large engine and fuel tanks and produce a relatively light design with a low frontal cross section (important to reduce drag). In practice the heat exchangers did not provide anything like enough cooling capacity, one of South African Murray’s rare design failures, and were replaced by more standard radiators in the nose of the car, similar to that of the BT45, compromising its aerodynamic efficiency. In addition to the question of drag the nose-mounted radiators moved weight towards the front of the car.

text: The most radical feature of the original car was its use of flat plate heat exchangers mounted flush to the surface of the bodywork in place of conventional water radiators. The absence of standard radiators allowed Murray to compensate somewhat for the large engine and fuel tanks and produce a relatively light design with a low frontal cross section (important to reduce drag). In practice the heat exchangers did not provide anything like enough cooling capacity, one of South African Murray’s rare design failures, and were replaced by more standard radiators in the nose of the car, similar to that of the BT45, compromising its aerodynamic efficiency. In addition to the question of drag the nose-mounted radiators moved weight towards the front of the car.

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answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority () is the Swedish government authority responsible for radiation protection. It sorts under the Ministry of the Environment.

text: The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority () is the Swedish government authority responsible for

text: radiation protection

text: . It sorts under the

entity_name: Ministry of the Environment and Energy (Sweden)

text: Ministry of the Environment

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answers: The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority

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answers: Radiation Safety Authority

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A recent storyline where Superman loses his powers is revealed to be part of a complex plan by Vandal Savage to undermine the world's heroes before abducting several members of the Justice League, using them to power a machine that will draw in the asteroid that gave him his immortality while triggering that power in various modern descendants of his. Although Superman is able to regain his powers by subjecting himself to a dangerous form of 'chemotherapy' where he deliberately exposes himself to kryptonite to burn away what radiation was preventing his cells absorbing sunlight, analysis reveals that Superman is now absorbing power from kryptonite that will soon kill him. Despite this, Superman refuses to give in, as various minor heroes assist him in confronting Savage's descendants before he takes Metallo's kryptonite heart (willingly donated) and charges into Savage's base. Although Savage is able to use the asteroid and the drained Justice League to charge his children's powers, the energy exposure burns away the last of the radiation contaminating Superman's cells, allowing him to literally fall into the Fortress of Solitude- 'stolen' by Vandal as part of his plans- and regain the last of his powers. Using his enhanced abilities, Savage attempts to win Superman's loyalty by revealing that the asteroid that empowered him could have hit Krypton before it was redirected to Earth, suggesting that a Kryptonian with his powers would have saved the planet, and then showing him a vision of a future where Savage rules the world with Superman as his general against enemy threats, but Superman rejects both of these visions as he genuinely doesn't believe that strength alone solves anything, working with Savage's son the Puzzler to push the asteroid back out of Earth orbit.

text: Fortress of Solitude

text: - 'stolen' by Vandal as part of his plans- and regain the last of his powers. Using his enhanced abilities, Savage attempts to win Superman's loyalty by revealing that the asteroid that empowered him could have hit Krypton before it was redirected to Earth, suggesting that a Kryptonian with his powers would have saved the planet, and then showing him a vision of a future where Savage rules the world with Superman as his general against enemy threats, but Superman rejects both of these visions as he genuinely doesn't believe that strength alone solves anything, working with Savage's son the Puzzler to push the asteroid back out of Earth orbit.

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answers: preventing his cells absorbing sunlight

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: asteroid

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: contaminated Superman's cells

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Superman

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Superman

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ionising radiation is non-visible and requires the use of ionisation detectors such as the Geiger Muller counter or ion chamber for its detection and measurement. Instruments are calibrated using standards traceable to national laboratory radiation standards, such as those at The National Physical Laboratory in the UK.

text: Ionising radiation is non-visible and requires the use of ionisation detectors such as the

text: Geiger Muller counter

text: or

text: ion chamber

text: for its

text: detection and measurement

text: . Instruments are calibrated using standards traceable to national laboratory radiation standards, such as those at The

entity_name: National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)

text: National Physical Laboratory

text: in the UK.

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answers: The National Physical Laboratory in the UK

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answers: non-visible

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answers: non-visible

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answers: Ionising radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a

text: wavelength

text: between approximately 400

text: nm

text: and 700 nm is directly detected by the

text: human eye

text: and perceived as visible

text: light

text: . Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: Natural sources

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answers: EM radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the human eye

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: EM radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The nuclear reactors of K-27 were troublesome from their first criticality, but the K-27 was able to engage in test operations for about five years. On 24 May 1968, the power output of one of its reactors suddenly dropped sharply; radioactive gases were released into its engine room; and the radiation levels throughout K-27 increased dangerously – by 1.5 grays per hour. This radiation consisted mostly of gamma rays and thermal neutrons, with some alpha radiation and beta radiation in addition – generated by the released radioactive gasses such as xenon and krypton in its reactor compartment.

text: The nuclear reactors of K-27 were troublesome from their first

text: criticality

text: , but the K-27 was able to engage in test operations for about five years. On 24 May 1968, the power output of one of its reactors suddenly dropped sharply;

text: radioactive

text: gases were released into its engine room; and the

text: radiation

text: levels throughout K-27 increased dangerously – by 1.5

text: grays per hour

text: . This radiation consisted mostly of

text: gamma ray

text: s and

text: thermal neutron

text: s, with some

text: alpha radiation

text: and

text: beta radiation

text: in addition – generated by the released radioactive gasses such as

text: xenon

text: and

text: krypton

text: in its reactor compartment.

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answers: gamma rays and thermal neutrons

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answers: released radioactive gasses

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Gamma rays and thermal neutrons

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: 1.5 grays per hour

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: KCl is useful as a beta radiation source for calibration of radiation monitoring equipment, because natural potassium contains 0.0118% of the isotope K. One kilogram of KCl yields 16350 becquerels of radiation consisting of 89.28% beta and 10.72% gamma with 1.46083 MeV.

text: KCl is useful as a

text: beta radiation

text: source for

text: calibration

text: of

text: radiation monitoring equipment

text: , because natural potassium contains 0.0118% of the

text: isotope

text: K. One

text: kilogram

text: of KCl yields 16350

text: becquerel

text: s of

text: radiation

text: consisting of 89.28% beta and 10.72%

text: gamma

text: with 1.46083 MeV.

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answers: KCl is useful as a beta radiation source

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: natural potassium

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Gamma

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All earthly materials that are the building-blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see banana equivalent dose). Some radionuclides, like potassium-40, emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose from natural background radiation.

text: All earthly materials that are the building-blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see

text: banana equivalent dose

text: ). Some radionuclides, like

text: , emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose from

text: natural background radiation

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answers: background radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

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answers: NDQ_016705

answers: natural background radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: humans, plants, and animals

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: All earthly materials

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In a vacuum or in outer space, there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments, radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a satellite in space, a 100 °C (373 Kelvin) surface facing the sun will absorb a lot of radiant heat, because the sun's surface temperature is nearly 6000 Kelvin, whereas the same surface facing deep-space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep-space has an effective temperature of only a few Kelvin.

text: In a

text: vacuum

text: or in

text: outer space

text: , there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments, radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a satellite in space, a 100 °C (373 Kelvin) surface facing the

text: sun

text: will absorb a lot of radiant heat, because the

text: sun

text: 's surface temperature is nearly 6000 Kelvin, whereas the same surface facing deep-space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep-space has an effective temperature of only a few Kelvin.

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answers: radiation can cause damage

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: No

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text: Radiation can have harmful effects on solid materials as it can degrade their properties so that they are no longer mechanically sound. This is of special concern as it can greatly affect their ability to perform in nuclear reactors and is the emphasis of radiation material science, which seeks to mitigate this danger.

text: Radiation can have harmful effects on solid materials as it can degrade their properties so that they are no longer mechanically sound. This is of special concern as it can greatly affect their ability to perform in

text: nuclear reactor

text: s and is the emphasis of

text: radiation material science

text: , which seeks to mitigate this danger.

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answers: degrade their properties

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Hot particles released into the environment may originate in nuclear reactors. The Chernobyl disaster was a major source of hot particles, as the core of the reactor was breached, but they have also been released into the environment through illegal dumping of low-level waste at Dounreay. They are also a component of the black rain or other nuclear fallout resulting from detonations of a nuclear weapon, including the more than 2000 nuclear weapons tests in the mid-20th century. Radiation can spread from a more radioactive substance to a less radioactive one by the processes of neutron activation and photodisintegration; this induced radioactivity increases the potential number of hot particle sources.

text: Hot particles released into the environment may originate in

text: nuclear reactors

text: . The

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: was a major source of hot particles, as the

text: core of the reactor

text: was breached, but they have also been released into the environment through illegal dumping of low-level waste at

text: Dounreay

text: . They are also a component of the

text: black rain

text: or other

text: nuclear fallout

text: resulting from detonations of a

text: nuclear weapon

text: , including the more than 2000

text: nuclear weapons tests

text: in the mid-20th century. Radiation can spread from a more radioactive substance to a less radioactive one by the processes of

text: neutron activation

text: and

text: photodisintegration

text: ; this

text: induced radioactivity

text: increases the potential number of hot particle sources.

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answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The instrument is designed to detect radiation at centimeter wavelengths. The craft contained seven radiometers which were cooled to  using liquid helium, with the intent to measure temperature differences as small as 1/1000 of a degree against a background which is only . The optics in the instrument package were placed near the top of the dewar flask which cooled them in order to prevent the instruments from seeing the walls of the container, thereby simplifying the processing of the observational data. This design choice necessitated the use of superfluid pumps in order to drench the radiometers in liquid helium. The design also utilized heaters in order to create a cloud of helium gas, in place of using a (relatively warm) window, which also simplified processing of the observational data.

text: The instrument is designed to detect radiation at centimeter wavelengths. The craft contained seven

text: radiometers

text: which were cooled to  using

text: liquid helium

text: , with the intent to measure temperature differences as small as 1/1000 of a degree against a background which is only . The optics in the instrument package were placed near the top of the

text: dewar flask

text: which cooled them in order to prevent the instruments from seeing the walls of the container, thereby simplifying the processing of the observational data. This design choice necessitated the use of

text: superfluid

text: pumps in order to drench the radiometers in liquid helium. The design also utilized heaters in order to create a cloud of helium gas, in place of using a (relatively warm) window, which also simplified processing of the observational data.

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answers: background which is only

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answers: NDQ_016706

answers: The craft contained seven radiometers which were cooled

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is only

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The danger of radiation from fallout also decreases with time, as radioactivity decays exponentially with time, such that for each factor of seven increase in time, the radiation is reduced by a factor of ten.  For example, after 7 hours, the average dose rate is reduced by a factor of ten; after 49 hours, it is reduced by a further factor of ten (to 1/100th); after two weeks the radiation from the fallout will have reduced by a factor of 1000 compared the initial level; and after 14 weeks the average dose rate will have reduced to 1/10,000th of the initial level.

text: The danger of radiation from fallout also decreases with time, as radioactivity decays exponentially with time, such that for each factor of seven increase in time, the radiation is reduced by a factor of ten.  For example, after 7 hours, the average

text: dose rate

text: is reduced by a factor of ten; after 49 hours, it is reduced by a further factor of ten (to 1/100th); after two weeks the radiation from the fallout will have reduced by a factor of 1000 compared the initial level; and after 14 weeks the average dose rate will have reduced to 1/10,000th of the initial level.

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answers: 1/10,000th

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answers: radiation can cause damage

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the earth/moon and the infrared radiation of the earth/moon. Therefore it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.All influences have to be combined with the temperature range of the electrical parts in the spacecraft. Precisely because we are using commercial off-the-shelf-products, it is indispensable to hold the satellite in an "earth like" environment. Therefore we are using some several insulation techniques like foils, coatings and so on to get the satellite in this marginal temperature range as well as to guarantee a good environment for micro controllers, sensors and the payload.

text: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the earth/moon and the infrared radiation of the earth/moon. Therefore it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.All influences have to be combined with the temperature range of the electrical parts in the spacecraft. Precisely because we are using commercial off-the-shelf-products, it is indispensable to hold the satellite in an "earth like" environment. Therefore we are using some several insulation techniques like foils, coatings and so on to get the satellite in this marginal temperature range as well as to guarantee a good environment for micro controllers, sensors and the payload.

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answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material. The SI unit for dose is grays (Gy or J/kg). Dosimeters are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to ionizing radiation, change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose (dosimetry) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material.

text: The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material. The

text: SI unit

text: for dose is

text: grays

text: (Gy or

text: J

text: kg

text: Dosimeter

text: s are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to

text: ionizing radiation

text: , change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose (

text: dosimetry

text: ) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material.

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answers: Dose

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answers: Ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: change measurable physical attributes

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Eileen Gail de Planque (also Eileen Gail de Planque Burke, best known as E. Gail de Planque; 1944 – September 8, 2010) was an American nuclear physicist. An expert on environmental radiation measurements, she was the first woman and first health physicist to become a Commissioner at the US government's Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).  Her technical areas of expertise included environmental radiation, nuclear facilities monitoring, personnel dosimetry, radiation shielding, radiation transport, and solid state dosimetry.

text: Eileen Gail de Planque (also Eileen Gail de Planque Burke, best known as E. Gail de Planque; 1944 – September 8, 2010) was an American

text: nuclear physicist

text: . An expert on

text: environmental radiation

text: measurements, she was the first woman and first

text: health physicist

text: to become a Commissioner at the

entity_name: Independent agencies of the United States government

text: US government's

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: (NRC).  Her technical areas of expertise included

text: environmental radiation

text: , nuclear facilities monitoring, personnel

text: dosimetry

text: radiation shield

text: ing,

text: radiation transport

text: , and

text: solid state

text: dosimetry.

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answers: An expert on environmental radiation measurements

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answers: nuclear facilities

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: environmental radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radiation shielding

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed satellites. These satellites are able to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers. Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to infrared radiation. Water vapor specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays an important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the development of weather forecasts.

text: Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed

text: satellite

text: s. These satellites are able to detect the

text: concentration

text: of water in the

text: troposphere

text: at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers. Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to

text: infrared radiation

text: . Water vapor specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays an important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the development of

text: weather forecasts

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answers: infrared radiation

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answers: Water vapor

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Heat cost allocators are devices attached to individual radiators in buildings that measure the total heat output of the individual radiator. Heat cost allocators can be either electronic, where one or two electronic thermosensors and a microcontroller are used to calculate the heat consumption of radiator by the temperatures of radiator and air in room, or evaporative, where a special, calibrated liquid in a capillary tube records the total heat output of the radiator.

text: Heat cost allocators are devices attached to individual

text: radiator

text: s in buildings that measure the total heat output of the individual radiator. Heat cost allocators can be either electronic, where one or two electronic thermosensors and a

text: microcontroller

text: are used to calculate the heat consumption of radiator by the temperatures of radiator and air in room, or evaporative, where a special, calibrated

text: liquid

text: in a capillary tube records the total heat output of the radiator.

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answers: electronic

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: There are a wide range of experimental approaches for measuring absorption spectra. The most common arrangement is to direct a generated beam of radiation at a sample and detect the intensity of the radiation that passes through it. The transmitted energy can be used to calculate the absorption. The source, sample arrangement and detection technique vary significantly depending on the frequency range and the purpose of the experiment.

text: There are a wide range of experimental approaches for measuring absorption spectra. The most common arrangement is to direct a generated beam of radiation at a sample and detect the intensity of the radiation that passes through it. The transmitted energy can be used to calculate the absorption. The source, sample arrangement and detection technique vary significantly depending on the frequency range and the purpose of the experiment.

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answers: It is unlikely

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answers: generated beam

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: generated beam of radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: passes through it

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays, nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major radionuclides used are I-131, Tc-99m, Co-60, Ir-192, and Cs-137. The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as tobacco (polonium-210), combustible fuels (gas, coal, etc.), televisions, luminous watches and dials (tritium), airport X-ray systems, smoke detectors (americium), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles (thorium).

text: Medical procedures, such as diagnostic

text: X-ray

text: s,

text: nuclear medicine

text: , and

text: radiation therapy

text: are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major

text: radionuclide

text: s used are

text: , and

text: . The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as

text: tobacco

text: polonium

text: -210), combustible fuels (gas,

text: coal

text: , etc.),

text: television

text: s, luminous

text: watch

text: es and dials (

text: tritium

text: ), airport

text: X-ray

text: systems,

text: smoke detector

text: s (

text: americium

text: ), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles (

text: thorium

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answers: The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Medical procedures, nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: exposure

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Humans

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The tallest mast radiator ever built was the Warsaw radio mast at Konstantynow, Poland. The antenna was  high but collapsed in 1991. Currently the masts of the Lualualei VLF transmitter, at , are the tallest mast radiators insulated against ground. In contrast to the Warsaw Radio Mast, the Lualualei antenna uses extensive electrical lengthening measures. The tallest mast radiator not using electrical lengthening may be the Hellissandur longwave radio mast at  high.

text: The tallest mast radiator ever built was the

text: Warsaw radio mast

text: at Konstantynow, Poland. The antenna was  high but collapsed in 1991. Currently the masts of the

text: Lualualei VLF transmitter

text: , at , are the tallest mast radiators insulated against ground. In contrast to the Warsaw Radio Mast, the Lualualei antenna uses extensive

text: electrical lengthening

text: measures. The tallest mast radiator not using electrical lengthening may be the

text: Hellissandur longwave radio mast

text: at  high.

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answers: The tallest mast radiators insulated against ground

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radio masts

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: longwave radio mast

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: collapsed

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and radiation health physics and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device.

text: The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of

text: radiation dosimetry

text: and radiation

text: health physics

text: and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device.

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answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: ionising

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation dose

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: an individual wearing the device

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Individual

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radioresistance is surprisingly high in many organisms, in contrast to previously held views. For example, the study of environment, animals and plants around the Chernobyl disaster area has revealed an unexpected survival of many species, despite the high radiation levels. A Brazilian study in a hill in the state of Minas Gerais which has high natural radiation levels from uranium deposits, has also shown many radioresistant insects, worms and plants. Certain extremophiles, such as the bacteria Deinococcus radiodurans and the tardigrades can withstand acute doses of ionizing radiation on the order of 5,000 Gy.

text: Radioresistance is surprisingly high in many organisms, in contrast to previously held views. For example, the study of environment, animals and plants around the

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: area has revealed an unexpected survival of many species, despite the high radiation levels. A

text: Brazil

text: ian study in a hill in the state of

text: Minas Gerais

text: which has high natural radiation levels from uranium deposits, has also shown many radioresistant

text: insect

text: s,

text: worm

text: s and plants. Certain

text: extremophiles

text: , such as the bacteria

text: Deinococcus radiodurans

text: and the

text: tardigrade

text: s can withstand acute doses of

text: ionizing radiation

text: on the order of 5,000

text: Gy

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answers: Chernobyl

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Chernobyl

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: high natural radiation levels from uranium deposits

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: animals and plants

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: organisms

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground between microwaves and infrared light waves known as the terahertz gap, where technology for its generation and manipulation is in its infancy. It represents the region in the electromagnetic spectrum where the frequency of electromagnetic radiation becomes too high to be measured digitally via electronic counters, so must be measured by proxy using the properties of wavelength and energy. Similarly, the generation and modulation of coherent electromagnetic signals in this frequency range ceases to be possible by the conventional electronic devices used to generate radio waves and microwaves, requiring the development of new devices and techniques. Photon energy in THz regime is less than band-gap of nonmetallic materials and thus THz beam can traverse through such materials. The transmitted THz beam is used for material characterization, layer inspection and developing transmission images.

text: Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground between

text: microwave

text: s and

text: infrared light

text: waves known as the

text: terahertz gap

text: , where technology for its generation and manipulation is in its infancy. It represents the region in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: where the frequency of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: becomes too high to be measured digitally via

text: electronic counters

text: , so must be measured by proxy using the properties of

text: wavelength

text: and

text: energy

text: . Similarly, the generation and

text: modulation

text: of coherent electromagnetic signals in this frequency range ceases to be possible by the conventional electronic devices used to generate radio waves and microwaves, requiring the development of new devices and techniques.

text: Photon energy

text: in THz regime is less than

text: band-gap

text: of nonmetallic materials and thus THz beam can traverse through such materials. The transmitted THz beam is used for

text: material characterization

text: , layer

text: inspection

text: and developing transmission images.

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answers: Terahertz radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The dose and volume of radiation had not been standardized, however, radiation does appear to improve survival.  The use of radiation has been limited in children younger than three because of the risk of severe neurocognitive deficits.   There are protocols using conformal, local radiation in the young child to try to cure this tumor.

text: The dose and volume of radiation had not been standardized, however, radiation does appear to improve survival.  The use of radiation has been limited in children younger than three because of the risk of severe neurocognitive deficits.   There are protocols using conformal, local radiation in the young child to try to cure this tumor.

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answers: It does appear to improve survival

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answers: Radiation does appear to improve survival

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: neurocognitive deficits

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The irradiation process is not directly related to nuclear energy, but does use radioactive isotopes produced in nuclear reactors.  Cobalt-60, for example does not occur naturally and can only be produced through neutron bombardment of cobalt-59.  Ionizing radiation at high energy levels is hazardous to life (hence its usefulness in sterilisation); for this reason, irradiation facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process takes place. Radiation safety procedures are used to ensure that neither the workers in such facilities nor the environment receives any radiation dose above administrative limits. Irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive, and national and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome. However, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is disputed by opponents and consumer organizations. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the United Nations, such as the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to full banning. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.

text: The irradiation process is not directly related to

text: nuclear energy

text: , but does use radioactive isotopes produced in

text: nuclear reactor

text: s.  Cobalt-60, for example does not occur naturally and can only be produced through neutron bombardment of

text: .  Ionizing radiation at high energy levels is hazardous to life (hence its usefulness in sterilisation); for this reason, irradiation facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process takes place. Radiation safety procedures are used to ensure that neither the workers in such facilities nor the environment receives any radiation dose above administrative limits. Irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive, and national and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome. However, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is disputed by opponents and consumer organizations. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the

text: United Nations

text: , such as the

text: World Health Organization

text: and

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: , endorse food irradiation. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to full banning. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.

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answers: Ionizing radiation at high energy levels

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answers: nuclear reactors

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answers: Ionizing radiation at high energy levels

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answers: life

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answers: Ionizing radiation at high energy levels is hazardous to life

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so decay (release matter or energy) after a random interval. The three forms of radiation that Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood. Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta decay is the release of a beta particle, a high-energy electron. Gamma decay releases gamma rays, which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but electromagnetic radiation of very high frequency, and therefore energy. This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block. All three types of radiation occur naturally in certain elements.

text: As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so

text: decay

text: (release matter or energy) after a random interval. The three forms of

text: radiation

text: that Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood.

text: Alpha decay

text: is when a nucleus releases an

text: alpha particle

text: , which is two

text: proton

text: s and two

text: neutron

text: s, equivalent to a

text: helium

text: nucleus.

text: Beta decay

text: is the release of a

text: beta particle

text: , a high-energy

text: electron

text: Gamma decay

text: releases

text: gamma rays

text: , which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: of very high

text: frequency

text: , and therefore

text: energy

text: . This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block. All three types of radiation occur naturally in

entity_name: List of elements by stability of isotopes

text: certain elements

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answers: Gamma decay

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The primary objective of BioSentinel is to develop a biosensor using a simple model organism (yeast) to detect, measure, and correlate the impact of space radiation to living organisms over long durations beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). While progress has been made with simulations, no terrestrial laboratory can duplicate the unique space radiation environment.

text: The primary objective of BioSentinel is to develop a biosensor using a simple model organism (

text: yeast

text: ) to detect, measure, and correlate the impact of

text: space radiation

text: to living organisms over long durations beyond

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO). While progress has been made with simulations, no terrestrial laboratory can duplicate the unique space radiation environment.

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answers: no terrestrial laboratory

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: The Vixen experimental tests used TNT to blow up simulated nuclear warheads containing plutonium-239. In total, Vixen B scattered 22.2 kg of plutonium around the Maralinga test site known as Taranaki, in particles of widely divergent size. Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally - it emits alpha particles which are stopped by  of air, or the dead layer of skin cells on the body, and is not a very intensive source of radiation, due to its long half-life of 24,000 years. It is most dangerous when it enters the body, in the worst case by breathing, and therefore tiny particles, often the result of such explosion testing, are the worst threat.  The extreme biological persistence of plutonium's radioactive contamination and the cancer threat posed by alpha radiation occurring internally together establish plutonium's dangers.

text: The Vixen experimental tests used TNT to blow up simulated nuclear warheads containing

text: . In total, Vixen B scattered 22.2 kg of

text: plutonium

text: around the Maralinga test site known as Taranaki, in particles of widely divergent size.

text: Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally

text: - it emits

text: alpha particles

text: which are stopped by  of air, or the dead layer of skin cells on the body, and is not a very intensive source of radiation, due to its long

text: half-life

text: of 24,000 years. It is most dangerous when it enters the body, in the worst case by breathing, and therefore tiny particles, often the result of such explosion testing, are the worst threat.  The extreme biological persistence of plutonium's

text: radioactive contamination

text: and the cancer threat posed by alpha radiation occurring internally together establish plutonium's dangers.

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answers: Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally

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answers: It is most dangerous when it enters the body

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answers: It is most dangerous when it enters the body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Another dating method using electron spin resonance (ESR) — also known as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) — is based on the measurement of electron-hole centers accumulated with time in the crystal lattice of CaCO exposed to natural radiations. In principle, in the more favorable cases, and assuming some simplifying hypotheses, the age of a speleothem could be derived from the total radiation dose cumulated by the sample and the annual dose rate to which it was exposed. Unfortunately, not all the samples are suited for ESR dating: indeed, the presence of cationic impurities such as Mn, Fe, or Fe, humic acids (organic matter), can mask the signal of interest, or interfere with it. Moreover, the radiation centers must be stable on geologic time, i.e., to have a very large lifetime, to make dating possible. Many other artifacts, such as, e.g.,  surface defects induced by the grinding of the sample can also preclude a correct dating. Only a few percents of the samples tested are in fact suitable for dating. This makes the technique often disappointing for the experimentalists. One of the main challenge of the technique is the correct identification of the radiation-induced centers and their great variety related to the nature and the variable concentration of the impurities present in the crystal lattice of the sample. ESR dating can be tricky and must be applied with discernment. It can never be used alone: "One date only is No date", or in other words, "multiple lines of evidence and multiple lines of reasoning are necessary in absolute dating". However, "good samples" might be found if all the selection criteria are met.

text: Another dating method using

text: electron spin resonance

text: (ESR) — also known as

text: electron paramagnetic resonance

text: (EPR) — is based on the measurement of

text: electron-hole

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answers: In principle, in the more favorable cases

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called ozone layer, starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called

text: ozone layer

text: , starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of

text: pyrimidine dimer

text: s in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

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answers: visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: An alternative use includes a purified version that is used to measure neutron radiation, a type of ionizing radiation, in neutron dosimetry.

text: An alternative use includes a purified version that is used to measure

text: neutron radiation

text: , a type of

text: ionizing radiation

text: , in

text: neutron

text: dosimetry

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text: The most common means of measuring the variations in a beam of radiation is by observing its effect on a photographic film. This effect is the same as that of light, and the more intense the radiation is, the more it darkens, or exposes, the film. Other methods are in use, such as the ionizing effect measured electronically, its ability to discharge an electrostatically charged plate or to cause certain chemicals to fluoresce as in fluoroscopy.

text: The most common means of measuring the variations in a beam of radiation is by observing its effect on a photographic film. This effect is the same as that of light, and the more intense the radiation is, the more it darkens, or

text: exposes

text: , the film. Other methods are in use, such as the ionizing effect measured electronically, its ability to discharge an electrostatically charged plate or to cause certain chemicals to

text: fluoresce

text: as in

text: fluoroscopy

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text: Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in particle physics to detect the presence of ionising particles, and in radiation protection applications to measure ionizing radiation.

text: Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in

text: particle physics

text: to detect the presence of ionising particles, and in

text: radiation protection

text: applications to measure

text: ionizing radiation

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Scientists have studied the characteristics of cirrus using several different methods. One, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), gives highly accurate information on the cloud's altitude, length, and width. Balloon-carried hygrometers give information on the humidity of the cirrus cloud but are not accurate enough to measure the depth of the cloud. Radar units give information on the altitudes and thicknesses of cirrus clouds. Another data source is satellite measurements from the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) program. These satellites measure where infrared radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere, and if it is absorbed at cirrus altitudes, then it is assumed that there are cirrus clouds in that location. The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) also gives information on the cirrus cloud cover by measuring reflected infrared radiation of various specific frequencies during the day. During the night, it determines cirrus cover by detecting the Earth's infrared emissions. The cloud reflects this radiation back to the ground, thus enabling satellites to see the "shadow" it casts into space. Visual observations from aircraft or the ground provide additional information about cirrus clouds.

text: Scientists have studied the characteristics of cirrus using several different methods. One,

text: Light Detection and Ranging

text: (LiDAR), gives highly accurate information on the cloud's altitude, length, and width. Balloon-carried

text: hygrometer

text: s give information on the humidity of the cirrus cloud but are not accurate enough to measure the depth of the cloud. Radar units give information on the altitudes and thicknesses of cirrus clouds. Another data source is satellite measurements from the

entity_name: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment

text: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment

text: (SAGE) program. These satellites measure where

text: infrared radiation

text: is absorbed in the atmosphere, and if it is absorbed at cirrus altitudes, then it is assumed that there are cirrus clouds in that location. The United States

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

text: 's (NASA)

text: MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

text: (MODIS) also gives information on the cirrus cloud cover by measuring reflected infrared radiation of various specific frequencies during the day. During the night, it determines cirrus cover by detecting the Earth's infrared emissions. The cloud reflects this radiation back to the ground, thus enabling satellites to see the "shadow" it casts into space. Visual observations from aircraft or the ground provide additional information about cirrus clouds.

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answers: The cloud reflects this radiation

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answers: infrared radiation

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The radiology department has been actively measuring radiation levels throughout the city of Sendai since the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant meltdown, which is about 100 kilometers south.  So far no alarming levels of radiation have been detected.

text: The radiology department has been actively measuring radiation levels throughout the city of Sendai since the

text: Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant

text: meltdown, which is about 100 kilometers south.  So far no alarming levels of radiation have been detected.

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answers: So far no alarming levels

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answers: No alarming levels of radiation

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A character's health is divided between two types: HP and Limbs. While HP is the general amount of health that a character and other NPCs have (friendly, neutral or hostile) and which depletes when damage is taken, either from combat, setting off traps, falling from a height or self injury, Limb health is specific to each portion of the body - namely the arms, legs, head, and torso, although non-human enemies feature additional appendages, and robotic enemies feature different types of appendages. Limbs can be damaged in the same way as HP, though once depleted they become "crippled" and induce a negative status effect, such as blurred vision if the head is crippled, or reduced movement speed if one or both legs are crippled. Both HP and Limbs can be recovered through the use of medical medicine in the form of Stimpaks, as well as sleeping and visiting a doctor, while HP can be slowly recovered by consuming food and drinking water and/of soft drinks. Players can also be effected by other negative health effects, including radiation poisoning and withdrawal symptoms. While the latter occurs when the player's character becomes addicted to drugs and alcohol and confers negative effects if the player does not continue using them, radiation poisoning occurs when the character absorbs radiation, either by walking through areas with background radiation, and consuming food and drink that is irradiated with a small amount of radiation. The negative impacts of both can affect SPECIAL attributes, and can be treated by a doctor, though radiation can be dealt with by using Rad Away. Furthermore, the amount of background radiation absorbed can be reduced through the use of Rad-X drugs and special apparel, both of which improve resistance to radiation.

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answers: background radiation

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answers: walking through areas with background radiation, and consuming food and drink that is irradiated with a small amount of radiation

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answers: non-living

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest. The dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various natural foodstocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types. Information regarding physical deformities in the plant and animal populations in the areas affected by radioactive fallout require sampling and capture, along with DNA testing, of individuals to determine if abnormalities are the result of natural mutation, radiation poisoning, or exposure to other contaminants in the environment (i.e. pesticides, industrial waste, or agricultural run-off).

text: A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the

text: Red Forest

text: . The dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various natural foodstocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types. Information regarding physical deformities in the plant and animal populations in the areas affected by radioactive fallout require sampling and capture, along with DNA testing, of individuals to determine if abnormalities are the result of natural mutation, radiation poisoning, or exposure to other contaminants in the environment (i.e. pesticides, industrial waste, or agricultural run-off).

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text: Medical Use of Radiation: Medicine has used ionizing radiation for decades to help diagnose or treat children (and adults). There is no doubt that this imaging has saved lives. Medical imaging use has grown exponentially in the past few years, particularly the use of CAT Scans (also called CT scans). There are approximately 65 million CT scans done in the United States annually with an estimated 8 million in children. However, there is a much higher radiation dose from CT scans than from the traditional radiographs and fluoroscopy tests that radiologists perform and interpret. CT scans provide in general more information about the anatomy and diseases in the body but could be replaced for some orthopedic indications by other low dose imaging modalities like EOS. To do this, though, they may expose a person to 100 to 250 times the radiation dose compared to a chest x-ray.

text: Medical Use of Radiation: Medicine has used ionizing radiation for decades to help diagnose or treat children (and adults). There is no doubt that this imaging has saved lives. Medical imaging use has grown exponentially in the past few years, particularly the use of CAT Scans (also called CT scans). There are approximately 65 million CT scans done in the United States annually with an estimated 8 million in children. However, there is a much higher radiation dose from CT scans than from the traditional radiographs and fluoroscopy tests that radiologists perform and interpret. CT scans provide in general more information about the anatomy and diseases in the body but could be replaced for some orthopedic indications by other low dose imaging modalities like

text: EOS

text: . To do this, though, they may expose a person to 100 to 250 times the radiation dose compared to a chest x-ray.

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text: Excess waste heat created on the spacecraft is rejected to space by the use of radiators. Radiators come in several different forms, such as spacecraft structural panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the spacecraft, and panels deployed after the spacecraft is on orbit. Whatever the configuration, all radiators reject heat by infrared (IR) radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends on the surface's emittance and temperature. The radiator must reject both the spacecraft waste heat and any radiant-heat loads from the environment. Most radiators are therefore given surface finishes with high IR emittance to maximize heat rejection and low solar absorptance to limit heat from the sun. Most spacecraft radiators reject between 100 and 350 W of internally generated electronics waste heat per square meter. Radiators weight typically varies from almost nothing, if an existing structural panel is used as a radiator, to around 12kg/m for a heavy deployable radiator and its support structure.

text: Excess waste heat created on the spacecraft is rejected to space by the use of radiators. Radiators come in several different forms, such as spacecraft structural panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the spacecraft, and panels deployed after the spacecraft is on orbit. Whatever the configuration, all radiators reject heat by infrared (IR) radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends on the surface's emittance and temperature. The radiator must reject both the spacecraft waste heat and any radiant-heat loads from the environment. Most radiators are therefore given surface finishes with high IR emittance to maximize heat rejection and low solar absorptance to limit heat from the sun. Most spacecraft radiators reject between 100 and 350 W of internally generated electronics waste heat per square meter. Radiators weight typically varies from almost nothing, if an existing structural panel is used as a radiator, to around 12kg/m for a heavy deployable radiator and its support structure.

