text: On a daily basis, human intestinal microbiota encounters more carbohydrates than any other dietary component. This includes resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharide fibers, oligosaccharides, and simple sugars which have significance to colon health.

text: On a daily basis, human intestinal microbiota encounters more carbohydrates than any other dietary component. This includes resistant starch, non-starch

entity_name: Polysaccharide

text: polysaccharide

text: fibers,

entity_name: Oligosaccharide

text: oligosaccharide

text: s, and simple sugars which have significance to colon health.

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answer_match: lowercase, stemmed, fuzz > 0.8

prompt_style: Can the question be answered based on the available context? choose one:

answers: NDQ_016383

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answers: sugars

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answers: Resistant starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharide

prompt_style: provide a complete and concise answer to the question based on the context.

answer: Yes

prompt_class: FagB

prompt_style: Is this passage relevant?

answer: Yes

prompt_class: Sun

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

prompt_class: HELM

answer: No

answer: 1

prompt_class: Thomas

text: The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.

text: The label begins with a standard

entity_name: Serving size

text: serving

text: measurement,

entity_name: Calorie

text: calories

text: are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are

entity_name: Fat

text: total fat

entity_name: Sodium

text: sodium

entity_name: Carbohydrate

text: carbohydrates

text: and

entity_name: Protein

text: protein

text: ; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown:

text: calories

text: , calories from fat,

text: fat

entity_name: Saturated fat

text: saturated fat

entity_name: Trans fat

text: trans fat

entity_name: Cholesterol

text: cholesterol

text: sodium

text: carbohydrates

entity_name: Dietary fiber

text: dietary fiber

entity_name: Sugar

text: sugars

text: protein

entity_name: Vitamin A

text: vitamin A

entity_name: Vitamin C

text: vitamin C

entity_name: Calcium

text: calcium

text: , and

entity_name: Iron

text: iron

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: dietary fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: At the center of a hydrolyzable tannin molecule, there is a carbohydrate (usually D-glucose but also cyclitols like quinic or shikimic acids). The hydroxyl groups of the carbohydrate are partially or totally esterified with phenolic groups such as gallic acid in gallotannins or ellagic acid in ellagitannins. Hydrolysable tannins are mixtures of polygalloyl glucoses and/or poly-galloyl quinic acid derivatives containing in between 3 up to 12 gallic acid residues per molecule.

text: At the center of a hydrolyzable tannin

entity_name: Molecule

text: molecule

text: , there is a

text: carbohydrate

text: (usually

entity_name: Glucose

text: D-glucose

text: but also

entity_name: Cyclitol

text: cyclitol

text: s like

entity_name: Quinic acid

text: quinic

text: or

entity_name: Shikimic acid

text: shikimic acid

text: s). The hydroxyl groups of the carbohydrate are partially or totally

entity_name: Ester

text: esterified

text: with phenolic groups such as

entity_name: Gallic acid

text: gallic acid

text: in

entity_name: Gallotannin

text: gallotannin

text: s or

entity_name: Ellagic acid

text: ellagic acid

text: in

entity_name: Ellagitannin

text: ellagitannin

text: s. Hydrolysable tannins are mixtures of polygalloyl glucoses and/or poly-galloyl

text: quinic acid

text: derivatives containing in between 3 up to 12 gallic acid residues per molecule.

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answers: D-glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: D-glucose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polygalloyl glucoses

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: After her studies of apples ended in 1931, Porter was hired as a Visiting Lecturer in Biochemistry at Swanley Horticultural College. Porter also began work with the Research Institute of Plant Physiology at Imperial College and the Rothamstead Experimental Laboratories. Her research there included carbohydrate metabolism in monocotyledons, especially barley, and its relationship with the plant's mineral nutrition. She studied the location of synthesis for starches found in the grain itself, and debunked the popular opinion that carbohydrates were synthesized and stored in the plant's stem, then transported to the grain, where they were converted to starch. Instead, Porter and her research group found that the carbohydrates in the plant's stem were used for energy late in its life cycle; the starch was actually synthesized directly in the grain.

text: After her studies of apples ended in 1931, Porter was hired as a Visiting Lecturer in Biochemistry at

text: Swanley Horticultural College

text: . Porter also began work with the

text: Research Institute of Plant Physiology

text: at Imperial College and the

text: Rothamstead Experimental Laboratories

text: . Her research there included carbohydrate metabolism in

entity_name: Monocotyledon

text: monocotyledon

text: s, especially

entity_name: Barley

text: barley

text: , and its relationship with the plant's mineral nutrition. She studied the location of synthesis for starches found in the grain itself, and debunked the popular opinion that carbohydrates were synthesized and stored in the plant's stem, then transported to the grain, where they were converted to starch. Instead, Porter and her research group found that the carbohydrates in the plant's stem were used for energy late in its life cycle; the starch was actually synthesized directly in the grain.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrate metabolism in monocotyledons

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Phloem sap (pronounced ) consists primarily of sugars, hormones, and mineral elements dissolved in water. It flows from where carbohydrates are produced or stored (sugar source) to where they are used (sugar sinks).

text: Phloem sap (pronounced ) consists primarily of

text: sugar

text: s, hormones, and mineral elements dissolved in water. It flows from where

text: carbohydrate

text: s are produced or stored (sugar source) to where they are used (sugar sinks).

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answers: sugars

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answers: carbohydrates are produced or stored

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Phloem

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In chemistry, a glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , a glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of

text: covalent bond

text: that joins a

text: carbohydrate

text: (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

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answers: sugar

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Cellulosic ethanol is produced using the lignocellulose biomass that comprises much of the mass of plants. Essentially at the core of the plant material is cellulose, which can be broken down into simple carbohydrate sugars.  After these sugars have been extracted, they can be then be fermented into an alcohol, which is known as ethanol. The most widely used and promising means of creating cellulosic ethanol is called the cellulolysis process. The process consists of hydrolysis on pretreated lignocellulosic materials.  Then enzymes are used to break down cellulose into glucose. This glucose is then fermented and distilled. The pretreatment step mentioned above is necessary when processing cellulosic ethanol because the glucose (sugars) are not readily accessible as they are with other ethanol sources such as corn or sugar cane.  Rather, the cellulose in wood must be separated from the encapsulating hemicellulose and lignin.

text: Cellulosic ethanol is produced using the

text: lignocellulose biomass

text: that comprises much of the mass of plants. Essentially at the core of the plant material is cellulose, which can be broken down into simple carbohydrate sugars.  After these sugars have been extracted, they can be then be fermented into an alcohol, which is known as

text: ethanol

text: . The most widely used and promising means of creating cellulosic ethanol is called the

text: cellulolysis process

text: . The process consists of hydrolysis on pretreated lignocellulosic materials.  Then enzymes are used to break down cellulose into glucose. This glucose is then fermented and distilled. The pretreatment step mentioned above is necessary when processing cellulosic ethanol because the glucose (sugars) are not readily accessible as they are with other ethanol sources such as corn or sugar cane.  Rather, the cellulose in wood must be separated from the encapsulating

text: hemicellulose

text: and

text: lignin

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answers: sugars

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answers: lignocellulose biomass

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: lignocellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Amylase is found in saliva and breaks starch into maltose and dextrin. This form of amylase is also called "ptyalin"  It will break large, insoluble starch molecules into soluble starches (amylodextrin, erythrodextrin, and achrodextrin) producing successively smaller starches and ultimately maltose. Ptyalin acts on linear α(1,4) glycosidic linkages, but compound hydrolysis requires an enzyme that acts on branched products. Salivary amylase is inactivated in the stomach by gastric acid. In gastric juice adjusted to pH 3.3, ptyalin was totally inactivated in 20 minutes at 37 °C. In contrast, 50% of amylase activity remained after 150 minutes of exposure to gastric juice at pH 4.3. Both starch, the substrate for ptyalin, and the product (short chains of glucose) are able to partially protect it against inactivation by gastric acid. Ptyalin added to buffer at pH 3.0 underwent complete inactivation in 120 minutes; however, addition of starch at a 0.1% level resulted in 10% of the activity remaining, and similar addition of starch to a 1.0% level resulted in about 40% of the activity remaining at 120 minutes.

text: Amylase is found in saliva and breaks

text: starch

text: into

text: maltose

text: and

text: dextrin

text: . This form of amylase is also called "ptyalin"  It will break large, insoluble starch molecules into soluble starches (

text: amylodextrin

text: erythrodextrin

text: , and

text: achrodextrin

text: ) producing successively smaller starches and ultimately

text: maltose

text: . Ptyalin acts on linear α(1,4)

text: glycosidic linkage

text: s, but compound

text: hydrolysis

text: requires an enzyme that acts on branched products. Salivary amylase is inactivated in the

text: stomach

text: by

text: gastric acid

text: . In gastric juice adjusted to pH 3.3, ptyalin was totally inactivated in 20 minutes at 37 °C. In contrast, 50% of amylase activity remained after 150 minutes of exposure to gastric juice at pH 4.3. Both starch, the substrate for ptyalin, and the product (short chains of glucose) are able to partially protect it against inactivation by gastric acid. Ptyalin added to buffer at pH 3.0 underwent complete inactivation in 120 minutes; however, addition of starch at a 0.1% level resulted in 10% of the activity remaining, and similar addition of starch to a 1.0% level resulted in about 40% of the activity remaining at 120 minutes.

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answers: glucose

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answers: starch

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answers: Amylodextrin

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. Carbohydrates give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of insulin, a hormone enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes protein synthesis. Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains. It is impossible to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, which means that without carbohydrates, it is impossible to add muscle mass. Bodybuilders seek out low-glycemic polysaccharides and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) after a workout. This may help to replenish glycogen stores within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.

text: Carbohydrate

text: s play an important role for bodybuilders. Carbohydrates give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of

text: insulin

text: , a hormone enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes protein synthesis. Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains. It is impossible to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, which means that without carbohydrates, it is impossible to add muscle mass. Bodybuilders seek out

text: low-glycemic

text: polysaccharide

text: s and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-

text: glycemic

text: sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly digesting sugars (often in form of pure

text: dextrose

text: or

text: maltodextrin

text: ) after a workout. This may help to replenish

text: glycogen

text: stores within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.

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answers: polysaccharides

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answers: NDQ_016391

answers: maltodextrin

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Since acarbose prevents the digestion of complex carbohydrates, the drug should be taken at the start of main meals (taken with first bite of meal). Moreover, the amount of complex carbohydrates in the meal will determine the effectiveness of acarbose in decreasing postprandial hyperglycemia.  Adults may take doses of 25 mg 3 times daily, increasing to 100 mg 3 times a day.

text: Since acarbose prevents the digestion of complex carbohydrates, the drug should be taken at the start of main meals (taken with first bite of meal). Moreover, the amount of complex carbohydrates in the meal will determine the effectiveness of acarbose in decreasing

text: postprandial

text: hyperglycemia

text: .  Adults may take doses of 25 mg 3 times daily, increasing to 100 mg 3 times a day.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: complex carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Acarbose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate chemistry is a subdiscipline of chemistry primarily concerned with the synthesis, structure, and function of carbohydrates. Due to the general structure of carbohydrates, their synthesis is often preoccupied with the selective formation of glycosidic linkages and the selective reaction of hydroxyl groups; as a result, it relies heavily on the use of protecting groups.

text: Carbohydrate chemistry is a subdiscipline of

text: chemistry

text: primarily concerned with the synthesis, structure, and function of

text: carbohydrate

text: s. Due to the general structure of carbohydrates, their synthesis is often preoccupied with the selective formation of glycosidic linkages and the selective reaction of hydroxyl groups; as a result, it relies heavily on the use of

text: protecting groups

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: glycosidic

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The ATP concentration inside the cell is typically 1–10 mM. ATP can be produced by redox reactions using simple and complex sugars (carbohydrates) or lipids as an energy source. For complex fuels to be synthesized into ATP, they first need to be broken down into smaller, more simple molecules. Carbohydrates are hydrolysed into simple sugars, such as glucose and fructose. Fats (triglycerides) are metabolised to give fatty acids and glycerol.

text: The ATP

text: concentration

text: inside the cell is typically 1–10

text: mM

text: . ATP can be produced by

text: redox

text: reactions using simple and complex sugars (

text: carbohydrate

text: s) or

text: lipid

text: s as an energy source. For complex fuels to be synthesized into ATP, they first need to be broken down into smaller, more simple molecules. Carbohydrates are

text: hydrolysed

text: into simple sugars, such as

text: glucose

text: and

text: fructose

text: . Fats (

text: triglyceride

text: s) are metabolised to give

text: fatty acids

text: and

text: glycerol

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answers: sugars

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answers: Carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate deprivation to the point of ketosis has been argued to have both negative and positive effects on health.

text: Carbohydrate deprivation to the point of ketosis has been argued to have both negative and positive effects on health.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: Carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Studies have shown that learning and memory improve after consuming carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates that you can consume, simple and complex.  Simple carbohydrates are often found in processed foods and release sugar into the bloodstream quickly after consumption.  Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and therefore cause sugar to be released into the bloodstream more slowly.  Good sources of complex carbohydrates are whole-grain breads, pasta, brown rice, oatmeal, and potatoes.  It is recommended that you consume more complex carbohydrates because consuming complex carbohydrates will cause the level of sugar in your bloodstream to be more stable which will cause less stress hormones to be released.  Consuming simple carbohydrates may cause the levels of sugar in your bloodstream to rise and fall which can cause mood swings.

text: Studies have shown that learning and memory improve after consuming carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates that you can consume, simple and complex.  Simple carbohydrates are often found in processed foods and release sugar into the bloodstream quickly after consumption.  Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and therefore cause sugar to be released into the bloodstream more slowly.  Good sources of complex carbohydrates are whole-grain breads, pasta, brown rice, oatmeal, and potatoes.  It is recommended that you consume more complex carbohydrates because consuming complex carbohydrates will cause the level of sugar in your bloodstream to be more stable which will cause less stress hormones to be released.  Consuming simple carbohydrates may cause the levels of sugar in your bloodstream to rise and fall which can cause mood swings.