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text: The radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby cooling the fluid, which in turn cools the engine.  Radiators are also often used to cool automatic transmission fluids, air conditioner refrigerant, intake air, and sometimes to cool motor oil or power steering fluid. Radiators are typically mounted in a position where they receive airflow from the forward movement of the vehicle, such as behind a front grill. Where engines are mid- or rear-mounted, it is common to mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve sufficient airflow, even though this requires long coolant pipes.  Alternatively, the radiator may draw air from the flow over the top of the vehicle or from a side-mounted grill.  For long vehicles, such as buses, side airflow is most common for engine and transmission cooling and top airflow most common for air conditioner cooling.

text: The radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby cooling the fluid, which in turn cools the engine.  Radiators are also often used to cool

text: automatic transmission fluid

text: s,

text: air conditioner

text: refrigerant

text: intake air

text: , and sometimes to cool

text: motor oil

text: or

text: power steering fluid

text: . Radiators are typically mounted in a position where they receive airflow from the forward movement of the vehicle, such as behind a front grill. Where engines are mid- or rear-mounted, it is common to mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve sufficient airflow, even though this requires long coolant pipes.  Alternatively, the radiator may draw air from the flow over the top of the vehicle or from a side-mounted grill.  For long vehicles, such as buses, side airflow is most common for engine and transmission cooling and top airflow most common for air conditioner cooling.

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answers: Radiators are typically mounted

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: I has a shorter half-life than I (a half day vs. 8.1 days), so use of I exposes the body to less radiation, at the expense of less time to evaluate delayed scan images. Furthermore, I emits gamma radiation, while I emits gamma and beta radiation.

text: I has a shorter

text: half-life

text: than I (a half day vs. 8.1 days), so use of I exposes the body to less radiation, at the expense of less time to evaluate delayed scan images. Furthermore, I emits

text: gamma radiation

text: , while I emits gamma and

text: beta radiation

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text: The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood. It characterizes radiation, and depending on the mechanism of radiation can differ considerably from the physical temperature of a radiating body (though it is theoretically possible to construct a device which will heat up by a source of radiation with some brightness temperature to the actual temperature equal to brightness temperature). Nonthermal sources can have very high brightness temperatures. In pulsars the brightness temperature can reach 10 K. For the radiation of a typical helium–neon laser with a power of 60 mW and a coherence length of 20 cm, focused in a spot with a diameter of 10 µm, the brightness temperature will be nearly .

text: The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood. It characterizes radiation, and depending on the mechanism of radiation can differ considerably from the physical temperature of a radiating body (though it is theoretically possible to construct a device which will heat up by a source of radiation with some brightness temperature to the actual temperature equal to brightness temperature). Nonthermal sources can have very high brightness temperatures. In

text: pulsars

text: the brightness temperature can reach 10 K. For the radiation of a typical

text: helium–neon laser

text: with a power of 60 mW and a coherence length of 20 cm, focused in a spot with a diameter of 10

text: µm

text: , the brightness temperature will be nearly .

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answers: The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Through the improvements of instruments and invention of new techniques he could measure infrared radiation for larger and larger wavelengths. One of his goals was to better understand the reflexion of radiation by metals and crystals. It was known that this became stronger for wavelengths which were absorbed. This lead him to a new, powerful method by selective reflexion from several crystals to isolate a narrow range of infrared wavelengths from a broader spectrum of radiation. Using such Reststrahlen he could in 1898 detect wavelengths of sizes around 60 μm.

text: Through the improvements of instruments and invention of new techniques he could measure infrared radiation for larger and larger wavelengths. One of his goals was to better understand the reflexion of radiation by metals and crystals. It was known that this became stronger for wavelengths which were absorbed. This lead him to a new, powerful method by selective reflexion from several crystals to isolate a narrow range of infrared wavelengths from a broader spectrum of radiation. Using such

text: Reststrahlen

text: he could in

text: detect wavelengths of sizes around 60

text: μm

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text: Formerly, units of measurement were the curie (Ci), being 3.7E10 Bq, and also 1.0 grams of Radium (Ra-226); the rad (radiation absorbed dose), now replaced by the gray; and the rem (Röntgen equivalent man), now replaced with the sievert. The rad and rem are essentially equivalent for almost all nuclear medicine procedures, and only alpha radiation will produce a higher Rem or Sv value, due to its much higher Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE). Alpha emitters are nowadays rarely used in nuclear medicine, but were used extensively before the advent of nuclear reactor and accelerator produced radionuclides. The concepts involved in radiation exposure to humans are covered by the field of Health Physics; the development and practice of safe and effective nuclear medicinal techniques is a key focus of Medical Physics.

text: Formerly, units of measurement were the

text: curie

text: (Ci), being 3.7E10 Bq, and also 1.0

text: grams

text: of

text: Radium

text: ); the

text: rad

text: (radiation absorbed dose), now replaced by the

text: gray

text: ; and the rem (

text: Röntgen equivalent man

text: ), now replaced with the

text: sievert

text: . The rad and rem are essentially equivalent for almost all nuclear medicine procedures, and only

text: alpha radiation

text: will produce a higher Rem or Sv value, due to its much higher

text: Relative Biological Effectiveness

text: (RBE). Alpha emitters are nowadays rarely used in nuclear medicine, but were used extensively before the advent of nuclear reactor and accelerator produced radionuclides. The concepts involved in radiation exposure to humans are covered by the field of

text: Health Physics

text: ; the development and practice of safe and effective nuclear medicinal techniques is a key focus of

text: Medical Physics

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answers: The concepts involved in radiation exposure to humans

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answers: Alpha emitters

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Humans

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: humans

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Humans

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when Wilhelm Röntgen intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he misattributed them to ozone, a free radical produced in air by X-rays. Other free radicals produced within the body are now understood to be more important. His injuries healed later.

text: Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when

text: Wilhelm Röntgen

text: intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he misattributed them to ozone, a

text: free radical

text: produced in air by X-rays. Other free radicals produced within the body are now understood to be more important. His injuries healed later.

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answers: burns

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answers: The injuries healed later

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A mast radiator (or 'radiating tower') is a radio mast or tower in which the entire structure functions as an antenna. This design, developed around 1930, is commonly used for transmitting antennas operating at low frequencies, in the VLF, LF and MF ranges, in particular those used for AM broadcasting. The metal mast is electrically connected to the transmitter. Its base is usually mounted on a nonconductive support to insulate it from the ground.  A mast radiator is a form of monopole antenna.

text: A mast radiator (or 'radiating tower') is a

text: radio mast or tower

text: in which the entire structure functions as an

text: antenna

text: . This design, developed around 1930, is commonly used for

text: transmitting

text: antennas operating at low

text: frequencies

text: , in the

text: VLF

text: LF

text: and

text: MF

text: ranges, in particular those used for AM

text: broadcasting

text: . The metal mast is electrically connected to the

text: transmitter

text: . Its base is usually mounted on a nonconductive support to insulate it from the ground.  A mast radiator is a form of

text: monopole antenna

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answers: insulate it from the ground

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: AM broadcasting

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: The metal mast is electrically connected to the transmitter

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radio mast or tower

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: nonliving things

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Known as compromising emanations or TEMPEST radiation, a code word for a U.S. government programme aimed at attacking the problem, the electromagnetic broadcast of data has been a significant concern in sensitive computer applications. Eavesdroppers can reconstruct video screen content from radio frequency emanations. Each (radiated) harmonic of the video signal shows a remarkable resemblance to a broadcast TV signal. It is therefore possible to reconstruct the picture displayed on the video display unit from the radiated emission by means of a normal television receiver. If no preventive measures are taken, eavesdropping on a video display unit is possible at distances up to several hundreds of meters, using only a normal black-and-white TV receiver, a directional antenna and an antenna amplifier. It is even possible to pick up information from some types of video display units at a distance of over 1 kilometer. If more sophisticated receiving and decoding equipment is used, the maximum distance can be much greater.

text: Known as compromising emanations or

text: TEMPEST

text: radiation, a code word for a U.S. government programme aimed at attacking the problem, the electromagnetic broadcast of data has been a significant concern in sensitive computer applications. Eavesdroppers can reconstruct video screen content from radio frequency emanations. Each (radiated) harmonic of the video signal shows a remarkable resemblance to a broadcast TV signal. It is therefore possible to reconstruct the picture displayed on the video display unit from the radiated emission by means of a normal television receiver. If no preventive measures are taken, eavesdropping on a video display unit is possible at distances up to several hundreds of meters, using only a normal black-and-white TV receiver, a directional antenna and an antenna amplifier. It is even possible to pick up information from some types of video display units at a distance of over 1 kilometer. If more sophisticated receiving and decoding equipment is used, the maximum distance can be much greater.

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answers: Eavesdroppers can reconstruct video screen content from radio frequency emanations

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: sensitive computer applications

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: TEMPEST radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: sensitive computer applications

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Eavesdroppers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Passive radiators are "similar in operation to ported" bass reflex systems, and both methods are used for the same reason: to "...extend the [speaker cabinet] system's low frequency response." "By far, the port is the most common means of extended bass response in a cabinet. The second most common bass extender for loudspeakers is called a passive radiator" A passive radiator is the use of one or more additional speakers in a cabinet. One speaker is a regular speaker with a magnet and voice coil. One or more additional passive radiator speakers have the cone, but they do not have a magnet or voice coil. Passive radiators are also called "drone cones". Passive radiators are not connected to the power amplifier.

text: Passive radiators are "similar in operation to ported" bass reflex systems, and both methods are used for the same reason: to "...extend the [speaker cabinet] system's low frequency response." "By far, the port is the most common means of extended bass response in a cabinet. The second most common bass extender for loudspeakers is called a passive radiator" A passive radiator is the use of one or more additional speakers in a cabinet. One speaker is a regular speaker with a magnet and voice coil. One or more additional passive radiator speakers have the cone, but they do not have a magnet or voice coil. Passive radiators are also called "drone cones". Passive radiators are not connected to the

text: power amplifier

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answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Survey meters are portable radiation detection and measurement instruments used to check personnel, equipment and facilities for radioactive contamination, or to measure external or ambient ionizing radiation fields (to evaluate the direct exposure hazard). The hand-held survey meter is probably the most familiar radiation measuring device to society owing to its wide and highly visible use.

text: Survey meters are portable radiation detection and measurement instruments used to check personnel, equipment and facilities for

text: radioactive contamination

text: , or to measure external or ambient ionizing radiation fields (to evaluate the direct exposure hazard). The hand-held survey meter is probably the most familiar radiation measuring device to society owing to its wide and highly visible use.

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answers: ambient ionizing radiation fields

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answers: direct exposure hazard

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answers: direct exposure

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answers: personnel

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially () is called synchrotron radiation. It is produced, for example, in synchrotrons using bending magnets, undulators and/or wigglers. It is similar to cyclotron radiation except that synchrotron radiation is generated by the acceleration of ultrarelativistic charged particles through magnetic fields. Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially in synchrotrons or storage rings, or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. The radiation produced in this way has a characteristic polarization and the frequencies generated can range over the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

text: The

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially () is called synchrotron radiation. It is produced, for example, in

text: synchrotron

text: s using bending magnets,

text: undulator

text: s and/or

text: wiggler

text: s. It is similar to

text: cyclotron radiation

text: except that synchrotron radiation is generated by the acceleration of

text: ultrarelativistic

text: charged particles through magnetic fields. Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially in synchrotrons or

text: storage ring

text: s, or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. The radiation produced in this way has a characteristic

text: polarization

text: and the frequencies generated can range over the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially

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answers: Synchrotrons

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answers: The electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: electromagnetic

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answers: It is similar to cyclotron

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: On a distant, snow-covered planet, a starship from Earth crashes. Due to dangerous radiation levels, the survivors have to evacuate far away. Over years, the radiation levels go down but all attempting to return to the ship die when crossing a treacherous mountain pass, due to a combination of the elements and wild animals who come out at night.

text: On a distant, snow-covered planet, a starship from Earth crashes. Due to dangerous radiation levels, the survivors have to evacuate far away. Over years, the radiation levels go down but all attempting to return to the ship die when crossing a treacherous mountain pass, due to a combination of the elements and wild animals who come out at night.

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answers: Over years, the radiation levels go down

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answers: a starship

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answers: dangerous radiation levels

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answers: dangerous radiation levels

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Animals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by radiation poisoning. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and "can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to radiation burns and acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure."

text: Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as

text: radioactive contamination

text: . They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by

text: radiation poisoning

text: . Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and "can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to

text: radiation burn

text: s and

text: acute radiation syndrome

text: . Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure."

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answers: Radionuclides

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radioactive contamination

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radiation poisoning

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The CD V-700, as a true Geiger counter, is capable of measuring ambient background levels of gamma radiation and detecting the presence of beta radiation in the environment, and thus can be used to detect such common low-level radioactive artifacts as uranium-doped marbles, Fiestaware plates and radium watch faces. This differentiates them from other civil defense radiation meters such as the CD V-715, CD V-717 and CD-V-720, which are ion chamber meters that can measure gamma radiation levels far above (up to 500R/h) what the CD V-700 can (up to 50mR/h). Conversely, the ion chamber units are so insensitive to low-levels of gamma radiation that no legally exempt radiation source can make them register at all.

text: The CD V-700, as a true Geiger counter, is capable of measuring ambient background levels of gamma radiation and detecting the presence of beta radiation in the environment, and thus can be used to detect such common low-level radioactive artifacts as uranium-doped marbles, Fiestaware plates and radium watch faces. This differentiates them from other civil defense radiation meters such as the CD V-715, CD V-717 and CD-V-720, which are ion chamber meters that can measure gamma radiation levels far above (up to 500R/h) what the CD V-700 can (up to 50mR/h). Conversely, the ion chamber units are so insensitive to low-levels of gamma radiation that no legally exempt radiation source can make them register at all.

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answers: Conversely, the ion chamber units are so insensitive

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: low-level radioactive artifacts

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: gamma radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no legally exempt

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Von Braun was aware of the threat posed by extended exposure to weightlessness.  He suggested either tethering passenger ships together to spin about a common center of mass or including self-rotating, dumbbell-shaped "gravity cells" to drift alongside the flotilla to provide each crew member with a few hours of artificial gravity each day.  At the time of von Braun's proposal, little was known of the dangers of solar radiation beyond Earth and it was cosmic radiation that was thought to present the more formidable challenge.  The discovery of the Van Allen belts in 1958 demonstrated that the Earth was shielded from high energy solar particles.  For the surface portion of the mission, inflatable habitats suggest the desire to maximize living space.  It is clear von Braun considered the members of the expedition part of a community with much traffic and interaction between vessels.

text: Von Braun was aware of the threat posed by extended exposure to weightlessness.  He suggested either tethering passenger ships together to spin about a common center of mass or including self-rotating, dumbbell-shaped "gravity cells" to drift alongside the flotilla to provide each crew member with a few hours of artificial gravity each day.  At the time of von Braun's proposal, little was known of the dangers of

text: solar radiation

text: beyond Earth and it was

text: cosmic radiation

text: that was thought to present the more formidable challenge.  The discovery of the

text: Van Allen belts

text: in 1958 demonstrated that the Earth was shielded from high energy solar particles.  For the surface portion of the mission, inflatable habitats suggest the desire to maximize living space.  It is clear von Braun considered the members of the expedition part of a community with much traffic and interaction between vessels.

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answers: The discovery of the Van Allen belts

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The Van Allen belts

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Chronic radiation syndrome is a constellation of health effects that occur after months or years of chronic exposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation. Chronic radiation syndrome develops with a speed and severity proportional to the radiation dose received, i.e., it is a deterministic effect of radiation exposure, unlike radiation-induced cancer. It is distinct from acute radiation syndrome in that it occurs at dose rates low enough to permit natural repair mechanisms to compete with the radiation damage during the exposure period. Dose rates high enough to cause the acute form (> ~0.1 Gy/h) are fatal long before onset of the chronic form. The lower threshold for chronic radiation syndrome is between 0.7 and 1.5 Gy, at dose rates above 0.1 Gy/yr. This condition is primarily known from the Kyshtym disaster, where 66 cases were diagnosed, and has received little mention in Western literature. A future ICRP publication, currently in draft, may recognize the condition but with higher thresholds.

text: Chronic radiation syndrome is a constellation of health effects that occur after months or years of chronic exposure to high amounts of

text: ionizing radiation

text: . Chronic radiation syndrome develops with a speed and severity proportional to the

text: radiation dose

text: received, i.e., it is a deterministic effect of radiation exposure, unlike

text: radiation-induced cancer

text: . It is distinct from

text: acute radiation syndrome

text: in that it occurs at dose rates low enough to permit natural repair mechanisms to compete with the radiation damage during the exposure period. Dose rates high enough to cause the acute form (> ~0.1 Gy/h) are fatal long before onset of the chronic form. The lower threshold for chronic radiation syndrome is between 0.7 and 1.5

text: Gy

text: , at dose rates above 0.1 Gy/yr. This condition is primarily known from the

text: Kyshtym disaster

text: , where 66 cases were diagnosed, and has received little mention in Western literature. A future

text: ICRP

text: publication, currently in draft, may recognize the condition but with higher thresholds.

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answers: ionizing radiation

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answers: It is a deterministic effect of radiation exposure, unlike radiation-induced cancer

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The quantitative biological effects of cosmic rays are poorly known, and are the subject of ongoing research. Several experiments, both in space and on Earth, are being carried out to evaluate the exact degree of danger. Experiments in 2007 at Brookhaven National Laboratory's NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL) suggest that  biological damage due to a given exposure is actually about half what was previously estimated: specifically, it turns out that low energy protons cause more damage than high energy ones. This is explained by the fact that slower particles have more time to interact with molecules in the body. This may be interpreted as an acceptable result for space travel as the cells affected end up with greater energy deposition and are more likely to die without proliferating into tumors. This is in contrast to the current dogma on radiation exposure to human cells which considers lower energy radiation of higher weighting factor for tumor formation.

text: The quantitative biological effects of cosmic rays are poorly known, and are the subject of ongoing research. Several experiments, both in space and on Earth, are being carried out to evaluate the exact degree of danger. Experiments in 2007 at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: 's

text: NASA Space Radiation Laboratory

text: (NSRL) suggest that  biological damage due to a given exposure is actually about half what was previously estimated: specifically, it turns out that low energy protons cause more damage than high energy ones. This is explained by the fact that slower particles have more time to interact with molecules in the body. This may be interpreted as an acceptable result for space travel as the cells affected end up with greater energy deposition and are more likely to die without proliferating into tumors. This is in contrast to the current dogma on radiation exposure to human cells which considers lower energy radiation of higher weighting factor for tumor formation.

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answers: It turns out that slower particles have more time to interact with molecules in the body

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answers: cosmic rays

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answers: This may be interpreted as an acceptable result for space travel

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answers: cells

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answers: The quantitative biological effects of cosmic rays are poorly known

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most industries are moving from film based radiography to a digital sensor based radiography much the same way that traditional photography has made this move. Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of material.

text: Most industries are moving from film based radiography to a digital sensor based radiography much the same way that traditional photography has made this move. Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of material.

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answers: It is impossible to say

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answers: This amount (or intensity) of radiation

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answers: the opposite side

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted does not appear white, and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid – below . Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around . Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt." No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.

text: The spectrum emitted by a

text: blackbody

text: radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted

text: does not appear white

text: , and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid – below . Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around . Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt." No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.

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answers: Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: incandescent bulbs

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the human eye

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not match the sensitivity characteristics

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global climate, efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes.  Satellite-mounted, microwave radiometers, such SSMI, AMSR and AMSU, are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover, and they have frequent, global coverage.  A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different emission spectra.  To help us detect sea ice more efficiently, we need to model these emission processes.  The interaction of sea ice with electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range is still not well understood. In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice.

text: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global

text: climate

text: , efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes.  Satellite-mounted,

text: microwave

text: radiometers

text: , such

text: SSMI

text: AMSR

text: and

text: AMSU

text: , are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover, and they have frequent, global coverage.  A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different

text: emission spectra

text: .  To help us detect sea ice more efficiently, we need to model these emission processes.  The interaction of sea ice with

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: in the microwave range is still not well understood. In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice.

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answers: sea ice

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: sea ice

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Furthermore, the space environment near Mercury is demanding, posing the double dangers to spacecraft of intense solar radiation and high temperatures.

text: Furthermore, the space environment near Mercury is demanding, posing the double dangers to spacecraft of intense

text: solar radiation

text: and high temperatures.

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answers: spacecraft

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Only three R.T.1s were built, differing chiefly in their engines.  The first and third were powered by a 200 hp (150 kW) Hispano-Suiza and the second by the 150 hp (110 kW) RAF 4A also used in the R.E.8.  The Hispano-Suiza installations differed in their nose and radiator arrangements: the first used a rectangular nose radiator like that of the S.E.5, whereas the third had a neatly rounded nose with a small chin radiator.  The ailerons on the third aircraft were extended beyond the wing-tips to allow horn balancing.

text: Only three R.T.1s were built, differing chiefly in their engines.  The first and third were powered by a 200 hp (150 kW)

text: Hispano-Suiza

text: and the second by the 150 hp (110 kW)

text: RAF 4A

text: also used in the R.E.8.  The Hispano-Suiza installations differed in their nose and radiator arrangements: the first used a rectangular nose radiator like that of the

text: , whereas the third had a neatly rounded nose with a small chin radiator.  The ailerons on the third aircraft were extended beyond the wing-tips to allow horn balancing.

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answers: Hispano-Suiza installations

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Once the 3D radiation model is done, the user can perform a deposited dose estimate using the sector analysis module of the software.  This ray-tracing module combines the information coming from the radiation model with the information of the radiation environment using a Dose Depth Curve.  This dose depth curve gives the deposited dose in a target material (mainly Silicon for electronic devices) behind an Aluminum spherical shielding thickness.  This calculation is performed for each detector placed in the 3D model.  Even for complex geometries, the efficient and rapid calculation provides two kinds of information:

text: Once the 3D radiation model is done, the user can perform a deposited dose estimate using the sector analysis module of the software.  This ray-tracing module combines the information coming from the radiation model with the information of the radiation environment using a Dose Depth Curve.  This dose depth curve gives the deposited dose in a target material (mainly Silicon for electronic devices) behind an Aluminum spherical shielding thickness.  This calculation is performed for each

text: detector

text: placed in the 3D model.  Even for complex geometries, the efficient and rapid calculation provides two kinds of information:

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text: The EFIE describes a radiated field E given a set of sources J, and as such it is the fundamental equation used in antenna analysis and design. It is a very general relationship that can be used to compute the radiated field of any sort of antenna once the current distribution on it is known. The most important aspect of the EFIE is that it allows us to solve the radiation/scattering problem in an unbounded region, or one whose boundary is located at infinity.  For closed surfaces it is possible to use the Magnetic Field Integral Equation or the Combined Field Integral Equation, both of which result in a set of equations with improved condition number compared to the EFIE.  However, the MFIE and CFIE can still contain resonances.

text: The EFIE describes a radiated field E given a set of sources J, and as such it is the fundamental equation used in

text: antenna

text: analysis and design. It is a very general relationship that can be used to compute the radiated field of any sort of antenna once the current distribution on it is known. The most important aspect of the EFIE is that it allows us to solve the radiation/scattering problem in an

text: unbounded

text: region, or one whose boundary is located at

text: infinity

text: .  For closed surfaces it is possible to use the

text: Magnetic Field Integral Equation

text: or the

text: Combined Field Integral Equation

text: , both of which result in a set of equations with improved condition number compared to the EFIE.  However, the MFIE and CFIE can still contain resonances.

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answers: no

answer: No

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text: A Compact Antenna Test Range (CATR) is a facility which is used to provide convenient testing of antenna systems at frequencies where obtaining far-field spacing to the AUT would be infeasible using traditional free space methods. It was invented by Richard C. Johnson at the Georgia Tech Research Institute. The CATR uses a source antenna which radiates a spherical wavefront and one or more secondary reflectors to collimate the radiated spherical wavefront into a planar wavefront within the desired test zone.  One typical embodiment uses a horn feed antenna and a parabolic reflector to accomplish this.

text: A Compact Antenna Test Range (CATR) is a facility which is used to provide convenient testing of antenna systems at frequencies where obtaining far-field spacing to the AUT would be infeasible using traditional

text: free space

text: methods. It was invented by

text: Richard C. Johnson

text: at the

text: Georgia Tech Research Institute

text: . The CATR uses a source antenna which radiates a spherical wavefront and one or more secondary reflectors to collimate the radiated spherical wavefront into a planar wavefront within the desired test zone.  One typical embodiment uses a horn feed antenna and a

text: parabolic reflector

text: to accomplish this.

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answers: radiation is generally considered harmful to living things

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: These levels of radioactivity pose little danger but can confuse measurement. A particular problem is encountered with naturally generated radon gas which can affect instruments which are set to detect contamination close to normal background levels and can cause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator of radiological survey equipment to differentiate between background radiation and the radiation which emanates from contamination.

text: These levels of radioactivity pose little danger but can confuse measurement. A particular problem is encountered with naturally generated

text: radon

text: gas which can affect instruments which are set to detect contamination close to normal background levels and can cause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator of radiological survey equipment to differentiate between

text: background radiation

text: and the radiation which emanates from contamination.

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answer: No

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answer: No

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text: Nuklo has superhuman strength and can project an aura that absorbs force used against him. He can emit dangerous radiation, and can divide himself into three bodies united by a single mind.

text: Nuklo has superhuman strength and can project an aura that absorbs force used against him. He can emit dangerous radiation, and can divide himself into three bodies united by a single mind.

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answers: dangerous radiation

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answers: dangerous radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Nuklo

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Beecher's findings were not alone. Evidence emerged that soon after the introduction of nuclear weapons, soldiers and civilians were subjected to potentially dangerous levels of radiation – without consent – to test its health effects (see Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments and human radiation experiments in the United States).

text: Beecher's findings were not alone. Evidence emerged that soon after the introduction of

text: nuclear weapons

text: , soldiers and civilians were subjected to potentially dangerous levels of radiation – without consent – to test its health effects (see

entity_name: Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments

text: Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments

text: and

entity_section: Experiments performed in the United States

text: human radiation experiments in the United States

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answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: nuclear weapons

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: potentially dangerous levels

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: health effects

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Human

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy. Some scientists suspect that low doses may have a mild hormetic effect that can improve health.

text: Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in

text: radiation therapy

text: for the treatment of cancer and

text: thyrotoxicosis

text: . Its most common impact is the

text: induction of cancer

text: with a

text: latent period

text: of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic

text: radiation burns

text: , and/or rapid fatality through

text: acute radiation syndrome

text: . Controlled doses are used for

text: medical imaging

text: and

text: radiotherapy

text: . Some scientists suspect that low doses may have a mild

text: hormetic effect

text: that can improve health.

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answers: Ionizing radiation

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answers: medical imaging and radiotherapy

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: High doses

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Rather, radiological warfare with dirty bombs would be of vastly more use to terrorists spreading or intensifying fear, uncertainty and doubt.  The release of radioactive material may involve no special "weapon" and include no direct killing of people from its radiation source, but rather could make whole areas or structures unusable or unfavorable for the support of human life. The elevated radiation levels in the targeted areas would make these areas dangerous to humans. An area, once contaminated with radiation, is often expensive to clean up. Decontamination of the built environment would take time.

text: Rather, radiological warfare with dirty bombs would be of vastly more use to

text: terrorists

text: spreading or intensifying

text: fear, uncertainty and doubt

text: .  The release of radioactive material may involve no special "weapon" and include no direct

text: killing

text: of people from its radiation source, but rather could make whole areas or structures unusable or unfavorable for the support of human

text: life

text: . The elevated radiation levels in the targeted areas would make these areas dangerous to humans. An area, once contaminated with radiation, is often expensive to clean up. Decontamination of the

text: built environment

text: would take time.

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answers: NDQ_016703

answers: no direct killing of people

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radioactive material

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: An area, once contaminated with radiation, is often expensive to clean up

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: whole areas or structures unusable

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no direct killing of people

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Because fluoroscopy involves the use of X-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, fluoroscopic procedures pose a potential for increasing the patient's risk of radiation-induced cancer. Radiation doses to the patient depend greatly on the size of the patient as well as length of the procedure, with typical skin dose rates quoted as 20–50 mGy/min.  Exposure times vary depending on the procedure being performed, but procedure times up to 75 minutes have been documented.  Because of the long length of procedures, in addition to the cancer risk and other stochastic radiation effects, deterministic radiation effects have also been observed ranging from mild erythema, equivalent of a sun burn, to more serious burns.

text: Because fluoroscopy involves the use of X-rays, a form of

text: ionizing radiation

text: , fluoroscopic procedures pose a potential for increasing the patient's risk of

text: radiation-induced cancer

text: . Radiation doses to the patient depend greatly on the size of the patient as well as length of the procedure, with typical skin dose rates quoted as 20–50

text: mGy

text: /min.  Exposure times vary depending on the procedure being performed, but procedure times up to 75 minutes have been documented.  Because of the long length of procedures, in addition to the

text: cancer

text: risk and other stochastic radiation effects, deterministic radiation effects have also been observed ranging from mild

text: erythema

text: , equivalent of a

text: sun burn

text: , to more serious burns.

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text: A radionuclide identification device (RID) is a hand-held measurement instrument for the detection and identification of radioactive substances. They are used at national borders, by the police and firefighters to localize radioactive sources and determine the radioactive substances they consist of. A RID measures gamma (photon) radiation and optionally neutron radiation. These devices are sometimes named radio-isotope identifying devices (RIID) or handheld isotope identifiers.

text: A radionuclide identification device (RID) is a hand-held measurement instrument for the detection and identification of radioactive substances. They are used at national borders, by the police and firefighters to localize radioactive sources and determine the radioactive substances they consist of. A RID measures

text: gamma (photon) radiation

text: and optionally neutron radiation. These devices are sometimes named radio-isotope identifying devices (RIID) or handheld isotope identifiers.

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answer: No

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text: In the season eight episode "Bride", Oliver Queen (Justin Hartley), believing he is tracking Lex Luthor who has been missing since the season seven finale, discovers Lana instead. Oliver convinces her to return to Smallville so that she can attend Chloe's wedding. In the season eight episode "Power", it is revealed that Lana really returned so that she could steal Lex's "Prometheus" technology, which harnesses alien DNA to give the wearer of a "super-suit" superhuman abilities, for herself. By the end of the episode, the procedure is complete, and Lana becomes just as strong and invulnerable as Clark. In the episode "Requiem", Lana discovers that her suit absorbs kryptonite, but also emits the radiation making her a potential danger to Clark. When Winslow Schott puts a kryptonite bomb on the roof of the Daily Planet, Lana is forced to absorb all of the kryptonite to deactivate the bomb. As a result, she leaves Smallville to go on her own quest as Clark can no longer get near her without the kryptonite radiation hurting him.

text: In the

text: season eight

text: episode "Bride",

text: Oliver Queen

text: Justin Hartley

text: ), believing he is tracking Lex Luthor who has been missing since the season seven finale, discovers Lana instead. Oliver convinces her to return to Smallville so that she can attend Chloe's wedding. In the season eight episode "Power", it is revealed that Lana really returned so that she could steal Lex's "Prometheus" technology, which harnesses alien DNA to give the wearer of a "super-suit" superhuman abilities, for herself. By the end of the episode, the procedure is complete, and Lana becomes just as strong and invulnerable as Clark. In the episode "Requiem", Lana discovers that her suit absorbs kryptonite, but also emits the radiation making her a potential danger to Clark. When

text: Winslow Schott

text: puts a kryptonite bomb on the roof of the Daily Planet, Lana is forced to absorb all of the kryptonite to deactivate the bomb. As a result, she leaves Smallville to go on her own quest as Clark can no longer get near her without the kryptonite radiation hurting him.

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text: R3D measured ionizing and non-ionizing radiation as well as cosmic radiation reaching the biological samples located on the EXPOSE-E. Due to errors in data transmission or temporary termination of EXPOSE power, not all data could be acquired. Radiation was not constant during the mission. At regular intervals of about 2 months, low or almost no radiation was encountered. The radiation dose during the mission was 1823.98 MJ m−2 for PAR, 269.03 MJ m−2 for UVA, 45.73 MJ m−2 for UVB, or 18.28 MJ m−2 for UVC. Registered sunshine duration during the mission was about 152 days (about 27% of mission time). The surface of EXPOSE was most likely turned away from the Sun for considerably longer time.The highest daily averaged absorbed dose rate of 426 μGy per day came from the 'South Atlantic Anomaly' (SAA) region of the inner radiation belt; galactic cosmic rays (GCR) delivered a daily absorbed dose rate of 91.1 μGy per day, and the outer radiation belt (ORB) source delivered 8.6 μGy per day.

text: R3D measured

text: ionizing

text: and

text: non-ionizing radiation

text: as well as

text: cosmic radiation

text: reaching the biological samples located on the EXPOSE-E. Due to errors in data transmission or temporary termination of EXPOSE power, not all data could be acquired. Radiation was not constant during the mission. At regular intervals of about 2 months, low or almost no radiation was encountered. The radiation dose during the mission was 1823.98 MJ m−2 for PAR, 269.03 MJ m−2 for UVA, 45.73 MJ m−2 for UVB, or 18.28 MJ m−2 for UVC. Registered sunshine duration during the mission was about 152 days (about 27% of mission time). The surface of EXPOSE was most likely turned away from the Sun for considerably longer time.The highest daily averaged absorbed dose rate of 426 μGy per day came from the 'South Atlantic Anomaly' (SAA) region of the inner radiation belt; galactic cosmic rays (GCR) delivered a daily absorbed dose rate of 91.1 μGy per day, and the outer radiation belt (ORB) source delivered 8.6 μGy per day.

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answers: At regular intervals of about 2 months, low or almost no radiation was encountered

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: outer radiation belt

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: biological samples

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answers: Biological samples

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as patent medicine and radioactive quackery. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of aplastic anemia caused by radiation poisoning. Eben Byers, a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers (but not acute radiation syndrome) in 1932 after consuming large quantities of radium over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.

text: Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as

text: patent medicine

text: and

text: radioactive quackery

text: . Examples were radium

text: enema

text: treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.

text: Marie Curie

text: spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of

text: aplastic anemia

text: caused by radiation poisoning.

text: Eben Byers

text: , a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers (but not acute radiation syndrome) in 1932 after consuming large quantities of

text: radium

text: over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.

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answers: radiation poisoning

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answers: The biological effects

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, cosmonauts were exposed to higher levels of radiation from a steady flux of cosmic rays and trapped protons from the South Atlantic Anomaly. The station's crews were exposed to an absorbed dose of about 5.2 cGy over the course of a 115-day expedition, producing an equivalent dose of 14.75 cSv, or 1133 µSv per day. This daily dose is approximately that received from natural background radiation on Earth in two years. The radiation environment of the station was not uniform, however; closer proximity to the station's hull led to an increased radiation dose, and the strength of radiation shielding varied between modules; Kvant-2's being better than the core module, for instance.

text: Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, cosmonauts were exposed to higher levels of

text: radiation

text: from a steady flux of

text: cosmic ray

text: s and trapped protons from the

text: South Atlantic Anomaly

text: . The station's crews were exposed to an

text: absorbed dose

text: of about 5.2

text: cGy

text: over the course of a

text: 115-day expedition

text: , producing an

text: equivalent dose

text: of 14.75

text: cSv

text: , or 1133 µSv per day. This daily dose is approximately that received from natural

text: background radiation

text: on Earth in two years. The radiation environment of the station was not uniform, however; closer proximity to the station's hull led to an increased radiation dose, and the strength of radiation shielding varied between modules; Kvant-2's being better than the core module, for instance.

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answers: Earth's atmosphere

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answers: South Atlantic Anomaly

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: natural background radiation on Earth in two years

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cosmonauts

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: cosmonauts

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: One way to obtain a distance measurement is based on the time-of-flight: transmit a short pulse of radio signal (electromagnetic radiation) and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is one-half the product of the round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and the speed of the signal. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, accurate distance measurement requires high-speed electronics.In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted. Through the use of a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate.A similar effect imposes a maximum range as well. In order to maximize range, longer times between pulses should be used, referred to as a pulse repetition time, or its reciprocal, pulse repetition frequency.

text: One way to obtain a

text: distance measurement

text: is based on the

text: time-of-flight

text: : transmit a short pulse of radio signal (electromagnetic radiation) and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is one-half the product of the round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and the speed of the signal. Since radio waves travel at the

text: speed of light

text: , accurate distance measurement requires high-speed electronics.In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted. Through the use of a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate.A similar effect imposes a maximum range as well. In order to maximize range, longer times between pulses should be used, referred to as a pulse repetition time, or its reciprocal, pulse repetition frequency.

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answers: radio waves travel at the speed of light

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radar

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A possible source of energy comes from ubiquitous radio transmitters. Historically, either a large collection area or close proximity to the radiating wireless energy source is needed to get useful power levels from this source. The nantenna is one proposed development which would overcome this limitation by making use of the abundant natural radiation (such as solar radiation).

text: A possible source of energy comes from ubiquitous radio transmitters. Historically, either a large collection area or close proximity to the radiating

text: wireless energy

text: source is needed to get useful power levels from this source. The

text: nantenna

text: is one proposed development which would overcome this limitation by making use of the abundant

text: natural radiation

text: (such as

text: solar radiation

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text: The wOOx radiator incorporates a mass element in the center of its diaphragm, which is used to adjust the tuning frequency of the loudspeaker enclosure. In this sense, a loudspeaker enclosure with passive radiators emulates a mass-spring system, much like the helmholtz resonator devices (bass reflex ports) more commonly used to tune loudspeaker enclosures. However, the amount of mass suspended on a passive radiator diaphragm enables extremely deep tuning frequencies to be possible in small enclosures. However, like any passive radiator system, it is possible to damage the bass radiator by driving it beyond its mechanical limits. To avoid this, some wOOx systems use an additional reflex vent, having the same tuning as the wOOx radiator. This relieves excess pressure that could tear the bass radiator apart.

text: The wOOx radiator incorporates a mass element in the center of its diaphragm, which is used to adjust the tuning frequency of the loudspeaker enclosure. In this sense, a loudspeaker enclosure with passive radiators emulates a mass-spring system, much like the

text: helmholtz resonator

text: devices (

text: bass reflex

text: ports) more commonly used to tune loudspeaker enclosures. However, the amount of mass suspended on a passive radiator diaphragm enables extremely deep tuning frequencies to be possible in small enclosures. However, like any passive radiator system, it is possible to damage the bass radiator by driving it beyond its mechanical limits. To avoid this, some wOOx systems use an additional reflex vent, having the same tuning as the wOOx radiator. This relieves excess pressure that could tear the bass radiator apart.

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answers: It is possible

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answers: It is possible to damage the bass radiator by driving it beyond its mechanical limits

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answers: driving it beyond its mechanical limits

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center opened a facility, the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory, at Brookhaven National Laboratory, that employs particle accelerators to simulate space radiation. The facility studies its effects on living organisms, as well as experimenting with shielding techniques. Initially, there was some evidence that this kind of low level, chronic radiation is not quite as dangerous as once thought; and that radiation hormesis occurs. However, results from a 2006 study indicated that protons from cosmic radiation may cause twice as much serious damage to DNA as previously estimated, exposing astronauts to greater risk of cancer and other diseases. As a result of the higher radiation in the Martian environment, the summary report of the Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee released in 2009 reported that "Mars is not an easy place to visit with existing technology and without a substantial investment of resources." NASA is exploring a variety of alternative techniques and technologies such as deflector shields of plasma to protect astronauts and spacecraft from radiation.

text: Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, NASA's

text: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

text: opened a facility, the

text: NASA Space Radiation Laboratory

text: , at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: , that employs

text: particle accelerator

text: s to simulate space radiation. The facility studies its effects on living organisms, as well as experimenting with shielding techniques. Initially, there was some evidence that this kind of low level, chronic radiation is not quite as dangerous as once thought; and that

text: radiation hormesis

text: occurs. However, results from a 2006 study indicated that protons from cosmic radiation may cause twice as much serious damage to

text: DNA

text: as previously estimated, exposing astronauts to greater risk of cancer and other diseases. As a result of the higher radiation in the Martian environment, the summary report of the

entity_name: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee

text: Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee

text: released in 2009 reported that "Mars is not an easy place to visit with existing technology and without a substantial investment of resources." NASA is exploring a variety of alternative techniques and technologies such as

text: deflector shield

text: s of plasma to protect astronauts and spacecraft from radiation.

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answers: Initially, there was some evidence

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answers: cosmic radiation

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answers: low level, chronic radiation

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answers: DNA

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: On 28 November 1975 a fuel channel in Unit 1 suffered a loss of coolant, resulting in the degradation of a nuclear fuel assembly that led to a significant release of radiation lasting for one month. Immediately after the accident, the radiation level in Sosnovy Bor,  from the affected power unit, was 600 mR/h; in total, 1.5 MCi was released into the environment. The exposed inhabitants of the Baltic region were not notified of the danger. The accident was not reported in the media. (Practically the same accident occurred in Unit 1 of the Chernobyl Power Station in 1982.)

text: On 28 November 1975 a fuel channel in Unit 1 suffered a loss of coolant, resulting in the degradation of a nuclear fuel assembly that led to a significant release of radiation lasting for one month. Immediately after the accident, the radiation level in Sosnovy Bor,  from the affected power unit, was 600 mR/h; in total, 1.5

text: MCi

text: was released into the environment. The exposed inhabitants of the Baltic region were not notified of the danger. The accident was not reported in the media. (Practically the same accident occurred in Unit 1 of the Chernobyl Power Station in 1982.)

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answers: 600 mR/h

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: inhabitants

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The exposed inhabitants

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Passive radiators are used in home stereo speakers, subwoofer cabinets and car audio speaker systems, particularly in cases where there is not enough space for a port or vent system. While most studio monitor speakers are closed-back, without a vent or passive radiator, Mackie sells one small monitor speaker that has a passive radiator installed on the rear of the cabinet. Focal also sells a studio monitor with a passive radiator called the SM9.

text: Passive radiators are used in

text: home stereo

text: speakers,

text: subwoofer

text: cabinets and

text: car audio

text: speaker systems, particularly in cases where there is not enough space for a port or vent system. While most

text: studio monitor speaker

text: s are closed-back, without a vent or passive radiator,

text: Mackie

text: sells one small monitor speaker that has a passive radiator installed on the rear of the cabinet. Focal also sells a studio monitor with a passive radiator called the SM9.

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answers: Passive radiators

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: car audio speaker systems

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Passive radiators

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: passive radiator

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Passive radiators are used in home stereo speakers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ramsar's Talesh Mahalleh district is the most radioactive inhabited area known on Earth, due to nearby hot springs and building materials originating from them. A combined population of 2,000 residents from this district and other high radiation neighbourhoods receive an average radiation dose of 10 mGy per year, ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the effective radiation dose due to external radiation was 131 mSv/a, and the committed dose from radon was 72 mSv/a. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average background radiation.

text: Ramsar's Talesh Mahalleh district is the most radioactive inhabited area known on Earth, due to nearby

text: hot spring

text: s and building materials originating from them. A combined population of 2,000 residents from this district and other high radiation neighbourhoods receive an average

text: radiation dose

text: of 10

text: mGy

text: per year, ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the

text: effective radiation dose

text: due to external radiation was 131

text: mSv

text: /a, and the

text: committed dose

text: from

text: radon

text: was 72 mSv/a. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average

text: background radiation

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answers: world average background radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radon

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: exposure to the public

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: residents

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Compared to ionizing radiation exposures on Earth, astronauts are exposed to potentially higher levels of radiation (mainly protons, HZE particles and neutrons) from galactic cosmic sources, periodic solar flares and trapped radiation belts surrounding our planet.  NASA is concerned about the acute and long-term health effects of such exposures to crews during long-term manned space flight. Because of the unique nature of space radiation, it is relatively difficult to reduce exposure by shielding and impossible to eliminate entirely.  Efforts to assess radiation risks in space have been further complicated by considerable unknowns regarding the combined biological effects of these radiations and the difficulty in reproducing them in a controlled environment on Earth.

text: Compared to ionizing radiation exposures on Earth, astronauts are exposed to potentially higher levels of radiation (mainly protons, HZE particles and neutrons) from galactic cosmic sources, periodic

text: solar flares

text: and trapped

text: radiation belts

text: surrounding our planet.

text: NASA

text: is concerned about the acute and long-term health effects of such exposures to crews during long-term

text: manned space flight

text: . Because of the unique nature of

text: space radiation

text: , it is relatively difficult to reduce exposure by shielding and impossible to eliminate entirely.  Efforts to assess radiation risks in space have been further complicated by considerable unknowns regarding the combined biological effects of these radiations and the difficulty in reproducing them in a controlled environment on Earth.

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answers: ionizing radiation exposures

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: galactic cosmic sources, periodic solar flares

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: ionizing radiation exposures on Earth

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: long-term health effects

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Because of the unique nature of space radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In radiation protection, radiation is often separated into two categories, ionizing and non-ionizing, to denote the level of danger posed to humans. Ionization is the process of removing electrons from atoms, leaving two electrically charged particles (an electron and a positively charged ion) behind. The negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions created by ionizing radiation may cause damage in living tissue. Basically, a particle is ionizing if its energy is higher than the ionization energy of a typical substance, i.e., a few eV, and interacts with electrons significantly.

text: In

text: radiation protection

text: , radiation is often separated into two categories,

text: ionizing

text: and

text: non-ionizing

text: , to denote the level of danger posed to humans.

text: Ionization

text: is the process of removing electrons from atoms, leaving two electrically charged particles (an electron and a positively charged ion) behind. The negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions created by ionizing radiation may cause damage in living tissue. Basically, a particle is ionizing if its energy is higher than the

text: ionization energy

text: of a typical substance, i.e., a few

text: eV

text: , and interacts with electrons significantly.

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answers: No

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text: Jay Martin Gould (August 19, 1915 – September 16, 2005), was a statistician and epidemiologist who cofounded the Radiation and Public Health Project in 1989.  It was Gould's contention that radiation from nuclear power plants was causing high rates of cancer in surrounding neighborhoods. For more than two decades, Gould routinely warned that low levels of radiation from nuclear reactors were far more dangerous than commonly believed. But his research was criticized by many in the scientific community as being alarmist.

text: Jay Martin Gould (August 19, 1915 – September 16, 2005), was a statistician and epidemiologist who cofounded the

text: Radiation and Public Health Project

text: in 1989.  It was Gould's contention that

text: radiation

text: from

text: nuclear power plant

text: s was causing high rates of cancer in surrounding neighborhoods. For more than two decades, Gould routinely warned that low levels of radiation from nuclear reactors were far more dangerous than commonly believed. But his research was criticized by many in the scientific community as being alarmist.

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text: A three-axis accelerometer within the pressurized frame of the lander recorded the landing forces during impact to determine the soil structure down to a depth of . A pair of spring-loaded booms was also deployed. One of these booms carried a penetrometer, designed to measure the forces required to penetrate the lunar regolith – the penetrating force being supplied by a minute explosive charge. The other boom carried a backscatter densitometer that was used to infer the density of the lunar near-surface regolith. Four radiometers recorded infrared radiation from the surface indicating a noon temperature of 117 ±3 °C while a radiation detector indicated that radiation levels would be less than hazardous for humans.

text: A three-axis accelerometer within the pressurized frame of the lander recorded the landing forces during impact to determine the soil structure down to a depth of . A pair of spring-loaded booms was also deployed. One of these booms carried a

text: penetrometer

text: , designed to measure the forces required to penetrate the lunar

text: regolith

text: – the penetrating force being supplied by a minute explosive charge. The other boom carried a

text: backscatter

text: densitometer

text: that was used to infer the density of the lunar near-surface regolith. Four radiometers recorded infrared radiation from the surface indicating a noon temperature of 117 ±3 °C while a radiation detector indicated that radiation levels would be less than hazardous for humans.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: As these are detecting radioactive emissions, they require an extremely low radiation environment in order to work correctly. Low background counting chambers are made from low-background steel with extremely heavy radiation shielding. They are used to detect the minutest nuclear emissions.

text: As these are detecting radioactive emissions, they require an extremely low radiation environment in order to work correctly. Low background counting chambers are made from low-background steel with extremely heavy

text: radiation shielding

text: . They are used to detect the minutest nuclear emissions.

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answers: No

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text: Different types of ionizing radiation interact in different ways with shielding material. The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on the Stopping power of radiation particles, which varies with the type and energy of radiation and the shielding material used. Different shielding techniques are therefore used dependent on the application and the type and energy of the radiation.

text: Different types of

text: ionizing radiation

text: interact in different ways with shielding material. The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on the

text: Stopping power of radiation particles

text: , which varies with the type and energy of radiation and the shielding material used. Different shielding techniques are therefore used dependent on the application and the type and energy of the radiation.

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answers: It does not say

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answers: ionizing radiation

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answers: No

answer: No

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text: A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillator material, and detecting the resultant light pulses.

text: A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring

text: ionizing radiation

text: by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillator material, and detecting the resultant light pulses.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Natural sources of radiation are very prevalent in the environment, and come from cosmic rays, food sources (bananas have a particular high source), radon gas, granite and other dense rocks, and others.  The collective radiation background dose for natural sources in Europe is about 500,000 man Sieverts per year.   The total dose from Chernobyl is estimated at 80,000 man sieverts, or roughly 1/6 as much.  However, some individuals, particular in areas adjacent the reactor, received significantly higher doses.

text: Natural sources of radiation are very prevalent in the environment, and come from cosmic rays, food sources (bananas have a particular high source), radon gas, granite and other dense rocks, and others.  The collective radiation background dose for natural sources in Europe is about 500,000 man Sieverts per year.   The total dose from Chernobyl is estimated at 80,000 man sieverts, or roughly 1/6 as much.  However, some individuals, particular in areas adjacent the reactor, received significantly higher doses.

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answers: Europe is about 500,000 man Sieverts per year

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: cosmic rays, food sources

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answers: Some individuals, particular in areas adjacent the reactor, received significantly higher doses

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answers: individuals

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answers: Individuals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation may be used to treat stage II seminoma cancers, or as adjuvant (preventative) therapy in the case of stage I seminomas, to minimize the likelihood that tiny, non-detectable tumors exist and will spread (in the inguinal and para-aortic lymph nodes).  Radiation is ineffective against and is therefore never used as a primary therapy for nonseminoma.

text: Radiation

text: may be used to treat stage II seminoma cancers, or as

text: adjuvant

text: (preventative) therapy in the case of stage I seminomas, to minimize the likelihood that tiny, non-detectable tumors exist and will spread (in the inguinal and para-aortic

text: lymph nodes

text: ).  Radiation is ineffective against and is therefore never used as a primary therapy for

text: nonseminoma

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answers: lymph nodes

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answers: Nonliving things

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Equal doses of different types or energies of radiation cause different amounts of damage to living tissue. For example, 1 Gy of alpha radiation causes about 20 times as much damage as 1 Gy of X-rays. Therefore, the equivalent dose was defined to give an approximate measure of the biological effect of radiation. It is calculated by multiplying the absorbed dose by a weighting factor W, which is different for each type of radiation (see table at Relative biological effectiveness). This weighting factor is also called the Q (quality factor), or RBE (relative biological effectiveness of the radiation).

text: Equal doses of different types or energies of radiation cause different amounts of damage to living tissue. For example, 1 Gy of

text: alpha radiation

text: causes about 20 times as much damage as 1 Gy of

text: X-ray

text: s. Therefore, the

text: equivalent dose

text: was defined to give an approximate measure of the biological effect of radiation. It is calculated by multiplying the absorbed dose by a weighting factor W, which is different for each type of radiation (see table at

text: Relative biological effectiveness

text: ). This weighting factor is also called the Q (quality factor), or RBE (

text: relative biological effectiveness

text: of the radiation).

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answers: It is calculated by multiplying the absorbed dose

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answers: Equal doses of different types or energies of radiation cause different amounts of damage to living tissue

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answers: living tissue

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answers: Living tissue

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: BRET units are used as a measure of low level radiation exposure. The health hazards of low doses of ionizing radiation are unknown and controversial, because the effects, mainly cancer and genetic damage, take many years to appear, and the incidence due to radiation exposure can't be statistically separated from the many other causes of these diseases. The purpose of the BRET measure is to allow a low level dose to be easily compared with a universal yardstick: the average dose of background radiation, mostly from natural sources, that every human unavoidably receives during daily life. Background radiation level is widely used in radiological health fields as a standard for setting exposure limits. Presumably, a dose of radiation which is equivalent to what a person would receive in a few days of ordinary life will not increase his rate of disease measurably.

text: BRET units are used as a measure of low level radiation exposure. The health hazards of low doses of ionizing radiation are unknown and controversial, because the effects, mainly

text: cancer

text: and

text: genetic damage

text: , take many years to appear, and the incidence due to radiation exposure can't be statistically separated from the many other causes of these diseases. The purpose of the BRET measure is to allow a low level dose to be easily compared with a universal yardstick: the average dose of

text: background radiation

text: , mostly from natural sources, that every human unavoidably receives during daily life. Background radiation level is widely used in radiological health fields as a standard for setting exposure limits. Presumably, a dose of radiation which is equivalent to what a person would receive in a few days of ordinary life will not increase his rate of disease measurably.

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answers: BRET units are used as a measure of low level radiation exposure

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The intensity of radiation measured at the surface immediately surrounding the facility increases with growing distance from the shielding barrier to reach a maximum and then fall again continuously with further increasing distance. Depending on the type of radiation the maximum is reached at different distances from the source of radiation. For example, x-rays emitted from linear accelerators reached maxima of 18 MeV at a distance of 13.6 m and 6 MeV at 4.6 m in studies.

text: The intensity of radiation measured at the surface immediately surrounding the facility increases with growing distance from the shielding barrier to reach a maximum and then fall again continuously with further increasing distance. Depending on the type of radiation the maximum is reached at different distances from the source of radiation. For example,

text: x-ray

text: s emitted from

text: linear accelerator

text: s reached maxima of 18

text: MeV

text: at a distance of 13.6 m and 6 MeV at 4.6 m in studies.

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answers: The intensity of radiation

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answers: Depending on the type of radiation

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answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Zone 1 and zone 2 are located within the property of NRAO. The entire NRAO property is designed as zone 1 except small portions (such as housing, visitor and laboratory areas) that are designed as zone 2. Zone 1, also called Radio Astronomy Instrument Zone , restricts intentional radiators to only those are deemed essential. All unintentional radiators must be operated within the ITU-R RA.769 recommendations on protection criteria used for radio astronomical measurements. Gasoline-powered motor vehicles are forbidden within zone 1 as the ignition system on spark-ignited engines generates noticeable radio interference, resulting in all vehicles and equipment needing to be diesel powered. Zone 2, also called Observatory Building Zone, allows intentional radiators licensed by National Radio Quiet Zone, but not other radiators such as WIFI, cordless phones and wireless equipment. Certain types of unintentional radiators are allowed.

text: Zone 1 and zone 2 are located within the property of NRAO. The entire NRAO property is designed as zone 1 except small portions (such as housing, visitor and laboratory areas) that are designed as zone 2. Zone 1, also called Radio Astronomy Instrument Zone , restricts intentional radiators to only those are deemed essential. All unintentional radiators must be operated within the

text: ITU-R

text: RA.769 recommendations on protection criteria used for radio astronomical measurements.

text: Gasoline

text: -powered motor vehicles are forbidden within zone 1 as the ignition system on spark-ignited engines generates noticeable radio interference, resulting in all vehicles and equipment needing to be diesel powered. Zone 2, also called Observatory Building Zone, allows intentional radiators licensed by National Radio Quiet Zone, but not other radiators such as WIFI, cordless phones and wireless equipment. Certain types of unintentional radiators are allowed.

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answers: Gasoline-powered motor vehicles

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answers: unintentional radiators

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: They are also used to eliminate port turbulence and reduce motion compression caused by high velocity airflow in small ports (especially small diameter ones). Passive radiators are tuned by mass variations (M), changing the way their compliance interacts with motion of the air in the box. The weight of the cone of the passive radiator should be approximately equivalent to the mass of the air that would have filled the port which might have been used for that design.

text: They are also used to eliminate port turbulence and reduce motion compression caused by high velocity airflow in small ports (especially small diameter ones). Passive radiators are tuned by mass variations (M), changing the way their compliance interacts with motion of the air in the box. The weight of the cone of the passive radiator should be approximately equivalent to the mass of the air that would have filled the port which might have been used for that design.

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answers: NDQ_016706

answers: high velocity airflow

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation-induced cognitive decline describes the possible correlation between radiation therapy and mild cognitive impairment. Radiation therapy is used mainly in the treatment of cancer. Radiation therapy can be used to cure care or shrink tumors that are interfering with quality of life. Sometimes radiation therapy is used alone; other times it is used in conjunction with chemotherapy and surgery. For people with brain tumors, radiation can be an effective treatment because chemotherapy is often less effective due to the blood–brain barrier. Unfortunately for some patients, as time passes, people who received radiation therapy may begin experiencing deficits in their learning, memory, and spatial information processing abilities. The learning, memory, and spatial information processing abilities are dependent on proper hippocampus functionality. Therefore, any hippocampus dysfunction will result in deficits in learning, memory, and spatial information processing ability.

text: Radiation-induced cognitive decline describes the possible correlation between

text: radiation therapy

text: and

text: mild cognitive impairment

text: . Radiation therapy is used mainly in the treatment of cancer. Radiation therapy can be used to cure care or shrink tumors that are interfering with quality of life. Sometimes radiation therapy is used alone; other times it is used in conjunction with chemotherapy and surgery. For people with brain tumors, radiation can be an effective treatment because chemotherapy is often less effective due to the blood–brain barrier. Unfortunately for some patients, as time passes, people who received radiation therapy may begin experiencing deficits in their learning, memory, and spatial information processing abilities. The learning, memory, and spatial information processing abilities are dependent on proper

text: hippocampus

text: functionality. Therefore, any hippocampus dysfunction will result in deficits in learning, memory, and spatial information processing ability.

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answers: Radiation therapy can be used mainly in the treatment of cancer

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answers: hippocampus

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sterilization can be achieved using electromagnetic radiation such as electron beams, X-rays, gamma rays, or irradiation by subatomic particles. Electromagnetic or particulate radiation can be energetic enough to ionize atoms or molecules (ionizing radiation), or less energetic (non-ionizing radiation).

text: Sterilization can be achieved using

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: such as

text: electron beam

text: s,

text: X-rays

text: gamma rays

text: , or irradiation by

text: subatomic particle

text: s. Electromagnetic or particulate radiation can be energetic enough to ionize atoms or molecules (

text: ionizing radiation

text: ), or less energetic (

text: non-ionizing radiation

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answers: Electromagnetic or particulate

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answers: non-ionizing radiation

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answers: Sterilization

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is widely believed that a literal radiator reflector of ordinary aluminium kitchen foil is useful. This highly reflective foil is used with the shiny side facing towards the back of the radiator. However, as little of the radiator's heat is released by radiation anyway, there is little advantage in reducing losses to it. There is also a risk that reflectors made from kitchen foil may soon become inefficient, as aluminium oxidizes very quickly and then loses its reflective quality.

text: It is

text: widely believed

text: that a literal radiator reflector of ordinary aluminium

text: kitchen foil

text: is useful. This highly reflective foil is used with the shiny side facing towards the back of the radiator. However, as little of the radiator's heat is released by radiation anyway, there is little advantage in reducing losses to it. There is also a risk that

text: reflector

text: s made from kitchen foil may soon become inefficient, as

text: aluminium

text: oxidizes

text: very quickly and then loses its reflective quality.

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answers: little of the radiator's heat is released by radiation

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: This is a reference to the fact that very low doses of radiation have only marginal impacts on individual health outcomes. It is therefore difficult to detect the 'signal' of decreased or increased morbidity and mortality due to low-level radiation exposure in the 'noise' of other effects. The notion of radiation hormesis has been rejected by the National Research Council's (part of the National Academy of Sciences) 16-year-long study on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. "The scientific research base shows that there is no threshold of exposure below which low levels of ionizing radiation can be demonstrated to be harmless or beneficial.  The health risks – particularly the development of solid cancers in organs – rise proportionally with exposure" says Richard R. Monson, associate dean for professional education and professor of epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston.

text: This is a reference to the fact that very low doses of radiation have only marginal impacts on individual health outcomes. It is therefore difficult to detect the 'signal' of decreased or increased morbidity and mortality due to low-level radiation exposure in the 'noise' of other effects. The notion of radiation hormesis has been rejected by the National Research Council's (part of the National Academy of Sciences) 16-year-long study on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. "The scientific research base shows that there is no threshold of exposure below which low levels of ionizing radiation can be demonstrated to be harmless or beneficial.  The health risks – particularly the development of solid cancers in organs – rise proportionally with exposure" says Richard R. Monson, associate dean for professional education and professor of epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston.

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answers: very low doses of radiation have only marginal impacts on individual health outcomes

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Ionizing Radiation

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answers: The health risks – particularly the development of solid cancers in organs

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: solid cancers in organs

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no threshold of exposure below which low levels of ionizing radiation can be demonstrated to be harmless or beneficial

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The concept of the rem first appeared in the literature in 1945, and was given its first definition in 1947. The definition was refined in 1950 as "that dose of any ionizing radiation which produces a relevant biological effect equal to that produced by one roentgen of high-voltage x-radiation." This definition left open the question of what might be considered a "relevant biological effect," and did not prescribe if the roentgen should be measured in air, water, or tissue. Using data available at the time, the rem was variously evaluated as 83, 93, or 95 erg/gram. Along with the introduction of the rad in 1953, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) decided to "continue" the use of the rem. The US National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements noted in 1954 that this effectively implied an increase in the magnitude of the rem to match the rad (100 erg/gram). The ICRP officially adopted the rem as the unit of equivalent dose in 1962 to measure the way different types of radiation distribute energy in tissue, and began recommending values of relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for various types of radiation. In practice, the unit of rem was used to denote that an RBE factor had been applied to a number which was originally in units of rad or roentgen. In 1977 the rem was redefined by the ICRP as 0.01 sievert or 0.01 J/kg, with the intention that the sievert would come to replace the rem.

text: The concept of the rem first appeared in the literature in 1945, and was given its first definition in 1947. The definition was refined in 1950 as "that dose of any ionizing radiation which produces a relevant biological effect equal to that produced by one

text: roentgen

text: of high-voltage x-radiation." This definition left open the question of what might be considered a "relevant biological effect," and did not prescribe if the roentgen should be measured in air, water, or tissue. Using data available at the time, the rem was variously evaluated as 83, 93, or 95 erg/gram. Along with the introduction of the

text: rad

text: in 1953, the

text: International Commission on Radiological Protection

text: (ICRP) decided to "continue" the use of the rem. The US

text: National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements

text: noted in 1954 that this effectively implied an increase in the magnitude of the rem to match the rad (100 erg/gram). The ICRP officially adopted the rem as the unit of

text: equivalent dose

text: in 1962 to measure the way different types of radiation distribute energy in tissue, and began recommending values of

text: relative biological effectiveness

text: (RBE) for various types of radiation. In practice, the unit of rem was used to denote that an RBE factor had been applied to a number which was originally in units of rad or roentgen. In 1977 the rem was redefined by the ICRP as 0.01

text: sievert

text: or 0.01 J/kg, with the intention that the sievert would come to replace the rem.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: The US National Committee on Radiation Protection

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: air, water, or tissue

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answers: ionizing radiation which produces a relevant biological effect

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: tissue

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answers: This definition left open the question of what might be considered a "relevant biological effect,"

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are constructed to function in automobiles, buildings, and electronics. The radiator is always a source of heat to its environment, although this may be for either the purpose of heating this environment, or for cooling the fluid or coolant supplied to it, as for engine cooling. Despite the name, most radiators transfer the bulk of their heat via convection instead of thermal radiation (the main exception to this rule being the radiators on spacecraft, see spacecraft radiators below), though the term "convector" is used more narrowly; see radiation and convection, below.

text: Radiators are

text: heat exchanger

text: s used to transfer

text: thermal energy

text: from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are constructed to function in

text: automobiles

text: buildings

text: , and

text: electronics

text: . The radiator is always a source of heat to its environment, although this may be for either the purpose of

text: heating

text: this environment, or for cooling the fluid or

text: coolant

text: supplied to it, as for

text: engine cooling

text: . Despite the name, most radiators transfer the bulk of their heat via

text: convection

text: instead of

text: thermal radiation

text: (the main exception to this rule being the radiators on spacecraft, see

text: spacecraft radiators

text: below), though the term "convector" is used more narrowly; see

text: radiation and convection

text: , below.

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answers: Despite the name, most radiators transfer the bulk of their heat via convection

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radiators on spacecraft

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiators are heat exchangers

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Radiators

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiators

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Early cars, motor vehicles and engine-powered farm & industrial equipment used thermosiphon circulation to move cooling water between their cylinder block and radiator. They depended on forward movement of the car and fans to move enough air through the radiator to provide the temperature differential that caused the thermosiphon circulation. As engine power increased, increased flow was required and so engine-driven pumps were added to assist circulation. More compact engines then used smaller radiators and required more convoluted flow patterns, so the circulation became entirely dependent on the pump and might even be reversed against the natural circulation. An engine cooled only by thermosiphon is susceptible to overheating during prolonged periods of idling or very slow travel when airflow through the radiator is limited, unless one or more fans are able to move enough air to provide adequate cooling. They are also very sensitive to low coolant level, i.e., losing only a small amount of coolant stops the circulation; a pump driven system is much more robust and can typically handle a lower coolant level.

text: Early cars, motor vehicles and engine-powered farm & industrial equipment used thermosiphon circulation to move cooling water between their

text: cylinder block

text: and

text: radiator

text: . They depended on forward movement of the car and fans to move enough air through the radiator to provide the temperature differential that caused the thermosiphon circulation. As engine power increased, increased flow was required and so engine-driven pumps were added to assist circulation. More compact engines then used smaller radiators and required more convoluted flow patterns, so the circulation became entirely dependent on the pump and might even be reversed against the natural circulation. An engine cooled only by thermosiphon is susceptible to overheating during prolonged periods of idling or very slow travel when airflow through the radiator is limited, unless one or more fans are able to move enough air to provide adequate cooling. They are also very sensitive to low coolant level, i.e., losing only a small amount of coolant stops the circulation; a pump driven system is much more robust and can typically handle a lower coolant level.

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answers: It depends

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: farm & industrial equipment

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Thermosiphon circulation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: nonliving

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Natural background radiation comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and radon.

text: Natural

text: background radiation

text: comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and

text: radon

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answers: background radiation

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answers: natural background radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation in the human body

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the human body

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: the human body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The sign is commonly referred to as a radioactivity warning sign, but it is actually a warning sign of ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is a much broader category than radioactivity alone, as many non-radioactive sources also emit potentially dangerous levels of ionizing radiation. This includes x-ray apparatus, medical beam cannons and particle accelerators. Non-ionizing radiation can also reach potentially dangerous levels, but this warning sign is different from the trefoil ionizing radiation warning symbol.

text: The sign is commonly referred to as a

text: radioactivity

text: warning sign, but it is actually a warning sign of

text: ionizing radiation

text: . Ionizing radiation is a much broader category than radioactivity alone, as many non-radioactive sources also emit potentially dangerous levels of ionizing radiation. This includes x-ray apparatus, medical beam cannons and particle accelerators.

text: Non-ionizing radiation

text: can also reach potentially dangerous levels, but this warning sign is different from the trefoil ionizing radiation warning symbol.

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answers: Non-ionizing radiation

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answers: non-radioactive sources

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Non-ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: ionizing

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: non-living things

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Matter attenuates radiation in most cases, so placing any mass (e.g., lead, dirt, sandbags, vehicles) between humans and the source will reduce the radiation dose. This is not always the case, however; care should be taken when constructing shielding for a specific purpose. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding photons, using them to shield beta particles may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of bremsstrahlung x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using material with a high neutron activation cross section to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

text: Matter attenuates radiation in most cases, so placing any mass (e.g., lead, dirt, sandbags, vehicles) between humans and the source will reduce the radiation dose. This is not always the case, however; care should be taken when constructing shielding for a specific purpose. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding

text: photon

text: s, using them to shield

text: beta particle

text: s may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of

text: bremsstrahlung

text: x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using material with a high

text: neutron activation

text: cross section

text: to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

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text: INL’s robotics program  researches, builds, tests and refines robots that, among other things, clean up dangerous wastes, measure radiation, scout drug-smuggling tunnels, aid search-and-rescue operations, and help protect the environment.

text: INL’s robotics program  researches, builds, tests and refines robots that, among other things, clean up dangerous wastes, measure radiation, scout drug-smuggling tunnels, aid search-and-rescue operations, and help protect the environment.

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text: X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for radiography were originally based on photographic plates and later photographic film, but are now mostly replaced by various digital detector types such as image plates and flat panel detectors. For radiation protection direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using ionization chambers, while dosimeters are used to measure the radiation dose a person has been exposed to. X-ray spectra can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive spectrometers.

text: X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for

text: radiography

text: were originally based on

text: photographic plate

text: s and later

text: photographic film

text: , but are now mostly replaced by various

text: digital

text: detector types such as

text: image plate

text: s and

text: flat panel detectors

text: . For

text: radiation protection

text: direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using

text: ionization chamber

text: s, while

text: dosimeters

text: are used to measure the

text: radiation dose

text: a person has been exposed to. X-ray

text: spectra

text: can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive

text: spectrometer

text: s.

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text: The exposure of a human body to ionizing radiation has the same harmful effects whether the source of the radiation is a medical X-ray machine, a nuclear power plant or radiation in space. The degree of the harmful effect depends on the length of exposure and the radiation's energy density. The ever-present radiation belts extend down to the altitude of manned spacecraft such as the International Space Station (ISS) and the Space Shuttle, but the amount of exposure is within the acceptable lifetime exposure limit under normal conditions. During a major space weather event that includes an SEP burst, the flux can increase by orders of magnitude. Areas within ISS provide shielding that can keep the total dose within safe limits. For the Space Shuttle, such an event would have required immediate mission termination.

text: The exposure of a human body to

text: ionizing radiation

text: has the same

text: harmful effects

text: whether the source of the radiation is a medical

text: X-ray machine

text: , a

text: nuclear power plant

text: or radiation in space. The degree of the harmful effect depends on the length of exposure and the radiation's

text: energy density

text: . The ever-present

text: radiation belt

text: s extend down to the altitude of manned spacecraft such as the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) and the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , but the amount of exposure is within the

text: acceptable lifetime exposure limit

text: under normal conditions. During a major space weather event that includes an SEP burst, the flux can increase by orders of magnitude. Areas within ISS provide shielding that can keep the total dose within safe limits. For the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , such an event would have required immediate mission termination.