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answers: Simple carbohydrates

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answers: Potatoes

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answers: The answer: starch.

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Biomolecular engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin. Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of biological processes with the core knowledge of chemical engineering in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issues and problems in the life sciences related to the environment, agriculture, energy, industry, food production, biotechnology and medicine. Biomolecular engineers purposefully manipulate carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids within the framework of the relation between their structure (see: nucleic acid structure, carbohydrate chemistry, protein structure,), function (see: protein function) and properties and in relation to applicability to such areas as environmental remediation, crop and live stock production, biofuel cells and biomolecular diagnostics. Fundamental attention is given to the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition in enzymes, antibodies, DNA hybridization, bio-conjugation/bio-immobilization and bioseparations. Attention is also given to the rudiments of engineered biomolecules in cell signaling, cell growth kinetics, biochemical pathway engineering and bioreactor engineering. Biomolecular engineers are leading the major shift towards understanding and controlling the molecular mechanisms that define life as we know it.

text: Biomolecular engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the

text: purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin

text: . Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of

text: biological processes

text: with the core knowledge of

text: chemical engineering

text: in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issues and problems in the life sciences related to the

text: environment

text: agriculture

text: energy

text: industry

text: food production

text: biotechnology

text: and medicine. Biomolecular engineers purposefully manipulate

text: carbohydrates

text: proteins

text: nucleic acids

text: and

text: lipids

text: within the framework of the relation between their structure (see:

text: nucleic acid structure

text: carbohydrate chemistry

text: protein structure

text: ,), function (see:

text: protein function

text: ) and properties and in relation to applicability to such areas as

text: environmental remediation

text: , crop and live stock production, biofuel cells and biomolecular diagnostics. Fundamental attention is given to the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition in

text: enzymes

text: antibodies

text: DNA hybridization

text: bio-conjugation/bio-immobilization

text: and bioseparations. Attention is also given to the rudiments of engineered biomolecules in

text: cell signaling

text: , cell growth kinetics, biochemical pathway engineering and bioreactor engineering. Biomolecular engineers are leading the major shift towards understanding and controlling the

text: molecular

text: mechanisms

text: that define life as we know it.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

text: Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with

text: glycosidic bond

text: s for structural support (e.g.

text: chitin

text: cellulose

text: ) or for energy storage (e.g.

text: glycogen

text: starch

text: ). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form

text: acetyl-CoA

text: , which is a feed stock for the

text: fatty acid synthesis

text: pathway;

text: fatty acids

text: triglycerides

text: , and other

text: lipids

text: are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

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answers: glucose

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Diabetic diet refers to the diet that is recommended for people with diabetes mellitus or high blood glucose. There is much disagreement regarding what this diet should consist of. Since carbohydrate is the macronutrient that raises blood glucose levels most significantly, the greatest debate is regarding how low in carbohydrates the diet should be. This is because although lowering carbohydrate intake will lead to reduced blood glucose levels, this conflicts with the traditional establishment view that carbohydrates should be the main source of calories. Recommendations of the fraction of total calories to be obtained from carbohydrate are generally in the range of 20% to 45%, but recommendations can vary as widely as from 16% to 75%.

text: Diabetic diet refers to the diet that is recommended for people with

text: diabetes mellitus

text: or high blood glucose. There is much disagreement regarding what this diet should consist of. Since carbohydrate is the macronutrient that raises blood glucose levels most significantly, the greatest debate is regarding how low in carbohydrates the diet should be. This is because although lowering carbohydrate intake will lead to reduced blood glucose levels, this conflicts with the traditional establishment view that carbohydrates should be the main source of calories. Recommendations of the fraction of total calories to be obtained from

text: carbohydrate

text: are generally in the range of 20% to 45%, but recommendations can vary as widely as from 16% to 75%.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate counting may be used with either a fixed insulin dosage or with a more flexible insulin dosage. Carb counting for fixed insulin dosage is done in the same manner as carbohydrate counting without insulin. The only difference is that insulin is administered with the meal. With more flexible insulin dosage, the insulin is administered in regards to the amount of carbohydrate consumed. The insulin amount will vary based on the amount of carbohydrates consumed.

text: Carbohydrate counting may be used with either a fixed insulin dosage or with a more flexible insulin dosage. Carb counting for fixed insulin dosage is done in the same manner as carbohydrate counting without insulin. The only difference is that insulin is administered with the meal. With more flexible insulin dosage, the insulin is administered in regards to the amount of carbohydrate consumed. The insulin amount will vary based on the amount of carbohydrates consumed.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Modified starch should not be confused with genetically modified starch, which refers to starch from genetically engineered plants, such as those that have been genetically modified to produce novel fatty acids or carbohydrates which might not occur in the plant species being harvested. In the United States the term can also refer to foods that have been created by traditional cross-breeding rather than gene splicing.  In Europe the term "Genetically Modified Organism" is used solely where "the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through fertilisation and/or natural recombination". The modification in "genetically modified" refers to the genetic engineering of the plant DNA, whereas in the term "Modified Starch" seen on mandatory ingredient labels it refers to the later processing or treatment of the starch or starch granules.

text: Modified starch should not be confused with

text: genetically modified

text: starch, which refers to starch from

text: genetically engineered plants

text: , such as those that have been genetically modified to produce novel fatty acids or carbohydrates which might not occur in the plant species being harvested. In the United States the term can also refer to foods that have been created by traditional cross-breeding rather than gene splicing.  In Europe the term "

text: Genetically Modified Organism

text: " is used solely where "the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through fertilisation and/or natural recombination". The modification in "genetically modified" refers to the genetic engineering of the plant

text: DNA

text: , whereas in the term "Modified Starch" seen on

text: mandatory

text: ingredient

entity_name: United Kingdom food labelling regulations

text: labels

text: it refers to the later processing or treatment of the starch or starch granules.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: Modified starch

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answers: Modified starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Diernhofer first used the name Streptococcus dysgalactiae in 1932, describing a streptococcus of veterinary origin. Subsequently, Frost reported the discovery of the human pathogen Streptococcus equisimilis in 1936. Contemporarily, though, Rebecca Lancefield devised a classification of streptococci based on their carbohydrate-antigens, and successively described streptococci belonging to group C (1933) and group G (1935). The correlation of group carbohydrate specificity with the proposed species S.dysgalactiae and S.equisimilis, however, were not explored in detail. The Lancefield classification soon became the preferred laboratory identification method for streptococci, and the names S.dysgalactiae and S.equisimilis fell into disuse. In 1980, they were even removed from the List of Approved Bacterial species. Three years later, though, DNA hybridization studies revealed extensive similarities between the entities Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus equisimilis, large-colony-forming group C and group G streptococcus of human origin, and certain large-colony-forming group C, G and L streptococci of animal origin. Accordingly, they were fused to one species, Streptococcus dysgalactiae. However, subsequent molecular investigations indicated heterogeneity within this new species, and in 1996 it was divided into S.dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis and S.dysgalactiae subspecies dysgalactiae.

text: Diernhofer first used the name Streptococcus dysgalactiae in 1932, describing a streptococcus of veterinary origin. Subsequently, Frost reported the discovery of the human pathogen

text: Streptococcus equisimilis

text: in 1936. Contemporarily, though,

text: Rebecca Lancefield

text: devised a classification of streptococci based on their carbohydrate-antigens, and successively described streptococci belonging to group C (1933) and group G (1935). The correlation of group carbohydrate specificity with the proposed species S.dysgalactiae and S.equisimilis, however, were not explored in detail. The

text: Lancefield classification

text: soon became the preferred laboratory identification method for streptococci, and the names S.dysgalactiae and S.equisimilis fell into disuse. In 1980, they were even removed from the List of Approved Bacterial species. Three years later, though,

text: DNA hybridization

text: studies revealed extensive similarities between the entities Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus equisimilis, large-colony-forming group C and group G streptococcus of human origin, and certain large-colony-forming group C, G and L streptococci of animal origin. Accordingly, they were fused to one species, Streptococcus dysgalactiae. However, subsequent molecular investigations indicated heterogeneity within this new species, and in 1996 it was divided into S.dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis and S.dysgalactiae subspecies dysgalactiae.

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answers: carbon

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answers: carbohydrate-antigens

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The enzymes used in the liquefaction step are usually alpha-amylases derived from bacterial or fungal bioreactors (Bacillus species or Aspergillus species are the most commonly used microbe engines in the bioreactors). These convert starch into dextrins of various molecular sizes and the modified starch end product is usually given an appropriate DE (Dextrose Equivalent) rating to signify the degree of starch conversion and the amount of reducing sugars produced in the process. The enzymes used in the saccharification step are the amylolytic enzyme, beta-amylase (usually derived from Bacillus species) and the debranching enzyme, pullulanase (derived from Aerobacter species). These convert the dextrinised starch into simple carbohydrates (sugars) and lower molecular weight dextrins.

text: The enzymes used in the liquefaction step are usually alpha-amylases derived from bacterial or fungal bioreactors (Bacillus species or Aspergillus species are the most commonly used microbe engines in the bioreactors). These convert starch into dextrins of various molecular sizes and the modified starch end product is usually given an appropriate DE (Dextrose Equivalent) rating to signify the degree of starch conversion and the amount of reducing sugars produced in the process. The enzymes used in the saccharification step are the amylolytic enzyme, beta-amylase (usually derived from Bacillus species) and the debranching enzyme, pullulanase (derived from Aerobacter species). These convert the dextrinised starch into simple carbohydrates (sugars) and lower molecular weight dextrins.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: dextrins

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Generally speaking, carbohydrates can be classified into two groups, simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, are carbohydrates which can not be converted into smaller sugars by hydrolysis. When two or more monosaccharide units are connected to one another via a glycoside linkage, complex carbohydrates are formed. Complex carbohydrates, according to the different number of monosaccharide units, can be classed into three groups, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. A disaccharide is formed from two monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides can be formed by a small number of monosaccharides linked together. Higher oligosaccharides are called polysaccharides. It is now well known that glycoconjugates play an indispensable role in many biological processes. These biological processes in which carbohydrates are involved are typically associated not to monosaccharides, but to oligosaccharides structures of glycoconjugates. Therefore, the oligosaccharide synthesis becomes more and more important in studying the biological activities.

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answers: monosaccharides

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Several recent authors suggested that the intake of simple sugars, and particularly fructose, is also a factor that contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose is metabolized by the liver into triglycerides, and, as mentioned above, tends to raise their levels in the blood stream. Therefore, it may contribute to insulin resistance through the same mechanisms as the dietary fat. Just like fat, high levels of fructose and/or sucrose induce insulin resistance in rats, and, just as with fat, this insulin resistance is ameliorated by fish oil supplementation. One study observed that a low-fat diet high in simple sugars (but not in complex carbohydrates and starches) significantly stimulates fatty acid synthesis, primarily of the saturated fatty acid palmitate, therefore, paradoxically, resulting in the plasma fatty acid pattern that is similar to that produced by a high-saturated-fat diet. It should be pointed out that virtually all evidence of deleterious effects of simple sugars so far is limited to their concentrated formulations and sweetened beverages. In particular, very little is known about effects of simple sugars in whole fruit and vegetables. If anything, epidemiological studies suggest that their high consumption is associated with somewhat lower risk of IR and/or metabolic syndrome.

text: Several recent authors suggested that the intake of

text: simple sugar

text: s, and particularly

text: fructose

text: , is also a factor that contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose is metabolized by the liver into triglycerides, and, as mentioned above, tends to raise their levels in the blood stream. Therefore, it may contribute to insulin resistance through the same mechanisms as the dietary fat. Just like fat, high levels of fructose and/or sucrose induce insulin resistance in rats, and, just as with fat, this insulin resistance is ameliorated by fish oil supplementation. One study observed that a low-fat diet high in simple sugars (but not in complex carbohydrates and starches) significantly stimulates fatty acid synthesis, primarily of the saturated fatty acid

text: palmitate

text: , therefore, paradoxically, resulting in the plasma fatty acid pattern that is similar to that produced by a high-saturated-fat diet. It should be pointed out that virtually all evidence of deleterious effects of simple sugars so far is limited to their concentrated formulations and sweetened beverages. In particular, very little is known about effects of simple sugars in whole fruit and vegetables. If anything, epidemiological studies suggest that their high consumption is associated with somewhat lower risk of IR and/or metabolic syndrome.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: very little is known about effects of simple sugars

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sugar is generally produced from sugarcane or sugar beets. However, the global production of sugar from sugarcane is at least twice the production from sugar beets. Therefore, this section focuses on sugar from sugarcane.

text: Sugar is generally produced from

text: sugarcane

text: or

text: sugar beet

text: s. However, the global production of sugar from sugarcane is at least twice the production from sugar beets. Therefore, this section focuses on sugar from sugarcane.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: sugarcane

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: sugarcane

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Coex is a biopolymer with flame-retardant properties derived from the functionalization of cellulosic fibers such as cotton, linen, jute, cannabis, coconut, ramie, bamboo, raffia palm, stipa, abacà, sisal, nettle and kapok. The treatment effectiveness was also proven on wood and semy-synthetic fibers such as cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, viscose, modal, lyocell and cupro.

text: Coex is a

text: biopolymer

text: with flame-retardant properties derived from the functionalization of

text: cellulosic

text: fibers such as

text: cotton

text: linen

text: jute

text: cannabis

text: coconut

text: ramie

text: bamboo

text: raffia palm

text: stipa

text: abacà

text: sisal

text: nettle

text: and

text: kapok

text: . The treatment effectiveness was also proven on wood and

text: semy-synthetic

text: fibers such as

text: cellulose acetate

text: cellulose triacetate

text: viscose

text: modal

text: lyocell

text: and

text: cupro

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answers: cellulose

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answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulosic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Iodine (I) can be used to determine whether fruit is ripening or rotting by showing whether the starch in the fruit has turned into sugar. For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part (not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is no longer present.  If the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit hasn't fully started to ripen.

text: Iodine

text: (I) can be used to determine whether fruit is ripening or rotting by showing whether the

text: starch

text: in the fruit has turned into

text: sugar

text: . For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part (not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is no longer present.  If the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit hasn't fully started to ripen.