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answers: The amount of exposure is within the acceptable lifetime exposure limit under normal conditions

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: a nuclear power plant

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answers: exposure is within the acceptable lifetime exposure limit under normal conditions

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the degree of the harmful effect

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The exposure of a human body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Galactic cosmic rays create a continuous radiation dose throughout the Solar System that increases during solar minimum and decreases during solar maximum (solar activity).  The inner and outer radiation belts are two regions of trapped particles from the solar wind that are later accelerated by dynamic interaction with the Earth's magnetic field.  While always high, the radiation dose in these belts can increase dramatically during geomagnetic storms and substorms.  Solar proton events are bursts of energetic protons accelerated by the Sun. They occur relatively rarely and can produce extremely high radiation levels. Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong to cause acute radiation poisoning and death.

text: Galactic cosmic rays create a continuous radiation dose throughout the

text: Solar System

text: that increases during solar minimum and decreases during solar maximum (

text: solar activity

text: ).  The inner and outer radiation belts are two regions of trapped particles from the solar wind that are later accelerated by dynamic interaction with the Earth's magnetic field.  While always high, the radiation dose in these belts can increase dramatically during

text: geomagnetic storms

text: and

text: substorm

text: s.  Solar proton events are bursts of energetic protons accelerated by the Sun. They occur relatively rarely and can produce extremely high radiation levels. Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong to cause acute

text: radiation poisoning

text: and death.

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answers: solar minimum and decreases during solar maximum (solar activity)

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: solar proton events

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Without thick shielding

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Without thick shielding

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation detectors, and is widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types of ionizing radiation; X-rays, gamma rays and beta particles. Conventionally, the term "ionization chamber" is used exclusively to describe those detectors which collect all the charges created by direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field. It only uses the discrete charges created by each interaction between the incident radiation and the gas, and does not involve the gas multiplication mechanisms used by other radiation instruments, such as the Geiger-Müller counter or the proportional counter.

text: The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation detectors, and is widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types of

text: ionizing radiation

text: X-rays

text: gamma ray

text: s and

text: beta particle

text: s. Conventionally, the term "ionization chamber" is used exclusively to describe those detectors which collect all the charges created by direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field. It only uses the discrete charges created by each interaction between the incident radiation and the gas, and does not involve the gas multiplication mechanisms used by other radiation instruments, such as the

text: Geiger-Müller counter

text: or the

text: proportional counter

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answers: gamma rays and beta particles

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answers: gamma rays

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: ionizing

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: ionizing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation therapy is the most common form of treatment. There are different forms of radiation therapy, including 3D conformal radiation therapy, intensity-modulated radiation therapy, particle beam therapy and brachytherapy, which are commonly used in the treatments of cancers of the head and neck. Most patients with head and neck cancer who are treated in the United States and Europe are treated with intensity-modulated radiation therapy using high energy photons. At higher doses, head and neck radiation is associated with thyroid dysfunction and pituitary axis dysfunction.

text: Radiation therapy

text: is the most common form of treatment. There are different forms of radiation therapy, including 3D conformal radiation therapy, intensity-modulated radiation therapy, particle beam therapy and brachytherapy, which are commonly used in the treatments of cancers of the head and neck. Most patients with head and neck cancer who are treated in the United States and Europe are treated with intensity-modulated radiation therapy using high energy photons. At higher doses, head and neck radiation is associated with

text: thyroid

text: dysfunction and

text: pituitary

text: axis dysfunction.

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answers: Radiation therapy

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: particle beam therapy

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: At higher doses

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: thyroid dysfunction

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The assertion that light, as electromagnetic radiation, has the property of momentum and thus it exerts a pressure upon any surface it is exposed to was published by James Clerk Maxwell in 1862, and proven experimentally by Russian physicist Pyotr Lebedev in 1900 and by Ernest Fox Nichols and Gordon Ferrie Hull in 1901. The pressure is very feeble, but can be detected by allowing the radiation to fall upon a delicately poised vane of reflective metal in a Nichols radiometer (this should not be confused with the Crookes radiometer, whose characteristic motion is not caused by radiation pressure but by impacting gas molecules).

text: The assertion that light, as

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , has the property of

text: momentum

text: and thus it exerts a

text: pressure

text: upon any surface it is exposed to was published by

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: in 1862, and proven experimentally by Russian physicist

text: Pyotr Lebedev

text: in 1900 and by

text: Ernest Fox Nichols

text: and

text: Gordon Ferrie Hull

text: in 1901. The pressure is very feeble, but can be detected by allowing the radiation to fall upon a delicately poised vane of reflective metal in a

text: Nichols radiometer

text: (this should not be confused with the

text: Crookes radiometer

text: , whose characteristic motion is not caused by radiation pressure but by impacting gas molecules).

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answers: The pressure is very feeble

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answers: light

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

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answers: impacting gas molecules

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Medical use of ionizing radiation is a small but growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer. It is also used in some kinds of medical imaging.

text: Medical use of ionizing radiation is a small but growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer. It is also used in some kinds of

text: medical imaging

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answers: It is also used in some kinds of medical imaging

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answers: cancers

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answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Using the above expression for the radiation in the far field for a given feedpoint current, we can integrate over all solid angle to obtain the total radiated power.

text: Using the above expression for the radiation in the far field for a given feedpoint current, we can integrate over all

text: solid angle

text: to obtain the total radiated power.

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answers: feedpoint current

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answers: Radiation

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answers: radiation can cause damage

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answers: Radiation can be harmed by anything

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation is a carcinogen and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plant disasters such as the Chernobyl disaster, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and the Three Mile Island accident, among others, persist indefinitely, though several other factors contributed to these events including improper management of fail safe systems and natural disasters putting uncommon stress on the generators. The radioactive decay rate of particles varies greatly, dependent upon the nuclear properties of a particular isotope. Radioactive Plutonium-244 has a half-life of 80.8 million years, which indicates the time duration required for half of a given sample to decay, though very little plutonium-244 is produced in the nuclear fuel cycle and lower half-life materials have lower activity thus giving off less dangerous radiation.

text: Radiation is a

text: carcinogen

text: and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plant disasters such as the

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: , the

text: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: and the

text: Three Mile Island accident

text: , among others, persist indefinitely, though several other factors contributed to these events including improper management of fail safe systems and natural disasters putting uncommon stress on the generators. The radioactive decay rate of particles varies greatly, dependent upon the nuclear properties of a particular isotope. Radioactive

text: has a half-life of 80.8 million years, which indicates the time duration required for half of a given sample to decay, though very little plutonium-244 is produced in the nuclear fuel cycle and lower half-life materials have lower activity thus giving off less dangerous radiation.

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answers: Nuclear power plant disasters

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answers: Radiation

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answers: living organisms and systems

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In classical physics, the intensity of each frequency of light produced in a radiating system is equal to the square of the amplitude of the radiation at that frequency, so attention next fell on amplitudes. The classical equations that Heisenberg hoped to use to form quantum theoretical equations would first yield the amplitudes, and in classical physics one could compute the intensities simply by squaring the amplitudes. But Heisenberg saw that "the simplest and most natural assumption would be"  to follow the lead provided by recent work in computing light dispersion done by Kramers.  The work he had done assisting Kramers in the previous year  now gave him an important clue about how to model what happened to excited hydrogen gas when it radiated light and what happened when incoming radiation of one frequency excited atoms in a dispersive medium and then the energy delivered by the incoming light was re-radiated — sometimes at the original frequency but often at two lower frequencies the sum of which equalled the original frequency. According to their model, an electron that had been driven to a higher energy state by accepting the energy of an incoming photon might return in one step to its equilibrium position, re-radiating a photon of the same frequency, or it might return in more than one step, radiating one photon for each step in its return to its equilibrium state.  Because of the way factors cancel out in deriving the new equation based on these considerations, the result turns out to be relatively simple.

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answers: Radiation

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Bernard 260 was powered by a  Hispano-Suiza 12Xbrs liquid cooled upright V-12 engine.  Several different radiator arrangements were tried.  For the first flight, made by Roger Baptiste in September 1932, a boxed chin radiator was used but was soon replaced by a pair of vertical units attached to the undercarriage legs. By November these had been replaced with a curved, open radiator under the engine, followed by yet another unsatisfactory system in January 1933.  In March a retractable Villard-Ferlay radiator was fitted; this was used in the competitive tests.

text: The Bernard 260 was powered by a

text: Hispano-Suiza 12Xbrs

text: liquid cooled upright

text: V-12 engine

text: .  Several different

text: radiator

text: arrangements were tried.  For the first flight, made by Roger Baptiste in September 1932, a boxed chin radiator was used but was soon replaced by a pair of vertical units attached to the undercarriage legs. By November these had been replaced with a curved, open radiator under the engine, followed by yet another unsatisfactory system in January 1933.  In March a retractable Villard-Ferlay radiator was fitted; this was used in the competitive tests.

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answers: This was used in the competitive tests

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answers: The Bernard 260

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in soil, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this internal exposure, humans also receive external exposure from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The worldwide average natural dose to humans is about 2.4 millisievert (mSv) per year. This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about 0.6 mSv per year. In some rich countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to medical imaging. In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under 2 mSv annually in the United Kingdom to more than 7 mSv annually for some groups of people in Finland.

text: Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in

text: soil

text: , rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this internal exposure, humans also receive external exposure from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The worldwide average natural

text: dose

text: to humans is about 2.4

text: millisievert

text: (mSv) per year. This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about 0.6 mSv per year. In some rich countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to

text: medical imaging

text: . In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under 2 mSv annually in the United Kingdom to more than 7 mSv annually for some groups of people in Finland.

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answers: In some rich countries, like the US and Japan

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: cosmic radiation from space

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answers: Humans also receive external exposure from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the body

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Humans

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Auger therapy (AT) is a form of radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer which relies on a large number of low-energy electrons (emitted by the Auger effect) to damage cancer cells, rather than the high-energy radiation used in traditional radiation therapy. Similar to other forms of radiation therapy, Auger therapy relies on radiation-induced damage to cancer cells (particularly DNA damage) to arrest cell division, stop tumor growth and metastasis and kill cancerous cells. It differs from other types of radiation therapy in that electrons emitted via the Auger effect (Auger electrons) are released in large numbers with low kinetic energy. Because of their low energy, these electrons damage cells over a very short range: less than the size of a single cell, on the order of nanometers. This very short-range delivery of energy permits highly targeted therapies, since the radiation-emitting nuclide is required to be inside the cell to cause damage to its nucleus. However, this is a technical challenge; Auger therapeutics must enter their cellular targets to be most effective. Auger therapeutics are small molecules, capable of entering cells of interest and binding to specific sub-cellular components, which contain one (or more) heavy atoms capable of emitting Auger electrons by radioactive decay or external excitation.

text: Auger therapy (AT) is a form of

text: radiation therapy

text: for the treatment of

text: cancer

text: which relies on a large number of low-energy

text: electron

text: s (emitted by the

text: Auger effect

text: ) to damage cancer cells, rather than the high-energy

text: radiation

text: used in traditional radiation therapy. Similar to other forms of radiation therapy, Auger therapy relies on radiation-induced damage to cancer

text: cells

text: (particularly

text: DNA

text: damage) to arrest

text: cell division

text: , stop

text: tumor

text: growth and

text: metastasis

text: and kill cancerous cells. It differs from other types of radiation therapy in that electrons emitted via the Auger effect (Auger electrons) are released in large numbers with low

text: kinetic energy

text: . Because of their low energy, these electrons damage cells over a very short range: less than the size of a single cell, on the order of

text: nanometers

text: . This very short-range delivery of energy permits highly targeted therapies, since the radiation-emitting

text: nuclide

text: is required to be inside the cell to cause damage to its

text: nucleus

text: . However, this is a technical challenge; Auger therapeutics must enter their cellular targets to be most effective. Auger therapeutics are small molecules, capable of entering cells of interest and binding to specific sub-cellular components, which contain one (or more) heavy atoms capable of emitting Auger electrons by radioactive decay or external excitation.

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answer: No

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects near room temperature, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to see one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature. Therefore, thermography allows one to see variations in temperature. When viewed through a thermal imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler backgrounds; humans and other warm-blooded animals become easily visible against the environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to the military and to security services.

text: Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects near

text: room temperature

text: , according to the

text: black body

text: radiation law

text: , thermography makes it possible to see one's environment with or without

text: visible

text: illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature. Therefore, thermography allows one to see variations in temperature. When viewed through a thermal imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler backgrounds; humans and other

text: warm-blooded

text: animals become easily visible against the environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to the military and to

text: security services

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answers: When viewed through a thermal imaging camera

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answers: humans and other warm-blooded animals

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answers: humans

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answers: humans

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All objects emit electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength dependent on the object’s temperature.  The frequency of the radiation is inversely proportional to the temperature.  In infrared thermography, the radiation is detected and measured with infrared imagers (radiometers).  The imagers contain an infrared detector that converts the emitting radiation into electrical signals that are displayed on a color or black & white computer display monitor.

text: All objects emit

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: of a

text: wavelength

text: dependent on the object’s temperature.  The frequency of the radiation is inversely proportional to the temperature.  In

text: infrared thermography

text: , the radiation is detected and measured with infrared imagers (radiometers).  The imagers contain an infrared detector that converts the emitting radiation into

text: electrical

text: signals that are displayed on a color or black & white computer display monitor.

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answers: All objects emit electromagnetic radiation

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answers: All objects

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answers: All objects

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: R-flurbiprofen– r-tPA– R101933– R115777– radiation fibrosis– radiation oncologist– radiation physicist– radiation surgery– radiation therapist– radiation therapy– radical cystectomy– radical lymph node dissection– radical mastectomy– radical perineal prostatectomy– radical prostatectomy– radical retropubic prostatectomy– radioactive drug– radioactive iodine– radioactive palladium– radioactive seed– radiofrequency ablation– radiographer– radioimmunoguided surgery– radioimmunotherapy– radioisotope– radiolabeled– radiologic exam– radionuclide scanning– radiopharmaceutical– radiosensitization– radiosensitizer– radiosurgery– radiotherapy– raloxifene– raltitrexed– randomized clinical trial– ranpirnase– rapamycin– rapid hormone cycling– rapid-onset opioid– ras gene– rasburicase– rattlesnake root– ravuconazole– rebeccamycin– recombinant tissue plasminogen activator– reconstructive surgeon– reconstructive surgery– recurrent cancer– Red blood cell– Reed–Sternberg cell– reflux– refractory cancer– regional cancer– regional chemotherapy– regional enteritis– regional lymph node– regional lymph node dissection– rehabilitation specialist– relative survival rate– relaxation technique– remission induction therapy– remote brachytherapy– renal cell cancer– renal collecting tubule– renal glomerulus– renal tubular acidosis– retinoblastoma– retinoid– retinol– retinyl palmitate– retroperitoneal– retropubic prostatectomy– retrospective cohort study– retrospective study– retroviral vector– retrovirus– RevM10 gene– rhabdoid tumor– rhabdomyosarcoma– rhizoxin– ribavirin– ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor– rifampin– risedronate– ritonavir– rituximab– RK-0202– RMP-7– RNA– Ro 31-7453– Ro 50-3821– rofecoxib– rosiglitazone– RPI.4610– RPR 109881A– RSR13– RSV

text: R-flurbiprofen

text: r-tPA

text: radiation fibrosis

text: radiation oncologist

text: radiation physicist

text: radiation surgery

text: radiation therapist

text: radiation therapy

text: radical cystectomy

text: radical lymph node dissection

text: radical mastectomy

text: radical perineal prostatectomy

text: radical prostatectomy

text: radical retropubic prostatectomy

text: radioactive drug

text: radioactive iodine

text: radioactive palladium

text: radioactive seed

text: radiofrequency ablation

text: radiographer

text: radioimmunoguided surgery

text: radioimmunotherapy

text: radioisotope

text: radiolabeled

text: radiologic exam

text: radionuclide scanning

text: radiopharmaceutical

text: radiosensitization

text: radiosensitizer

text: radiosurgery

text: radiotherapy

text: raloxifene

text: raltitrexed

text: randomized clinical trial

text: ranpirnase

text: rapamycin

text: rapid hormone cycling

text: rapid-onset opioid

text: ras gene

text: rasburicase

text: rattlesnake root

text: ravuconazole

text: rebeccamycin

text: recombinant tissue plasminogen activator

text: reconstructive surgeon

text: reconstructive surgery

text: recurrent cancer

text: Red blood cell

text: Reed–Sternberg cell

text: reflux

text: refractory cancer

text: regional cancer

text: regional chemotherapy

text: regional enteritis

text: regional lymph node

text: regional lymph node dissection

text: rehabilitation specialist

text: relative survival rate

text: relaxation technique

text: remission induction therapy

text: remote brachytherapy

text: renal cell cancer

text: renal collecting tubule

text: renal glomerulus

text: renal tubular acidosis

text: retinoblastoma

text: retinoid

text: retinol

text: retinyl palmitate

text: retroperitoneal

text: retropubic prostatectomy

text: retrospective cohort study

text: retrospective study

text: retroviral vector

text: retrovirus

text: RevM10 gene

text: rhabdoid tumor

text: rhabdomyosarcoma

text: rhizoxin

text: ribavirin

text: ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor

text: rifampin

text: risedronate

text: ritonavir

text: rituximab

text: RNA

text: Ro 31-7453

text: Ro 50-3821

text: rofecoxib

text: rosiglitazone

text: RPR 109881A

text: RSV

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answers: R-flurbiprofen– r-tPA– R101933– R115777– radiation fibrosis– radiation oncologist– radiation physicist– radiation surgery– radiation therapist– radiation therapy

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radioactive drug– radioactive iodine– radioactive palladium– radioactive seed– radiofrequency ablation– radiographer– radioimmunoguided surgery– radioimmunotherapy– radioisotope– radiolabeled– radiologic exam– radionuclide scanning– radiopharmaceutical– radiosensitization– radiosensitizer– radiosurgery– radiotherapy– raloxifene– raltitrexed– randomized clinical trial– ranpirnase– rapamycin– rapid hormone cycling– rapid-onset opioid– ras gene– rasburicase– rattlesnake root– ravuconazole– rebeccamycin– recombinant tissue plasminogen activator– reconstructive surgeon– reconstructive surgery– recurrent cancer– Red blood cell– Reed–Sternberg cell– reflux– refractory cancer– regional cancer– regional chemotherapy– regional enteritis– regional lymph node– regional lymph node dissection– rehabilitation specialist– relative survival rate– relaxation technique– remission induction therapy– remote brachytherapy– renal cell cancer– renal collecting tubule– renal glomerulus– renal tubular acidosis– retinoblastoma– retinoid– retinol– retinyl palmitate– retroperitoneal– retropubic prostatectomy

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: R-flurbiprofen– r-tPA– R101933– R115777

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: rhabdomyosarcoma

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: R-flurbiprofen– r-tPA– R101933– R115777– radiation fibrosis

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock, which comprises approximately 55% of the annual background dose.Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks.

text: The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock, which comprises approximately 55% of the annual background dose.Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks.

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answers: naturally occurring, radioactive gas

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radon

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: public radiation dose

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radon

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Active scanners emit some kind of radiation or light and detect its reflection or radiation passing through object in order to probe an object or environment. Possible types of emissions used include light, ultrasound or x-ray.

text: Active scanners emit some kind of radiation or light and detect its reflection or radiation passing through object in order to probe an object or environment. Possible types of emissions used include light,

text: ultrasound

text: or x-ray.

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answers: It is unlikely

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Active scanners

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: x-ray

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: passing through object

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS–G-1.8 and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.

text: Radiation monitoring

text: involves the measurement of

text: radiation dose

text: or

text: radionuclide

text: contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to

text: ionizing radiation

text: or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in

text: IAEA

text: Safety Guide RS–G-1.8 and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.

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answers: IAEA Safety Guide RS–G-1.8

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radioactive substances

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: exposure to ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: exposure

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules—that is, to completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule. Instead of producing chargedions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. Ionizing radiation which has a higher frequency and shorter wavelength than nonionizing radiation, has many uses but can be a health hazard; exposure to it can cause burns, radiation sickness, cancer and genetic damage. Using ionizing radiation requires elaborate radiological protection measures which in general are not required with nonionizing radiation.

text: Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: that does not carry enough

text: energy

text: per

text: quantum

text: photon energy

text: ) to

text: ionize

text: atoms or molecules—that is, to completely remove an

text: electron

text: from an

text: atom

text: or

text: molecule

text: . Instead of producing chargedions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic

text: radiation

text: has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state.

text: Ionizing radiation

text: which has a higher frequency and shorter wavelength than nonionizing radiation, has many uses but can be a health hazard; exposure to it can cause burns,

text: radiation sickness

text: cancer

text: and

text: genetic damage

text: . Using ionizing radiation requires elaborate

text: radiological protection

text: measures which in general are not required with nonionizing radiation.

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answers: Non-ionizing

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answers: Non-ionizing

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answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For the majority involved in an RDD incident, the radiation health risks (i.e. increased probability of developing cancer later in life due to radiation exposure) are comparatively small, comparable to the health risk from smoking five packages of cigarettes on a daily basis. The fear of radiation is not always logical. Although the exposure might be minimal, many people find radiation exposure especially frightening because it is something they cannot see or feel, and it therefore becomes an unknown source of danger. Dealing with public fear may prove the greatest challenge in case of an RDD event. Policy, science and media may inform the public about the real danger and thus reduce the possible psychological and economic effects.

text: For the majority involved in an RDD incident, the radiation health risks (i.e. increased probability of developing cancer later in life due to radiation exposure) are comparatively small, comparable to the health risk from smoking five packages of cigarettes on a daily basis. The

text: fear of radiation

text: is not always logical. Although the exposure might be minimal, many people find radiation exposure especially frightening because it is something they cannot see or feel, and it therefore becomes an unknown source of danger. Dealing with public fear may prove the greatest challenge in case of an RDD event. Policy, science and media may inform the public about the real danger and thus reduce the possible psychological and economic effects.

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answers: The fear of radiation is not always logical

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: RDD incident

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation exposure

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cancer

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is not always logical

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: They are used as transmitting antennas below 1 MHz, in the LF and particularly the VLF bands, at frequencies sufficiently low that it is impractical to build a full size quarter-wave monopole antenna.  Either the central mast itself, insulated from the ground, is connected to the transmitter and serves as the radiating element, or vertical wires parallel to the mast.  At the low frequencies used the height of the mast is typically 1/10 to 1/40 of a wavelength, so it makes a very electrically short antenna, and by itself would have very low radiation resistance and be a very inefficient radiator.  The function of the umbrella-wires is to add capacitance to the top of the antenna, improving the current distribution on the vertical mast radiator to increase the radiation resistance and radiated power.  The umbrella wires serve as the plate of a capacitor, with the ground serving as the other plate, which is charged and discharged by the radio frequency current from the tramsmitter.     Umbrella antennas with heights of 15 to 460 metres are in service.  The tallest umbrella antennas are actually used by Lualualei VLF transmitter, INS Kattabomman and the CHAYKA-transmitters at Inta and Dudinka.

text: They are used as transmitting antennas below 1 MHz, in the

text: LF

text: and particularly the

text: VLF

text: bands, at frequencies sufficiently low that it is impractical to build a full size quarter-wave monopole antenna.  Either the central mast itself, insulated from the ground, is connected to the transmitter and serves as the radiating element, or vertical wires parallel to the mast.  At the low frequencies used the height of the mast is typically 1/10 to 1/40 of a

text: wavelength

text: , so it makes a very

text: electrically short

text: antenna, and by itself would have very low

text: radiation resistance

text: and be a very inefficient radiator.  The function of the umbrella-wires is to add

text: capacitance

text: to the top of the antenna, improving the current distribution on the vertical mast radiator to increase the

text: radiation resistance

text: and radiated power.  The umbrella wires serve as the plate of a

text: capacitor

text: , with the ground serving as the other plate, which is charged and discharged by the radio frequency current from the tramsmitter.     Umbrella antennas with heights of 15 to 460 metres are in service.  The tallest umbrella antennas are actually used by

text: Lualualei VLF transmitter

text: INS Kattabomman

text: and the CHAYKA-transmitters at Inta and Dudinka.

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answers: It is impractical to build a full size quarter-wave monopole antenna

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Lualualei VLF transmitter

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: at frequencies sufficiently low that it is impractical to build a full size quarter-wave monopole antenna

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: mast

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is impractical

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels.  Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time.  Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make real-time readings available to the public.  Instruments used for radiation measurement include the Geiger–Müller tube and the Scintillation detector.  The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types.  Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels.

text: Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels.  Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time.  Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make real-time readings available to the public.  Instruments used for radiation measurement include the

text: Geiger–Müller tube

text: and the

text: Scintillation detector

text: .  The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types.  Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels.

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answers: Government agencies compile radiation readings

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Government agencies

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radiation levels from all sources including background

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: All sources including background

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Due to its mode of beta decay, iodine-131 is notable for causing mutation and death in cells that it penetrates, and other cells up to several millimeters away. For this reason, high doses of the isotope are sometimes less dangerous than low doses, since they tend to kill thyroid tissues that would otherwise become cancerous as a result of the radiation. For example, children treated with moderate dose of I-131 for thyroid adenomas had a detectable increase in thyroid cancer, but children treated with a much higher dose did not. Likewise, most studies of very-high-dose I-131 for treatment of Graves disease have failed to find any increase in thyroid cancer, even though there is linear increase in thyroid cancer risk with I-131 absorption at moderate doses. Thus, iodine-131 is increasingly less employed in small doses in medical use (especially in children), but increasingly is used only in large and maximal treatment doses, as a way of killing targeted tissues. This is known as "therapeutic use."

text: Due to its mode of

text: beta decay

text: , iodine-131 is notable for causing

text: mutation

text: and death in cells that it penetrates, and other cells up to several millimeters away. For this reason, high doses of the isotope are sometimes less dangerous than low doses, since they tend to kill

text: thyroid

text: tissues that would otherwise become cancerous as a result of the radiation. For example, children treated with moderate dose of I-131 for thyroid adenomas had a detectable increase in thyroid cancer, but children treated with a much higher dose did not. Likewise, most studies of very-high-dose I-131 for treatment of

text: Graves disease

text: have failed to find any increase in thyroid cancer, even though there is linear increase in thyroid cancer risk with I-131 absorption at moderate doses. Thus, iodine-131 is increasingly less employed in small doses in medical use (especially in children), but increasingly is used only in large and maximal treatment doses, as a way of killing targeted tissues. This is known as "therapeutic use."

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answers: It is not known

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answers: iodine

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answers: death in cells that it penetrates

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answers: mutation and death

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: cells

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Once a vehicle leaves low Earth orbit and the protection of Earth's magnetosphere, it enters the Van Allen radiation belt, a region of high radiation. Once through there the radiation drops to lower levels, with a constant background of high energy cosmic rays which pose a health threat. These are dangerous over periods of years to decades.

text: Once a vehicle leaves

text: low Earth orbit

text: and the protection of Earth's magnetosphere, it enters the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: , a region of high

text: radiation

text: . Once through there the radiation drops to lower levels, with a constant background of high energy

text: cosmic rays

text: which pose a

text: health threat

text: . These are dangerous over periods of years to decades.

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answers: once through there the radiation drops to lower levels

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answers: cosmic rays

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answers: high energy cosmic rays

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answers: periods of years to decades

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 2011, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified mobile phone radiation as Group 2B possibly carcinogenic (not Group 2A probably carcinogenic nor the dangerous Group 1). That means that there "could be some risk" of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones needs to be conducted. The WHO added in June 2011 that "to date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use", a point they reiterated in October 2014. Some national radiation advisory authorities have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens as a precautionary approach.

text: In 2011,

entity_name: International Agency for Research on Cancer

text: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)

text: classified mobile phone radiation as

text: Group 2B

text: possibly carcinogenic (not

text: Group 2A

text: probably carcinogenic nor the dangerous Group 1). That means that there "could be some risk" of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones needs to be conducted. The

text: WHO

text: added in June 2011 that "to date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use", a point they reiterated in October 2014. Some national radiation advisory authorities have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens as a

text: precautionary approach

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answers: to date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use

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answers: mobile phones

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answers: no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Carcinogenicity

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In homes, the water loop may be as simple as a single pipe that "loops" the flow through every radiator in a zone. In such a system, flow to the individual radiators cannot be modulated as all of the water is flowing through every radiator in the zone. Slightly more complicated systems use a "main" pipe that flows uninterrupted around the zone; the individual radiators tap off a small portion of the flow in the main pipe. In these systems, individual radiators can be modulated. Alternatively, a number of loops with several radiators can be installed, the flow in each loop or zone controlled by a zone valve connected to a thermostat.

text: In homes, the water loop may be as simple as a single pipe that "loops" the flow through every radiator in a zone. In such a system, flow to the individual radiators cannot be modulated as all of the water is flowing through every radiator in the zone. Slightly more complicated systems use a "main" pipe that flows uninterrupted around the zone; the individual radiators tap off a small portion of the flow in the main pipe. In these systems, individual radiators can be modulated. Alternatively, a number of loops with several radiators can be installed, the flow in each loop or zone controlled by a

text: zone valve

text: connected to a

text: thermostat

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answers: Slightly more complicated systems use a "main" pipe

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answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked, and contains resources for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle. Like "ecology", the term "environment" has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of "nature". Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation." The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including abiotic factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry, climate and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (conspecifics) and other species that share a habitat.

text: The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked, and contains

text: resources

text: for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle. Like "ecology", the term "environment" has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of "nature". Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation." The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including

text: abiotic

text: factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry,

text: climate

text: and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (

text: conspecific

text: s) and other species that share a habitat.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In Radiation Protection practice, an instrument which reads a rate of detected events is normally known as a ratemeter, which was first developed by R D Robley Evans in 1939. This mode of operation provides real-time dynamic indication of the radiation rate, and the principle has found widespread application in radiation Survey meters used in Health Physics.

text: In Radiation Protection practice, an instrument which reads a rate of detected events is normally known as a ratemeter, which was first developed by R D Robley Evans in 1939. This mode of operation provides real-time dynamic indication of the radiation rate, and the principle has found widespread application in radiation

text: Survey meter

text: s used in Health Physics.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The OER is traditionally defined as the ratio of radiation doses during lack of oxygen compared to no lack of oxygen for the same biological effect. This may give varying numerical values depending on the chosen biological effect.  Additionally, OER may be presented in terms of hyperoxic environments and/or with altered oxygen baseline, complicating the significance of this value.

text: The OER is traditionally defined as the ratio of radiation doses during lack of oxygen compared to no lack of oxygen for the same biological effect. This may give varying numerical values depending on the chosen biological effect.  Additionally, OER may be presented in terms of hyperoxic environments and/or with altered oxygen baseline, complicating the significance of this value.

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answers: No

answer: No

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text: The best example is the radiation exposure (X-rays, gamma-radiation or particle radiation) for which a maximum short-time-, as well as a cumulative year-, and a life-dose are well defined for every type of radiation in order to avoid cancer (e.g. maximum number of dental X-rays per year). In this case the maximum load of the definition is represented by the dose (see also Radiation Safety). A controversial field is the uses of mobile (cellular) phones, for which there are not yet proven damages has for smoking or drugs.

text: The best example is the radiation exposure (

text: X-rays

text: gamma-radiation

text: or

text: particle radiation

text: ) for which a maximum short-time-, as well as a cumulative year-, and a life-dose are well defined for every type of radiation in order to avoid cancer (e.g. maximum number of dental X-rays per year). In this case the maximum load of the definition is represented by the

text: dose

text: (see also

text: Radiation Safety

text: ). A controversial field is the uses of mobile (cellular) phones, for which there are not yet proven damages has for smoking or drugs.

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answers: There are not yet proven damages has for smoking or drugs

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answers: A controversial field is the uses of mobile (cellular) phones

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answers: cancer

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: External beam treatment - using ionising radiation, such as high-energy x-rays, the radiographer delivers accurate doses of radiation to the tumour;

text: External beam treatment - using ionising radiation, such as high-energy x-rays, the radiographer delivers accurate doses of radiation to the tumour;

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: On 20 December the Ministry of Environment announced an extra program to monitor the impact of radiation exposure on children born to mothers in Fukushima Prefecture, to find links between the mothers' radiation exposure and congenital abnormalities, asthma, allergies or other diseases of their children. The checks would stop when the children reach the age of 13. No health effects of this nature are expected to rise as a result of the incident.

text: On 20 December the Ministry of Environment announced an extra program to monitor the impact of radiation exposure on children born to mothers in Fukushima Prefecture, to find links between the mothers' radiation exposure and congenital abnormalities, asthma, allergies or other diseases of their children. The checks would stop when the children reach the age of 13. No health effects of this nature are expected to rise as a result of the incident.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to radiation. The exposure can originate from various sources, including natural sources. Most frequently the term refers to ionizing radiation, and to a level of radiation that will serve a specific purpose, rather than radiation exposure to normal levels of background radiation. The term irradiation usually excludes the exposure to non-ionizing radiation, such as infrared, visible light, microwaves from cellular phones or electromagnetic waves emitted by radio and TV receivers and power supplies.

text: Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to

text: radiation

text: . The exposure can originate from various sources, including natural sources. Most frequently the term refers to

text: ionizing radiation

text: , and to a level of radiation that will serve a specific purpose, rather than radiation

text: exposure

text: to normal levels of

text: background radiation

text: . The term irradiation usually excludes the exposure to non-ionizing radiation, such as

text: infrared

text: visible light

text: microwave

text: s from

text: cellular phone

text: s or

text: electromagnetic wave

text: s emitted by radio and TV receivers and power supplies.

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answers: The exposure can originate from various sources

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answers: non-ionizing radiation

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A simple anti-fading antenna is a vertical radiator whose height is between 1/2 wavelength (180 electrical degrees) and 5/9 wavelength (200 degrees), 195 degrees being considered ideal. 200 degree and taller simple radiators have largely fallen into disuse, although these can be useful on medium power stations, in which case radiators as tall as 5/8 wavelength (225 degrees) are somewhat common. Any simple radiator (or array of radiators) which is taller than 195 degrees is generally not considered to have anti-fading properties.

text: A simple anti-fading antenna is a vertical radiator whose height is between 1/2 wavelength (180 electrical degrees) and 5/9 wavelength (200 degrees), 195 degrees being considered ideal. 200 degree and taller simple radiators have largely fallen into disuse, although these can be useful on medium power stations, in which case radiators as tall as 5/8 wavelength (225 degrees) are somewhat common. Any simple radiator (or array of radiators) which is taller than 195 degrees is generally not considered to have anti-fading properties.

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answers: 200 degree and taller simple radiators

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answers: Any simple radiator (or array of radiators) which is taller than 195 degrees

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Neutron radiation is essential to the working of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. The penetrating power of x-ray, gamma, beta, and positron radiation is used for medical imaging, nondestructive testing, and a variety of industrial gauges. Radioactive tracers are used in medical and industrial applications, as well as biological and radiation chemistry. Alpha radiation is used in static eliminators and smoke detectors. The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation are useful for cleaning medical instruments, food irradiation, and the sterile insect technique. Measurements of carbon-14, can be used to date the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old).

text: Neutron radiation is essential to the working of

text: nuclear reactor

text: s and

text: nuclear weapon

text: s. The penetrating power of x-ray, gamma, beta, and positron radiation is used for

text: medical imaging

text: nondestructive testing

text: , and a variety of industrial gauges.

text: Radioactive tracers

text: are used in medical and industrial applications, as well as biological and

text: radiation chemistry

text: . Alpha radiation is used in

text: static eliminator

text: s and

text: smoke detectors

text: . The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation are useful for cleaning medical instruments,

text: food irradiation

text: , and the

text: sterile insect technique

text: . Measurements of

text: , can be used to

text: date

text: the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old).

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answers: Neutron radiation

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answers: nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons

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answers: The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: long-dead organisms

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answers: long-dead organisms

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thus, at UV frequencies and higher (and probably somewhat also in the visible range), electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Thus, at UV frequencies and higher (and probably somewhat also in the visible range), electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as

text: ionizing radiation

text: due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce

text: ion

text: s and

text: free radical

text: s in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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answers: X-ray and gamma radiation

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answers: UV

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answers: ions and free radicals

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: (including living tissue)

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Anjain was very persistent to convince the American government to evacuate the Rongelap community as well as to make the US  claim the responsibility for the radiation danger on the island. He lobbied the United States Congress for independent radiation tests as well as involved foreign scientists to give scientific evidence for the inhabitants of the island. Owing to the fact that Anjain kept the issue alive islanders were evacuated from the Rongelap and the US government agreed to carry on health and radiation survey in 1991.

text: Anjain was very persistent to convince the American government to evacuate the Rongelap community as well as to make the US  claim the responsibility for the radiation danger on the island. He lobbied the United States Congress for independent radiation tests as well as involved foreign scientists to give scientific evidence for the inhabitants of the island. Owing to the fact that Anjain kept the issue alive islanders were evacuated from the Rongelap and the US government agreed to carry on health and radiation survey in 1991.

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text: Following the explosion, a Li-2 airplane was put to use on a reconnaissance mission to report the movement of a radioactive cloud produced by the blast, and the most dangerous areas were explored and marked by special reconnaissance troops. After the reconnaissance was complete and the Soviet command gained enough information on the level of radiation, the army moved in. Much attention was paid to personal safety: the participants were provided with personal protective equipment, tinted glasses or lenses for gas masks and had individual radiation dosimeters. Gamma-roentgenometers measured the level of radiation exposure in the epicentre, dosimeters were used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing or a vehicle after the troops completed their task, and the troops received a 'chemical alert' signal if the radiation was too high. The soldiers wore gas masks, protective suits and respirators, special gloves and capes and moved around the territory in armoured personnel carriers, holding the distance of 400-600 metres from the hypocentre and avoiding the most dangerous areas of the explosion site. A relatively low level of radiation, strong wind and the extensive use of personal protective equipment allowed them to move 400-500 metres from the epicentre, whereas tanks and armoured personnel carriers could safely get even closer.

text: Following the explosion, a

text: airplane was put to use on a reconnaissance mission to report the movement of a radioactive cloud produced by the blast, and the most dangerous areas were explored and marked by special reconnaissance troops. After the reconnaissance was complete and the Soviet command gained enough information on the level of radiation, the army moved in. Much attention was paid to personal safety: the participants were provided with

text: personal protective equipment

text: , tinted glasses or lenses for

text: gas masks

text: and had individual radiation

text: dosimeter

text: s. Gamma-roentgenometers measured the level of radiation exposure in the epicentre, dosimeters were used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing or a vehicle after the troops completed their task, and the troops received a 'chemical alert' signal if the radiation was too high. The soldiers wore gas masks, protective suits and respirators, special gloves and capes and moved around the territory in armoured personnel carriers, holding the distance of 400-600 metres from the

text: hypocentre

text: and avoiding the most dangerous areas of the explosion site. A relatively low level of radiation, strong wind and the extensive use of personal protective equipment allowed them to move 400-500 metres from the epicentre, whereas tanks and armoured personnel carriers could safely get even closer.

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answers: A relatively low level of radiation

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text: On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

text: On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

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answer: No

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text: Two shelters for people working at the Fukushima-site were not listed as part of the radiation management zones although radiation levels in the shelters exceeded the legal limits. The consequence was, that the workers did not get paid the extra "danger allowance" that was paid to workers in these "radiation management zones". The shelters were constructed by Toshiba Corporation and the Kajima Corporation at a place some 2 kilometers west of the damaged reactors, just outside the plant compound, but quite near to the reactors 1 to 4. The shelters were built after the shelters at the plant-compound became overcrowded. At 7 October 2011 radiation levels in the Toshiba building were between 2 and 16 microsieverts per hour, in the Kajima dorm it was 2 to 8.5 microsieverts per hour. The Industrial Safety and Health Law on the prevention of health damage through ionizing radiation had set the limit for accumulated radiation dosage in radiation management zones at 1.3 millisieverts over three months, so the maximum level is 2.6 microsieverts/hour. In both dorms the radiation levels were higher. However, these doses are well below the level to affect human health. According to the law, the "business operator" is responsible for "managing radiation dosage and the prevention of contamination", Toshiba and Kajima said that TEPCO was responsible. But a TEPCO official made the comment: "From the perspective of protecting workers from radiation, the business operators (that constructed the shelters) are managing radiation dosage and the prevention of contamination" in this way suggesting that Toshiba and Kajima had to take the care for the zone management.

text: Two shelters for people working at the Fukushima-site were not listed as part of the radiation management zones although radiation levels in the shelters exceeded the legal limits. The consequence was, that the workers did not get paid the extra "danger allowance" that was paid to workers in these "radiation management zones". The shelters were constructed by

text: Toshiba Corporation

text: and the

text: Kajima Corporation

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answers: these doses are well below the level to affect human health

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answers: Humans

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Nuclear decommissioning is the process by which a nuclear power plant site is dismantled so that it will no longer require measures for radiation protection. The presence of radioactive material necessitates processes that are occupationally dangerous, and hazardous to the natural environment, expensive, and time-intensive.

text: Nuclear decommissioning is the process by which a

text: nuclear power plant

text: site is dismantled so that it will no longer require measures for radiation protection. The presence of

text: radioactive

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answers: no longer require measures for radiation protection

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answers: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: A ministerial order of January 1970 extended protection in cases of partial unemployment to home workers, while an ordinance of August 1970 fixed the conditions of health necessary for service in the merchant navy. A general provision of October 1970 determined in detail the circumstances in which the competent authority must take action on the basis of the act on the technical means of work. The requirement also stipulated the extent to which the technical standards established by national and international organisations can be regarded as “rules of the art.” In a directive of 10 November 1970, the Minister of Labour and Social Affairs recommended to the higher authorities for work protection of the "Lander" to bring in the directive published, in agreement with the Ministry of Labour, by the German Engineers' Association on the evaluation of work station noise in relation to loss of hearing, in order to improve safeguards for workers against the noises in question. In September 1971, an ordinance was published concerning dangerous working materials; safeguarding persons using these materials against the dangers involved. In August 1971, a law came into force directed at reducing atmospheric pollution from lead compounds in four-stroke engine fuels. As a safeguard against radiation, a decree on the system of authorisations for medicaments treated with ionizing radiation or containing radioactive substances, in its version of 8 August 1967, was remodelled by a new Decree of 10 May 1971 which added some radionuclides to the list of medicaments which doctors in private practice were authorized to use. A law on individual promotion of vocational training came into force in October 1971, which provided for financial grants for attendance at further general or technical teaching establishments from the second year of studies at higher technical schools, academies and higher education establishments, training centres of second degree, or certain courses of television teaching. Grants were also made in certain cases for attendance at training centres located outside the Federal Republic.

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answers: As a safeguard against radiation

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answers: television

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answers: As a safeguard against radiation

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answers: loss of hearing

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: As a safeguard against radiation

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when Wilhelm Röntgen intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he attributed them to ozone rather than to X-rays. His injuries healed later.

text: Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when

text: Wilhelm Röntgen

text: intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he attributed them to ozone rather than to X-rays. His injuries healed later.

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answers: ozone

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answers: Acute effects of radiation

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answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Acute effects of radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A number of special design features help the engine to develop . A special fuel injection unit has ram tubes of larger cross section and 2510 longer than those of the regular production design. Individual exhaust pipes of a tuned length empty into large collector pipes and no mufflers are used. No cooling fan is required or used, and the water pump speed is reduced 30% by the use of a smaller crankshaft pulley. A small, 5-ampere generator is used in conjunction with a lightweight aircraft type battery In addition to the aluminum water pump mentioned previously, the engine cooling system consists of an aluminum radiator mounted forward of the driver, and two oil cooler radiators mounted one on each side of the main radiator.

text: A number of special design features help the engine to develop . A special fuel injection unit has ram tubes of larger cross section and 2510 longer than those of the regular production design. Individual exhaust pipes of a tuned length empty into large collector pipes and no mufflers are used. No cooling fan is required or used, and the water pump speed is reduced 30% by the use of a smaller crankshaft pulley. A small, 5-ampere generator is used in conjunction with a lightweight aircraft type battery In addition to the aluminum water pump mentioned previously, the engine cooling system consists of an aluminum radiator mounted forward of the driver, and two oil cooler radiators mounted one on each side of the main radiator.

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answers: No cooling fan is required or used

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: mufflers

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answers: No cooling fan is required or used

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Nonliving

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The identification of electrons and positrons is achieved using a transition radiation detector (TRD). In a similar manner to the muon spectrometer, this system enables detailed studies of the production of vector-meson resonances, but with extended coverage down to the light vector-meson ρ and in a different rapidity region. Below 1 GeV/c, electrons can be identified via a combination of particle identification detector (PID) measurements in the TPC and time of flight (TOF). In the momentum range 1–10 GeV/c, the fact that electrons may create TR when travelling through a dedicated "radiator" can be exploited. Inside such a radiator, fast charged particles cross the boundaries between materials with different dielectric constants, which can lead to the emission of TR photons with energies in the X-ray range. The effect is tiny and the radiator has to provide many hundreds of material boundaries to achieve a high enough probability to produce at least one photon. In the ALICE TRD, the TR photons are detected just behind the radiator using MWPCs filled with a xenon-based gas mixture, where they deposit their energy on top of the ionization signals from the particle's track.

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answers: The effect is tiny

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answers: X-rays

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answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: The effect is tiny

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The effect is tiny

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Grbic et al. used one-dimensional LC loaded transmission line network, which supports fast backward-wave propagation to demonstrate characteristics analogous to "reversed Cherenkov radiation". Their proposed backward-wave radiating structure was inspired by negative refractive index LC materials. The simulated E-plane pattern at 15 GHz showed radiation towards the backfire direction in the far-field pattern, clearly indicating the excitation of a backward wave. Since the transverse dimension of the array is electrically short, the structure is backed by a long metallic trough. The trough acts as a waveguide below cut-off and recovers the back radiation, resulting in unidirectional far-field patterns.

text: Grbic et al. used one-dimensional LC loaded transmission line network, which supports fast backward-wave propagation to demonstrate characteristics analogous to "reversed Cherenkov radiation". Their proposed backward-wave radiating structure was inspired by negative refractive index LC materials. The simulated E-plane pattern at 15 GHz showed radiation towards the backfire direction in the far-field pattern, clearly indicating the excitation of a backward wave. Since the transverse dimension of the array is electrically short, the structure is backed by a long metallic trough. The trough acts as a waveguide below cut-off and recovers the back radiation, resulting in unidirectional far-field patterns.

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answers: It does not say

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answers: Cherenkov radiation

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answers: back radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Cherenkov radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For both the gas proportional counter and liquid scintillation counter, what is measured is the number of beta particles detected in a given time period. Since the mass of the sample is known, this can be converted to a standard measure of activity in units of either counts per minute per gram of carbon (cpm/g C), or becquerels per kg (Bq/kg C, in SI units). Each measuring device is also used to measure the activity of a blank sample – a sample prepared from carbon old enough to have no activity. This provides a value for the background radiation, which must be subtracted from the measured activity of the sample being dated to get the activity attributable solely to that sample's . In addition, a sample with a standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison.

text: For both the gas proportional counter and liquid scintillation counter, what is measured is the number of beta particles detected in a given time period. Since the mass of the sample is known, this can be converted to a standard measure of activity in units of either counts per minute per gram of carbon (cpm/g C), or

text: becquerel

text: s per kg (Bq/kg C, in

text: SI units

text: ). Each measuring device is also used to measure the activity of a blank sample – a sample prepared from carbon old enough to have no activity. This provides a value for the background radiation, which must be subtracted from the measured activity of the sample being dated to get the activity attributable solely to that sample's . In addition, a sample with a standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison.

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answers: background radiation

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answers: blank sample

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: background radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: carbon old enough to have no activity

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The wreckage can also be hazardous. Bomb fragments and other wreckage can cause lacerations and puncture wounds if not removed before the land is put to other uses, such as farming or recreation, or if it is handled by curious trespassers or untrained salvagers. The fragments, wreckage and residues may also contain toxic substances or be radioactive. Exposure can come from direct contact, but it can also come offsite by the air, from surface or groundwater contamination or by the uptake of toxins by plants and animals consumed by humans. Which route of exposure is most likely depends on the type of substances present, the proximity of inhabited areas and whether unauthorized personnel trespass on the range. Developing nations and those in an economic crisis often have a haphazard salvage industry involved in legal and illegal activities. In these areas, bombing ranges are scoured for salvageable metals. Unusual items, sometimes the most dangerous, are made into trinkets. The danger is greatly increased when the materials are melted down or worked by hand, exposing workers to toxic fumes or radiation. Category:Bombs

text: The wreckage can also be hazardous. Bomb fragments and other wreckage can cause lacerations and puncture wounds if not removed before the land is put to other uses, such as

text: farming

text: or

text: recreation

text: , or if it is handled by curious trespassers or untrained

text: salvagers

text: . The fragments, wreckage and residues may also contain

text: toxic

text: substances or be

text: radioactive

text: . Exposure can come from direct contact, but it can also come offsite by the air, from surface or groundwater contamination or by the uptake of

text: toxin

text: s by plants and animals consumed by humans. Which route of exposure is most likely depends on the type of substances present, the proximity of inhabited areas and whether unauthorized personnel trespass on the range.

text: Developing nation

text: s and those in an economic crisis often have a haphazard salvage industry involved in legal and illegal activities. In these areas, bombing ranges are scoured for salvageable

text: metal

text: s. Unusual items, sometimes the most dangerous, are made into trinkets. The danger is greatly increased when the materials are melted down or worked by hand, exposing workers to toxic fumes or

text: radiation

text: Category:Bombs

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answers: The fragments, wreckage and residues may also contain toxic substances or be radioactive

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answers: Exposure can come from direct contact

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answers: Exposure can come from direct contact

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answers: Plants and animals consumed by humans

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Due to the short range of absorption and inability to penetrate the outer layers of skin, alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled, in which case they become extremely dangerous. Because of this high mass and strong absorption, if alpha-emitting radionuclides do enter the body (upon being inhaled, ingested, or injected, as with the use of Thorotrast for high-quality X-ray images prior to the 1950s), alpha radiation is the most destructive form of ionizing radiation. It is the most strongly ionizing, and with large enough doses can cause any or all of the symptoms of radiation poisoning. It is estimated that chromosome damage from alpha particles is anywhere from 10 to 1000 times greater than that caused by an equivalent amount of gamma or beta radiation, with the average being set at 20 times. The powerful alpha emitter polonium-210 (a milligram of Po emits as many alpha particles per second as 4.215 grams of Ra) is suspected of playing a role in lung cancer and bladder cancer related to tobacco smoking. Po was used to kill Russian dissident and ex-FSB officer Alexander V. Litvinenko in 2006.

text: Due to the short range of absorption and inability to penetrate the outer layers of skin, alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled, in which case they become extremely dangerous. Because of this high mass and strong absorption, if alpha-emitting radionuclides do enter the body (upon being inhaled, ingested, or injected, as with the use of

text: Thorotrast

text: for high-quality X-ray images prior to the 1950s), alpha radiation is the most destructive form of

text: ionizing radiation

text: . It is the most strongly ionizing, and with large enough doses can cause any or all of the symptoms of

text: radiation poisoning

text: . It is estimated that

text: chromosome

text: damage from alpha particles is anywhere from 10 to 1000 times greater than that caused by an equivalent amount of gamma or beta radiation, with the average being set at 20 times. The powerful alpha emitter

text: (a milligram of Po emits as many alpha particles per second as 4.215 grams of

text: Ra

text: ) is suspected of playing a role in

text: lung cancer

text: and

text: bladder cancer

text: related to

text: tobacco smoking

text: . Po was used to kill Russian dissident and ex-

text: FSB

text: officer

text: Alexander V. Litvinenko

text: in 2006.

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answers: alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled

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answers: alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life

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answers: alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Charge amplifiers are also used extensively in instruments measuring ionizing radiation, such as the proportional counter or the scintillation counter, where the energy of each pulse of detected radiation due to an ionising event must be measured. Integrating the charge pulses from the detector gives a translation of input pulse energy to a peak voltage output, which can then be measured for each pulse. Normally this then goes to discrimination circuits or a multi channel analyzer.

text: Charge amplifiers are also used extensively in instruments measuring

text: ionizing radiation

text: , such as the

text: proportional counter

text: or the

text: scintillation counter

text: , where the energy of each pulse of detected radiation due to an ionising event must be measured. Integrating the charge pulses from the detector gives a translation of input pulse energy to a peak voltage output, which can then be measured for each pulse. Normally this then goes to discrimination circuits or a

text: multi channel analyzer

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answers: ionizing radiation

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answers: ionizing

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answers: ionising

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answers: ionizing

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Artifacts are found in or around anomalies. Players have to use special detectors to bring artifacts into the visible spectrum, as they are naturally invisible. Every time an Emission occurs, each anomaly field has a chance of creating a new artifact within its wake. These artifacts can be sold, be put into artifact slots that are incorporated into suits that the player can wear and are occasionally given as rewards for services rendered. Primarily, artifacts serve as a means to enhance the player's abilities, dependent on which artifact the player has put into his artifact slot. Most are modular and can be used in conjunction with other artifacts, or multiple artifacts of the same kind can be used to multiply their effects. Most of these artifacts emit harmful radiation, limiting their usage to short periods of time. Radiation-reducing artifacts can be used to counter this effect.

text: Artifacts are found in or around anomalies. Players have to use special detectors to bring artifacts into the visible spectrum, as they are naturally invisible. Every time an Emission occurs, each anomaly field has a chance of creating a new artifact within its wake. These artifacts can be sold, be put into artifact slots that are incorporated into suits that the player can wear and are occasionally given as rewards for services rendered. Primarily, artifacts serve as a means to enhance the player's abilities, dependent on which artifact the player has put into his artifact slot. Most are modular and can be used in conjunction with other artifacts, or multiple artifacts of the same kind can be used to multiply their effects. Most of these artifacts emit harmful radiation, limiting their usage to short periods of time. Radiation-reducing artifacts can be used to counter this effect.

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answers: Anomalies

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answers: Artifacts

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answers: Most of these artifacts emit harmful radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Artifacts

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It's impossible to say

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (, ), often abbreviated as STUK, is a government agency tasked with nuclear safety and radiation monitoring in Finland.  The agency is a division of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health; when founded in 1958 STUK was first charged with inspection of radiation equipment used in hospitals.

text: The Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (, ), often abbreviated as STUK, is a

text: government agency

text: tasked with

text: nuclear safety

text: and

text: radiation monitoring

text: in

text: Finland

text: .  The agency is a division of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health; when founded in 1958 STUK was first charged with inspection of radiation equipment used in hospitals.

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text: Significantly, it also carried Verner Suomi's flat-plate radiometer, improved with the help of Robert Parent, that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate. Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

text: Significantly, it also carried

text: Verner Suomi

text: 's flat-plate

text: radiometer

text: , improved with the help of

text: Robert Parent

text: , that took the first

text: Earth radiation budget

text: measurements from

text: space

text: and initiated the era of

text: satellite

text: studies of the

text: climate

text: . Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and

text: atmospheric

text: cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Chronic radiodermatitis occurs with chronic exposure to "sub-erythema" doses of ionizing radiation over a prolonged period, producing varying degrees of damage to the skin and its underlying parts after a variable latent period of several months to several decades.  In the distant past this type of radiation reaction occurred most frequently in radiologists and radiographers who were constantly exposed to ionizing radiation, especially before the use of x-ray filters.  Restated, chronic radiodermatitis, squamous andbasal cell carcinomas may develop months to years after radiation exposure.  Clinically, chronic radiodermatitis presents as atrophic indurated plaques, often whitish or yellowish, with telangiectasia, sometimes with hyperkeratosis.

text: Chronic radiodermatitis occurs with chronic exposure to "sub-erythema" doses of ionizing radiation over a prolonged period, producing varying degrees of damage to the skin and its underlying parts after a variable latent period of several months to several decades.  In the distant past this type of radiation reaction occurred most frequently in

text: radiologist

text: s and

text: radiographer

text: s who were constantly exposed to ionizing radiation, especially before the use of

text: x-ray filter

text: s.  Restated, chronic radiodermatitis, squamous andbasal cell carcinomas may develop months to years after radiation exposure.  Clinically, chronic radiodermatitis presents as atrophic indurated plaques, often whitish or yellowish, with telangiectasia, sometimes with

text: hyperkeratosis

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answers: No

answer: No

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text: Gamma radiation is used on mature rice pollen to produce parent plants used for crossing. The mutated traits in the parent plants are able to be inherited by their offspring plants. Because rice pollen has a very short lifespan, researchers had to blast Gamma rays at cultured spikes from rice plants. Through experimentation, it was revealed that there was a greater variety of mutation in irradiated pollen rather than irradiated dry seeds. Pollen treated with 46Gy of gamma radiation showed an increase in grain size overall and other useful variations. Typically, the length of each grain was longer after the crossing of irradiated parent rice plants. The rice progeny also exhibited a less chalky visage, improving on the appearance of the parent rice plants. This technique was used to develop two new rice cultivars, Jiaohezaozhan and Jiafuzhan, in China. Along with facilitating the creation of these two rice cultivars, the irradiation of mature rice pollen has produced roughly two hundred mutant rice lines. Each of these lines produce rice grains of both a higher quality and larger size. The mutations produced by this technique vary with each generation, meaning further breeding of these mutated plants could produce new mutations. Traditionally, gamma radiation is used on solely adult plants, and not on pollen. The irradiation of mature pollen allows mutant plants to grow without being in direct contact with gamma radiation. This discovery is in contrast to what was previously believed about gamma radiation: that it could only elicit mutations in plants and not pollen.

text: Traditionally

text: , gamma radiation is used on solely adult plants, and not on pollen. The irradiation of mature pollen allows mutant plants to grow without being in direct contact with gamma radiation. This discovery is in contrast to what was previously believed about gamma radiation: that it could only elicit mutations in plants and not pollen.

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answers: It could only elicit mutations in plants

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: This is a branch of medicine that uses radiation to provide information about the functioning of a person's specific organs or to treat disease. In most cases, the information is used by physicians to make a quick, accurate diagnosis of the patient's illness. The thyroid, bones, heart, liver and many other organs can be easily imaged, and disorders in their function revealed. In some cases radiation can be used to treat diseased organs, or tumours. Five Nobel Laureates have been intimately involved with the use of radioactive tracers in medicine.Over 10,000 hospitals worldwide use radioisotopes in medicine, and about 90% of the procedures are for diagnosis.  The most common radioisotope used in diagnosis is technetium-99, with some 30 million procedures per year, accounting for 80% of all nuclear medicine procedures worldwide.In developed countries (26% of world population) the frequency of diagnostic nuclear medicine is 1.9% per year, and the frequency of therapy with radioisotopes is about one tenth of this. In the USA there are some 18 million nuclear medicine procedures per year among 311 million people, and in Europe about 10 million among 500 million people. In Australia there are about 560,000 per year among 21 million people, 470,000 of these using reactor isotopes. The use of radiopharmaceuticals in diagnosis is growing at over 10% per year.Nuclear medicine was developed in the 1950s by physicians with an endocrine emphasis, initially using iodine-131 to diagnose and then treat thyroid disease. In recent years, specialists have also come from radiology, as dual CT/PET procedures have become established.Computed X-ray tomography (CT) scans and nuclear medicine contribute 36% of the total radiation exposure and 75% of the medical exposure to the US population, according to a US National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements report in 2009.  The report showed that Americans’ average total yearly radiation exposure had increased from 3.6 millisievert to 6.2 mSv per year since the early 1980s, due to medical-related procedures. (Industrial radiation exposure, including that from nuclear power plants, is less than 0.1% of overall public radiation exposure.)

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answers: In Australia there are about 560,000 per year among 21 million people, 470,000 of these using reactor isotopes

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answers: nuclear power plants

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answers: 6.2 mSv

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answers: Nuclear radiation exposure, including that from nuclear power plants, is

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.

text: Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The other iodine radioisotopes have much shorter half-lives, no longer than days. Some of them have medical applications involving the thyroid gland, where the iodine that enters the body is stored and concentrated. Iodine-123 has a half-life of thirteen hours and decays by electron capture to tellurium-123, emitting gamma radiation; it is used in nuclear medicine imaging, including single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and X-ray computed tomography (X-Ray CT) scans. Iodine-125 has a half-life of fifty-nine days, decaying by electron capture to tellurium-125 and emitting low-energy gamma radiation; the second-longest-lived iodine radioisotope, it has uses in biological assays, nuclear medicine imaging and in radiation therapy as brachytherapy to treat a number of conditions, including prostate cancer, uveal melanomas, and brain tumours. Finally, iodine-131, with a half-life of eight days, beta decays to an excited state of stable xenon-131 that then converts to the ground state by emitting gamma radiation. It is a common fission product and thus is present in high levels in radioactive fallout. It may then be absorbed through contaminated food, and will also accumulate in the thyroid. As it decays, it may cause damage to the thyroid. The primary risk from exposure to high levels of iodine-131 is the chance occurrence of radiogenic thyroid cancer in later life. Other risks include the possibility of non-cancerous growths and thyroiditis. The usual means of protection against the negative effects of iodine-131 is by saturating the thyroid gland with stable iodine-127 in the form of potassium iodide tablets, taken daily for optimal prophylaxis. However, iodine-131 may also be used for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy for this very reason, when tissue destruction is desired after iodine uptake by the tissue. Iodine-131 is also used as a radioactive tracer.

text: The other iodine radioisotopes have much shorter half-lives, no longer than days. Some of them have medical applications involving the

text: thyroid gland

text: , where the iodine that enters the body is stored and concentrated.

text: has a half-life of thirteen hours and decays by

text: electron capture

text: to

text: , emitting

text: gamma radiation

text: ; it is used in

text: nuclear medicine

text: imaging, including

entity_name: Single-photon emission computed tomography

text: single photon emission computed tomography

text: (SPECT) and

text: X-ray computed tomography

text: (X-Ray CT) scans.

text: has a half-life of fifty-nine days, decaying by electron capture to

text: and emitting low-energy gamma radiation; the second-longest-lived iodine radioisotope, it has uses in

text: biological assay

text: s,

text: nuclear medicine

text: imaging and in

text: radiation therapy

text: as

text: brachytherapy

text: to treat a number of conditions, including

text: prostate cancer

text: uveal melanoma

text: s, and

text: brain tumour

text: s. Finally,

text: , with a half-life of eight days, beta decays to an excited state of stable

text: that then converts to the ground state by emitting gamma radiation. It is a common

text: fission product

text: and thus is present in high levels in radioactive

text: fallout

text: . It may then be absorbed through contaminated food, and will also accumulate in the thyroid. As it decays, it may cause damage to the thyroid. The primary risk from exposure to high levels of iodine-131 is the chance occurrence of

text: radiogenic

text: thyroid cancer

text: in later life. Other risks include the possibility of non-cancerous growths and

text: thyroiditis

text: . The usual means of protection against the negative effects of iodine-131 is by saturating the thyroid gland with stable iodine-127 in the form of

text: potassium iodide

text: tablets, taken daily for optimal prophylaxis. However, iodine-131 may also be used for medicinal purposes in

text: radiation therapy

text: for this very reason, when tissue destruction is desired after iodine uptake by the tissue. Iodine-131 is also used as a

text: radioactive tracer

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answers: It is a common fission product

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answers: radioactive fallout

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answers: As it decays, it may cause damage to the thyroid

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: thyroid

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: non-cancerous

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is the tissue-weighted sum of the equivalent doses in all specified tissues and organs of the human body and represents the stochastic health risk to the whole body, which is the probability of cancer induction and genetic effects, of low levels of ionising radiation. It takes into account the type of radiation and the nature of each organ or tissue being irradiated, and enables summation of organ doses due to varying levels and types of radiation, both internal and external, to produce an overall calculated effective dose.

text: It is the tissue-weighted sum of the

text: equivalent dose

text: s in all specified tissues and organs of the human body and represents the

text: stochastic

text: health risk to the whole body, which is the probability of cancer induction and genetic effects, of low levels of ionising radiation. It takes into account the type of radiation and the nature of each organ or tissue being irradiated, and enables summation of organ doses due to varying levels and types of radiation, both internal and external, to produce an overall calculated effective dose.

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answers: low levels of ionising radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: internal and external

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: low levels of ionising radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cancer

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The probability of cancer

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ionising radiation occurs naturally but can also be artificially created.  Generally people can be exposed to radiation externally from radioactive material or internally by inhaling or ingesting radioactive substances.  Exposure to electromagnetic rays such as x-rays and gamma rays can, depending on the time exposed, cause sterility, genetic defects, premature ageing and death.

text: Ionising radiation

text: occurs naturally but can also be artificially created.  Generally people can be exposed to radiation externally from radioactive material or internally by inhaling or ingesting radioactive substances.  Exposure to electromagnetic rays such as x-rays and gamma rays can, depending on the time exposed, cause sterility, genetic defects, premature ageing and death.

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answers: Ionising radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radioactive material

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: x-rays and gamma rays

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: exposure to electromagnetic rays

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Generally people

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.

text: Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.

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answers: This caveat also applies to UV

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It can damage molecules

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Xu heads the Rensselaer Radiation Measurement and Dosimetry Group (RRDMG). He and his colleagues are interested in novel computational and experimental methods that have important and diverse applications in radiation protection, radiation measurement, shielding design, reactor modeling, medical imaging, and radiotherapy.  In particular, he uses Monte Carlo simulations as a research tool and has more than 20 years of experience in various production Monte Carlo codes.  His recent research projects have included such diverse topics as parallel Monte Carlo computing using GPU/CUDA, nanomaterials-based x-ray sources, CT imaging and proton radiotherapy, compressive sensing for nuclear detection, and the ARCHER Monte Carlo testbed project. Xu has directed numerous projects, with a total funding of about $15 million from agencies such as the National Science Foundation, Department of Energy, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Standards and Technology, and Electric Power Research Institute, as well as private nuclear power industry including Entergy Nuclear. Xu has graduated 15 Ph.D. and 10 M.S. students. and he has authored or co-authored 140 peer-reviewed full papers and chapters, 250 conference abstracts, 90 invited seminars and presentations, 5 patents/disclosures and 5 software packages. An internationally recognized leading expert in Monte Carlo computation and radiation protection dosimetry, Xu has co-founded the International Consortium of Computational Human Phantoms and co-edited Handbook of Anatomical Models for Radiation Dosimetry.

text: Xu heads the Rensselaer Radiation Measurement and Dosimetry Group (RRDMG). He and his colleagues are interested in novel

text: computational

text: and

text: experiment

text: al

text: methods

text: that have important and diverse applications in

text: radiation protection

text: radiation measurement

text: shielding

text: design

text: reactor

text: modeling

text: medical imaging

text: , and

text: radiotherapy

text: .  In particular, he uses

text: Monte Carlo

text: simulations as a research tool and has more than 20 years of experience in various production Monte Carlo

text: codes

text: .  His recent research projects have included such diverse topics as parallel

text: Monte Carlo

text: computing

text: using

text: GPU

text: CUDA

text: nanomaterials

text: -based

text: x-ray

text: sources,

text: CT imaging

text: and

text: proton radiotherapy

text: compressive sensing

text: for

text: nuclear

text: detection

text: , and the ARCHER Monte Carlo testbed project. Xu has directed numerous projects, with a total funding of about $15 million from agencies such as the

text: National Science Foundation

text: Department of Energy

text: National Institutes of Health

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: , and

text: Electric Power Research Institute

text: , as well as private nuclear power industry including

text: Entergy Nuclear

text: . Xu has graduated 15

text: Ph.D.

text: and 10

text: M.S.

text: students. and he has authored or co-authored 140

text: peer-reviewed

text: full papers

text: and

text: chapters

text: , 250

text: conference

text: abstracts

text: , 90 invited seminars and presentations, 5

text: patent

text: s/disclosures and 5

text: software packages

text: . An internationally recognized leading expert in

text: Monte Carlo computation

text: and

text: radiation protection

text: dosimetry

text: , Xu has co-founded the International Consortium of Computational Human Phantoms and co-edited Handbook of Anatomical Models for Radiation Dosimetry.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The waste can contain chemicals, heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Even households generate hazardous waste from items such as batteries, used computer equipment, and leftover paints or pesticides. Toxic material can be either human-made and others are naturally occurring in the environment. Not all hazardous substances are considered toxic.

text: The waste can

text: contain chemicals

text: heavy metals

text: , radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Even households generate hazardous waste from items such as batteries,

text: used computer equipment

text: , and leftover paints or pesticides. Toxic material can be either human-made and others are naturally occurring in the environment. Not all hazardous substances are considered toxic.

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answers: Even households generate hazardous waste

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answers: Toxic

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answers: The waste

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: On hearing of the Paris results in 1932, neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge were convinced by the gamma ray hypothesis. Chadwick had searched for Rutherford's neutron by several experiments throughout the 1920s without success.  Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable.  He repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium, used better approaches to detection, and aimed the radiation at paraffin following the Paris experiment.  Paraffin is high in hydrogen content, hence offers a target dense with protons; since neutrons and protons have almost equal mass, protons scatter energetically from neutrons.  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases.  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton; these particles were neutrons.  Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery in 1935.

text: On hearing of the Paris results in 1932, neither Rutherford nor

text: James Chadwick

text: at the

text: Cavendish Laboratory

text: in

text: Cambridge

text: were convinced by the gamma ray hypothesis. Chadwick had searched for Rutherford's neutron by several experiments throughout the 1920s without success.  Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable.  He repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium, used better approaches to detection, and aimed the radiation at paraffin following the Paris experiment.  Paraffin is high in hydrogen content, hence offers a target dense with protons; since neutrons and protons have almost equal mass, protons scatter energetically from neutrons.  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases.  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the

text: proton

text: ; these particles were neutrons.  Chadwick won the

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: for this discovery in 1935.

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answers: It's impossible to say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Microwave exposure at low-power levels below the Specific absorption rate set by government regulatory bodies are considered harmless non-ionizing radiation and have no effect on the human body.  However, levels above the Specific absorption rate set by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission are considered potentially harmful (see Mobile phone radiation and health).

text: Microwave exposure at low-power levels below the

text: Specific absorption rate

text: set by government regulatory bodies are considered harmless non-ionizing radiation and have no effect on the human body.  However, levels above the Specific absorption rate set by the U.S.

text: Federal Communications Commission

text: are considered potentially harmful (see

text: Mobile phone radiation and health

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answers: have no effect on the human body

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Microwave

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: levels above the Specific absorption rate

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: levels above the Specific absorption

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The human body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation poisoning - The gray is conventionally used to express the severity of what are known as "tissue effects" from doses received in acute exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation. These are effects which are certain to happen, as opposed to the uncertain effects of low levels of radiation which have a probability of causing damage. A whole-body acute exposure to 5 grays or more of high-energy radiation usually leads to death within 14 days. This dose represents 375 joules for a 75 kg adult (equivalent to the chemical energy in 20 mg of sugar).

text: Radiation poisoning

text: - The gray is conventionally used to express the severity of what are known as "tissue effects" from doses received in acute exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation. These are effects which are certain to happen, as opposed to the uncertain effects of low levels of radiation which have a probability of causing damage. A whole-body acute exposure to 5 grays or more of high-energy radiation usually leads to death within 14 days. This dose represents 375 joules for a 75 kg adult (equivalent to the chemical energy in 20 mg of sugar).