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text: Carbohydrate sulfotransferases are sulfotransferase enzymes that transfer sulfate to carbohydrate groups in glycoproteins and glycolipids. Carbohydrates are used by cells for a wide range of functions from structural purposes to extracellular communication. Carbohydrates are suitable for such a wide variety of functions due to the diversity in structure generated from monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage positions, chain branching, and covalent modification. Possible covalent modifications include acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, and sulfation. Sulfation, performed by carbohydrate sulfotransferases, generates carbohydrate sulfate esters. These sulfate esters are only located extracellularly, whether through excretion into the extracellular matrix (ECM) or by presentation on the cell surface. As extracellular compounds, sulfated carbohydrates  are mediators of intercellular communication, cellular adhesion, and ECM maintenance.

text: Carbohydrate sulfotransferases are

text: sulfotransferase

text: enzyme

text: s that transfer

text: sulfate

text: to

text: carbohydrate

text: groups in

text: glycoprotein

text: s and

text: glycolipid

text: s. Carbohydrates are used by cells for a wide range of functions from structural purposes to extracellular communication. Carbohydrates are suitable for such a wide variety of functions due to the diversity in structure generated from

text: monosaccharide

text: composition, glycosidic linkage positions, chain branching, and

text: covalent

text: modification. Possible covalent modifications include

text: acetylation

text: methylation

text: phosphorylation

text: , and

text: sulfation

text: . Sulfation, performed by carbohydrate sulfotransferases, generates carbohydrate sulfate esters. These sulfate esters are only located extracellularly, whether through excretion into the

text: extracellular matrix

text: (ECM) or by presentation on the cell surface. As extracellular compounds, sulfated carbohydrates  are mediators of intercellular communication, cellular adhesion, and ECM maintenance.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The ketogenic diet is calculated by a dietitian for each child. Age, weight, activity levels, culture and food preferences all affect the meal plan. First, the energy requirements are set at 80–90% of the recommended daily amounts (RDA) for the child's age (the high-fat diet requires less energy to process than a typical high-carbohydrate diet). Highly active children or those with muscle spasticity require more calories than this; immobile children require less. The ketogenic ratio of the diet compares the weight of fat to the combined weight of carbohydrate and protein. This is typically 4:1, but children who are younger than 18 months, older than 12 years, or who are obese may be started on a 3:1 ratio. Fat is energy-rich, with 9 kcal/g (38 kJ/g) compared to 4 kcal/g (17 kJ/g) for carbohydrate or protein, so portions on the ketogenic diet are smaller than normal. The quantity of fat in the diet can be calculated from the overall energy requirements and the chosen ketogenic ratio. Next, the protein levels are set to allow for growth and body maintenance, and are around 1 g protein for each kg of body weight. Lastly, the amount of carbohydrate is set according to what allowance is left while maintaining the chosen ratio. Any carbohydrate in medications or supplements must be subtracted from this allowance. The total daily amount of fat, protein and carbohydrate is then evenly divided across the meals.

text: The ketogenic diet is calculated by a

text: dietitian

text: for each child. Age, weight, activity levels, culture and food preferences all affect the meal plan. First, the energy requirements are set at 80–90% of the recommended daily amounts (RDA) for the child's age (the high-fat diet requires less energy to process than a typical high-carbohydrate diet). Highly active children or those with muscle

text: spasticity

text: require more calories than this; immobile children require less. The ketogenic ratio of the diet compares the weight of fat to the combined weight of carbohydrate and protein. This is typically 4:1, but children who are younger than 18 months, older than 12 years, or who are obese may be started on a 3:1 ratio. Fat is energy-rich, with 9 kcal/g (38 kJ/g) compared to 4 kcal/g (17 kJ/g) for carbohydrate or protein, so portions on the ketogenic diet are smaller than normal. The quantity of fat in the diet can be calculated from the overall energy requirements and the chosen ketogenic ratio. Next, the protein levels are set to allow for growth and body maintenance, and are around 1 g protein for each kg of body weight. Lastly, the amount of carbohydrate is set according to what allowance is left while maintaining the chosen ratio. Any carbohydrate in medications or

text: supplements

text: must be subtracted from this allowance. The total daily amount of fat, protein and carbohydrate is then evenly divided across the meals.

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answer: 1

text: 6.	Carbohydrate processing, e.g. laccase in carbohydrate oxidations.

text: Carbohydrate

text: processing, e.g.

text: laccase

text: in carbohydrate oxidations.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: laccase

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Stable-isotope probing (SIP) is a technique in microbial ecology for tracing fluxes of nutrients in biogeochemical cycling by microorganisms. A substrate is enriched with a heavier stable isotope that is consumed by the organisms to be studied. Biomarkers with the heavier isotope incorporated into them can be separated from biomarkers containing the more naturally abundant lighter isotope by isopycnic centrifugation. For example, CO can be used to find out which organisms are actively photosynthesizing or consuming new photosynthate. As the biomarker, DNA with C is then separated from DNA with C by centrifugation. Sequencing the DNA identifies which organisms were consuming existing carbohydrates and which were using carbohydrates more recently produced from photosynthesis.

text: Stable-isotope probing (SIP) is a technique in

text: microbial ecology

text: for tracing fluxes of

text: nutrient

text: s in

text: biogeochemical cycling

text: by microorganisms. A substrate is enriched with a heavier

text: stable isotope

text: that is consumed by the organisms to be studied.

text: Biomarkers

text: with the heavier isotope incorporated into them can be separated from biomarkers containing the more naturally abundant lighter isotope by

text: isopycnic centrifugation

text: . For example,

text: CO

text: can be used to find out which organisms are actively

text: photosynthesizing

text: or consuming new photosynthate. As the biomarker,

text: DNA

text: with C is then separated from DNA with C by centrifugation.

text: Sequencing

text: the DNA identifies which organisms were consuming existing

text: carbohydrates

text: and which were using carbohydrates more recently produced from photosynthesis.

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answers: C

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Galectins essentially bind to glycans featuring galactose and its derivatives. However, physiologically, they are likely to require lactose or N-aceyllactosamine for significantly strong binding. Generally, the longer the sugar the stronger the interactions. For example, galectin-9 binds to polylactosamine chains with stronger affinity than to an N-acetyllactosamine monomer. This is because more Van der Waals interactions can occur between sugar and binding pocket. Carbohydrate binding is calcium independent, unlike C-type lectins. The strength of ligand binding is determined by a number of factors: The multivalency of both of ligand and the galectin, the length of the carbohydrate and the mode of presentation of ligand to carbohydrate recognition domain. Different galectins have distinct binding specificities for binding oligosaccharides depending on the tissue in which they are expressed and the function that they possess. However, in each case, galactose is essential for binding. Crystallisation experiments of galectins in complex with N-acetyllactosamine show that binding arises due to hydrogen bonding interactions from the carbon-4 and carbon-6 hydroxyl groups of galactose and carbon-3 of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) to the side chains of amino acids in the protein. They cannot bind to other sugars such as mannose because this sugar will not fit inside the carbohydrate recognition domain without steric hindrance. Due to the nature of the binding pocket, galectins can bind terminal sugars or internal sugars within a glycan. This allows bridging between two ligands on the same cell or between two ligands on different cells.

text: Galectins essentially bind to glycans featuring

text: galactose

text: and its derivatives. However, physiologically, they are likely to require

text: lactose

text: or N-aceyllactosamine for significantly strong binding. Generally, the longer the sugar the stronger the interactions. For example, galectin-9 binds to polylactosamine chains with stronger affinity than to an N-acetyllactosamine monomer. This is because more

text: Van der Waals

text: interactions can occur between sugar and binding pocket. Carbohydrate binding is calcium independent, unlike C-type lectins. The strength of ligand binding is determined by a number of factors: The multivalency of both of ligand and the galectin, the length of the carbohydrate and the mode of presentation of ligand to carbohydrate recognition domain. Different galectins have distinct binding specificities for binding

text: oligosaccharides

text: depending on the tissue in which they are expressed and the function that they possess. However, in each case, galactose is essential for binding. Crystallisation experiments of galectins in complex with N-acetyllactosamine show that binding arises due to

text: hydrogen bond

text: ing interactions from the carbon-4 and carbon-6

text: hydroxyl

text: groups of galactose and carbon-3 of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) to the side chains of

text: amino acids

text: in the protein. They cannot bind to other sugars such as

text: mannose

text: because this sugar will not fit inside the carbohydrate recognition domain without

text: steric hindrance

text: . Due to the nature of the binding pocket, galectins can bind terminal sugars or internal sugars within a glycan. This allows bridging between two ligands on the same cell or between two ligands on different cells.

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: The strength of ligand binding is determined by a number of factors

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glycans featuring galactose and its derivatives

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sugar beets provide approximately 30% of world sugar production.

text: Sugar beets provide approximately 30% of world sugar production.

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answers: sugar

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The AMY1 gene copy number has been found to be correlated to different levels of starch in diets of different populations. 8 Populations from different continents were categorized into high starch diets and low starch diets and their AMY1 gene copy number was visualized using high resolution FISH and qPCR. It was found that the high starch diet populations which consists of the Japanese, Hadza, and European American populations had a significantly higher (2 times higher) average AMY1 copy number than the low starch diet populations including Biaka, Mbuti, Datog, Yakut populations. It was hypothesized that the levels of starch in one’s regular diet, the substrate for AMY1, can directly affect the copy number of the AMY1 gene. Since it was concluded that the copy number of AMY1 is directly correlated with salivary amylase, the more starch present in the population’s daily diet, the more evolutionarily favorable it is to have multiple copies of the AMY1 gene. The AMY1 gene was the first gene to provide strong evidence for evolution on a molecular genetics level. Moreover, using comparative genomic hybridization, copy number variations of the entire genomes of the Japanese population was compared to that of the Yakut population. It was found that the copy number variation of the AMY1 gene was significantly different from the copy number variation in other genes or regions of the genome, suggesting that the AMY1 gene was under a strong selective pressure that had little or no influence on the other copy number variations. Finally, the variability of length of 783 microsatellites between the two populations were compared to copy number variability of the AMY1 gene. It was found that the AMY1 gene copy number range was larger than that of over 97% of the microsatellites examined. This implies that natural selection played a considerable role in shaping the average number of AMY1 genes in these two populations. However, as only 6 populations were studied, it is important to consider the possibility that there may be other factors in their diet or culture that influenced the AMY1 copy number other than starch.

text: The AMY1 gene copy number has been found to be correlated to different levels of starch in diets of different populations. 8 Populations from different continents were categorized into high starch diets and low starch diets and their AMY1 gene copy number was visualized using high resolution FISH and

text: qPCR

text: . It was found that the high starch diet populations which consists of the Japanese, Hadza, and European American populations had a significantly higher (2 times higher) average AMY1 copy number than the low starch diet populations including Biaka, Mbuti, Datog, Yakut populations. It was hypothesized that the levels of starch in one’s regular diet, the substrate for AMY1, can directly affect the copy number of the AMY1 gene. Since it was concluded that the copy number of AMY1 is directly correlated with salivary amylase, the more starch present in the population’s daily diet, the more evolutionarily favorable it is to have multiple copies of the AMY1 gene. The AMY1 gene was the first gene to provide strong evidence for evolution on a

text: molecular genetics

text: level. Moreover, using

text: comparative genomic hybridization

text: , copy number variations of the entire genomes of the Japanese population was compared to that of the Yakut population. It was found that the copy number variation of the AMY1 gene was significantly different from the copy number variation in other genes or regions of the genome, suggesting that the AMY1 gene was under a strong selective pressure that had little or no influence on the other copy number variations. Finally, the variability of length of 783

text: microsatellite

text: s between the two populations were compared to copy number variability of the AMY1 gene. It was found that the AMY1 gene copy number range was larger than that of over 97% of the microsatellites examined. This implies that

text: natural selection

text: played a considerable role in shaping the average number of AMY1 genes in these two populations. However, as only 6 populations were studied, it is important to consider the possibility that there may be other factors in their diet or culture that influenced the AMY1 copy number other than starch.

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answers: starch

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch is a polymer of starch.

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: References to yellow bands and yellow starch recur in plays of the 1615–18 era, by Middleton and others – A Fair Quarrel, The Widow, More Dissemblers Besides Women, Albumazar, The Queen of Corinth, The Devil is an Ass, and Christmas, His Masque. (Robert Davenport's plays of uncertain date, The City Nightcap and A New Trick to Cheat the Devil, also contain such references.) The World Tossed at Tennis is unique in that it refers not only to white and yellow starch but to red, green, and blue starch too. Were these other colours worn in ruffs and cuffs in the years around 1620? The text of the masque suggests this was so, though supporting evidence is thin.

text: References to yellow bands and yellow starch recur in plays of the 1615–18 era, by Middleton and others –

text: A Fair Quarrel

text: The Widow

text: More Dissemblers Besides Women

text: Albumazar

text: The Queen of Corinth

text: The Devil is an Ass

text: , and

text: Christmas, His Masque

text: Robert Davenport

text: 's plays of uncertain date,

text: The City Nightcap

text: and

text: A New Trick to Cheat the Devil

text: , also contain such references.) The World Tossed at Tennis is unique in that it refers not only to white and yellow starch but to red, green, and blue starch too. Were these other colours worn in ruffs and cuffs in the years around 1620? The text of the masque suggests this was so, though supporting evidence is thin.

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answers: starch

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answers: yellow starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: yellow starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Organisms use glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen ("animal starch") are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides). Some of these polymers (starch or glycogen) serve as energy stores, while others (cellulose and chitin, which is made from a derivative of glucose) have structural roles. Oligosaccharides of glucose combined with other sugars serve as important energy stores. These include lactose, the predominant sugar in milk, which is a glucose-galactose disaccharide, and sucrose, another disaccharide which is composed of glucose and fructose. Glucose is also added onto certain proteins and lipids in a process called glycosylation. This is often critical for their functioning. The enzymes that join glucose to other molecules usually use phosphorylated glucose to power the formation of the new bond by coupling it with the breaking of the glucose-phosphate bond.

text: Organisms use glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances.

text: Starch

text: cellulose

text: , and

text: glycogen

text: ("animal starch") are common glucose

text: polymer

text: s (

text: polysaccharide

text: s). Some of these polymers (starch or glycogen) serve as energy stores, while others (cellulose and

text: chitin

text: , which is made from a derivative of glucose) have structural roles.

text: Oligosaccharide

text: s of glucose combined with other sugars serve as important energy stores. These include

text: lactose

text: , the predominant sugar in milk, which is a glucose-galactose disaccharide, and

text: sucrose

text: , another disaccharide which is composed of glucose and

text: fructose

text: . Glucose is also added onto certain proteins and

text: lipid

text: s in a process called

text: glycosylation

text: . This is often critical for their functioning. The enzymes that join glucose to other molecules usually use

text: phosphorylated

text: glucose to power the formation of the new bond by coupling it with the breaking of the glucose-phosphate bond.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The concept of the glycemic index was developed in 1981 by David Jenkins to account for variances in speed of digestion of different types of carbohydrates. This concept classifies foods according to the rapidity of their effect on blood sugar levelswith fast-digesting simple carbohydrates causing a sharper increase and slower-digesting complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains, a slower one. The concept has been extended to include the amount of carbohydrate actually absorbed, as well, as a tablespoonful of cooked carrots is less significant overall than a large baked potato (effectively pure starch, which is efficiently absorbed as glucose), despite differences in glycemic indices.

text: The concept of the

text: glycemic index

text: was developed in 1981 by David Jenkins to account for variances in speed of digestion of different types of carbohydrates. This concept classifies foods according to the rapidity of their effect on

text: blood sugar

text: levelswith fast-digesting

text: simple carbohydrate

text: s causing a sharper increase and slower-digesting

text: complex carbohydrate

text: s, such as

text: whole grain

text: s, a slower one. The concept has been extended to include the amount of carbohydrate actually absorbed, as well, as a tablespoonful of cooked

text: carrot

text: s is less significant overall than a large baked potato (effectively pure

text: starch

text: , which is efficiently absorbed as glucose), despite differences in glycemic indices.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber.

text: The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides

text: cellulose

text: hemicellulose

text: , and

text: pectin

text: . The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to

text: dietary fiber

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as sucrose, starch, etc.) causes blood glucose levels to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose, and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol/L (mM) (90 mg/dL). In an insulin-resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels. During the compensated phase on insulin resistance, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher throughout the day as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The elevated insulin levels also have additional effects (see insulin) that cause further abnormal biological effects throughout the body.

text: Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as

text: sucrose

text: starch

text: , etc.) causes

text: blood glucose level

text: s to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the

text: Islets of Langerhans

text: , located in the

text: pancreas

text: , to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal

text: muscle

text: cells,

text: adipose

text: tissue, and

text: liver

text: ) absorb

text: glucose

text: , and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5

text: mmol/L

text: (mM) (90 mg/dL). In an insulin-resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels. During the compensated phase on insulin resistance, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher throughout the day as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The elevated insulin levels also have additional effects (see

text: insulin

text: ) that cause further abnormal biological effects throughout the body.

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answers: glucose

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The mushroom produces the Laetiporus sulphureus lectin (LSL) which has haemolytic and haemagglutination activities. Haemolytic lectins are sugar-binding proteins that lyse and agglutinate cells. The haemagglutination and haemolytic activity are started by binding carbohydrates.

text: The mushroom produces the Laetiporus sulphureus

text: lectin

text: (LSL) which has

text: haemolytic

text: and haemagglutination activities. Haemolytic lectins are sugar-binding proteins that lyse and

text: agglutinate

text: cells. The haemagglutination and haemolytic activity are started by binding

text: carbohydrates

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Haemolytic lectins are sugar-binding proteins

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Nutritional information: Runa Clean Energy Berry (8.4 oz can): 80 calories, 19g Total Carbohydrates (17g sugar)Runa Clean Energy Berry (12 oz can): 110 calories, 27g Total Carbohydrates (25g sugar)Runa Clean Energy No Sugar Added Orange Passion (8.4 oz can): 10 calories, 1g Total Carbohydrates (1g sugar) Runa Clean Energy Original (or Original Zero) Unsweetened with Lime (8.4oz can): 0 calories, 0 Total Carbohydrates (0g sugar)

text: Nutritional information: Runa Clean Energy Berry (8.4 oz can): 80 calories, 19g Total Carbohydrates (17g sugar)Runa Clean Energy Berry (12 oz can): 110 calories, 27g Total Carbohydrates (25g sugar)Runa Clean Energy No Sugar Added Orange Passion (8.4 oz can): 10 calories, 1g Total Carbohydrates (1g sugar) Runa Clean Energy Original (or Original Zero) Unsweetened with Lime (8.4oz can): 0 calories, 0 Total Carbohydrates (0g sugar)

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answers: sugar

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answers: Carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Lipid A consists of two glucosamine (carbohydrate/sugar) units, in an β(1→6) linkage, with attached acyl chains ("fatty acids"), and normally containing one phosphate group on each carbohydrate.

text: Lipid A consists of two

text: glucosamine

text: (carbohydrate/sugar) units, in an β(1→6) linkage, with attached acyl chains ("

text: fatty acid

text: s"), and normally containing one

text: phosphate

text: group on each

text: carbohydrate

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answers: (1 6) linkage

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answers: sugar

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answers: Glucosamine

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answers: glucosamine

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: These carbohydrates include members of the Lewis X and Lewis A families found on monocytes, granulocytes, and T-lymphocytes.

text: These carbohydrates include members of the

text: Lewis X

text: and

text: Lewis A

text: families found on

text: monocyte

text: s,

text: granulocyte

text: s, and

text: T-lymphocyte

text: s.

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The major polysaccharides making up the primary cell wall of land plants are cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan.

text: The major

text: polysaccharides

text: making up the primary cell wall of

text: land plants

text: are

text: cellulose

text: hemicellulose

text: , and

text: pectin

text: . The cellulose

text: microfibril

text: s are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is

text: xyloglucan

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: xyloglucan

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The enzymes used to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and carbohydrate-binding modules.

text: The enzymes used to

text: cleave

text: the

text: glycosidic linkage

text: in cellulose are

text: glycoside hydrolase

text: s including endo-acting

text: cellulase

text: s and exo-acting

text: glucosidase

text: s. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include

text: dockerin

text: s and

text: carbohydrate-binding module

text: s.

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answers: glycosidic

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: glycoside hydrolases

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: glycoside hydrolases

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is an aggregation of unbranched polymer chains made of β-(1→4)-linked glucose residues that makes up a large portion of primary and secondary cell walls. Although important for plants, it is also synthesized by most algae, some bacteria, and some animals.  Worldwide, 2 × 10 tons of cellulose microfibrils are produced, which serves as a critical source of renewable biofuels and other biological-based products, such as lumber, fuel, fodder, paper and cotton.

text: Cellulose

text: is an aggregation of unbranched

text: polymer

text: chains made of β-(1→4)-linked

text: glucose

text: residue

text: s that makes up a large portion of primary and secondary

text: cell walls

text: . Although important for plants, it is also synthesized by most algae, some bacteria, and some animals.  Worldwide, 2 × 10 tons of cellulose microfibrils are produced, which serves as a critical source of renewable biofuels and other biological-based products, such as lumber, fuel, fodder, paper and cotton.

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answers: tqa2:L_0820/T_4201/9edaedf28a40b245f98e741dd1119aea

answers: 1 4)-linked glucose residues

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answers: 4

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: - (1 4)-linked glucose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as

text: rice

text: noodles

text: bread

text: , and other

text: grain

text: -based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

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answers: monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate NMR spectroscopy addresses questions on the structure and conformation of carbohydrates.

entity_name: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of carbohydrates

text: Carbohydrate NMR

text: spectroscopy addresses questions on the structure and conformation of

text: carbohydrate

text: s.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: While the pastry contains 66.9g of carbohydrates, the level of simple carbohydrates within a buko pie is higher than the level of complex carbohydrates. The dish serves as a source of a healthy yield of iron. Buko pie also contains a high amount of sugar and magnesium, and an average amount of sodium.

text: While the pastry contains 66.9g of

text: carbohydrates

text: , the level of

text: simple carbohydrates

text: within a buko pie is higher than the level of

text: complex carbohydrates

text: . The dish serves as a source of a healthy yield of iron. Buko pie also contains a high amount of sugar and magnesium, and an average amount of sodium.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The trunk is composed of sleeves of conductive tissue, most notably the phloem and xylem. The outside bark of the vine contains the phloem tissues which transports sap, enriched by sugars and other molecules, from the leaves to the rest of the vine. During the annual growth cycle of the grapevine, the vine will start to store carbohydrate energy in the wood part of the trunk and roots. The downward passage of phloem sap to the roots and this storing process can be interrupted by the viticultural practice of "girdling" or cincturing the vine. This process can improve fruit set by forcing the vine to direct most of its energy towards developing the grape clusters. The xylem is the woody tissue on the inside of the trunk that moves sap, enriched with water, minerals and other compounds, up from the roots to the leaves.

text: The trunk is composed of sleeves of conductive

text: tissue

text: , most notably the

text: phloem

text: and

text: xylem

text: . The outside

text: bark

text: of the vine contains the phloem tissues which transports

text: sap

text: , enriched by

text: sugar

text: s and other molecules, from the leaves to the rest of the vine. During the

text: annual growth cycle of the grapevine

text: , the vine will start to store

text: carbohydrate

text: energy in the wood part of the trunk and roots. The downward passage of phloem sap to the roots and this storing process can be interrupted by the viticultural practice of "girdling" or

text: cincturing

text: the vine. This process can improve

text: fruit set

text: by forcing the vine to direct most of its energy towards developing the grape clusters. The xylem is the woody tissue on the inside of the trunk that moves sap, enriched with

text: water

text: mineral

text: s and other compounds, up from the roots to the leaves.

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answers: NDQ_016391

answers: The xylem

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 1924, Haas achieved notice when he published a medical paper detailing his use of a banana diet for the treatment of children diagnosed with celiac disease. Haas concluded that bananas enabled the breaking up of starches and the conversion of cane sugar into fruit sugar, which prevented the debilitating diarrhea of celiac disease. Haas’ research led to the development of the Specific Carbohydrate Diet, a nutritional regimen that restricted the use of complex carbohydrates (disaccharides and polysaccharides) and eliminated refined sugar, gluten and starch from the diet.

text: In 1924, Haas achieved notice when he published a medical paper detailing his use of a

text: banana

text: diet for the treatment of children diagnosed with celiac disease. Haas concluded that bananas enabled the breaking up of starches and the conversion of cane sugar into fruit sugar, which prevented the debilitating diarrhea of celiac disease. Haas’ research led to the development of the

text: Specific Carbohydrate Diet

text: , a nutritional regimen that restricted the use of complex carbohydrates (

text: disaccharides

text: and

text: polysaccharides

text: ) and eliminated refined

text: sugar

text: gluten

text: and

text: starch

text: from the diet.

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cane sugar

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glycoside hydrolases  are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of over 100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy(http://www.cazy.org/GH1.html) web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

text: Glycoside hydrolases

text: are a widespread group of enzymes that

text: hydrolyse

text: the

text: glycosidic bond

text: between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of over 100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy(http://www.cazy.org/GH1.html) web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: glycoside hydrolases

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Plant remains (including those that passed through an animal gut and were excreted as faeces) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins, and organic acids. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates, which break down easily as detritivores initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose and lignin break down more slowly. Simple proteins, organic acids, starches and sugars break down rapidly, while crude proteins, fats, waxes and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. Lignin, which is quickly transformed by white-rot fungi, is one of the main precursors of humus, together with by-products of microbial and animal activity. The end-product of this process, the humus, is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in the soil. Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure there is.

text: Plant

text: remains (including those that passed through an animal gut and were excreted as faeces) contain organic compounds:

text: sugar

text: s,

text: starch

text: es,

text: protein

text: s,

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: lignin

text: s,

text: wax

text: es,

text: resin

text: s, and

text: organic acid

text: s. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from

text: carbohydrates

text: , which break down easily as

text: detritivore

text: s initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining

text: cellulose

text: and

text: lignin

text: break down more slowly. Simple proteins, organic acids, starches and sugars break down rapidly, while crude proteins,

text: fat

text: s, waxes and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time.

text: Lignin

text: , which is quickly transformed by

text: white-rot

text: fungi

text: , is one of the main precursors of humus, together with by-products of microbial and animal activity. The end-product of this process, the humus, is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in the soil.

text: Earthworm

text: humus (

text: vermicompost

text: ) is considered by some to be the best organic

text: manure

text: there is.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Starch is a glucose polymer in which glucopyranose units are bonded by alpha-linkages. It is made up of a mixture of amylose (15–20%) and amylopectin (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested which can break the alpha-linkages (glycosidic bonds). Both humans and animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store glucose.

text: Starch

text: is a

text: glucose

text: polymer in which

text: glucopyranose

text: units are bonded by alpha-linkages. It is made up of a mixture of

text: amylose

text: (15–20%) and

text: amylopectin

text: (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are

text: insoluble

text: in

text: water

text: . They can be digested which can break the alpha-linkages (glycosidic bonds). Both humans and animals have amylases, so they can digest starches.

text: Potato

text: rice

text: wheat

text: , and

text: maize

text: are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store

text: glucose

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answers: glucose

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answers: formations of starches are the ways that plants store glucose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch is a glucose polymer

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Half of the sugar of a can of regular cola still exceeds the daily sugar allowance of some popular low-carbohydrate diets. It is possible that these soft drinks were targeted to so-called "carb-conscious consumers", who are paying attention to their carbohydrate intake but not trying to drastically reduce it.

text: Half of the sugar of a can of regular cola still exceeds the daily sugar allowance of some popular low-carbohydrate diets. It is possible that these soft drinks were targeted to so-called "carb-conscious consumers", who are paying attention to their carbohydrate intake but not trying to drastically reduce it.