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answers: These are effects which are certain to happen

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: high-energy radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation which have a probability of causing damage

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: A whole-body

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answers: whole-body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 µGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a Brazilian black beach composed of monazite. The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in Ramsar, primarily due to naturally radioactive limestone used as a building material. Some 2000 of the most exposed residents receive an average radiation dose of 10 mGy per year, (1 rad/yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the effective radiation dose due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and the committed dose from radon was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr). This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residence of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risks. The ICRP recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to error on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment.

text: The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 µGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a Brazilian black beach composed of

text: monazite

text: . The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in

text: Ramsar

text: , primarily due to naturally radioactive limestone used as a building material. Some 2000 of the most exposed residents receive an average

text: radiation dose

text: of 10

text: mGy

text: per year, (1

text: rad

text: /yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the

text: effective radiation dose

text: due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and the

text: committed dose

text: from

text: radon

text: was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr). This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residence of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risks. The ICRP recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to error on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment.

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answers: The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: radon

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is more likely a small overall risk

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Customs should have both base offices at the warehouse and around the gates. The office at the warehouse is mainly for detecting harmful agriculture and smuggling (drugs, dirty money). Office at gates are mainly for the reason of detecting mis-picked cargo or radiation containers. At gates there should be radiation-detection equipments aim at detecting dangerous weapons and radiation stuff that can be used to make dirty bombs. Radiation Portal Monitors (RPMs) are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of individuals, vehicles, cargo or other vectors for detection of illicit sources such as at borders or secure facilities. Portal VACIS imaging system helps trained operators see the contents of closed containers, assisting them in intercepting weapons, contraband, and other items of interest and verifying shipping manifests. Patented drive-through technology lets trucks drive through the system without stopping, providing an effective solution for high-traffic situations where lengthy manual inspection processes are impractical or undesirable.

text: Customs should have both base offices at the warehouse and around the gates. The office at the warehouse is mainly for detecting harmful agriculture and smuggling (drugs, dirty money). Office at gates are mainly for the reason of detecting mis-picked cargo or radiation containers. At gates there should be radiation-detection equipments aim at detecting dangerous weapons and radiation stuff that can be used to make dirty bombs.

text: Radiation Portal Monitor

text: s (RPMs) are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of individuals, vehicles, cargo or other vectors for detection of illicit sources such as at borders or secure facilities. Portal VACIS imaging system helps trained operators see the contents of closed containers, assisting them in intercepting weapons, contraband, and other items of interest and verifying shipping manifests. Patented drive-through technology lets trucks drive through the system without stopping, providing an effective solution for high-traffic situations where lengthy manual inspection processes are impractical or undesirable.

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: Customs

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answers: Radiation Portal Monitors

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: dirty bombs

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radon

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops used X-rays to check a child's shoe size, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood.

text: Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops

text: used X-rays to check a child's shoe size

text: , but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood.

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answers: Ionizing radiation

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answers: industrial, military

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answers: Ionizing radiation

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answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Ionizing radiation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few parsecs would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level, lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds. This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst, but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth.

text: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few

text: parsec

text: s would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level, lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds. This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst, but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth.

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answers: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: high energy electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: a GRB

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The NRPA is responsible for: overseeing the use of radioactive substances and fissile material, coordinating contingency plans against nuclear accidents and radioactive fallout, monitoring natural and artificial radiation in the environment and at the workplace, increasing our knowledge of the occurrence as well as monitoring risk and effects of radiation. It has regional offices in Tromsø and Sør-Varanger and is divided into three sections:

text: The NRPA is responsible for: overseeing the use of radioactive substances and fissile material, coordinating contingency plans against nuclear accidents and radioactive fallout, monitoring natural and artificial radiation in the environment and at the workplace, increasing our knowledge of the occurrence as well as monitoring risk and effects of radiation. It has regional offices in

text: Tromsø

text: and

text: Sør-Varanger

text: and is divided into three sections:

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answers: NRPA is responsible for

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answers: natural and artificial

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answers: natural and artificial radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: natural and artificial

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The NRPA

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Practical radiation measurement using calibrated radiation protection instruments is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of protection measures, and in assessing the radiation dose likely to be received by individuals. The measuring instruments for radiation protection are both "installed" (in a fixed position) and portable (hand-held or transportable).

text: Practical radiation measurement using calibrated radiation protection instruments is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of protection measures, and in assessing the radiation dose likely to be received by individuals. The measuring instruments for radiation protection are both "installed" (in a fixed position) and portable (hand-held or transportable).

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: indoors

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: dose likely to be received by individuals

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: individuals

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Individuals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Hydrophones and sonar operating in passive mode can detect acoustic signals radiated by otherwise invisible submarines, and use these signals to target attacks.

text: Hydrophone

text: s and

text: sonar

text: operating in passive mode can detect acoustic signals radiated by otherwise invisible submarines, and use these signals to target attacks.

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text: Without the protection of Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere astronauts are exposed to high levels of radiation. A year in low-earth orbit results in a dose of radiation 10 times that of the annual dose on earth. High levels of radiation damage lymphocytes, cells heavily involved in maintaining the immune system; this damage contributes to the lowered immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also recently been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Outside the protection of low-earth orbit, galactic cosmic rays present further challenges to human spaceflight, as the health threat from cosmic rays significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade or more of exposure. A NASA-supported study reported that radiation may harm the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Solar flare events (though rare) can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes. It is thought that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower the risks to an acceptable level.

text: Without the protection of Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: and

text: magnetosphere

text: astronauts are exposed to high levels of

text: radiation

text: . A year in

text: low-earth orbit

text: results in a dose of radiation 10 times that of the annual dose on earth. High levels of radiation damage

text: lymphocytes

text: , cells heavily involved in maintaining the

text: immune system

text: ; this damage contributes to the lowered

text: immunity

text: experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also recently been linked to a higher incidence of

text: cataracts

text: in astronauts. Outside the protection of low-earth orbit,

text: galactic cosmic ray

text: s present further challenges to human spaceflight, as the

text: health threat from cosmic rays

text: significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade or more of exposure. A

text: NASA

text: -supported study reported that radiation may harm the

text: brain

text: of

text: astronauts

text: and accelerate the onset of

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: Solar flare

text: events (though rare) can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes. It is thought that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower the risks to an acceptable level.

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answer: No

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text: While the Duck and cover countermeasure, in its most basic form, offers a small to negligible protection against fallout; the technique assumes that after the effects of the blast and initial radiation subside, with the latter of which being no longer a threat after about "twenty seconds" to 1 minute post detonation, a person who ducks and covers will realize when it is wise to cease ducking and covering (after the blast and initial radiation danger has passed) and to then seek out a more sheltered area, like an established or improvized fallout shelter to protect themselves from the ensuing potential local fallout danger, as depicted in the film.

text: While the Duck and cover countermeasure, in its most basic form, offers a small to negligible protection against

text: fallout

text: ; the technique assumes that after the effects of the blast and initial radiation subside, with the latter of which being no longer a threat after about "twenty seconds" to 1 minute post detonation, a person who ducks and covers will realize when it is wise to cease ducking and covering (after the blast and initial radiation danger has passed) and to then seek out a more sheltered area, like an established or improvized

text: fallout shelter

text: to protect themselves from the ensuing potential

text: local fallout

text: danger, as depicted in the

text: film

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answers: It is most basic form

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The International Atomic Energy Agency found that the trefoil radiation symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning; therefore, its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. As a result of research, a new radiation hazard symbol was developed in 2007 to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull, someone running away, and using a red rather than yellow background.

text: The

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: found that the trefoil radiation symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning; therefore, its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. As a result of research, a new radiation hazard symbol was developed in 2007 to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull, someone running away, and using a red rather than yellow background.

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as photographic plates and X-ray film (photographic film), now mostly replaced by various digitizing devices like image plates or flat panel detectors) and dose measurement devices (such as ionization chambers, Geiger counters, and dosimeters used to measure the local radiation exposure, dose, and/or dose rate, for example, for verifying that radiation protection equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).

text: Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as

text: photographic plate

text: s and X-ray film (

text: photographic film

text: ), now mostly replaced by various

text: digitizing

text: devices like

text: image plate

text: s or

text: flat panel detector

text: s) and dose measurement devices (such as

text: ionization chamber

text: s,

text: Geiger counter

text: s, and

text: dosimeter

text: s used to measure the local

text: radiation exposure

text: dose

text: , and/or dose rate, for example, for verifying that

text: radiation protection

text: equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).

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answers: No

answer: No

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text: Radiation is also used to treat diseases in radiation therapy.

text: Radiation is also used to treat diseases in

text: radiation therapy

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text: Reflective insulation and radiant barriers reduce the radiation of heat to or from the surface of a material. Radiant barriers will reflect radiant energy. A radiant barrier by itself will not affect heat conducted through the material by direct contact or heat transferred by moist air rising or convection.  For this reason, trying to associate R-values with radiant barriers is difficult and inappropriate. The R-value test measures heat transfer through the material, not to or from its surface. There is no standard test designed to measure the reflection of radiated heat energy alone. Radiated heat is a significant means of heat transfer; the sun's heat arrives by radiating through space and not by conduction or convection. At night the absence of heat (i.e. cold) is the exact same phenomenon, with the heat radiating described mathematically as the linear opposite. Radiant barriers prevent radiant heat transfer equally in both directions. However, heat flow to and from surfaces also occurs via convection, which in some geometries is different in different directions.

text: Reflective insulation and radiant barriers reduce the radiation of heat to or from the surface of a material. Radiant barriers will reflect radiant energy. A radiant barrier by itself will not affect heat conducted through the material by direct contact or heat transferred by moist air rising or convection.  For this reason, trying to associate

text: R-values

text: with radiant barriers is difficult and inappropriate. The R-value test measures heat transfer through the material, not to or from its surface. There is no standard test designed to measure the reflection of radiated heat energy alone. Radiated heat is a significant means of heat transfer; the sun's heat arrives by radiating through space and not by conduction or convection. At night the absence of heat (i.e. cold) is the exact same phenomenon, with the heat radiating described mathematically as the linear opposite. Radiant barriers prevent radiant heat transfer equally in both directions. However, heat flow to and from surfaces also occurs via

text: convection

text: , which in some geometries is different in different directions.

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answers: At night the absence of heat

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answers: Radiant barriers will reflect radiant energy

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answers: Radiant barriers will reflect radiant energy

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infra-red, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. radar, lidar, and SODAR are examples of active remote sensing techniques used in atmospheric physics where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, height, speed and direction of an object.

text: There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film

text: photography

text: , infra-red,

text: charge-coupled devices

text: , and

text: radiometer

text: s. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target.

text: radar

text: lidar

text: , and

text: SODAR

text: are examples of active remote sensing techniques used in atmospheric physics where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, height, speed and direction of an object.

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answers: object or surrounding area

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answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Stassinopoulos joined NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, MD, in 1961, after graduate studies in Mathematics and Physics at The American University and The Catholic University in Washington, DC. As the Head of Goddard's Radiation Physics Office, he worked on application-oriented research in magnetospheric physics, geomagnetism, solar-terrestrial relationships, natural and man-made radiation exposure, radiation effects on biological and electronic systems and components, and radiation environment modeling.  His major research activities included orbital flux integration studies; radiation environment assessment for flight projects and evaluation of impact on flight missions; 3-D radiation transport and shielding studies; modeling of physical processes in the Earth's magnetosphere; large-scale flight and ground data analysis and correlation; planning, design, and development of modern, automated irradiation test facilities; dosimetry research and evaluation; design and development of radiation monitoring equipment and instruments; miniaturization of radiation spectrometers; and global mapping of atmospheric cosmic rays and their progeny.

text: Stassinopoulos joined NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, MD, in 1961, after graduate studies in Mathematics and Physics at

text: The American University

text: and

text: The Catholic University

text: in Washington, DC. As the Head of Goddard's Radiation Physics Office, he worked on application-oriented research in magnetospheric physics, geomagnetism, solar-terrestrial relationships, natural and man-made radiation exposure, radiation effects on biological and electronic systems and components, and radiation environment modeling.  His major research activities included orbital flux integration studies; radiation environment assessment for flight projects and evaluation of impact on flight missions; 3-D radiation transport and shielding studies; modeling of physical processes in the Earth's magnetosphere; large-scale flight and ground data analysis and correlation; planning, design, and development of modern, automated irradiation test facilities; dosimetry research and evaluation; design and development of radiation monitoring equipment and instruments; miniaturization of radiation spectrometers; and global mapping of atmospheric cosmic rays and their progeny.

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: natural and man-made

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answers: natural and man-made radiation exposure

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answers: biological and electronic systems

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answers: It's impossible to say

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation therapy is used in about half  of cases. The radiation can be either from internal sources (brachytherapy) or external sources. The radiation is most commonly low energy x-rays for treating skin cancers, while higher energy x-rays are used for cancers within the body. Radiation is typically used in addition to surgery and or chemotherapy. For certain types of cancer, such as early head and neck cancer, it may be used alone. For painful bone metastasis, it has been found to be effective in about 70% of patients.

text: Radiation therapy is used in about half  of cases. The radiation can be either from internal sources (

text: brachytherapy

text: ) or external sources. The radiation is most commonly low energy x-rays for treating skin cancers, while higher energy x-rays are used for cancers within the body. Radiation is typically used in addition to surgery and or chemotherapy. For certain types of cancer, such as early

text: head and neck cancer

text: , it may be used alone. For painful

text: bone metastasis

text: , it has been found to be effective in about 70% of patients.

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answers: It has been found to be effective in about 70% of patients

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: external sources

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: low energy x-rays

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the body

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It has been found to be effective in about 70% of patients

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Poorly produced moonshine can be contaminated, mainly from materials used in the construction of the still. Stills employing automotive radiators as condensers are particularly dangerous; in some cases, glycol, products from antifreeze, can appear as well. Radiators used as condensers also may contain lead at the connections to the plumbing. These methods often resulted in blindness or lead poisoning for those consuming tainted liquor. This was an issue during Prohibition when many died from ingesting unhealthy substances.

text: Poorly produced moonshine can be contaminated, mainly from materials used in the construction of the

text: still

text: . Stills employing

text: automotive radiators

text: as condensers are particularly dangerous; in some cases,

text: glycol

text: , products from

text: antifreeze

text: , can appear as well. Radiators used as condensers also may contain

text: lead

text: at the connections to the plumbing. These methods often resulted in blindness or lead poisoning for those consuming tainted liquor. This was an issue during Prohibition when many died from ingesting unhealthy substances.

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answers: Radiators

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: automotive radiators

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Blindness

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: blindness

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiators

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For example, in considering radiation safety , background radiation is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. So a distinction is made between sources of dose which are incidentally in a location, which are defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, and the incidental background may affect this measurement. An example would be detection of radioactive contamination in a gamma ray background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.

text: For example, in considering

text: radiation safety

text: , background radiation is defined by the

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: as "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. So a distinction is made between sources of dose which are incidentally in a location, which are defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, and the incidental background may affect this measurement. An example would be detection of radioactive contamination in a gamma ray background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.

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answers: background radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: all sources other than the one(s) specified

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation safety

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Dose

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is not true

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Another example of an adaptive radiation would be an endemic species of the Hawaiian Islands.  The Hawaiian honeycreepers are a large, highly diverse species which have been part of a vast adaptive radiation, that began as the Hawaiian Islands started to form.  The honeycreeper species was shaped by island formation and natural selection.  The mechanism by which this adaptive radiation occurred can be described as allopatric speciation via the peripheral isolate model.  Each time a new island formed, a dispersal event would occur which would result in new community structures on each island. New selection pressures forced the adaptive radiation of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, as they needed to exploit new resources from the different environments of each island.  It has been determined that many of the similar morphologies and behaviors of the Hawaiian Honeycreepers, located on distant islands, are due to convergence of analogous traits caused by similar environments.

text: Another example of an adaptive radiation would be an

text: endemic

text: species of the

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: .  The

text: Hawaiian honeycreeper

text: s are a large, highly diverse species which have been part of a vast adaptive radiation, that began as the Hawaiian Islands started to form.  The honeycreeper species was shaped by island formation and natural selection.  The mechanism by which this adaptive radiation occurred can be described as allopatric speciation via the peripheral isolate model.  Each time a new island formed, a dispersal event would occur which would result in new community structures on each island. New selection pressures forced the adaptive radiation of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, as they needed to exploit new resources from the different environments of each island.  It has been determined that many of the similar morphologies and behaviors of the Hawaiian Honeycreepers, located on distant islands, are due to convergence of analogous traits caused by similar environments.

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answers: New selection pressures forced the adaptive radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: New selection pressures

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answers: The Honeycreepers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The broadcasting station that became UKC Radio had its origins in the autumn term of 1967 as an audio feed through the radiator system. This was inspired by an article in the magazine Practical Wireless entitled ‘Communications through the Ground’. The article explained how an audio signal injected into two separate earthing points could be detected by connecting an amplifier to two more earthing points nearby. Budding electronics students decided to test this out in Eliot College by connecting the loudspeaker output of a HiFi amplifier between the mains earth and the central heating radiator system. The signal could be heard loud and clear in study bedrooms throughout the college by connecting a modified transistor radio, used as an audio amplifier, between the radiator and the metal table lamp, which provided a connection to the mains earth.

text: The broadcasting station that became UKC Radio had its origins in the autumn term of 1967 as an audio feed through the radiator system. This was inspired by an article in the magazine

text: Practical Wireless

text: entitled ‘Communications through the Ground’. The article explained how an audio signal injected into two separate earthing points could be detected by connecting an amplifier to two more earthing points nearby. Budding electronics students decided to test this out in

text: Eliot College

text: by connecting the loudspeaker output of a HiFi amplifier between the mains earth and the central heating radiator system. The signal could be heard loud and clear in study bedrooms throughout the college by connecting a modified transistor radio, used as an audio amplifier, between the radiator and the metal table lamp, which provided a connection to the mains earth.

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answers: earthing

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answers: metal table lamp

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: HiFi amplifier

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: HiFi amplifier

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: In practice, ND filters are not perfect, as they do not reduce the intensity of all wavelengths equally. This can sometimes create color casts in recorded images, particularly with inexpensive filters. More significantly, most ND filters are only specified over the visible region of the spectrum and do not proportionally block all wavelengths of ultraviolet or infrared radiation. This can be dangerous if using ND filters to view sources (such as the Sun or white-hot metal or glass), which emit intense invisible radiation, since the eye may be damaged even though the source does not look bright when viewed through the filter. Special filters must be used if such sources are to be safely viewed.

text: In practice, ND filters are not perfect, as they do not reduce the intensity of all wavelengths equally. This can sometimes create color casts in recorded images, particularly with inexpensive filters. More significantly, most ND filters are only specified over the

text: visible

text: region of the spectrum and do not proportionally block all wavelengths of

text: ultraviolet

text: or

text: infrared

text: radiation. This can be dangerous if using ND filters to view sources (such as the

text: Sun

text: or

text: white-hot

text: metal or glass), which emit intense invisible radiation, since the eye may be damaged even though the source does not look bright when viewed through the filter. Special filters must be used if such sources are to be safely viewed.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing radiation from photons, that is, gamma rays and X-rays. It is defined to be the electric charge freed by the radiation divided by the  mass of the air. As a measure of radiation damage it is less useful than the analogous concept of absorbed dose, nevertheless since exposure is convenient to measure directly in gaseous ionization detectors and since it is easily converted to dose, it is commonly used in the nuclear industry.

text: Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of

text: air

text: due to

text: ionizing radiation

text: from

text: photon

text: s, that is,

text: gamma ray

text: s and

text: X-ray

text: s. It is defined to be the

text: electric charge

text: freed by the radiation divided by the

text: mass

text: of the air. As a measure of

text: radiation damage

text: it is less useful than the analogous concept of

text: absorbed dose

text: , nevertheless since exposure is convenient to measure directly in

text: gaseous ionization detectors

text: and since it is easily converted to dose, it is commonly used in the

text: nuclear industry

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answers: It is not

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT), the outermost component of the inner detector, is a combination of a straw tracker and a transition radiation detector. The detecting elements are drift tubes (straws), each four millimetres in diameter and up to 144 centimetres long.  The uncertainty of track position measurements (position resolution) is about 200 micrometres. This is not as precise as those for the other two detectors, but it was necessary to reduce the cost of covering a larger volume and to have transition radiation detection capability.  Each straw is filled with gas that becomes ionized when a charged particle passes through.  The straws are held at about −1,500 V, driving the negative ions to a fine wire down the centre of each straw, producing a current pulse (signal) in the wire.  The wires with signals create a pattern of 'hit' straws that allow the path of the particle to be determined.  Between the straws, materials with widely varying indices of refraction cause ultra-relativistic charged particles to produce transition radiation and leave much stronger signals in some straws.  Xenon and argon gas is used to increase the number of straws with strong signals.  Since the amount of transition radiation is greatest for highly relativistic particles (those with a speed very near the speed of light), and because particles of a particular energy have a higher speed the lighter they are, particle paths with many very strong signals can be identified as belonging to the lightest charged particles: electrons and their antiparticles, positrons. The TRT has about 298,000 straws in total.

text: The Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT), the outermost component of the inner detector, is a combination of a

text: straw tracker

text: and a

text: transition radiation detector

text: . The detecting elements are drift tubes (straws), each four millimetres in diameter and up to 144 centimetres long.  The uncertainty of track position measurements (position resolution) is about 200 micrometres. This is not as precise as those for the other two detectors, but it was necessary to reduce the cost of covering a larger volume and to have transition radiation detection capability.  Each straw is filled with gas that becomes

text: ion

text: ized when a charged particle passes through.  The straws are held at about −1,500 V, driving the negative ions to a fine wire down the centre of each straw, producing a current pulse (signal) in the wire.  The wires with signals create a pattern of 'hit' straws that allow the path of the particle to be determined.  Between the straws, materials with widely varying

text: indices of refraction

text: cause ultra-relativistic charged particles to produce

text: transition radiation

text: and leave much stronger signals in some straws.

text: Xenon

text: and

text: argon

text: gas is used to increase the number of straws with strong signals.  Since the amount of transition radiation is greatest for highly

text: relativistic

text: particles (those with a speed very near the

text: speed of light

text: ), and because particles of a particular energy have a higher speed the lighter they are, particle paths with many very strong signals can be identified as belonging to the lightest charged particles:

text: electron

text: s and their antiparticles,

text: positron

text: s. The TRT has about 298,000 straws in total.

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answers: It was necessary to reduce the cost of covering a larger volume

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answers: Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT)

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answers: Straws

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answers: The uncertainty of track position measurements

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Following his retirement in 1962, the American Medical Association continued to repeat Brucer's warning that "over-emphasis on radiation hazard could easily cause us to curtail the use of roentgen rays in medicine, in which case medicine as we now know it would disappear. It might cause us to curtain the use of roentgen rays in dentistry. It could cause us to stop radiation therapy and diagnosis with radioactive isotopes... the neglect of these things would be even more dangerous than under-emphasis of radiation safety."

text: Following his retirement in 1962, the

text: American Medical Association

text: continued to repeat Brucer's warning that "over-emphasis on radiation hazard could easily cause us to curtail the use of roentgen rays in medicine, in which case medicine as we now know it would disappear. It might cause us to curtain the use of roentgen rays in dentistry. It could cause us to stop radiation therapy and diagnosis with radioactive isotopes... the neglect of these things would be even more dangerous than under-emphasis of radiation safety."

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answers: The American Medical Association

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answers: NDQ_016706

answers: over-emphasis

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation hazard

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately recognized. The discovery of x‑rays in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of Vanderbilt University performed an experiment involving x-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in Electrical Review.

text: The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately recognized. The discovery of x‑rays in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of

text: Vanderbilt University

text: performed an experiment involving x-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in Electrical Review.

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answers: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: No

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text: A leaky feeder is a communications system used in underground mining and other tunnel environments.  Manufacturers and cabling professionals use the term "radiating cable"  as this implies that the cable is designed to radiate: something that coaxial cable is not generally supposed to do.

text: A leaky feeder is a

text: communications

text: system used in

text: underground mining

text: and other tunnel environments.  Manufacturers and cabling professionals use the term "radiating cable"  as this implies that the cable is designed to radiate: something that coaxial cable is not generally supposed to do.

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answers: underground mining

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answers: Radiation

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answers: leaky feeder

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Infrared was discovered in 1800 by Sir William Herschel as a form of radiation beyond red light.  These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement. There are four basic laws of IR radiation: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation, Stefan-Boltzmann law, Planck’s law, and Wien’s displacement law. The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometer and bolometers until World War I.  Leopoldo Nobili fabricated the first thermocouple in 1829, which paved the way for Macedonio Melloni to show that a person 10 meters away could be detected with his multielement thermopile.  The bolometer was invented in 1878 by Langley.  It had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away, and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandth of a degree Celsius.

text: Infrared was discovered in 1800 by

text: Sir William Herschel

text: as a form of radiation beyond red light.  These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement. There are four basic laws of IR radiation:

text: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

text: Stefan-Boltzmann law

text: Planck’s law

text: , and

text: Wien’s displacement law

text: . The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometer and

text: bolometer

text: s until World War I.

text: Leopoldo Nobili

text: fabricated the first

text: thermocouple

text: in 1829, which paved the way for

text: Macedonio Melloni

text: to show that a person 10 meters away could be detected with his multielement

text: thermopile

text: .  The bolometer was invented in 1878 by Langley.  It had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away, and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandth of a degree Celsius.

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answers: a cow

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answers: radiation from a cow

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answers: a cow

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answers: a cow

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Synchrotron radiation is well-understood and the afterglow spectrum has been modeled fairly successfully using this template. It is generally dominated by electrons (which move and therefore radiate much faster than protons and other particles) so radiation from other particles is generally ignored.

text: Synchrotron radiation is well-understood and the afterglow spectrum has been modeled fairly successfully using this template. It is generally dominated by

text: electrons

text: (which move and therefore radiate much faster than

text: protons

text: and other particles) so radiation from other particles is generally ignored.

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answers: generally ignored

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Synchrotron

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Synchrotron radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: radiation from other particles

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Substances containing natural radioactivity are known as NORM. After human processing that exposes or concentrates this natural radioactivity (such as mining bringing coal to the surface or burning it to produce concentrated ash), it becomes technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM). A lot of this waste is alpha particle-emitting matter from the decay chains of uranium and thorium. The main source of radiation in the human body is potassium-40 (K), typically 17 milligrams in the body at a time and 0.4 milligrams/day intake. Most rocks, due to their components, have a low level of radioactivity. Usually ranging from 1 millisievert (mSv) to 13 mSv annually depending on location, average radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes is 2.0 mSv per person a year worldwide. This makes up the majority of typical total dosage (with mean annual exposure from other sources amounting to 0.6 mSv from medical tests averaged over the whole populace, 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays, 0.005 mSv from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing, 0.005 mSv occupational exposure, 0.002 mSv from the Chernobyl disaster, and 0.0002 mSv from the nuclear fuel cycle).

text: Substances containing natural radioactivity are known as

text: NORM

text: . After human processing that exposes or concentrates this natural radioactivity (such as mining bringing coal to the surface or burning it to produce concentrated ash), it becomes technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM). A lot of this waste is

text: alpha particle

text: -emitting matter from the decay chains of

text: uranium

text: and

text: thorium

text: . The main source of radiation in the human body is

text: potassium

text: -40 (

text: K

text: ), typically 17 milligrams in the body at a time and 0.4 milligrams/day intake. Most rocks, due to their components, have a low level of radioactivity. Usually ranging from 1

text: millisievert

text: (mSv) to 13 mSv annually depending on location, average radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes is 2.0 mSv per person a year worldwide. This makes up the majority of typical total dosage (with mean annual exposure from other sources amounting to 0.6 mSv from medical tests averaged over the whole populace, 0.4 mSv from

text: cosmic ray

text: s, 0.005 mSv from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing, 0.005 mSv occupational exposure, 0.002 mSv from the

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: , and 0.0002 mSv from the nuclear fuel cycle).

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answers: Most rocks, due to their components

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: natural radioisotopes

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Chernobyl disaster

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation therapy is commonly applied to the cancerous tumor because of its ability to control cell growth. Ionizing radiation works by damaging the DNA of cancerous tissue leading to cellular death.  To spare normal tissues (such as skin or organs which radiation must pass through to treat the tumor), shaped radiation beams are aimed from several angles of exposure to intersect at the tumor, providing a much larger absorbed dose there than in the surrounding, healthy tissue. Besides the tumour itself, the radiation fields may also include the draining lymph nodes if they are clinically or radiologically involved with tumor, or if there is thought to be a risk of subclinical malignant spread. It is necessary to include a margin of normal tissue around the tumor to allow for uncertainties in daily set-up and internal tumor motion. These uncertainties can be caused by internal movement (for example, respiration and bladder filling) and movement of external skin marks relative to the tumor position.

text: Radiation therapy is commonly applied to the cancerous tumor because of its ability to control cell growth. Ionizing radiation works by damaging the

text: DNA

text: of cancerous tissue leading to

text: cellular death

text: .  To spare normal tissues (such as skin or organs which radiation must pass through to treat the tumor), shaped radiation beams are aimed from several angles of exposure to intersect at the tumor, providing a much larger

text: absorbed dose

text: there than in the surrounding, healthy tissue. Besides the tumour itself, the radiation fields may also include the draining lymph nodes if they are clinically or radiologically involved with tumor, or if there is thought to be a risk of subclinical malignant spread. It is necessary to include a margin of normal tissue around the tumor to allow for uncertainties in daily set-up and internal tumor motion. These uncertainties can be caused by internal movement (for example, respiration and bladder filling) and movement of external skin marks relative to the tumor position.

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answers: cellular death

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answers: Ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: skin or organs

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: DNA

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Cells

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: TIS stations are limited to a maximum signal of 2 mV/m at 1.5 km (0.93 mi) using a power of up to 10 watts to achieve this limit in the case of vertical antenna systems (the most common type).  Up to 50 watts in the case of the radiating cable antenna systems may be used to achieve a maximum of 2 mV/m at 60 m (200 ft) from the radiating cable.  Radiating cable systems are limited to a continuous antenna length of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).   Cable systems are used for situations such as Dulles International Airport with very long limited-access approach roads where multiple systems can be placed in 1.9 km segments.

text: TIS stations are limited to a maximum signal of 2 mV/m at 1.5 km (0.93 mi) using a power of up to 10 watts to achieve this limit in the case of vertical antenna systems (the most common type).  Up to 50 watts in the case of the radiating cable antenna systems may be used to achieve a maximum of 2 mV/m at 60 m (200 ft) from the radiating cable.  Radiating cable systems are limited to a continuous antenna length of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).   Cable systems are used for situations such as

text: Dulles International Airport

text: with very long limited-access approach roads where multiple systems can be placed in 1.9 km segments.

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answers: Radiating cable systems

answers: NDQ_016706

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Earphone –Earpiece –Earth's magnetic field –EDIF –EEPROM –Effective antenna gain contour –Effective boresight area –Effective data transfer rate –Effective Earth radius –Effective height –Effective input noise temperature –Effective isotropically radiated power –Effective monopole radiated power –Effective radiated power –Effective transmission rate –Efficiency factor –E-layer –Electric charge –Electric current –Electric field –Electric motor –Electric power transmission –Electric power –Electrical conduction –Electrical conductivity –Electrical connector –Electrical current –Electrical efficiency –Element –Electrical engineering –Electrical generator –Impedance –Insulation –Electrical length –Load –Electrical network –Circuit –Electrical resistance –Electrical room –Electrical signal –Electricity distribution –Electricity –Electrochemical cell –Electrochemistry –Electrode –Electrodynamics –Electrolytic capacitor –Electromagnetic environment –Electromagnetic induction –Electromagnetic interference control –Electromagnetic pulse –Electromagnetic radiation and health –Electromagnetic radiation –Electromagnetic spectrum –Electromagnetic survivability –Electromagnetism –Electrometer –Electron hole –Electron –Electronic amplifier –Electronic color code –Color code –Electronic data processing –Electronic deception –Electronic design automation –Electronic filter –Filter –Electronic imager –Electronic mixer –Electronic musical instrument –Electronic oscillator –Electronic power supply –Electronic switching system –Electronic tagging –Electronic test equipment –Electronic warfare support measures –Electronics –Electro-optic effect –Electro-optic modulator –Electro-optics –Electrostatic discharge –Electrostatics –Emergency Locator Transmitter –Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon –Emitter coupled logic –End distortion –Endurability –Enhanced service –Entropy encoding –Equilibrium length –Equivalent impedance transforms -Equivalent noise resistance –Equivalent pulse code modulation noise –Error burst –Error ratio –Error-correcting code –E-skip –Examples of electrical phenomena –Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) –Eye pattern

text: Earphone

text: Earpiece

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: EDIF

text: EEPROM

text: Effective antenna gain contour

text: Effective boresight area

text: Effective data transfer rate

text: Effective Earth radius

text: Effective height

text: Effective input noise temperature

text: Effective isotropically radiated power

text: Effective monopole radiated power

text: Effective radiated power

text: Effective transmission rate

text: Efficiency factor

text: E-layer

text: Electric charge

text: Electric current

text: Electric field

text: Electric motor

text: Electric power transmission

text: Electric power

text: Electrical conduction

text: Electrical conductivity

text: Electrical connector

text: Electrical current

text: Electrical efficiency

text: Element

text: Electrical engineering

text: Electrical generator

text: Impedance

text: Insulation

text: Electrical length

text: Load

text: Electrical network

text: Circuit

text: Electrical resistance

text: Electrical room

text: Electrical signal

text: Electricity distribution

text: Electricity

text: Electrochemical cell

text: Electrochemistry

text: Electrode

text: Electrodynamics

text: Electrolytic capacitor

text: Electromagnetic environment

text: Electromagnetic induction

text: Electromagnetic interference control

text: Electromagnetic pulse

text: Electromagnetic radiation and health

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetic survivability

text: Electromagnetism

text: Electrometer

text: Electron hole

text: Electron

text: Electronic amplifier

text: Electronic color code

text: Color code

text: Electronic data processing

text: Electronic deception

text: Electronic design automation

text: Electronic filter

text: Filter

text: Electronic imager

text: Electronic mixer

text: Electronic musical instrument

text: Electronic oscillator

text: Electronic power supply

text: Electronic switching system

text: Electronic tagging

text: Electronic test equipment

text: Electronic warfare support measures

text: Electronics

text: Electro-optic effect

text: Electro-optic modulator

text: Electro-optics

text: Electrostatic discharge

text: Electrostatics

entity_name: Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station

text: Emergency Locator Transmitter

text: Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon

text: Emitter coupled logic

text: End distortion

text: Endurability

text: Enhanced service

text: Entropy encoding

text: Equilibrium length

text: Equivalent impedance transforms

text: Equivalent noise resistance

text: Equivalent pulse code modulation noise

text: Error burst

text: Error ratio

text: Error-correcting code

text: E-skip

text: Examples of electrical phenomena

text: Extremely Low Frequency

text: (ELF) –

text: Eye pattern

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answers: Electromagnetic radiation

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

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answers: Electromagnetism

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 K) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 μm) and long (7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem.

text: All objects above the

text: absolute zero

text: temperature (0

text: K

text: ) emit

text: infrared radiation

text: . Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an

text: infrared vision

text: device, usually a

text: focal plane array

text: (FPA)

text: infrared camera

text: capable of detecting

text: radiation

text: in the mid (3 to 5 μm) and long (7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance

text: infrared window

text: s. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem.