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answers: sugar

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Voedingsdriehoek is a (mostly in Flanders) widely used tool for dieticians, health educators, schools, etc. to explain a balanced diet.The triangle is constructed as a pyramid with five different layers. The bottom layer is the largest in area, so the most important, the top is narrow and there represents little food, although it is an essential ingredient. The layers are (from top to bottom):-	Oil / fats-	Protein: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, meat substitutes-	Fruits and vegetables-	Starch or carbohydrates (bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, etc.)-	DrinksIn 2005 a (rather symbolically) layer was added at the bottom: sports and exercise. This is not a food, but an important part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. The information services use the "active" food pyramid.

text: The Voedingsdriehoek is a (mostly in Flanders) widely used tool for dieticians, health educators, schools, etc. to explain a balanced diet.The triangle is constructed as a pyramid with five different layers. The bottom layer is the largest in area, so the most important, the top is narrow and there represents little food, although it is an essential ingredient. The layers are (from top to bottom):-	Oil / fats-	Protein: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, meat substitutes-	Fruits and vegetables-	Starch or carbohydrates (bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, etc.)-	DrinksIn 2005 a (rather symbolically) layer was added at the bottom: sports and exercise. This is not a food, but an important part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. The information services use the "active" food pyramid.

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answers: Starch

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answers: Starch or carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch or carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: No Starch Press titles are available online and in bookstores in all major English language markets worldwide. No Starch Press titles have also been translated into over thirty languages.

text: No Starch Press titles are available online and in bookstores in all major English language markets worldwide. No Starch Press titles have also been translated into over thirty languages.

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answers: No Starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The nutrition plan is composed of three phases. The first 30 days emphasize higher protein and lower carbohydrates. The second phase increases the percentages of carbohydrates. The third phase further increases the carbohydrates.

text: The nutrition plan is composed of three phases. The first 30 days emphasize higher

text: protein

text: and lower

text: carbohydrates

text: . The second phase increases the percentages of carbohydrates. The third phase further increases the carbohydrates.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The area was noted for excellent farming soil. After the Coos Trail through Dixville Notch was created in 1803, farmers loaded sleds each winter with potash, pearlash, wheat and other produce, including potato whiskey, to exchange in Portland, Maine, for molasses, saltfish and other necessities. According to the 1874 Gazetteer, Colebrook was the Potato Capital of New Hampshire, producing over 120,000 bushels per year, most of which were milled into potato starch. Some were distilled into "potato whiskey." This industry dated back to 1848, when Sherburn R. Merrill bought land in Factory Village along the Mohawk River to build a starch mill, originally with 150 tons capacity. Other starch factories soon followed. At its peak, the town was producing, according to James O. Adams in 1877, "approximately one third of the potato starch in the state. Considered another way, one twentieth of all the starch produced in the United States came from the Colebrook area during this period." The starch industry began to decline after 1880, due to lack of fertilization in the area's potato farms. Gradually, the area turned to dairy farming.

text: The area was noted for excellent

text: farming

text: soil. After the

text: Coos Trail

text: through

text: Dixville Notch

text: was created in 1803, farmers loaded

text: sled

text: s each winter with

text: potash

text: pearlash

text: wheat

text: and other produce, including potato whiskey, to exchange in

text: Portland, Maine

text: , for

text: molasses

text: saltfish

text: and other necessities. According to the 1874 Gazetteer, Colebrook was the Potato Capital of New Hampshire, producing over 120,000 bushels per year, most of which were milled into

text: potato starch

text: . Some were

text: distilled

text: into "potato whiskey." This industry dated back to 1848, when Sherburn R. Merrill bought land in Factory Village along the Mohawk River to build a starch mill, originally with 150 tons capacity. Other starch factories soon followed. At its peak, the town was producing, according to James O. Adams in 1877, "approximately one third of the potato starch in the state. Considered another way, one twentieth of all the starch produced in the United States came from the Colebrook area during this period." The starch industry began to decline after 1880, due to lack of fertilization in the area's potato farms. Gradually, the area turned to dairy farming.

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answers: starch

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answers: potatoes

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glycolipids are lipids with a carbohydrate attached by a glycosidic bond. Their role is to maintain stability of the membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition. The carbohydrates are found on the outer surface of all eukaryotic cell membranes. They extend from the phospholipid bilayer into the aqueous environment outside the cell where it acts as a recognition site for specific chemicals as well as helping to maintain the stability of the membrane and attaching cells to one another to form tissues

text: Glycolipids are

text: lipids

text: with a

text: carbohydrate

text: attached by a

text: glycosidic bond

text: . Their role is to maintain stability of the membrane and to facilitate

text: cellular

text: recognition. The carbohydrates are found on the outer surface of all

text: eukaryotic

text: cell membranes. They extend from the phospholipid bilayer into the aqueous environment outside the cell where it acts as a recognition site for specific chemicals as well as helping to maintain the stability of the membrane and attaching cells to one another to form

text: tissues

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answers: glycolipids

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answers: Glycolipids

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glycolipids

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The basic steps for large-scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and denaturing (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.

text: The basic steps for large-scale production of ethanol are: microbial (

text: yeast

text: fermentation

text: of sugars,

text: distillation

text: dehydration

text: (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and

text: denaturing

text: (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require

text: saccharification

text: or

text: hydrolysis

text: of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called

text: cellulolysis

text: (see

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: ). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Saccharification

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: One of the benefits of cellulosic ethanol is it reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated gasoline.  By contrast, starch ethanol (e.g., from corn), which most frequently uses natural gas to provide energy for the process, may not reduce GHG emissions at all depending on how the starch-based feedstock is produced. According to the National Academy of Sciences in 2011, there is no commercially viable bio-refinery in existence to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuel. Absence of production of cellulosic ethanol in the quantities required by the regulation was the basis of a United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia decision announced January 25, 2013, voiding a requirement imposed on car and truck fuel producers in the United States by the Environmental Protection Agency requiring addition of cellulosic biofuels to their products. These issues, along with many other difficult production challenges, led George Washington University policy researchers to state that "in the short term, [cellulosic] ethanol cannot meet the energy security and environmental goals of a gasoline alternative."

text: One of the benefits of cellulosic ethanol is it reduces

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated gasoline.  By contrast, starch ethanol (e.g., from corn), which most frequently uses

text: natural gas

text: to provide energy for the process, may not reduce GHG emissions at all depending on how the starch-based feedstock is produced. According to the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: in 2011, there is no commercially viable bio-refinery in existence to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuel. Absence of production of cellulosic ethanol in the quantities required by the regulation was the basis of a

entity_name: United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit

text: United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia

text: decision announced January 25, 2013, voiding a requirement imposed on car and truck fuel producers in the United States by the Environmental Protection Agency requiring addition of cellulosic biofuels to their products. These issues, along with many other difficult production challenges, led

text: George Washington University

text: policy researchers to state that "in the short term, [cellulosic] ethanol cannot meet the energy security and environmental goals of a gasoline alternative."

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch ethanol

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulosic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Changes in the nutrient composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the activity of particular digestive enzymes on the brush border of the small intestine. For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling house sparrows (Passer domesticus) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme maltase, which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase-N, which digests proteins.

text: Changes in the

text: nutrient

text: composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the

text: activity

text: of particular digestive enzymes on the

text: brush border

text: of the

text: small intestine

text: . For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling

text: house sparrow

text: s (Passer domesticus) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme

text: maltase

text: , which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of

text: aminopeptidase

text: -N, which digests proteins.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: maltase

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: maltase

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Insulin Index of a food represents how much it elevates the concentration of insulin in the blood during the two-hour period after the food is ingested. The index is similar to the Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL), but rather than relying on blood glucose levels, the Insulin Index is based upon blood insulin levels. The Insulin Index represents a comparison of food portions with equal overall caloric content (250 kcal or 1000 kJ), while GI represents a comparison of portions with equal digestible carbohydrate content (typically 50 g) and the GL represents portions of a typical serving size for various foods. The Insulin Index can be more useful than either the Glycemic Index or the Glycemic Load because certain foods (e.g., lean meats and proteins) cause an insulin response despite there being no carbohydrates present, and some foods cause a disproportionate insulin response relative to their carbohydrate load.

text: The Insulin Index of a food represents how much it elevates the concentration of

text: insulin

text: in the blood during the two-hour period after the food is ingested. The index is similar to the

text: Glycemic Index

text: (GI) and

text: Glycemic Load

text: (GL), but rather than relying on

text: blood glucose

text: levels, the Insulin Index is based upon blood insulin levels. The Insulin Index represents a comparison of food portions with equal overall caloric content (250 kcal or 1000 kJ), while GI represents a comparison of portions with equal digestible carbohydrate content (typically 50 g) and the GL represents portions of a typical serving size for various foods. The Insulin Index can be more useful than either the Glycemic Index or the Glycemic Load because certain foods (e.g., lean meats and proteins) cause an insulin response despite there being no

text: carbohydrate

text: s present, and some foods cause a disproportionate insulin response relative to their carbohydrate load.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates or "sugars" (this term should not be confused with simple sugars - monosaccharides and disaccharides) as they are generally called, form the third class of biopolymers, other two being proteins and nucleic acids. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids which are linear, carbohydrates are often branched and extremely complex. For instance, just four sugars can be strung together to form more than 5 million different types of carbohydrates or nine different sugars may be assembled into 15 million possible four-sugar-chains. Despite their repetitive nature, carbohydrates are often considered as the "information poor" molecules. Consequently, bioinformatics on glycome is also very poor.

text: Carbohydrates or "sugars" (this term should not be confused with simple sugars - monosaccharides and disaccharides) as they are generally called, form the third class of biopolymers, other two being proteins and nucleic acids. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids which are linear, carbohydrates are often branched and extremely complex. For instance, just four sugars can be strung together to form more than 5 million different types of carbohydrates or nine different sugars may be assembled into 15 million possible four-sugar-chains. Despite their repetitive nature, carbohydrates are often considered as the "information poor" molecules. Consequently, bioinformatics on

text: glycome

text: is also very poor.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The number of grams of carbohydrate can have a bigger impact than glycemic index on blood sugar levels, depending on quantities. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index may have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL). Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.

text: The number of grams of carbohydrate can have a bigger impact than glycemic index on blood sugar levels, depending on quantities. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and

text: carbohydrate counting

text: can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index may have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the

text: glycemic load (GL).

text: Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Peanut agglutinin (PNA) is plant lectin protein derived from the fruits of Arachis hypogaea. Peanut agglutinin may also be referred to as Arachis hypogaea lectin. Lectins recognise and bind particular sugar sequences in carbohydrates; peanut agglutinin binds the carbohydrate sequence Gal-β(1-3)-GalNAc. The name "peanut agglutinin" originates from its ability to stick together (agglutinate) cells, such as neuramidase-treated erythrocytes, which have glycoproteins or glycolipids on their surface which include the Gal-β(1-3)-GalNAc carbohydrate sequence.

text: Peanut agglutinin (PNA) is plant

text: lectin

text: protein

text: derived from the

text: fruit

text: s of

text: Arachis hypogaea

text: . Peanut agglutinin may also be referred to as Arachis hypogaea lectin. Lectins recognise and bind particular

text: sugar

text: sequences in carbohydrates; peanut agglutinin binds the carbohydrate sequence

text: Gal

text: GalNAc

text: . The name "peanut agglutinin" originates from its ability to stick together (

text: agglutinate

text: ) cells, such as neuramidase-treated

text: erythrocytes

text: , which have

text: glycoprotein

text: s or

text: glycolipid

text: s on their surface which include the Gal-β(1-3)-GalNAc carbohydrate sequence.

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answers: sugar

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answers: Lectins

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The sugar industry subsumes the production, processing and marketing of sugars (mostly saccharose and fructose). Globally, most sugar is extracted from sugar cane (~80 % predominantly in the tropics) and sugar beet (~ 20%, mostly in temperate climate like in the U.S. or Europe).

text: The sugar industry subsumes the production, processing and marketing of

text: sugars

text: (mostly

text: saccharose

text: and

text: fructose

text: ). Globally, most sugar is extracted from

text: sugar cane

text: (~80 % predominantly in the tropics) and

text: sugar beet

text: (~ 20%, mostly in temperate climate like in the U.S. or Europe).

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answers: sugars

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answers: sugar beet

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answers: sugar beet

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: <ol type="I"><li> Museum Board - The highest quality material available. It is constructed of 100% cotton fiber, is Archival and will protect and preserve the contents of a frame. While it is the most expensive material available, the difference in actual material costs relative to the cost of framing is minimal.<li> Museum Mat or Rag Mat - Still a good quality choice for conservation, it is constructed of cotton linters (short cotton fibers) and cellulose (wood pulp) middles. The cellulose is a less expensive raw material but offers sufficient conservation properties for most works.<li> Conservation or Archival Mat Board - Constructed of 100% pure high alpha cellulose (wood pulp) and treated to be inert for up to 300 years. This is the highest quality paper matboard available.

text: <ol type="I"><li> Museum Board - The highest quality material available. It is constructed of 100% cotton fiber, is Archival and will protect and preserve the contents of a frame. While it is the most expensive material available, the difference in actual material costs relative to the cost of framing is minimal.<li> Museum Mat or Rag Mat - Still a good quality choice for conservation, it is constructed of cotton linters (short cotton fibers) and cellulose (wood pulp) middles. The cellulose is a less expensive raw material but offers sufficient conservation properties for most works.<li> Conservation or Archival Mat Board - Constructed of 100% pure high alpha cellulose (wood pulp) and treated to be inert for up to 300 years. This is the highest quality paper matboard available.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Wood pulp

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The question of the play's date is complicated by one internal factor: in Act III, scene 3, Dorothea states that when her maid put "a little saffron in her starch," she "most unmercifully broke her head." This is a reference to the fashion for yellow-dyed ruffs and cuffs that was current c. 1615, and was closely associated with Mistress Anne Turner and her execution for her role in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury (15 November 1615). Allusions to "yellow bands" and "yellow starch" are common in plays written in the 1615–18 period, but somewhat dated in a play from the early 1620s. (Davenport's A New Trick to Cheat the Devil, another play of uncertain date, also includes a yellow-starch reference.)

text: The question of the play's date is complicated by one internal factor: in Act III, scene 3, Dorothea states that when her maid put "a little

text: saffron

text: in her starch," she "most unmercifully broke her head." This is a reference to the fashion for yellow-dyed ruffs and cuffs that was current c. 1615, and was closely associated with Mistress

text: Anne Turner

text: and her execution for her role in the murder of Sir

text: Thomas Overbury

text: (15 November 1615). Allusions to "yellow bands" and "yellow starch" are common in plays written in the 1615–18 period, but somewhat dated in a play from the early 1620s. (Davenport's

text: A New Trick to Cheat the Devil

text: , another play of uncertain date, also includes a yellow-starch reference.)

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answers: starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Starches are modified to enhance their performance in different applications. Starches may be modified to increase their stability against excessive heat, acid, shear, time, cooling, or freezing; to change their texture; to decrease or increase their viscosity; to lengthen or shorten gelatinization time; or to increase their visco-stability.

text: Starches are modified to enhance their performance in different applications. Starches may be modified to increase their stability against excessive heat, acid, shear, time, cooling, or freezing; to change their

text: texture

text: ; to decrease or increase their

text: viscosity

text: ; to lengthen or shorten

text: gelatinization

text: time; or to increase their visco-stability.

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answers: Starches

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answers: Starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starches

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors – such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals – contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. Evidence indicates that diets possibly protective against metabolic syndrome include low saturated and trans fat intake and foods rich in dietary fiber, such as high consumption of fruits and vegetables and moderate intake of low-fat dairy products.

text: There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors – such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals – contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. Evidence indicates that diets possibly protective against metabolic syndrome include low saturated and

text: trans fat

text: intake and foods rich in

text: dietary fiber

text: , such as high consumption of fruits and vegetables and moderate intake of low-fat dairy products.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: dietary fiber

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answers: dietary fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Adding viscous polysaccharides to carbohydrate meals can reduce post-prandial blood glucose concentrations.  Wheat and maize but not oats modify glucose absorption, the rate being dependent upon the particle size. The reduction in absorption rate with guar gum may be due to the increased resistance by viscous solutions to the convective flows created by intestinal contractions.Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates.  Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources.  Fiber may affect amylase activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-cecum transit time; guar, tragacanth and pectin being slower than wheat bran.

text: Adding viscous polysaccharides to carbohydrate meals can reduce

text: post-prandial

text: blood glucose concentrations.  Wheat and maize but not oats modify glucose absorption, the rate being dependent upon the particle size. The reduction in absorption rate with guar gum may be due to the increased resistance by viscous solutions to the convective flows created by intestinal contractions.Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates.  Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources.  Fiber may affect

text: amylase

text: activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-

text: cecum

text: transit time; guar,

text: tragacanth

text: and pectin being slower than wheat bran.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Wheat and maize

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: guar

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. It has many uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon (via the viscose process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin has a similar structure, but has nitrogen-containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical threads. Polysaccharides also include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoidan and galactomannan.

text: Cellulose

text: and

text: chitin

text: are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the

text: cell wall

text: s of plants and other organisms, and is said to be the most abundant

text: organic molecule

text: on Earth. It has many uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon (via the

text: viscose

text: process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin has a similar structure, but has

text: nitrogen

text: -containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in

text: arthropod

text: exoskeleton

text: s and in the cell walls of some

text: fungi

text: . It also has multiple uses, including

text: surgical thread

text: s. Polysaccharides also include

text: callose

text: or

text: laminarin

text: chrysolaminarin

text: xylan

text: arabinoxylan

text: mannan

text: fucoidan

text: and

text: galactomannan

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answers: xylan

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose and chitin

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. Following the agricultural revolution 12,000 years ago, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift also symbolizes the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Large polymers such as starch are partially hydrolyzed in the mouth by the enzyme amylase before being cleaved further into sugars. Therefore, humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities. Despite the obvious benefits, early humans did not possess salivary amylase, a trend that is also seen in evolutionary relatives of the human, such as chimpanzees and bonobos, who possess either one or no copies of the gene responsible for producing salivary amylase. This gene, AMY1, originated in the pancreas. A duplication event of the AMY1 gene allowed it to evolve salivary specificity, leading to the production of amylase in the saliva. In addition the same event occurred independently in rodents, emphasizing the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that consume relatively large amounts of starch.

text: Carbohydrates

text: are a food source rich in energy. Following the

text: agricultural revolution

text: 12,000 years ago, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift also symbolizes the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Large polymers such as starch are partially hydrolyzed in the mouth by the enzyme amylase before being cleaved further into sugars. Therefore, humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities. Despite the obvious benefits, early humans did not possess salivary amylase, a trend that is also seen in evolutionary relatives of the human, such as chimpanzees and

text: bonobo

text: s, who possess either one or no copies of the gene responsible for producing salivary amylase. This gene, AMY1, originated in the pancreas. A duplication event of the AMY1 gene allowed it to evolve salivary specificity, leading to the production of amylase in the saliva. In addition the same event occurred independently in rodents, emphasizing the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that consume relatively large amounts of starch.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: polymers

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Large polymers such as starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Large polymers

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as

text: monosaccharide

text: s,

text: disaccharide

text: s, or

text: polysaccharide

text: s depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as

text: rice

text: noodle

text: s,

text: bread

text: , and other

text: grain

text: -based products.Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

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answers: monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 2

text: Sequence-based classification methods have proven to be a powerful way of generating hypotheses for protein function based on sequence alignment to related proteins. The carbohydrate-active enzyme database presents a sequence-based classification of glycosyltransferases into over 90 families. The same three-dimensional fold is expected to occur within each of the families.

text: Sequence-based classification methods have proven to be a powerful way of generating hypotheses for protein function based on sequence alignment to related proteins. The carbohydrate-active enzyme database presents a sequence-based classification of glycosyltransferases into over 90 families. The same three-dimensional fold is expected to occur within each of the families.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate-active enzyme database

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Free sugar is defined by the World Health Organization and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in multiple reports as "all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook, or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, and fruit juices".  It is used to distinguish between the sugars that are naturally present in fully unrefined carbohydrates such as brown rice, wholewheat pasta, fruit, etc. and those sugars (or carbohydrates) that have been, to some extent, refined (normally by humans but sometimes by animals, such as the free sugars present in honey).  They are referred to as "sugars" since they cover multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, dextrose, etc.

text: Free sugar is defined by the

text: World Health Organization

text: and the UN

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: in multiple reports as "all

text: monosaccharides

text: and

text: disaccharides

text: added to foods by the manufacturer, cook, or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in

text: honey

text: syrup

text: s, and

text: fruit juice

text: s".  It is used to distinguish between the sugars that are naturally present in fully unrefined carbohydrates such as

text: brown rice

text: , wholewheat

text: pasta

text: fruit

text: , etc. and those sugars (or carbohydrates) that have been, to some extent,

text: refined

text: (normally by humans but sometimes by animals, such as the free sugars present in honey).  They are referred to as "sugars" since they cover multiple chemical forms, including

text: sucrose

text: glucose

text: fructose

text: dextrose

text: , etc.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: brown rice, wholewheat pasta, fruit

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: brown rice, wholewheat pasta

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: the economic viability of Cellulosic bio-fuel energy crops. From a production standpoint, miscanthus can produce 742 gallons of ethanol per acre of land, which is nearly twice as much as corn (399 gal/acre, assuming average yield of 145 bushels per acre under normal corn-soybean rotation) and nearly three times as much as corn stover (165 gal/acre) and switchgrass (214 gal/acre). Production costs are a big impediment to large-scale implementation of 2nd Generation bio-fuels, and their market demand will depend primarily on their price competitiveness relative to corn ethanol and gasoline. At this time, costs of conversion of cellulosic fuels, at $1.46 per gallon, were roughly twice that of corn-based ethanol, at $0.78 per gallon. Cellulosic biofuels from corn stover and miscanthus were 24% and 29% more expensive than corn ethanol, respectively, and switchgrass biofuel is more than twice as expensive as corn ethanol.

text: the economic viability of Cellulosic bio-fuel energy crops. From a production standpoint, miscanthus can produce 742 gallons of ethanol per acre of land, which is nearly twice as much as corn (399 gal/acre, assuming average yield of 145 bushels per acre under normal corn-soybean rotation) and nearly three times as much as corn stover (165 gal/acre) and switchgrass (214 gal/acre). Production costs are a big impediment to large-scale implementation of 2nd Generation bio-fuels, and their market demand will depend primarily on their price competitiveness relative to corn ethanol and gasoline. At this time, costs of conversion of cellulosic fuels, at $1.46 per gallon, were roughly twice that of corn-based ethanol, at $0.78 per gallon. Cellulosic biofuels from corn stover and miscanthus were 24% and 29% more expensive than corn ethanol, respectively, and switchgrass biofuel is more than twice as expensive as corn ethanol.

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answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Miscanthus

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulosic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: CD has also been studied in carbohydrates, but with limited success due to the experimental difficulties associated with measurement of CD spectra in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) region of the spectrum (100–200 nm), where the corresponding CD bands of unsubstituted carbohydrates lie. Substituted carbohydrates with bands above the VUV region have been successfully measured.

text: CD has also been studied in

text: carbohydrates

text: , but with limited success due to the experimental difficulties associated with measurement of CD spectra in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) region of the spectrum (100–200 nm), where the corresponding CD bands of unsubstituted carbohydrates lie. Substituted carbohydrates with bands above the VUV region have been successfully measured.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: (VUV)

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In order to provide energy quickly, most of the carbohydrates are various types of sugars like fructose, glucose, maltodextrin, dextrose and others in various ratios. Use of complex carbohydrate sources like oats and barley is limited and such carbohydrate sources are mostly used in protein bars. Proteins come mostly in the form of fast digesting whey protein. Energy bars generally don't contain sugar alcohols, since these bars, due to type of carbohydrate content, don't require low calorie sweeteners to improve their taste. Fats in energy bars are kept to minimum and their main sources are often cocoa butter and dark chocolate.

text: In order to provide energy quickly, most of the carbohydrates are various types of

text: sugar

text: s like

text: fructose

text: glucose

text: maltodextrin

text: dextrose

text: and others in various ratios. Use of complex carbohydrate sources like

text: oat

text: s and

text: barley

text: is limited and such carbohydrate sources are mostly used in

text: protein bar

text: s. Proteins come mostly in the form of fast digesting

text: whey protein

text: . Energy bars generally don't contain

text: sugar alcohol

text: s, since these bars, due to type of carbohydrate content, don't require low calorie sweeteners to improve their taste. Fats in energy bars are kept to minimum and their main sources are often

text: cocoa butter

text: and

text: dark chocolate

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: There are four main species within streptococci: the mutans, salivarius, anginosus, and mitis groups.  Streptococcus mutans make up a large majority of what affects our mouths.  As a matter of fact, it is “the biggest culprit in tooth decay” as it promotes the production of acids and enzymes.  The acids cause the collapse of enamel opening the door for the formation of decay.  The enzymes “leach down the tooth and begin to dissolve the ligaments and bone that help to hold the teeth in your mouth.”  By turning simple sugars and carbohydrates into acids and enzymes that dissolve tooth enamel, this bacteria can leave a person with lasting dental problems.  According to Dr. Robert Gandola, a dentist, “A number of bacteria can cause decay [and many] are suspected in periodontal (gum) disease.”

text: There are four main species within streptococci: the mutans, salivarius, anginosus, and mitis groups.

text: Streptococcus mutans

text: make up a large majority of what affects our mouths.  As a matter of fact, it is “the biggest culprit in tooth decay” as it promotes the production of acids and enzymes.  The acids cause the collapse of enamel opening the door for the formation of decay.  The enzymes “leach down the tooth and begin to dissolve the ligaments and bone that help to hold the teeth in your mouth.”  By turning

text: simple sugars

text: and carbohydrates into acids and enzymes that dissolve

text: tooth enamel

text: , this bacteria can leave a person with lasting dental problems.  According to Dr. Robert Gandola, a dentist, “A number of bacteria can cause decay [and many] are suspected in periodontal (gum) disease.”