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answers: All objects above the absolute zero temperature

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answers: All objects

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Abnormal temperature profiles

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: All objects

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Over many years individuals have endeavoured to measure absorbed radiation dose distributions using gels. As long ago as 1950, the radiation-induced colour change in dyes was used to investigate radiation doses in gels. Further, in 1957 depth doses of photons and electrons in agar gels were investigated using spectrophotometry. Gel dosimetry today however, is founded mainly on the work of Gore et al who in 1984 demonstrated that changes due to ionising radiation in Fricke dosimetry solutions, developed in the 1920s, could be measured using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

text: Over many years individuals have endeavoured to measure absorbed radiation dose distributions using gels. As long ago as 1950, the radiation-induced colour change in dyes was used to investigate radiation doses in gels. Further, in 1957 depth doses of photons and electrons in agar gels were investigated using spectrophotometry. Gel dosimetry today however, is founded mainly on the work of Gore et al who in 1984 demonstrated that changes due to ionising radiation in Fricke dosimetry solutions, developed in the 1920s, could be measured using

text: nuclear magnetic resonance

text: NMR

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answers: It does not say

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answers: nuclear magnetic resonance

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answers: ionising radiation

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answers: ionising

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: individuals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are two types of radiation readout; counts or radiation dose. The counts display is the simplest and is the number of ionizing events displayed either as a count rate, commonly "counts per second", or as a total over a set time period (an integrated total). The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected. More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in a unit such as the sievert which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates. A G-M tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its energy which influences the radiation's ionising effect. Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an energy compensated G-M tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected. The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration.

text: There are two types of radiation readout;

text: counts

text: or

text: radiation dose

text: . The counts display is the simplest and is the number of ionizing events displayed either as a count rate, commonly "counts per second", or as a total over a set time period (an integrated total). The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected. More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in a unit such as the

text: sievert

text: which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates. A G-M tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its

text: energy

text: which influences the radiation's ionising effect. Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an

text: energy compensated

text: G-M tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected. The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration.

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answers: It is not known

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text: Nuclear diving is similar to HAZMAT diving; the difference is the exposure to radiation instead of a water borne contaminant. To this end, different precautions are required for nuclear diving, mainly, equipment which will not absorb radioactive contamination and pose a disposal problem after several dives. Moreover, exhaustive briefing of the group or diver for the specific environment he is going to work, depth, water temperature and potential radioactive sources.Heat stress can also be a danger for the diver, in which case a cold water suit may be used: the cold water suit is a special canvas coverall which floods the outside of the diver's drysuit with chilled water, countering the dangerously high ambient water temperature. A dosimeter is used to ensure that the diver does not receive a dangerous dose of radiation during the dive, assisting in calculating the maximum length of the dive. In addition the dosimeter can also be used to find radiation hot spots, which can indicate areas in need of repair.

text: Nuclear diving is similar to HAZMAT diving; the difference is the exposure to

text: radiation

text: instead of a water borne contaminant. To this end, different precautions are required for nuclear diving, mainly, equipment which will not absorb radioactive contamination and pose a disposal problem after several dives. Moreover, exhaustive briefing of the group or diver for the specific environment he is going to work, depth, water temperature and potential radioactive sources.Heat stress can also be a danger for the diver, in which case a cold water suit may be used: the cold water suit is a special canvas coverall which floods the outside of the diver's drysuit with chilled water, countering the dangerously high ambient water temperature. A

text: dosimeter

text: is used to ensure that the diver does not receive a dangerous dose of radiation during the dive, assisting in calculating the maximum length of the dive. In addition the dosimeter can also be used to find radiation hot spots, which can indicate areas in need of repair.

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answers: No

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text: This principle is also vividly demonstrated among human populations. Populations that evolved in sunnier environments closer to the equator tend to be darker-pigmented than populations originating farther from the equator. There are exceptions, however; among the most well known are the Tibetans and Inuit, who have darker skin than might be expected from their native latitudes. In the first case, this is apparently an adaptation to the extremely high UV irradiation on the Tibetan Plateau, whereas in the second case, the necessity to absorb UV radiation is alleviated by the Inuit's diet naturally rich in vitamin D.

text: This principle is also vividly demonstrated among human populations. Populations that evolved in sunnier environments closer to the equator tend to be darker-pigmented than populations originating farther from the equator. There are exceptions, however; among the most well known are the

text: Tibetan

text: s and

text: Inuit

text: , who have darker skin than might be expected from their native latitudes. In the first case, this is apparently an adaptation to the extremely high UV irradiation on the

text: Tibetan Plateau

text: , whereas in the second case, the necessity to absorb UV radiation is alleviated by the Inuit's diet naturally rich in

text: vitamin D

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text: It was during this era that The Radiators started playing at the M.O.M.'s Ball, a notorious, private masquerade and concert held in New Orleans each year before Mardi Gras.  Ed Volker's previous band, the Rhapsodizers, had earlier been the featured act at this party, so it was natural for The Radiators to take over.  The M.O.M.'s Ball, put on by the renegade Krewe of Mystic Orphans and Misfits, would become an inspiration for other private parties hosted by groups of Radiators fans in other cities.

text: It was during this era that The Radiators started playing at the M.O.M.'s Ball, a notorious, private masquerade and concert held in New Orleans each year before

text: Mardi Gras

text: .  Ed Volker's previous band, the Rhapsodizers, had earlier been the featured act at this party, so it was natural for The Radiators to take over.  The M.O.M.'s Ball, put on by the renegade

text: Krewe

text: of Mystic Orphans and Misfits, would become an inspiration for other private parties hosted by groups of Radiators fans in other cities.

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text: Like his predecessors, Smasher could naturally absorb cosmic radiation from his environment in order to increase his strength to superhuman levels.

text: Like his predecessors, Smasher could naturally absorb cosmic radiation from his environment in order to increase his strength to superhuman levels.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Air lock problems often occur when one is trying to recommission a system after it has been deliberately (for servicing) or accidentally emptied. For example, a central heating system using a circulating pump to pump water through radiators. When filling such a system, air is trapped in the radiators. This air has to be vented using screw valves built into the radiators. Depending on the pipe layout - if there are any upside down 'U's in the circuit - it will be necessary to vent the highest point(s). If not, air lock may stop flow through that part of the circuit completely. Note that circulating pumps usually do not generate enough pressure to overcome air locks.

text: Air lock problems often occur when one is trying to recommission a system after it has been deliberately (for servicing) or accidentally emptied. For example, a central heating system using a circulating pump to pump water through radiators. When filling such a system, air is trapped in the radiators. This air has to be vented using screw valves built into the radiators. Depending on the pipe layout - if there are any upside down 'U's in the circuit - it will be necessary to vent the highest point(s). If not, air lock may stop flow through that part of the circuit completely. Note that circulating pumps usually do not generate enough pressure to overcome air locks.

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answers: This air has to be vented

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answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: There is increasing use of CT (computed tomography) scans in dentistry, particularly to plan dental implants; there may be significant levels of radiation and potential risk. Specially designed CBCT (cone beam CT) scanners can be used instead, which produce adequate imaging with a stated tenfold reduction in radiation. Controversy surrounds the degree of radiation reduction though as the highest quality cone beam scans use radiation doses not dissimilar to modern conventional CT scans.

text: There is increasing use of CT (computed

text: tomography

text: ) scans in dentistry, particularly to plan dental implants; there may be significant levels of radiation and potential risk. Specially designed CBCT (cone beam CT) scanners can be used instead, which produce adequate imaging with a stated tenfold reduction in radiation. Controversy surrounds the degree of radiation reduction though as the highest quality cone beam scans use radiation doses not dissimilar to modern conventional CT scans.

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: radiation doses not dissimilar

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answers: radiation doses

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In March, 2011, Professor Cohen stated, reflecting on his study and its controversial results, that low levels of radiation can have beneficial health effects and reduce the risks of cancer, "There is evidence on both sides. Whether low-level radiation is protective against cancer, a theory called radiation hormesis, is debated in the scientific community. Furthermore, ...[on his viewpoint, and its support found in his exhaustive studies] it could go further and say that no confounding factors (like socio-economic, geography, ethnicity, medical care access, and beyond 500 explored in the analysis) can explain the results. However, my study was designed to test the assumption that the danger of radiation is simply proportional to the radiation dose, which is the only evidence that low-level radiation may be harmful. My conclusion was that that assumption is false." Other scientists disagree and more research has been called for.

text: In March, 2011, Professor Cohen stated, reflecting on his study and its controversial results, that low levels of radiation can have beneficial health effects and reduce the risks of cancer, "There is evidence on both sides. Whether low-level radiation is protective against cancer, a theory called

text: radiation hormesis

text: , is debated in the scientific community. Furthermore, ...[on his viewpoint, and its support found in his exhaustive studies] it could go further and say that no confounding factors (like socio-economic, geography, ethnicity, medical care access, and beyond 500 explored in the analysis) can explain the results. However, my study was designed to test the assumption that the danger of radiation is simply proportional to the radiation dose, which is the only evidence that low-level radiation may be harmful. My conclusion was that that assumption is false." Other scientists disagree and more research has been called for.

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answers: low levels of radiation can have beneficial health effects

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: low-level radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: low levels of radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cancer

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: no confounding factors

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radioactive contamination can create a hot zone, as occupants are in danger of being exposed to radiation.

text: Radioactive contamination

text: can create a hot zone, as occupants are in danger of being exposed to radiation.

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answers: Radioactive contamination

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: occupants

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: exposure

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: occupants

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Martian Radiation Experiment, or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle spectrometer as part of the science mission of the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft (launched on April 7, 2001). It was led by NASA's Johnson Space Center and the science investigation was designed to characterize aspects of the radiation environment both on the way to Mars and while it was in the Martian orbit.

text: The Martian Radiation Experiment, or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of

text: Mars

text: using an energetic particle

text: spectrometer

text: as part of the science mission of the

text: 2001 Mars Odyssey

text: spacecraft (launched on April 7, 2001). It was led by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Johnson Space Center

text: and the science investigation was designed to characterize aspects of the radiation environment both on the way to Mars and while it was in the Martian orbit.

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answers: The Martian Radiation Experiment

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: energy particle spectrometer

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: MARIE

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: spacecraft

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A speaker enclosure using a passive radiator usually contains an "active  loudspeaker" (or main driver), and a passive radiator (also known as a "drone cone"). The active loudspeaker is a normal driver, and the passive is typically the same or similar, but without a voice coil and magnet assembly. It is only a suspended cone, not attached to a voice coil or wired to an electrical circuit. The passive radiator is not connected to the power amplifier.

text: A

text: speaker enclosure

text: using a

text: passive

text: radiator usually contains an "active

text: loudspeaker

text: " (or main driver), and a passive radiator (also known as a "drone cone"). The active loudspeaker is a normal driver, and the passive is typically the same or similar, but without a

text: voice coil

text: and

text: magnet assembly

text: . It is only a suspended cone, not attached to a voice coil or wired to an electrical circuit. The passive radiator is not connected to the

text: power amplifier

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answers: It is only a suspended cone

answers: NDQ_016704

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answers: NDQ_016705

answers: "drone cone"

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: electrical circuit

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Anolis lizards have been radiating widely in many different environments, including Central and South America, as well as the West Indies and experience great diversity of species just as the finches, cichlid fish, and silverswords.  Studies have been done to determine whether radiations occur similarly for these lizards on the mainland as they do on the Caribbean islands or if differences can be observed in how they speciated.  It has been observed that in fact, the radiations are very different, and ecological and morphological characteristics that these lizards developed as part of their speciation on the islands and on the mainland are unique.  They have clearly evolved differently to the environments they inhabit.  The environmental pressures on the Anolis lizards are not the same on the mainland as they are on the islands.  There are significantly more predators preying on the Anolis lizards on the mainland.  This is but one environmental difference.  Other factors play a role in what sort of adaptive radiation will develop.  Among the Caribbean islands, a larger perch diameter correlates with longer forelimbs, larger body mass, longer tails, and longer hind limbs.  However, on the mainland, a larger perch diameter correlates with shorter tails.  This shows that these lizards adapted differently to their environment depending on whether they were located on the mainland or the islands.  These differing characteristics reconfirm that most of the adaptive radiation between the mainland and the islands occurred independently.  On the islands specifically, species have adapted to certain "microhabitats" in which they require different morphological traits to survive.  Irschick (1997) divides these microhabitats into six groups: "trunk–ground, trunk–crown, grass–bush, crown–giant, twig, and trunk."  Different groups of lizards would acquire traits for one of these particular areas that made them more specialized for survival in this microhabitat and not so much in others.  Adaptive radiation allows species to acquire the traits they need to survive in these microhabitats and reduce competition to allow the survival of a greater number of organisms as seen in many of the examples before.

text: Anolis

text: lizards have been radiating widely in many different environments, including Central and South America, as well as the West Indies and experience great diversity of species just as the finches, cichlid fish, and silverswords.  Studies have been done to determine whether radiations occur similarly for these lizards on the mainland as they do on the

text: Caribbean islands

text: or if differences can be observed in how they speciated.  It has been observed that in fact, the radiations are very different, and ecological and morphological characteristics that these lizards developed as part of their speciation on the islands and on the mainland are unique.  They have clearly evolved differently to the environments they inhabit.  The environmental pressures on the Anolis lizards are not the same on the mainland as they are on the islands.  There are significantly more

text: predators

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text: At the speedway, McQueen's mind is not fully set on the race, and he soon falls into last place. He is surprised to discover that Doc Hudson, who is decked out in his old racing colors, has taken over as his crew chief, along with several other friends from Radiator Springs to help in the pit. Inspired and recalling tricks he learned from Doc and his friends, McQueen quickly emerges to lead the race into the final laps. Refusing to lose, Hicks sideswipes Weathers and sends him into a dangerous spin, causing him to have an accident. Seeing this and recalling Doc's fate, McQueen stops just short of the finish line, allowing Hicks to win, and drives back to push Weathers over the finish line. The crowd and media condemn Hicks' victory and give praise to McQueen's sportsmanship. Though offered the Dinoco sponsorship deal, McQueen declines, insisting on staying with his current sponsors as an appreciation of their past support. Later, back at Radiator Springs, McQueen returns and announces that he will be setting up his headquarters there, helping to put Radiator Springs back on the map.

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text: For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an antenna having an efficiency of 80%, then the antenna will radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat. In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the antenna. Note that antenna efficiency is a separate issue from impedance matching, which may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If an SWR meter  reads 150 W of incident power and 50 W of reflected power, that means that 100 W have actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance) careful measurement of field strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an antenna using such materials predicted.

text: For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an antenna having an efficiency of 80%, then the antenna will radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat. In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the antenna. Note that antenna efficiency is a separate issue from

text: impedance matching

text: , which may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If an

text: SWR

text: meter  reads 150 W of incident power and 50 W of reflected power, that means that 100 W have actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance) careful measurement of

text: field strength

text: . Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an antenna using such materials predicted.

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answers: It would require (for instance) careful measurement of field strength

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text: Each antenna in a DVOR uses an omnidirectional antenna.  These are usually Alford Loop antennas (see Andrew Alford).  Unfortunately, the sideband antennas are very close together, so that approximately 55% of the energy radiated is absorbed by the adjacent antennas.  Half of that is re-radiated, and half is sent back along the antenna feeds of the adjacent antennas.  The result is an antenna pattern that is no longer omnidirectional.  This causes the effective sideband signal to be amplitude modulated at 60 Hz as far as the aircraft's receiver is concerned.  The phase of this modulation can affect the detected phase of the sub-carrier.  This effect is called "coupling".

text: Each antenna in a DVOR uses an omnidirectional antenna.  These are usually Alford Loop antennas (see

text: Andrew Alford

text: ).  Unfortunately, the sideband antennas are very close together, so that approximately 55% of the energy radiated is absorbed by the adjacent antennas.  Half of that is re-radiated, and half is sent back along the antenna feeds of the adjacent antennas.  The result is an antenna pattern that is no longer omnidirectional.  This causes the effective sideband signal to be amplitude modulated at 60 Hz as far as the aircraft's receiver is concerned.  The phase of this modulation can affect the detected phase of the sub-carrier.  This effect is called "coupling".

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text: Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is highly hazardous to people and wildlife. Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain and become bioaccumulated. Internal or external exposure can cause mutagenic DNA breakage producing teratogenic generational birth defects, cancers and other damage.  The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 millisievert (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location.  natural uranium radioisotopes in nuclear waste and naturally in the ground emits radiation for the prolonged period of 4.5 billion years or more, and storage has risks of containment. The storage of waste, health implications and dangers of radioactive fuel continue to be a topic of debate, resulting in a controversial and unresolved industry.

text: Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is

text: highly hazardous

text: to people and wildlife. Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the

text: food chain

text: and become

text: bioaccumulated

text: . Internal or external exposure can cause

text: mutagenic

text: DNA

text: breakage producing

text: teratogenic

text: generational

text: birth defect

text: s,

text: cancer

text: s and other damage.  The United Nations (

text: UNSCEAR

text: ) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01

text: millisievert

text: (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from

text: cosmic ray

text: s; all exposures

text: vary by location

text: .  natural uranium

text: radioisotopes

text: in

text: nuclear waste

text: and naturally in the ground emits radiation for the prolonged period of 4.5 billion years or more, and storage has

entity_name: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

text: risks of containment

text: . The storage of waste, health implications and dangers of radioactive fuel continue to be a topic of debate, resulting in a

text: controversial and unresolved industry

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answers: all exposures vary by location

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answers: Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain

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answers: the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster

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answers: Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain and become bioaccumulated

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: mutagenic DNA breakage

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answers: people and wildlife

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.

text: High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an

text: accident

text: (or a

text: deliberate initiation

text: ) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The

text: biological effects of external exposure

text: to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as

text: x-ray

text: machines, and are dependent on the

text: absorbed dose

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answers: High levels of contamination

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answers: The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination

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answers: the absorbed dose

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answers: People

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is noticeable that at the higher speeds the flat plate and square cell types show much higher figure of merit than the other two types, although at a speed of 20 miles per hour the type with spiral vanes would perhaps be better than any of the others. The figures of merit as drawn apply only to radiators mounted in ‘unobstructed’ positions, such that the flow of air through and around them is practicably unaffected by other parts of the aircraft. For use in such positions at high speeds, every form of turbulence device known to this bureau is detrimental to the general performance of the radiator. On the other hand, if the radiator is to be used in such a position as the nose of the fuselage, the airflow through it at best is low, and an increase in airflow is accompanied by an increase in head resistance of the combination of fuselage and radiator. In this case, heat must be transmitted as rapidly as possible to the small amount of air that does flow through, and it may be profitable to use turbulence devices. It is possible that the rate of heat transfer for the whole radiator may be increased, while added air resistance of the core may actually reduce the head resistance of the fuselage and radiator.

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answers: unaffected by other parts of the aircraft

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answers: other parts

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answers: For use in such positions at high speeds

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answers: Radiation

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Similar to the CDV-715, this unit reads from 0.1R/hr to 500R/hr. It is also a survey meter with an ionization chamber, however this unit's chamber is detachable for hanging outside your shelter or basement. When used, the ionization chamber would be inserted into a yellow anti-contamination bag, tied off, and hung outside a bomb shelter to measure radioactivity levels from a safe distance. An extension coaxial cord, typically stored inside the unit, is then run from the outdoor chamber to the indoor meter. The coaxial spool is used to prop the meter up for reading. This would allow those hiding to wait until outside radiation levels have fallen to a "safe" level before emerging. When using the extension cord, a slight delay in measurement readings occurs, however this is not really an issue as outdoor radiation levels are unlikely to change quickly.

text: Similar to the CDV-715, this unit reads from 0.1R/hr to 500R/hr. It is also a survey meter with an ionization chamber, however this unit's chamber is detachable for hanging outside your shelter or basement. When used, the ionization chamber would be inserted into a yellow anti-contamination bag, tied off, and hung outside a bomb shelter to measure radioactivity levels from a safe distance. An extension coaxial cord, typically stored inside the unit, is then run from the outdoor chamber to the indoor meter. The coaxial spool is used to prop the meter up for reading. This would allow those hiding to wait until outside radiation levels have fallen to a "safe" level before emerging. When using the extension cord, a slight delay in measurement readings occurs, however this is not really an issue as outdoor radiation levels are unlikely to change quickly.

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answers: This would allow those hiding to wait until outside radiation levels have fallen to a "safe" level before emerging

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Radiation in space usually comes from three main sources: (i) the Van Allen radiation belts; (ii) solar proton events and solar energetic particles; and (iii) galactic cosmic rays. For long duration missions, the high doses of radiation can damage electronic components and solar cells. A major concern is also radiation-induced "single-event effects" such as single event upset. Manned missions usually avoid the radiation belts and the international space station is at an altitude well below the most severe regions of the radiation belts. During solar energetic events (solar flares and coronal mass ejections) particles can be accelerated to very high energies and can reach the Earth in times as short as 30 minutes (but usually take some hours). These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage, disruption to logic circuits and even hazards to astronauts. Manned missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety, in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background cosmic rays. In near-Earth orbits, the Earth's geomagnetic field screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called geomagnetic shielding.Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage.  The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s  while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater.  For example, the meteoroids associated with the Perseid meteor shower travel at an average speed of 58 km/s.  Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including LDEF, which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission.  Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include ESA's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower.  A similar event occurred with the Landsat 5 spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.

text: Radiation in space usually comes from three main sources: (i) the

text: Van Allen radiation belts

text: ; (ii)

text: solar proton event

text: s and

text: solar energetic particle

text: s; and (iii) galactic

text: cosmic rays

text: . For long duration missions, the high doses of radiation can damage electronic components and solar cells. A major concern is also radiation-induced "single-event effects" such as

text: single event upset

text: . Manned missions usually avoid the radiation belts and the

text: international space station

text: is at an altitude well below the most severe regions of the radiation belts. During solar energetic events (

text: solar flares

text: and

text: coronal mass ejections

text: ) particles can be accelerated to very high energies and can reach the Earth in times as short as 30 minutes (but usually take some hours). These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage, disruption to logic circuits and even hazards to astronauts. Manned missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety, in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background

text: cosmic rays

text: . In near-Earth orbits, the Earth's

text: geomagnetic field

text: screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called

text: geomagnetic shielding

text: .Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage.  The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s  while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater.  For example, the meteoroids associated with the

text: Perseid meteor shower

text: travel at an average speed of 58 km/s.  Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including

text: LDEF

text: , which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission.  Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include

text: ESA

text: 's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower.  A similar event occurred with the

text: Landsat 5

text: spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.

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answers: astronauts

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: CME radiation is dangerous to astronauts on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs (e.g., for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded "storm shelter" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.

text: CME radiation is dangerous to

text: astronaut

text: s on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . Future mission designs (e.g., for a

text: Mars Mission

text: ) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded "storm shelter" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.

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answers: CME radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: He also wrote about the dangers of space radiation for future interplanetary missions.

text: He also wrote about the dangers of

text: space radiation

text: for future interplanetary missions.

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answers: no

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Terahertz radiation falls in between infrared radiation and microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum, and it shares some properties with each of these. Like infrared and microwave radiation, terahertz radiation travels in a line of sight and is non-ionizing. Like microwave radiation, terahertz radiation can penetrate a wide variety of non-conducting materials. Terahertz radiation can pass through clothing, paper, cardboard, wood, masonry, plastic and ceramics. The penetration depth is typically less than that of microwave radiation. Terahertz radiation has limited penetration through fog and clouds and cannot penetrate liquid water or metal. THz is not ionizing yet can penetrate some distance through body tissue, so it is of interest as a replacement for medical X-rays. Due to its longer wavelength, images made using THz are low resolution and need to be enhanced (see figure at right).

text: Terahertz radiation falls in between

text: infrared radiation

text: and

text: microwave radiation

text: in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , and it shares some properties with each of these. Like infrared and microwave radiation, terahertz radiation travels in a

text: line of sight

text: and is

text: non-ionizing

text: . Like microwave radiation, terahertz radiation can penetrate a wide variety of

text: non-conducting material

text: s. Terahertz radiation can pass through clothing, paper,

text: cardboard

text: , wood,

text: masonry

text: , plastic and

text: ceramic

text: s. The penetration depth is typically less than that of microwave radiation. Terahertz radiation has limited penetration through

text: fog

text: and

text: cloud

text: s and cannot penetrate liquid water or metal. THz is not ionizing yet can penetrate some distance through body tissue, so it is of interest as a replacement for medical X-rays. Due to its longer wavelength, images made using THz are low resolution and need to be enhanced (see figure at right).

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answers: Due to its longer wavelength, images made using THz are low resolution

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text: Semiconductor sub-micrometer and nanometer electronic circuits are the primary concern for operating within the normal tolerance in harsh radiation environments like outer space. One of the design approaches for making a radiation-hardened-by-design (RHBD) device is Enclosed-Layout-Transistor (ELT). Normally, the gate of the MOSFET surrounds the drain, which is placed in the center of the ELT. The source of the MOSFET surrounds the gate. Another RHBD MOSFET is called H-Gate. Both of these transistors have very low leakage current with respect to radiation. However, they are large in size and take more space on silicon than a standard MOSFET. In older STI (shallow trench isolation) designs, radiation strikes near the silicon oxide region cause the channel inversion at the corners of the standard MOSFET due to accumulation of radiation induced trapped charges. If the charges are large enough, the accumulated charges affect STI surface edges along the channel near the channel interface (gate) of the standard MOSFET. Thus the device channel inversion occurs along the channel edges and the device creates off-state leakage path, causing device to turn on. So the reliability of circuits degrades severely. The ELT offers many advantages. These advantages include improvement of reliability by reducing unwanted surface inversion at the gate edges that occurs in the standard MOSFET. Since the gate edges are enclosed in ELT, there is no gate oxide edge (STI at gate interface), and thus the transistor off-state leakage is reduced very much. Low-power microelectronic circuits including computers, communication devices and monitoring systems in space shuttle and satellites are very different from what we use on earth. They are radiation (high-speed atomic particles like proton and neutron, solar flare magnetic energy dissipation in Earth's space, energetic cosmic rays like X-ray, gamma ray etc.) tolerant circuits. These special electronics are designed by applying very different techniques using RHBD MOSFETs to ensure the safe space journey and also space-walk of astronauts.

text: Semiconductor sub-micrometer and nanometer electronic circuits are the primary concern for operating within the normal tolerance in harsh

text: radiation

text: environments like

text: outer space

text: . One of the design approaches for making a

text: radiation-hardened-by-design

text: (RHBD) device is Enclosed-Layout-Transistor (ELT). Normally, the gate of the MOSFET surrounds the drain, which is placed in the center of the ELT. The source of the MOSFET surrounds the gate. Another RHBD MOSFET is called H-Gate. Both of these transistors have very low leakage current with respect to radiation. However, they are large in size and take more space on silicon than a standard MOSFET. In older STI (shallow trench isolation) designs, radiation strikes near the silicon oxide region cause the channel inversion at the corners of the standard MOSFET due to accumulation of radiation induced trapped charges. If the charges are large enough, the accumulated charges affect STI surface edges along the channel near the channel interface (gate) of the standard MOSFET. Thus the device channel inversion occurs along the channel edges and the device creates off-state leakage path, causing device to turn on. So the reliability of circuits degrades severely. The ELT offers many advantages. These advantages include improvement of

text: reliability

text: by reducing unwanted surface inversion at the gate edges that occurs in the standard MOSFET. Since the gate edges are enclosed in ELT, there is no gate oxide edge (STI at gate interface), and thus the transistor off-state leakage is reduced very much. Low-power microelectronic circuits including computers, communication devices and monitoring systems in space shuttle and satellites are very different from what we use on earth. They are radiation (high-speed atomic particles like

text: proton

text: and

text: neutron

text: solar flare

text: magnetic energy dissipation in Earth's space, energetic

text: cosmic rays

text: like

text: X-ray

text: gamma ray

text: etc.) tolerant circuits. These special electronics are designed by applying very different techniques using RHBD MOSFETs to ensure the safe space journey and also space-walk of astronauts.

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answers: No

answer: No

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text: Portal imaging is the acquisition of images using a radiation beam that is being used for giving radiation treatment to a patient (Langmack, 2001). If not all of the radiation beam is absorbed or scattered in the patient, the portion that passes through may be measured and used to produce images of the patient.

text: Portal imaging is the acquisition of images using a radiation beam that is being used for giving radiation treatment to a patient (Langmack, 2001). If not all of the radiation beam is absorbed or scattered in the patient, the portion that passes through may be measured and used to produce images of the patient.

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answers: It does not say

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answers: radiation beam

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answers: absorbed or scattered

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: a patient

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Plant radiation detectors that are operating in a high ambient gamma background are sometimes shielded to prevent the background swamping the detector. Such a detector may be looking for alpha and beta particles, and gamma radiation will affect this. Laboratory or health physics detectors, even if remote from nuclear operations, may require shielding if very low levels of radiation are to be detected. This is case with, for instance, a scintillation counter measuring low levels of contamination on a swab or sample.

text: Plant radiation detectors that are operating in a high ambient gamma background are sometimes shielded to prevent the background swamping the detector. Such a detector may be looking for alpha and beta particles, and gamma radiation will affect this. Laboratory or

text: health physics

text: detectors, even if remote from nuclear operations, may require shielding if very low levels of radiation are to be detected. This is case with, for instance, a

text: scintillation counter

text: measuring low levels of contamination on a swab or sample.

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answers: Laboratory or health physics detectors, even if remote from nuclear operations, may require shielding

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answers: gamma radiation

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Compared with other proposed solar radiation management methods, such as stratospheric aerosols injection, marine cloud brightening may be able to be partially localized in its effects. This could, for example, be used to stabilize the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Furthermore, marine cloud brightening, as it is currently envisioned, would use only natural substances sea water and wind, instead of introducing human-made substances into the environment.

text: Compared with other proposed solar radiation management methods, such as

entity_name: Stratospheric sulfate aerosols (geoengineering)

text: stratospheric aerosols injection

text: , marine cloud brightening may be able to be partially localized in its effects. This could, for example, be used to stabilize the

text: West Antarctic Ice Sheet

text: . Furthermore, marine cloud brightening, as it is currently envisioned, would use only natural substances sea water and wind, instead of introducing human-made substances into the environment.

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text: In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the organisms more readily. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding photons, using them to shield beta particles may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of bremsstrahlung x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using material with a high neutron activation cross section to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

text: In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the organisms more readily. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding

text: photon

text: s, using them to shield

text: beta particle

text: s may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of

text: bremsstrahlung

text: x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using material with a high

text: neutron activation

text: cross section

text: to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

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answers: Secondary radiation

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answers: absorbs in the organisms

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answers: organisms

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Luna 2 carried 5 different instruments to conduct various tests while it was on its way to the Moon. The scintillation counters would be used to measure any ionizing radiation; the Cherenkov radiation detectors would be measuring for electromagnetic radiation caused by charged particles. “The Geiger Counter carried on Luna 2 had the primary scientific objective of determining the electron spectrum of the outer radiation belt. The instrument consisted of three STS-5 gas-discharge counters mounted on the outside of the hermetically sealed container, and would be powered by a 360 V battery”. The last instrument on Luna 2 was, “a three component fluxgate magnetometer similar to that used on Luna 1 but with the dynamic range reduced by a factor of 4 to -750 to +750 gammas so that the quantization uncertainty was -12 to +12 gammas.” Together the devices were searching for lunar magnetic and radiation fields similar to the Van Allen radiation belt around earth sending information about once every minute until its last transmission which came about 55 km away from the lunar surface. Although it did prove previous measurements of the Van Allen radiation belts that were taken from Luna 1 around the Earth, it was not able to detect any type of radiation belts around the moon. Because of claims that information received from Luna 1 was fake, as soon as the scientists of Luna 2 starting receiving transmissions they sent out the intended time of impact, and the transmission and trajectory details. Even though Soviet scientists gave all this information Americans were still skeptical until Bernard Lovell was able to prove that the radio signal was coming from Luna 2 by showing the Doppler shift from its transmissions. After this no one seemed to question the validity of the Soviets.

text: Luna 2 carried 5 different instruments to conduct various tests while it was on its way to

text: the Moon

text: . The scintillation counters would be used to measure any ionizing radiation; the

text: Cherenkov radiation detectors

text: would be measuring for electromagnetic radiation caused by charged particles. “The Geiger Counter carried on Luna 2 had the primary scientific objective of determining the electron spectrum of the outer radiation belt. The instrument consisted of three STS-5 gas-discharge counters mounted on the outside of the hermetically sealed container, and would be powered by a 360 V battery”. The last instrument on Luna 2 was, “a three component fluxgate magnetometer similar to that used on Luna 1 but with the dynamic range reduced by a factor of 4 to -750 to +750 gammas so that the quantization uncertainty was -12 to +12 gammas.” Together the devices were searching for lunar magnetic and radiation fields similar to the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: around earth sending information about once every minute until its last transmission which came about 55 km away from the lunar surface. Although it did prove previous measurements of the Van Allen radiation belts that were taken from Luna 1 around the Earth, it was not able to detect any type of radiation belts around the moon. Because of claims that information received from Luna 1 was fake, as soon as the scientists of Luna 2 starting receiving transmissions they sent out the intended time of impact, and the transmission and trajectory details. Even though Soviet scientists gave all this information Americans were still skeptical until Bernard Lovell was able to prove that the radio signal was coming from Luna 2 by showing the Doppler shift from its transmissions. After this no one seemed to question the validity of the Soviets.

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answers: 1: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with substantial shortcomings.

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answers: The Van Allen radiation belt around Earth

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answers: charged particles

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answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A UV coating is used to reduce the transmission of light in the ultraviolet spectrum. UV-B radiation increases the likelihood of cataracts, while long-term exposure to UV-A radiation can damage the retina. DNA damage from UV light is cumulative and irreversible. Some materials such as Trivex and Polycarbonate, naturally block most UV light; they have UV-cutoff wavelengths just outside the visible range, and do not benefit from the application of a UV coating.  Many modern anti-reflective coatings also block UV.

text: A UV coating is used to reduce the transmission of light in the

text: ultraviolet

text: spectrum.

text: UV-B

text: radiation increases the likelihood of

text: cataracts

text: , while long-term exposure to

text: UV-A

text: radiation can damage the

text: retina

text: . DNA damage from UV light is cumulative and irreversible. Some materials such as

text: Trivex

text: and

text: Polycarbonate

text: , naturally block most UV light; they have UV-cutoff wavelengths just outside the visible range, and do not benefit from the application of a UV coating.  Many modern anti-reflective coatings also block UV.

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answers: DNA

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It can be implemented as an environment map using radiating pie wedges as the source texture.

text: It can be implemented as an

text: environment map

text: using radiating pie wedges as the source texture.

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answers: It can be implemented

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answers: pie wedges

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answers: Radiating pie wedges

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answers: radiating

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answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Passive radiators are considered to be similar in design to bass reflex systems, which use a port or vent cut into the speaker cabinet. Both bass reflex and passive radiator approaches are used with the same goal: to obtain better deep pitch sound from the system. Bass reflex is the most widely used technique for obtaining deeper bass notes from a speaker enclosure. Passive radiator designs are the next most-used approach to obtain deeper bass notes from a cabinetOne metaphor used to explain how PR systems work is to think of the air in the speaker enclosure like a spring.Sound on Sound Technical Editor Hugh Robjohns states that PR systems seem to be sealed up, like a sealed speaker enclosure, but in fact, he argues that because the drone cone(s) move in and out, a PR system is not really sealed.  Robjohns states that the effect created by installing a PR in a speaker cabinet is basically creating a bigger tube, as with a bass reflex system. AE Speakers states that a PR is not a sealed box enclosure.

text: Passive radiators are considered to be similar in design to

text: bass reflex

text: systems, which use a port or vent cut into the speaker cabinet. Both bass reflex and passive radiator approaches are used with the same goal: to obtain better deep pitch sound from the system. Bass reflex is the most widely used technique for obtaining deeper bass notes from a speaker enclosure. Passive radiator designs are the next most-used approach to obtain deeper bass notes from a cabinetOne metaphor used to explain how PR systems work is to think of the air in the speaker enclosure like a spring.Sound on Sound Technical Editor Hugh Robjohns states that PR systems seem to be sealed up, like a sealed speaker enclosure, but in fact, he argues that because the drone cone(s) move in and out, a PR system is not really sealed.  Robjohns states that the effect created by installing a PR in a speaker cabinet is basically creating a bigger tube, as with a bass reflex system. AE Speakers states that a PR is not a sealed box enclosure.