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Starch scores were developed by Daniel Starch in the 1920s and are still in use today. A consumer is shown a magazine page by page and subsequently asked whether they had noticed any part an advertisement. If they answer, 'Yes', the interviewer asks the respondent to indicate which parts of the ad were noticed. For each advertisement, three scores are calculated:

text: Starch scores were developed by Daniel Starch in the 1920s and are still in use today. A consumer is shown a magazine page by page and subsequently asked whether they had noticed any part an advertisement. If they answer, 'Yes', the interviewer asks the respondent to indicate which parts of the ad were noticed. For each advertisement, three scores are calculated:

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answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Lectin affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where lectins are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as Concanavalin A are proteins which can bind specific carbohydrate (sugar) molecules. The most common application is to separate glycoproteins from non-glycosylated proteins, or one glycoform from another glycoform.

text: Lectin

text: affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where

text: lectin

text: s are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as

text: Concanavalin A

text: are proteins which can bind specific

text: carbohydrate

text: (sugar) molecules. The most common application is to separate

text: glycoprotein

text: s from non-glycosylated proteins, or one

text: glycoform

text: from another glycoform.

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answers: sugar

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Oxygen exists as a ground state triplet state, which is relatively unreactive and needs free radicals or very electron-rich substrates such as deprotonated lignin phenolic groups. The production of these phenoxide groups requires that delignification with oxygen be carried out under very basic conditions (pH >12). The reactions involved are primarily single electron (radical) reactions. Oxygen opens rings and cleaves sidechains giving a complex mixture of small oxygenated molecules. Transition metal compounds, particularly those ofiron, manganese and copper, which have multiple oxidation states, facilitate many radical reactions and impact oxygen delignification. While the radical reactions are largely responsible for delignification, they are detrimental to cellulose.Oxygen-based radicals, especially hydroxyl radicals, HO•, can oxidize hydroxyl groups in the cellulose chains to ketones, and under the strongly basic conditions used in oxygen delignification, these compounds undergo reverse aldol reactions leading to cleavage of cellulose chains. Magnesium salts are added to oxygen delignification to help preserve the cellulose chains, but mechanism of this protection has not been confirmed.

text: Oxygen

text: exists as a ground state

text: triplet

text: state, which is relatively unreactive and needs

text: free radicals

text: or very electron-rich substrates such as

text: deprotonated

text: lignin

text: phenol

text: ic groups. The production of these phenoxide groups requires that delignification with oxygen be carried out under very basic conditions (pH >12). The reactions involved are primarily single electron (

text: radical

text: ) reactions. Oxygen opens rings and cleaves sidechains giving a complex mixture of small oxygenated molecules.

text: Transition metal

text: compounds, particularly those of

text: iron

text: manganese

text: and

text: copper

text: , which have multiple oxidation states, facilitate many radical reactions and impact oxygen delignification. While the radical reactions are largely responsible for delignification, they are detrimental to cellulose.Oxygen-based radicals, especially

text: hydroxyl radicals

text: , HO•, can oxidize

text: hydroxyl

text: groups in the cellulose chains to

text: ketones

text: , and under the strongly basic conditions used in oxygen delignification, these compounds undergo

text: reverse aldol reactions

text: leading to cleavage of cellulose chains.

text: Magnesium

text: salts are added to oxygen delignification to help preserve the cellulose chains, but mechanism of this protection has not been confirmed.

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Oxygen exists as a ground state triplet

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Oxygen-based radicals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glucose can be obtained directly from dietary sugars and by the breakdown of other carbohydrates. In the absence of dietary sugars and carbohydrates, glucose is obtained from the breakdown of stored glycogen. Glycogen is a readily-accessible storage form of glucose, stored in notable quantities in the liver and in small quantities in the muscles.

text: Glucose can be obtained directly from dietary sugars and by the breakdown of other

text: carbohydrates

text: . In the absence of dietary sugars and carbohydrates, glucose is obtained from the breakdown of stored

text: glycogen

text: . Glycogen is a readily-accessible storage form of glucose, stored in notable quantities in the liver and in small quantities in the muscles.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Glycogen

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glycogen

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is placed between the two primary cell walls of two plant cells and made up of intracellular matrix. The lamella comprises a mixture of polygalacturons (D-galacturonic acid) and neutral carbohydrates. It is soluble in the pectinase enzyme.

text: It is placed between the two primary cell walls of two plant cells and made up of intracellular matrix. The lamella comprises a mixture of polygalacturons (D-galacturonic acid) and neutral carbohydrates. It is soluble in the

text: pectinase

text: enzyme.

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: D-galacturonic acid

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: D-galacturonic acid

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In traditional practices, brown rice syrup is created by adding a small amount of sprouted barley grains (barley malt) to cooked, whole brown rice in a solution of heated water, similar to the production of beer wort. The enzymes supplied by the barley malt digest the carbohydrates, proteins and lipids to produce a sweet solution rich in simple carbohydrates with minor amounts of amino acid, peptides and lipids. The solution is strained off the grains and boiled to evaporate and concentrate the liquid to produce a low water syrup suitable for use as a sugar substitute. Such syrups are high in the simple sugar maltose and low in glucose and fructose, due to the enzymatic action of beta- and alpha amylase on starch supplied by the sprouted barley. These enzymes produce large amounts of maltose from starch digestion and generate very little glucose or fructose in the process. Traditional brown rice syrups will contain protein (up to 10%, depends entirely on the protein content of the grain used) and therefore may be unsuitable for gluten-free diets unless they are stated to have been clarified and had the protein fraction removed through processing.  .The modern, commercial preparation of brown rice syrup differs slightly. The ingredients consist of 100% modified rice starch generated by processing brown rice to remove the protein, hemicellulose and lipid fractions. The modification usually involves heat-assisted liquefaction of brown rice with enzyme isolates to produce a solution full of solubilised dextrins (derived from the breakdown of starch) and heat coagulated protein-hemicellulose-lipid complexes. The undesirable components are easily separated and recovered as a separate food stuff or agro-residue, leaving a solution of nearly pure, rice dextrins. A similar product to the rice-dextrin (modified starch) produced by this step is often sold under the name of malto-dextrin, but this commercial product often employs corn or wheat flour as the ingredient rather than rice.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: sprouted barley

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: hemicellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.

text: Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste,

text: sweetness

text: is almost always caused by a type of simple

text: sugar

text: such as

text: glucose

text: or

text: fructose

text: , or

text: disaccharides

text: such as

text: sucrose

text: , a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as

text: sucralose

text: are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include

text: raw sugar

text: , which is known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Plants stores extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Disaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants, but are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient extraction only in sugarcane and sugar beet. Sugarcane refers to any of several species of giant grass in the genus Saccharum that have been cultivated in tropical climates in South Asia and Southeast Asia since ancient times. A great expansion in its production took place in the 18th century with the establishment of sugar plantations in the West Indies and Americas. This was the first time that sugar became available to the common people, who had previously had to rely on honey to sweeten foods. Sugar beet, a cultivated variety of Beta vulgaris, is grown as a root crop in cooler climates and became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. Sugar production and trade have changed the course of human history in many ways, influencing the formation of colonies, the perpetuation of slavery, the transition to indentured labour, the migration of peoples, wars between sugar-trade–controlling nations in the 19th century, and the ethnic composition and political structure of the New World.

text: Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants, but are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient extraction only in

text: sugarcane

text: and

text: sugar beet

text: . Sugarcane refers to any of several species of giant grass in the genus

text: Saccharum

text: that have been cultivated in tropical climates in

text: South Asia

text: and

text: Southeast Asia

text: since ancient times. A great expansion in its production took place in the 18th century with the establishment of sugar plantations in the West Indies and Americas. This was the first time that sugar became available to the common people, who had previously had to rely on honey to sweeten foods. Sugar beet, a

text: cultivated variety

text: of

text: Beta vulgaris

text: , is grown as a root crop in cooler climates and became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. Sugar production and trade have changed the course of human history in many ways, influencing the formation of colonies, the perpetuation of

text: slavery

text: , the transition to indentured labour, the migration of peoples, wars between sugar-trade–controlling nations in the 19th century, and the ethnic composition and political structure of the

text: New World

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answers: Saccharum

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Sugar beet

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Saccharum

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cell-wall containing organisms, such as plants, fungi, and bacteria, require very large amounts of carbohydrates during growth for the biosynthesis of complex structural polysaccharides, such as cellulose, glucans, and chitin. In these organisms, in the absence of available carbohydrates (for example, in certain microbial environments or during seed germination in plants), the glyoxylate cycle permits the synthesis of glucose from lipids via acetate generated in fatty acid β-oxidation.

text: Cell-wall containing organisms, such as

text: plant

text: s,

text: fungi

text: , and

text: bacteria

text: , require very large amounts of

text: carbohydrate

text: s during

text: growth

text: for the biosynthesis of complex structural

text: polysaccharides

text: , such as

text: cellulose

text: glucan

text: s, and

text: chitin

text: . In these organisms, in the absence of available carbohydrates (for example, in certain microbial environments or during

text: seed germination

text: in plants), the glyoxylate cycle permits the synthesis of glucose from lipids via acetate generated in fatty acid β-oxidation.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cell-wall containing organisms

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD  possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods  of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a key role as it increases ATP production from 4 ATP molecules to about 30 ATP molecules.In anaerobic respiration, oxygen is not required. When oxygen is absent, the generation of ATP  continues through fermentation.There are two types of fermentation: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

text: Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called

text: ATP

text: . The production of ATP is achieved through the

text: oxidation

text: of

text: glucose

text: molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to

text: reduce

text: NAD+

text: and

text: FAD

text: . NAD+ and FAD  possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the

text: electron transport chain

text: . ATP production occurs in the

text: mitochondria

text: of the cell. There are two methods  of producing ATP:

text: aerobic

text: and

text: anaerobic

text: . In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a key role as it increases ATP production from 4 ATP molecules to about 30 ATP molecules.In anaerobic respiration, oxygen is not required. When oxygen is absent, the generation of ATP  continues through fermentation.There are two types of fermentation: alcohol fermentation and

text: lactic acid fermentation

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate catabolism

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: glucose molecules

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are records of knowledge of sugar among the ancient Greeks and Romans, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. For example, the Greek physician Dioscorides in the 1st century (AD) wrote: "There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and Eudaimon Arabia [i.e. Yemen] similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt. It is good dissolved in water for the intestines and stomach, and [can be] taken as a drink to help [relieve] a painful bladder and kidneys." Pliny the Elder, a 1st century (AD) Roman, also described sugar as medicinal: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."

text: There are records of knowledge of sugar among the ancient Greeks and Romans, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. For example, the Greek physician

text: Dioscorides

text: in the 1st century (AD) wrote: "There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and

text: Eudaimon Arabia

text: [i.e. Yemen] similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt. It is good dissolved in water for the intestines and stomach, and [can be] taken as a drink to help [relieve] a painful bladder and kidneys."

text: Pliny the Elder

text: , a 1st century (AD) Roman, also described sugar as medicinal: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cane

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cane

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group. Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, a reducing sugar is one that reduces certain chemicals. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketone-bearing sugars like fructose are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones cannot be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of aldehydes. Aldoses or aldehyde-bearing sugars are reducing also because during oxidation of aldoses, there are certain oxidizing agents that are reduced.

text: A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an

text: open-chain

text: form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group.

text: Monosaccharide

text: s which contain an aldehyde group are known as

text: aldoses

text: , and those with a ketone group are known as

text: ketoses

text: . The aldehyde can be oxidized via a

text: redox reaction

text: in which another compound is reduced. Thus, a reducing sugar is one that reduces certain chemicals. Sugars with

text: ketone

text: groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of

text: tautomeric

text: shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketone-bearing sugars like

text: fructose

text: are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones cannot be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of aldehydes. Aldoses or aldehyde-bearing sugars are reducing also because during oxidation of aldoses, there are certain oxidizing agents that are reduced.

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answers: Monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plants stores extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Monosaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Newborns need a diet of breastmilk or infant formula.  About 40% of the food energy in these milks comes from carbohydrates, mostly from a simple sugar called lactose. a higher carbohydrate level, around 55%.

text: Newborns need a diet of breastmilk or infant formula.  About 40% of the

text: food energy

text: in these milks comes from carbohydrates, mostly from a simple sugar called

text: lactose

text: . a higher carbohydrate level, around 55%.

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answer: Yes

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answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Other therapies which have been shown to be effective in randomised clinical trials include probiotic therapy, the application of which usually begins as soon as any antibiotic course is completed so as to re-populate the pouch with beneficial bacteria. Biologics, such as anti-TNF antibodies, may also be useful but the evidence for their use is largely anecdotal. In addition, discussion by patients using related internet forums appears to give evidence of benefits (again, after cessation of antibiotics) from certain diets, such as the Specific Carbohydrate Diet, Paleolithic Diet, and Low FODMAP Diet. In particular, attention has been drawn to the exclusion of complex carbohydrates, as well as other foods with high starch content (such as grains, rice, and potatoes) and certain dairy products including milk and soft cheese.

text: Other therapies which have been shown to be effective in randomised clinical trials include probiotic therapy, the application of which usually begins as soon as any antibiotic course is completed so as to re-populate the pouch with beneficial bacteria. Biologics, such as anti-TNF antibodies, may also be useful but the evidence for their use is largely anecdotal. In addition, discussion by patients using related internet forums appears to give evidence of benefits (again, after cessation of antibiotics) from certain diets, such as the

text: Specific Carbohydrate Diet

text: Paleolithic Diet

text: , and Low

text: FODMAP

text: Diet. In particular, attention has been drawn to the exclusion of

text: complex carbohydrates

text: , as well as other foods with high starch content (such as

text: grains

text: rice

text: , and

text: potatoes

text: ) and certain dairy products including milk and soft cheese.