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answers: None

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The phenomenon of freezing point depression has many practical uses. The radiator fluid in an automobile is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol. As a result of freezing point depression, radiators do not freeze in winter (unless it is extremely cold, e.g. ). Road salting takes advantage of this effect to lower the freezing point of the ice it is placed on. Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. The maximum depression of the freezing point of the commonly used sodium chloride in water is about , so if the ambient temperature is lower, it becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as sodium formate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, potassium acetate are used instead.

text: The phenomenon of freezing point depression has many practical uses. The radiator fluid in an automobile is a mixture of water and

text: ethylene glycol

text: . As a result of freezing point depression, radiators do not freeze in winter (unless it is extremely cold, e.g. ). Road salting takes advantage of this effect to lower the freezing point of the ice it is placed on. Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. The maximum depression of the freezing point of the commonly used

text: sodium chloride

text: in water is about , so if the ambient temperature is lower, it becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as

text: calcium chloride

text: magnesium chloride

text: or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as

text: sodium formate

text: potassium formate

text: sodium acetate

text: potassium acetate

text: are used instead.

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text: Instruments to detect this radiation commonly measure the Cherenkov radiation produced by secondary particles generated from an energetic photon entering the Earth's atmosphere. This method is called imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique or IACT. A high-energy photon produces a cone of light confined to 1° of the original photon direction. About 10,000 m of the earth's surface is lit by each cone of light. A flux of 10 photons per square meter per second can be detected with current technology, provided the energy is above 0.1 TeV. Instruments include the planned Cherenkov Telescope Array, GT-48 in Crimea, MAGIC on La Palma, High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) in Namibia VERITAS and Chicago Air Shower Array which closed in 2001. Cosmic rays also produce similar flashes of light, but can be distinguished based on the shape of the light flash. Also having more than one telescope simultaneously observing the same spot can help exclude cosmic rays. Extensive air showers of particles can be detected for gamma rays above 100 TeV. Water scintillation detectors or dense arrays of particle detectors can be used to detect these particle showers.

text: Instruments to detect this radiation commonly measure the

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: produced by secondary particles generated from an energetic photon entering the Earth's atmosphere. This method is called imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique or

text: IACT

text: . A high-energy photon produces a cone of light confined to 1° of the original photon direction. About 10,000 m of the earth's surface is lit by each cone of light. A flux of 10 photons per square meter per second can be detected with current technology, provided the energy is above 0.1 TeV. Instruments include the planned

text: Cherenkov Telescope Array

text: in Crimea,

text: MAGIC

text: on

text: La Palma

text: High Energy Stereoscopic System

text: (HESS) in Namibia

text: VERITAS

text: and

text: Chicago Air Shower Array

text: which closed in 2001. Cosmic rays also produce similar flashes of light, but can be distinguished based on the shape of the light flash. Also having more than one telescope simultaneously observing the same spot can help exclude cosmic rays.

text: Extensive air shower

text: s of particles can be detected for gamma rays above 100 TeV. Water scintillation detectors or dense arrays of particle detectors can be used to detect these particle showers.

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answers: About 10,000 m of the earth's surface is lit by each cone of light

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answers: Cherenkov radiation

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answers: The Earth's atmosphere

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The ionizing effect of radiation on a gas is extensively used for the detection of radiation such as alpha, beta, gamma and X-rays. The original ionization event in these instruments results in the formation of an "ion pair"; a positive ion and a free electron, by ion impact by the radiation on the gas molecules. The ionization chamber is the simplest of these detectors, and collects all the charges created by direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field.

text: The ionizing effect of radiation on a gas is extensively used for the detection of radiation such as

text: alpha

text: beta

text: gamma

text: and

text: X-rays

text: . The original ionization event in these instruments results in the formation of an "ion pair"; a positive ion and a free electron, by ion impact by the radiation on the gas molecules. The

text: ionization chamber

text: is the simplest of these detectors, and collects all the charges created by direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field.

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answers: It is extensively used for the detection of radiation

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text: The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a scintillation detector used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.

text: The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a

text: scintillation detector

text: used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.

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answers: In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: elevated gamma

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answers: It will make the instrument unusable as the background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination

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answers: make the instrument unusable

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answers: It will make the instrument unusable

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Much ionizing radiation originates from radioactive materials and space (cosmic rays), and as such is naturally present in the environment, since most rock and soil has small concentrations of radioactive materials. The radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses; as a result, instruments such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence. In some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of Cherenkov radiation and radio-luminescence.

text: Much ionizing radiation originates from radioactive materials and space (cosmic rays), and as such is naturally present in the environment, since most rock and soil has small concentrations of radioactive materials. The radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses; as a result, instruments such as

text: Geiger counter

text: s are usually required to detect its presence. In some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: and radio-luminescence.

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text: An octreotide scan or octreoscan is a type of scintigraphy used to find carcinoid, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, and to localize sarcoidosis. Octreotide, a drug similar to somatostatin, is radiolabeled with indium-111, and is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive octreotide attaches to tumor cells that have receptors for somatostatin. A radiation-measuring device detects the radioactive octreotide, and makes pictures showing where the tumor cells are in the body.

text: An octreotide scan or octreoscan is a type of

text: scintigraphy

text: used to find

text: carcinoid

text: pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor

text: s, and to localize sarcoidosis.

text: Octreotide

text: , a drug similar to

text: somatostatin

text: , is

text: radiolabeled

text: with

text: , and is injected into a

text: vein

text: and travels through the

text: bloodstream

text: . The radioactive octreotide attaches to

text: tumor cells

text: that have receptors for somatostatin. A radiation-measuring device detects the radioactive octreotide, and makes pictures showing where the

text: tumor

text: cells are in the body.

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text: Sometimes, especially near ambient temperatures, readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body—even the person holding the instrument—rather than radiated by the object being measured, and to an incorrect assumed emissivity.

text: Sometimes, especially near ambient temperatures, readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body—even the person holding the instrument—rather than radiated by the object being measured, and to an incorrect assumed emissivity.

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text: Meanwhile, in the vivarium, some of the chimps have used a mop to get the keys to open their cages and have stacked crates and boxes in an attempt to escape through a skylight. Jimmy and Teri walk in to see the chimps escaping. Virgil, at the top of the stack, is about to break the skylight with a crowbar when the authorities enter. Goliath the chimp becomes very angry and fights with Dr. Carroll, who has obtained a cattle prod and is attempting to use it to foil the chimps' escape. The authorities are chased from the room. Goliath and Virgil end up in the flight simulator room, and a fire extinguisher is jammed, forcing the radiation generator in an exposed condition, potentially leading to an uncontrolled radiation blast. Jimmy gets Virgil and some other chimps out, but Goliath continues smashing the simulator and is caught inside. Jimmy and Virgil convince Goliath to yank out the extinguisher, but Goliath dies from radiation because the chamber cannot be opened until the radiation falls below lethal levels.

text: Meanwhile, in the vivarium, some of the chimps have used a mop to get the keys to open their cages and have stacked crates and boxes in an attempt to escape through a skylight. Jimmy and Teri walk in to see the chimps escaping. Virgil, at the top of the stack, is about to break the skylight with a crowbar when the authorities enter. Goliath the chimp becomes very angry and fights with Dr. Carroll, who has obtained a

text: cattle prod

text: and is attempting to use it to foil the chimps' escape. The authorities are chased from the room. Goliath and Virgil end up in the flight simulator room, and a fire extinguisher is jammed, forcing the radiation generator in an exposed condition, potentially leading to an uncontrolled radiation blast. Jimmy gets Virgil and some other chimps out, but Goliath continues smashing the simulator and is caught inside. Jimmy and Virgil convince Goliath to yank out the extinguisher, but Goliath dies from radiation because the chamber cannot be opened until the radiation falls below lethal levels.

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answers: lethal levels

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answers: lethal levels

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: lethal levels

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A 2009 study focusing on the naturally high background radiation region of Karunagappalli, India concluded: "our cancer incidence study, together with previously reported cancer mortality studies in the HBR area of Yangjiang, China, suggests it is unlikely that estimates of risk at low doses are substantially greater than currently believed." A 2011 meta-analysis further concluded that the "Total whole body radiation doses received over 70 years from the natural environment high background radiation areas in Kerala, India and Yanjiang, China are much smaller than [the non-tumour dose, "defined as the highest dose of radiation at which no statistically significant tumour increase was observed above the control level"] for the respective dose-rates in each district."

text: A 2009 study focusing on the naturally high background radiation region of

text: Karunagappalli

text: , India concluded: "our cancer incidence study, together with previously reported cancer mortality studies in the HBR area of

text: Yangjiang

text: , China, suggests it is unlikely that estimates of risk at low doses are substantially greater than currently believed." A 2011 meta-analysis further concluded that the "Total whole body radiation doses received over 70 years from the natural environment high background radiation areas in Kerala, India and Yanjiang, China are much smaller than [the non-tumour dose, "defined as the highest dose of radiation at which no statistically significant tumour increase was observed above the control level"] for the respective dose-rates in each district."

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answers: Kerala, India and Yanjiang, China

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: Yangjiang, China

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: high background radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: cancer

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: whole body

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Background radiation is the ionizing radiation present in the environment. Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. Sources include cosmic radiation, naturally occurring radioactive materials such as radon, and fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.

text: Background radiation is the ionizing radiation present in the environment. Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. Sources include

text: cosmic radiation

text: , naturally occurring radioactive materials such as

text: radon

text: , and

text: fallout

text: from

text: nuclear weapons testing

text: and

text: nuclear accident

text: s.

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answers: ionizing

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answers: ionizing

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It is not true

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: However, background radiation for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.

text: However, background radiation for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.

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answers: This can be a significant confounding factor

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answers: natural background radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Natural background radiation and any medical radiation doses

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: workers

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The device consists of two constituent parts, a gamma radiation sensitive inner core which fits inside the spherical tungsten outer collimation sheath. The outside diameter of the device is 140 mm (approx 5 ½ inch) which allows deployment in to hard to reach areas whilst providing a 360 degree view of the area. The inner core is made up of material which changes colour when it is exposed to gamma radiation. Therefore, when the device is deployed inside a radioactive environment the collimation device preferentially allows gamma radiation to pass through the collimation holes which deposits tracks within the inner core. These tracks can then be analysed to provide a 3D visualisation of the radioactive environment predicting both source location and intensity.

text: The device consists of two constituent parts, a

text: gamma radiation

text: sensitive inner core which fits inside the spherical

text: tungsten

text: outer

text: collimation

text: sheath. The outside diameter of the device is 140 mm (approx 5 ½ inch) which allows deployment in to hard to reach areas whilst providing a 360 degree view of the area. The inner core is made up of material which changes colour when it is exposed to gamma radiation. Therefore, when the device is deployed inside a

text: radioactive

text: environment the collimation device preferentially allows gamma radiation to pass through the collimation holes which deposits tracks within the inner core. These tracks can then be analysed to provide a

text: 3D visualisation

text: of the radioactive environment predicting both source location and intensity.

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answers: No

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text: The CD V-700 is a Geiger counter employing a probe equipped with a Geiger–Müller tube manufactured by several companies under contract to US federal civil defense agencies in the 1950s and 1960s. This unit is quite sensitive and can be used to measure low levels of Gamma radiation and detect Beta radiation.  In cases of high-radiation fields, the Geiger tube can saturate, causing the meter to read a very low level of radiation (close to 0 R/h) hence the necessity of the companion ion-chamber survey meters.

text: The CD V-700 is a

text: Geiger counter

text: employing a probe equipped with a

text: Geiger–Müller tube

text: manufactured by several companies under contract to US federal

text: civil defense

text: agencies in the 1950s and 1960s. This unit is quite sensitive and can be used to measure low levels of

text: Gamma radiation

text: and detect

text: Beta radiation

text: .  In cases of high-radiation fields, the Geiger tube can saturate, causing the meter to read a very low level of radiation (close to 0 R/h) hence the necessity of the companion ion-chamber survey meters.

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answers: high-radiation

answers: NDQ_016705

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Stereotactic radiation therapy is a type of external radiation therapy that uses special equipment to position the patient and precisely deliver radiation to a tumor. The total dose of radiation is divided into several smaller doses given over several days. Stereotactic radiation therapy is used to treat brain tumors and other brain disorders. It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer, such as lung cancer. Also called stereotactic external-beam radiation therapy and stereotaxic radiation therapy.What differentiates Stereotactic from conventional radiotherapy is the precision with which it is delivered. There are multiple systems available, some of which use specially designed frames which physically attach to the patient's skull while newer more advanced techniques use thermoplastic masks and highly accurate imaging systems to locate the patient. The end result is the delivery of high doses of radiation with sub-millimetre accuracy.

text: Stereotactic radiation therapy is a type of

text: external radiation therapy

text: that uses special equipment to position the patient and precisely deliver

text: radiation

text: to a

text: tumor

text: . The total dose of radiation is divided into several smaller doses given over several days.

text: Stereotactic

text: radiation therapy

text: is used to treat

text: brain tumors

text: and other

text: brain disorders

text: . It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of

text: cancer

text: , such as

text: lung cancer

text: . Also called

text: stereotactic external-beam radiation therapy

text: and

text: stereotaxic radiation therapy

text: .What differentiates Stereotactic from conventional radiotherapy is the precision with which it is delivered. There are multiple systems available, some of which use specially designed frames which physically attach to the patient's skull while newer more advanced techniques use thermoplastic masks and highly accurate imaging systems to locate the patient. The end result is the delivery of high doses of radiation with sub-millimetre accuracy.

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answers: The patient

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are stochastic, meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose. Radiation-induced cancer, teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease are all examples of stochastic effects. Other conditions such as radiation burns, acute radiation syndrome, chronic radiation syndrome, and radiation-induced thyroiditis are deterministic, meaning they reliably occur above a threshold dose, and their severity increases with dose.  Deterministic effects are not necessarily more or less serious than stochastic effects; either can ultimately lead to a temporary nuisance or a fatality.

text: Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are

text: stochastic

text: , meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose.

text: Radiation-induced cancer

text: teratogenesis

text: cognitive decline

text: , and

text: heart disease

text: are all examples of stochastic effects. Other conditions such as

text: radiation burn

text: s,

text: acute radiation syndrome

text: chronic radiation syndrome

text: , and

text: radiation-induced thyroiditis

text: are

text: deterministic

text: , meaning they reliably occur above a threshold dose, and their severity increases with dose.  Deterministic effects are not necessarily more or less serious than stochastic effects; either can ultimately lead to a temporary nuisance or a fatality.

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answers: Humans

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The sievert is used for radiation dose quantities such as equivalent dose, effective dose, and committed dose. It is used to represent both the risk of the effect of external radiation from sources outside the body and the effect of internal irradiation due to inhaled or ingested radioactive substances. Conventionally, the sievert is not used for high dose rates of radiation that produce deterministic effects, which is the severity of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen. Such effects are compared to the physical quantity absorbed dose measured by the unit gray (Gy).

text: The sievert is used for radiation dose quantities such as

text: equivalent dose

text: effective dose

text: , and

text: committed dose

text: . It is used to represent both the risk of the effect of external radiation from sources outside the body and the effect of internal irradiation due to inhaled or ingested radioactive substances. Conventionally, the sievert is not used for high dose rates of radiation that produce deterministic effects, which is the severity of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen. Such effects are compared to the physical quantity

text: absorbed dose

text: measured by the unit

text: gray

text: (Gy).

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text: The Kangaroo's defeat threw him into a deep depression, resulting in Frank becoming a vagrant in New York City. While watching Spider-Man swing by, Frank reflected on his defeat and wished for a means to defeat Spider-Man. Shortly thereafter, Frank was approached by one Dr. Jonas Harrow, who wished to enhance the Kangaroo to a superhuman level. Frank agreed, and after a seven-hour procedure, found himself gifted with air jet-enhanced leaping and punching ability. Harrow wanted to use the Kangaroo as muscle, but the newly empowered Kangaroo resented being anyone's pawn. Smacking Dr. Harrow aside, the Kangaroo leapt away to pursue Spider-Man. Upon finding Spider-Man, the Kangaroo battled the web-slinger, who had underestimated his previously underpowered enemy. As the Kangaroo was gaining the upper-hand, however, Dr. Harrow activated an implant in Oliver's brain which caused him great pain. Forced by Dr. Harrow to obey him or suffer agony, the Kangaroo returned and was then ordered to retrieve a radioactive isotope. While breaking into the Hudson River lab which held the isotope, Frank once again encountered Spider-Man. As the two battled, Spider-Man found himself outmatched, and attempted to convince the Kangaroo of the dangers of the isotope's radiation. Refusing to listen to his enemy, the Kangaroo burst into the room which held the isotope and was reduced to a pile of ashes upon exposure to the radiation.

text: The Kangaroo's defeat threw him into a deep depression, resulting in Frank becoming a vagrant in New York City. While watching Spider-Man swing by, Frank reflected on his defeat and wished for a means to defeat Spider-Man. Shortly thereafter, Frank was approached by one Dr.

text: Jonas Harrow

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text: Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types: ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation, based on the capability of a single photon with more than 10 eV energy to ionize oxygen or break chemical bonds. Ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing, and these pose their own special hazards: see radiation and radiation poisoning. The electric currents that flow through power sockets have associated line-frequency electromagnetic fields. Various kinds of higher-frequency radiowaves are used to transmit information – whether via TV antennas, radio stations or mobile phone base stations. By far the most common health hazard of radiation is sunburn, which causes over one million new skin cancers annually.

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: can be classified into two types:

text: ionizing radiation

text: and

text: non-ionizing radiation

text: , based on the capability of a single

text: photon

text: with more than 10

text: eV

text: energy to ionize oxygen or break

text: chemical bond

text: s.

text: Ultraviolet

text: and higher frequencies, such as

text: X-ray

text: s or

text: gamma ray

text: s are ionizing, and these pose their own special hazards: see

text: radiation

text: and

text: radiation poisoning

text: . The electric currents that flow through power sockets have associated line-frequency electromagnetic fields. Various kinds of higher-frequency radiowaves are used to transmit information – whether via TV antennas, radio stations or mobile phone base stations. By far the most common health hazard of radiation is

text: sunburn

text: , which causes over one million new skin cancers annually.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The Department of Defense (DOD) sponsored a series of experiments for Koa: Projects 1.4, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 2.9, 3.2, 3.6, 5.1, 5.3. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.9. and 6.11. Project 1.4, which sought to study land craters post detonation for several shots, took ground survey measurements from surface zero out to 2,500 feet (762 meters). Detailed measurements could not be made until four days after the blast due to radiation levels. Using a boat, the majority of the crater was mapped, though some measurements could not be made until 1959 due to radioactivity levels around the Koa blast site. In Project 1.9, the blast-induced pressure through the soil was measured by burying 43 drums at depths ranging from 0 to 20 feet and around 3,000 feet from the Koa blast site. The early radioactive cloud samples, normally collected post-shot as a part of Project 2.8 using a UCRL rocket sampler, were not collected after the Koa test due to technical difficulties. Fallout at high and low altitudes utilizing B-57D and WB-50 aircraft were measured with no technical problems. Project 3.6, which was conducted only on Koa, tested the effects of the blast on reinforced-concrete slabs buried close to surface zero. One station was located at 1,830 feet (558 meters) from the blast site, and the other was located 3,100 feet (945 meters) away. Project 5.2 was designed to measure the radiation levels using film badges on different areas of the aircraft and on the pilot directly. Koa had the lowest average radiation measurements of the eight shots on this project, with aircraft 827 ranging from 0.01-0.02R and aircraft 831 reporting levels between 0.03-0.19R. Unlike in the Cactus test, all nine film badges from both aircraft were successfully recovered and reported.

text: The

text: Department of Defense

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answers: Koa had the lowest average radiation measurements

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answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Koa had the lowest average radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: the pilot directly

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: The Department of Defense

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For long duration space travel, radiation can pose an acute health hazard.Exposure to radiation sources such as high-energy, ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes, nervous system, lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. On a round-trip Mars mission lasting three years, nearly the entire body would be traversed by high energy nuclei, each of which can cause ionization damage to cells. Fortunately, most such particles are significantly attenuated by the shielding provided by the aluminium walls of a spacecraft, and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. However, the impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research will be needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.

text: For long duration space travel, radiation can pose an

text: acute health hazard

text: .Exposure to radiation sources such as high-energy, ionizing

text: cosmic rays

text: can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the

text: white blood cell

text: count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of

text: cancer

text: , plus damage to the

text: eye

text: s,

text: nervous system

text: lung

text: s and the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . On a round-trip

text: Mars

text: mission lasting three years, nearly the entire body would be traversed by high energy nuclei, each of which can cause ionization damage to cells. Fortunately, most such particles are significantly attenuated by the shielding provided by the aluminium walls of a spacecraft, and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. However, the impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research will be needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.

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answers: radiation can pose an acute health hazard

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answers: cells

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answers: cells

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The absorbed dose required to produce a certain biological effect varies between different types of radiation, such as photons, neutrons or alpha particles. This is taken into account by the equivalent dose (H), which is defined as the mean dose to organ T by radiation type R (D), multiplied by a weighting factor W . This designed to take into account the  biological effectiveness (RBE) of the radiation type, For instance, for the same absorbed dose in Gy, alpha particles are 20 times as biologically potent as X or gamma rays. The measure of ‘dose equivalent’ is not organ averaged and now only used for "operational quantities". Equivalent dose is designed for estimation of stochastic risks from radiation exposures. Stochastic effect is defined for radiation dose assessment as the probability of cancer induction and genetic damage.

text: The absorbed dose required to produce a certain biological effect varies between different types of radiation, such as

text: photons

text: neutrons

text: or

text: alpha particles

text: . This is taken into account by the equivalent dose (H), which is defined as the mean dose to organ T by radiation type R (D), multiplied by a weighting factor W . This designed to take into account the

text: biological effectiveness

text: (RBE) of the radiation type, For instance, for the same absorbed dose in Gy, alpha particles are 20 times as biologically potent as X or gamma rays. The measure of ‘dose equivalent’ is not organ averaged and now only used for "operational quantities". Equivalent dose is designed for estimation of stochastic risks from radiation exposures. Stochastic effect is defined for radiation dose assessment as the probability of cancer induction and genetic damage.

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answers: The absorbed dose required to produce a certain biological effect

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: X or gamma rays

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: The probability of cancer induction and genetic damage

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: genetic

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: cancer induction and genetic damage

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: UAEC is responsible for the regulation of the peaceful applications of ionising radiation, with the following specific objectives: (a) Protect the safety of individuals, society, and the environment from the dangers resulting from ionising radiation (b) Provide for the production and use of radiation sources and the management of radioactive waste (c) Provide for compliance with international safety requirements for the use of ionising radiation, radiation protection, and security of radioactive sources.

text: UAEC is responsible for the regulation of the peaceful applications of ionising radiation, with the following specific objectives: (a) Protect the safety of individuals, society, and the environment from the dangers resulting from ionising radiation (b) Provide for the production and use of radiation sources and the management of radioactive waste (c) Provide for compliance with international safety requirements for the use of ionising radiation, radiation protection, and security of radioactive sources.

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answers: ionising radiation

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answers: ionising

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Individuals

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ahead of the car's forward bulkhead the brake cylinders, fire extinguisher system, battery and radiator were carried on a tray-like extension to the cockpit floor pan, constructed in lighter 20 gauge aluminium sheet. Herd did consider using side-mounted radiators, but these were too complex to design and build in the time available. The car's fibreglass nose bodywork enclosing the radiator was relatively square, with a near-rectangular opening for the radiator intake. On either side of the radiator opening Herd placed small wings to generate downforce, moulded with the radiator cowl as a single unit. These wings were fixed in position, braced with a steel tube that spanned their full width, and carried adjustable trim tabs along their trailing edges. At the rear of the car a large, single-plane, adjustable wing was mounted atop the gearbox, between the rear wheels.

text: Ahead of the car's forward bulkhead the brake cylinders, fire extinguisher system, battery and radiator were carried on a tray-like extension to the cockpit floor pan, constructed in lighter 20 gauge aluminium sheet. Herd did consider using side-mounted radiators, but these were too complex to design and build in the time available. The car's

text: fibreglass

text: nose bodywork enclosing the radiator was relatively square, with a near-rectangular opening for the radiator intake. On either side of the radiator opening Herd placed small wings to generate

text: downforce

text: , moulded with the radiator cowl as a single unit. These wings were fixed in position, braced with a steel tube that spanned their full width, and carried adjustable trim tabs along their trailing edges. At the rear of the car a large, single-plane, adjustable wing was mounted atop the gearbox, between the rear wheels.

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text: The types R of ionizing radiation most considered in RBE evaluation are X-rays and gamma radiation (both consisting of photons), alpha radiations (helium-4 nuclei), beta radiation (electrons and positrons), neutron radiation, and heavy nuclei, including the fragments of nuclear fission.  For some kinds of radiation, the RBE is strongly dependent on the energy of the individual particles.

text: The types R of ionizing radiation most considered in RBE evaluation are

text: X-ray

text: s and

text: gamma radiation

text: (both consisting of

text: photon

text: s),

text: alpha radiation

text: s (

text: nuclei),

text: beta radiation

text: electron

text: s and

text: positron

text: s),

text: neutron radiation

text: , and heavy

text: nuclei

text: , including the fragments of

text: nuclear fission

text: .  For some kinds of radiation, the RBE is strongly dependent on the energy of the individual particles.

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answers: It does not say

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Radiation therapy is used to treat early stage Dupuytren's disease and Ledderhose disease. When Dupuytren's disease is at the nodules and cords stage or fingers are at a minimal deformation stage of less than 10 degrees, then radiation therapy is used to prevent further progress of the disease. Radiation therapy is also used post surgery in some cases to prevent the disease continuing to progress. Low doses of radiation are used typically three gray of radiation for five days, with a break of three months followed by another phase of three gray of radiation for five days.

text: Radiation therapy is used to treat early stage

text: Dupuytren's disease

text: and

text: Ledderhose disease

text: . When Dupuytren's disease is at the nodules and cords stage or fingers are at a minimal deformation stage of less than 10 degrees, then radiation therapy is used to prevent further progress of the disease. Radiation therapy is also used post surgery in some cases to prevent the disease continuing to progress. Low doses of radiation are used typically three gray of radiation for five days, with a break of three months followed by another phase of three gray of radiation for five days.

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answers: Low doses of radiation

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answers: Ledderhose

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answers: Radiation therapy

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answers: fingers

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answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Ground source heat pumps are especially well matched to underfloor heating and baseboard radiator systems which only require warm temperatures 40 °C (104 °F) to work well. Thus they are ideal for open plan offices. Using large surfaces such as floors, as opposed to radiators, distributes the heat more uniformly and allows for a lower water temperature. Wood or carpet floor coverings dampen this effect because the thermal transfer efficiency of these materials is lower than that of masonry floors (tile, concrete). Underfloor piping, ceiling or wall radiators can also be used for cooling in dry climates, although the temperature of the circulating water must be above the dew point to ensure that atmospheric humidity does not condense on the radiator.

text: Ground source heat pumps are especially well matched to underfloor heating and baseboard radiator systems which only require warm temperatures 40 °C (104 °F) to work well. Thus they are ideal for open plan offices. Using large surfaces such as floors, as opposed to radiators, distributes the heat more uniformly and allows for a lower water temperature. Wood or carpet floor coverings dampen this effect because the thermal transfer efficiency of these materials is lower than that of masonry floors (tile, concrete). Underfloor piping, ceiling or wall radiators can also be used for cooling in dry climates, although the temperature of the circulating water must be above the

text: dew point

text: to ensure that atmospheric humidity does not condense on the radiator.

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answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 0

text: Recognized effects of higher acute radiation doses are described in more detail in the article on radiation poisoning. Although the International System of Units (SI) defines the sievert (Sv) as the unit of radiation dose equivalent, chronic radiation levels and standards are still often given in unts of millirems (mrem), where 1 mrem equals 1/1000 of a rem and 1 mrem equals 0.01 mSv. Light radiation sickness begins at about 50–100 rad (0.5–1 gray (Gy), 0.5–1 Sv, 50–100 rem, 50,000–100,000 mrem).

text: Recognized effects of higher acute

text: radiation doses

text: are described in more detail in the article on

text: radiation poisoning

text: . Although the

text: International System of Units

text: (SI) defines the

text: sievert

text: (Sv) as the unit of radiation dose equivalent, chronic radiation levels and standards are still often given in unts of

text: millirem

text: s (mrem), where 1 mrem equals 1/1000 of a rem and 1 mrem equals 0.01 mSv. Light radiation sickness begins at about 50–100

text: rad

text: gray (Gy)

text: , 0.5–1

text: Sv

text: , 50–100

text: rem

text: , 50,000–100,000 mrem).

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answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Light radiation sickness

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: Light radiation sickness

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1 Å), defined as gamma radiation.This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei.Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source.Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

text: There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by

text: electron

text: s, while gamma rays are emitted by the

text: atomic nucleus

text: . This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1

text: Å

text: ), defined as gamma radiation.This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by

text: X-ray tube

text: s generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by

text: radioactive

text: nuclei

text: .Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source.Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example

text: radiotherapy

text: , in the ranges of 6–20

text: MeV

text: , can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

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answers: gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus

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answers: gamma rays

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answers: gamma rays

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Russian OEMs, such as Kamaz and Ural Automotive Plant, are using CuproBraze radiators and charge air coolers in heavy-duty trucks for off-highway and on-highway applications. Other manufacturers include UAZ and GAZ (Russia) and MAZ (Belarus). The Finnish Radiator Manufacturing Company, also known as FinnRadiator, produces 95% of its radiators and charge air-coolers with CuproBraze for OEM manufacturers of off-road construction equipment. Nakamura Jico Co., Ltd. (Japan) manufactures CuproBraze heat exchangers for construction equipment, locomotives and on-highway trucks. Young Touchstone supplies CuproBraze radiators to MotivePower’s diesel-powered commuter train locomotives in North America. Siemens AG Transportation Systems plans to use the technology for its Asia Runner locomotive for South Vietnam and other Asian markets. Bombardier Transportation heat exchangers cool transformer oil in electric-powered locomotives. These huge oil coolers have been used successfully in coal trains for South African Railways. Kohler Power Systems Americas, one of the largest users of diesel engines for power generation, adopted CuproBraze for diesel engine turbocharger air-to-air cooling in its “gen sets.”

text: Russian

text: OEM

text: s, such as

text: Kamaz

text: and

text: Ural Automotive Plant

text: , are using CuproBraze radiators and charge air coolers in heavy-duty trucks for off-highway and on-highway applications. Other manufacturers include UAZ and GAZ (

text: Russia

text: ) and MAZ (

text: Belarus

text: ). The Finnish Radiator Manufacturing Company, also known as FinnRadiator, produces 95% of its radiators and charge air-coolers with CuproBraze for OEM manufacturers of off-road construction equipment. Nakamura Jico Co., Ltd. (

text: Japan

text: ) manufactures CuproBraze heat exchangers for construction equipment, locomotives and on-highway trucks. Young Touchstone supplies CuproBraze radiators to MotivePower’s diesel-powered commuter train locomotives in

text: North America

text: Siemens AG

text: Transportation Systems plans to use the technology for its Asia Runner

text: locomotive

text: for

text: South Vietnam

text: and other Asian markets.

text: Bombardier Transportation

text: heat exchangers cool transformer oil in electric-powered locomotives. These huge oil coolers have been used successfully in coal trains for

text: South African Railways

text: . Kohler Power Systems Americas, one of the largest users of diesel engines for power generation, adopted CuproBraze for diesel engine turbocharger air-to-air cooling in its “gen sets.”

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answers: Kamaz and Ural Automotive Plant

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answers: CuproBraze

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answers: no

answer: No

answer: No

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text: No fusor has come close to producing a significant amount of fusion power. They can be dangerous if proper care is not taken because they require high voltages and can produce harmful radiation (neutrons and x-rays).  Often, ions collide with the cages or wall.  This conducts energy away from the device limiting its performance.  In addition, collisions heat the grids, which limits high power devices.  Collisions also spray high-mass ions into the reaction chamber, pollute the plasma and cool the fuel.

text: No

text: fusor

text: has come close to producing a significant amount of

text: fusion power

text: . They can be dangerous if proper care is not taken because they require high voltages and can produce harmful radiation (

text: neutrons

text: and

text: x-rays

text: ).  Often, ions collide with the cages or wall.  This

text: conducts

text: energy away from the device limiting its performance.  In addition, collisions heat the grids, which limits high power devices.  Collisions also spray high-mass ions into the reaction chamber, pollute the plasma and cool the fuel.

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answers: No fusor

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answers: x-rays

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answers: Neutrons and x-rays

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: harmful radiation

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: It's impossible to say

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The caterpillar is regarded as a dangerous insect because of its venomous spines. Exposure to the caterpillar's fur-like spines will lead to an immediate skin irritation characterised by a, "grid-like hemorrhagic papular eruption with severe radiating pain". The pain has been described by patients as similar to a broken bone or blunt force trauma. The reactions are sometimes localized to the affected area but are often very severe, radiating up a limb and causing burning, swelling, nausea, headache, abdominal distress, rashes, blisters, and sometimes chest pain, numbness, or difficulty breathing. Additionally, it is not unusual to find sweating from the welts or hives at the site of the sting.

text: The caterpillar is regarded as a dangerous insect because of its venomous spines. Exposure to the caterpillar's fur-like spines will lead to an immediate skin irritation characterised by a, "grid-like hemorrhagic papular eruption with severe radiating pain". The pain has been described by patients as similar to a broken bone or blunt force trauma. The reactions are sometimes localized to the affected area but are often very severe, radiating up a limb and causing burning, swelling, nausea, headache, abdominal distress, rashes, blisters, and sometimes chest pain, numbness, or difficulty breathing. Additionally, it is not unusual to find sweating from the welts or hives at the site of the sting.

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answers: It is not unusual to find sweating

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: the caterpillar

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: a limb

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Radiation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Elastomers are sensitive to ionizing radiation.  In typical applications, O-rings are well protected from less penetrating radiation such as ultraviolet and soft X-rays, but more penetrating radiation such as neutrons may cause rapid deterioration.  In such environments, soft metal seals are used.

text: Elastomers are sensitive to ionizing radiation.  In typical applications, O-rings are well protected from less penetrating radiation such as ultraviolet and soft X-rays, but more penetrating radiation such as neutrons may cause rapid deterioration.  In such environments, soft metal seals are used.

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answers: ultraviolet and soft X-rays

answers: NDQ_016704

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_016705

answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_016706

answers: penetrating

answers: NDQ_016709

answers: Elastomers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The probability of detecting a given target at a given range any time the radar beam scans across it, Pd is determined by factors that include the size of the antenna and the amount of power it radiates. A large antenna radiating at high power provides the best performance. For high quality information on moving targets the Pd must be very high.

text: The probability of detecting a given target at a given range any time the radar beam scans across it, Pd is determined by factors that include the size of the antenna and the amount of power it radiates. A large antenna radiating at high power provides the best performance. For high quality information on moving targets the Pd must be very high.

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