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Almost half of acetic acid production is consumed in the production of vinyl acetate, precursor to polyvinyl alcohol, which is a component of many paints. The second largest use of acetic acid is consumed in the production of cellulose acetate.  In fact, "acetate" is jargon for cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of fibres or diverse products, e.g. the acetate discs used in audio record production.  Cellulose acetate can be found in many household products.  Many industrial solvents are acetates, including methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, isopropyl acetate, ethylhexyl acetate.  Butyl acetate is a fragrance used in food products.

text: Almost half of acetic acid production is consumed in the production of

text: vinyl acetate

text: , precursor to

text: polyvinyl alcohol

text: , which is a component of many

text: paint

text: s. The second largest use of acetic acid is consumed in the production of

text: cellulose acetate

text: .  In fact, "acetate" is jargon for cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of fibres or diverse products, e.g. the

text: acetate disc

text: s used in audio record production.  Cellulose acetate can be found in many household products.  Many industrial

text: solvent

text: s are acetates, including

text: methyl acetate

text: , ethyl acetate,

text: isopropyl acetate

text: , ethylhexyl acetate.  Butyl acetate is a fragrance used in food products.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Cellulose acetate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose acetate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Pyrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins requires temperatures substantially higher than , so pyrolysis does not occur as long as free water is present, e.g., in boiling food — not even in a pressure cooker.  When heated in the presence of water, carbohydrates and proteins suffer gradual hydrolysis rather than pyrolysis.  Indeed, for most foods, pyrolysis is usually confined to the outer layers of food, and begins only after those layers have dried out.

text: Pyrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins requires temperatures substantially higher than , so pyrolysis does not occur as long as free water is present, e.g., in

text: boiling

text: food — not even in a

text: pressure cooker

text: .  When heated in the presence of water, carbohydrates and proteins suffer gradual

text: hydrolysis

text: rather than pyrolysis.  Indeed, for most foods, pyrolysis is usually confined to the outer layers of food, and begins only after those layers have dried out.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plants stores extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates and proteins

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The fruit is eaten raw, pickled or used in beverages. It is quite nutritious and rich in vitamin C. It is second only to guava and much higher than citrus or apples. In India, the ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. Slightly underripe fruits are candied by a process of pricking, immersing in a salt solution. Ripe fruits are preserved by sun-drying and a powder is prepared for out-of-season purposes. It contains 20 to 30% sugar, up to 2.5% protein and 12.8% carbohydrates. Fruits are also eaten in other forms, such as dried, candied, pickled, as juice, or as ber butter. In Ethiopia, the fruits are used to stupefy fish.

text: The fruit is eaten raw, pickled or used in beverages. It is quite nutritious and rich in

text: vitamin C

text: . It is second only to guava and much higher than citrus or apples. In India, the ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. Slightly underripe fruits are candied by a process of pricking, immersing in a salt solution. Ripe fruits are preserved by sun-drying and a powder is prepared for out-of-season purposes. It contains 20 to 30% sugar, up to 2.5% protein and 12.8% carbohydrates. Fruits are also eaten in other forms, such as dried, candied, pickled, as juice, or as ber butter. In

text: Ethiopia

text: , the fruits are used to stupefy fish.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: 12.8% carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Kenneth Earl Starch (born March 5, 1954 in Madison, Wisconsin) is a former American football running back in the National Football League. He played for the Green Bay Packers in 1976. He played at the collegiate level at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Starch also briefly played for the Oakland Raiders in the National Football League, and the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League.

text: Kenneth Earl Starch (born March 5, 1954 in

text: Madison, Wisconsin

text: ) is a former

text: American football

text: running back

text: in the

text: National Football League

text: . He played for the

text: Green Bay Packers

text: in 1976. He played at the

text: collegiate level

text: at the

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: . Starch also briefly played for the

text: Oakland Raiders

text: in the National Football League, and the

text: Montreal Alouettes

text: of the

text: Canadian Football League

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Starch

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answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Protein–carbohydrate interactions play an important role in biological function.

text: Protein–carbohydrate interactions play an important role in biological function.

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answers: Carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The carboxylic acids and amines link to form peptide bonds, also known as amide groups. Proteins are condensation polymers made from amino acid monomers. Carbohydrates are also condensation polymers made from sugar monomers such as glucose (i.e. cellulose  or glycogen) and galactose.

text: The carboxylic acids and amines link to form

text: peptide bond

text: s, also known as

text: amide

text: groups.

text: Protein

text: s are condensation polymers made from

text: amino acid

text: monomers. Carbohydrates are also condensation polymers made from sugar monomers such as glucose (i.e.

text: cellulose

text: or

text: glycogen

text: ) and galactose.

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answers: sugar

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A risk factor for diabetes within the indigenous population is dietary change over time. Changes in indigenous diets were a result of structural and economic changes, which forced the rural population to resort to energy-dense foods that are extremely high in saturated fats and simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can be found throughout Guatemalan cuisine, especially corn, which is one of the staple foods of the Guatemalan diet. This in turn leads to the higher prevalence of Type 2 diabetes, because the entire population has added more fats and sugars into their diets.

text: A risk factor for diabetes within the indigenous population is dietary change over time. Changes in indigenous diets were a result of structural and economic changes, which forced the rural population to resort to energy-dense foods that are extremely high in saturated fats and simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can be found throughout Guatemalan cuisine, especially corn, which is one of the staple foods of the Guatemalan diet. This in turn leads to the higher prevalence of

text: Type 2 diabetes

text: , because the entire population has added more fats and sugars into their diets.

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answers: sugars

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answers: corn

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.

text: Carbohydrate

text: s are

text: aldehyde

text: s or

text: ketone

text: s, with many

text: hydroxyl

text: groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of

text: energy

text: starch

text: glycogen

text: ) and structural components (

text: cellulose

text: in plants,

text: chitin

text: in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called

text: monosaccharide

text: s and include

text: galactose

text: fructose

text: , and most importantly

text: glucose

text: . Monosaccharides can be linked together to form

text: polysaccharide

text: s in almost limitless ways.

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Some manufacturers also produce low-fat and nonfat varieties. A fat-free kind of a similar serving size has 80 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 6 g carbohydrates, and 14 g protein.

text: Some manufacturers also produce low-fat and nonfat varieties. A fat-free kind of a similar serving size has 80 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 6 g carbohydrates, and 14 g protein.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine.

text: Digestion

text: of

text: starch

text: begins with the action of

text: saliva

text: ry

text: alpha-amylase

text: ptyalin

text: , although its activity is slight in comparison with that of

text: pancreatic amylase

text: in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-

text: dextrin

text: , which are then digested by gluco-

text: amylase

text: (alpha-dextrinases) to

text: maltose

text: and

text: maltotriose

text: . The products of digestion of alpha-

text: amylase

text: and alpha-

text: dextrinase

text: , along with dietary

text: disaccharide

text: s are hydrolyzed to their corresponding

text: monosaccharide

text: s by

text: enzyme

text: s (

text: maltase

text: isomaltase

text: sucrase

text: and

text: lactase

text: ) present in the

text: brush border

text: of the small intestine. In the typical

text: Western diet

text: , digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the

text: upper small intestine

text: . However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the

text: ileal

text: portion of the intestine.

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Lenzing's economy is partly based on tourism, but the town is much more known as an industrial site; it is the world headquarters of Lenzing AG, which is the world leader in the production of cellulose-based fiber such as viscose and Lyocell.  , it manufactures one-fifth of the world's cellulose fiber.

text: Lenzing's economy is partly based on

text: tourism

text: , but the town is much more known as an industrial site; it is the world headquarters of

text: Lenzing AG

text: , which is the world leader in the production of

text: cellulose

text: -based fiber such as

text: viscose

text: and

text: Lyocell

text: .  , it manufactures one-fifth of the world's cellulose fiber.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In many ways, cellulose makes the ideal excipient. A naturally occurring polymer, it is composed of glucose units connected by a 1-4 beta glycosidic bond. These linear cellulose chains are bundled together as microfibril spiralled together in the walls of plant cell. Each microfibril exhibits a high degree of three-dimensional internal bonding resulting in a crystalline structure that is insoluble in water and resistant to reagents. There are, however, relatively weak segments of the microfibril with weaker internal bonding. These are called amorphous regions; some argue that they are more accurately called dislocations, because of the single-phase structure of microfibrils. The crystalline region is isolated to produce microcrystalline cellulose.

text: In many ways,

text: cellulose

text: makes the ideal

text: excipient

text: . A naturally occurring polymer, it is composed of

text: glucose

text: units connected by a 1-4 beta glycosidic bond. These linear cellulose chains are bundled together as

text: microfibril

text: spiralled together in the walls of plant cell. Each microfibril exhibits a high degree of three-dimensional internal bonding resulting in a crystalline structure that is insoluble in water and resistant to reagents. There are, however, relatively weak segments of the microfibril with weaker internal bonding. These are called amorphous regions; some argue that they are more accurately called dislocations, because of the single-phase structure of microfibrils. The crystalline region is isolated to produce microcrystalline cellulose.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In recent years there has been a push by a number of independent manufacturers and retailers to make meals that are low in salt and fat and free of artificial additives. In the UK, most British supermarkets also produce their own "healthy eating" brands. Nearly all chilled or frozen ready meals sold in the UK are now clearly labeled with the salt, sugar and fat content and the recommended daily intake. Concern about obesity and government publicity initiatives such as those by the Food Standards Agency  and the National Health Service  have encouraged manufacturers to reduce the levels of salt and fat, but curiously not industrial carbohydrates, in ready prepared food.

text: In recent years there has been a push by a number of independent manufacturers and retailers to make meals that are low in salt and fat and free of artificial additives. In the UK, most British supermarkets also produce their own "healthy eating" brands. Nearly all chilled or frozen ready meals sold in the UK are now clearly labeled with the salt, sugar and fat content and the recommended daily intake. Concern about obesity and government publicity initiatives such as those by the

text: Food Standards Agency

text: and the

text: National Health Service

text: have encouraged manufacturers to reduce the levels of salt and fat, but curiously not industrial carbohydrates, in ready prepared food.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sulfuric acid at high concentrations in drain openers also dehydrates substances containing carbohydrates, like tissue paper which consists of cellulose:

text: Sulfuric acid at high concentrations in drain openers also dehydrates substances containing

text: carbohydrates

text: , like

text: tissue paper

text: which consists of

text: cellulose

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text: The large colon, small colon, and rectum make up the remainder of the large intestine. The large colon is   long and holds up to  of semi-liquid matter.  Its main purpose is to absorb carbohydrates which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum. Due to its many twists and turns, it is a common place for a type of horse colic called an impaction.  The small colon is also   long, holds about , is the area where the majority of water is absorbed, and where fecal balls are formed. The rectum is about one foot long, and acts as a holding chamber for waste, which is then expelled from the body via the anus.

text: The large

text: colon

text: , small colon, and

text: rectum

text: make up the remainder of the

text: large intestine

text: . The large colon is   long and holds up to  of semi-liquid matter.  Its main purpose is to absorb carbohydrates which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum. Due to its many twists and turns, it is a common place for a type of

text: horse colic

text: called an impaction.  The small colon is also   long, holds about , is the area where the majority of water is absorbed, and where

text: fecal

text: balls are formed. The

text: rectum

text: is about one foot long, and acts as a holding chamber for waste, which is then expelled from the body via the

text: anus

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answer: No

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Historically, corn syrup was produced by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, and then heating the mixture under pressure. The process was invented by the Russian chemist Gottlieb Kirchhoff in 1812. Currently, corn syrup is obtained through a multi-step bioprocess. First, the enzyme α-amylase is added to a mixture of corn starch and water. α-amylase is secreted by various species of the bacterium Bacillus and the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the bacteria were grown. The enzyme breaks down the starch into oligosaccharides, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme glucoamylase, known also as "γ-amylase". Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the fungus Aspergillus; the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown. The glucose can then be transformed into fructose by passing the glucose through a column that is loaded with the enzyme D-xylose isomerase, an enzyme that is isolated from the growth medium of any of several bacteria.<ref>Martin Chaplin and Christopher Bucke, Enzyme Technology (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pages 146-154. Available on-line at: London South Bank University: Enzyme Technology.

text: Historically, corn syrup was produced by combining corn starch with dilute

text: hydrochloric acid

text: , and then heating the mixture under pressure. The process was invented by the Russian chemist

text: Gottlieb Kirchhoff

text: in 1812. Currently, corn syrup is obtained through a multi-step

text: bioprocess

text: . First, the

text: enzyme

text: α-

text: amylase

text: is added to a mixture of corn starch and water. α-amylase is secreted by various species of the

text: bacterium

text: Bacillus

text: and the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the bacteria were grown. The enzyme breaks down the starch into

text: oligosaccharide

text: s, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme

text: glucoamylase

text: , known also as "γ-amylase". Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the

text: fungus

text: Aspergillus

text: ; the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown. The glucose can then be transformed into fructose by passing the glucose through a column that is loaded with the enzyme

text: D-xylose isomerase

text: , an enzyme that is isolated from the growth medium of any of several bacteria.<ref>Martin Chaplin and Christopher Bucke, Enzyme Technology (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pages 146-154. Available on-line at: London South Bank University: Enzyme Technology.

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answer: 1

text: This is a list of sugars and sugar products. Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources.

text: This is a list of sugars and sugar products.

text: Sugar

text: is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble

text: carbohydrates

text: , many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources.

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answers: soluble carbohydrates

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answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: To produce ethanol from starchy materials such as cereal grains, the starch must first be converted into sugars. In brewing beer, this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or malt, which produces the enzyme amylase. When the malted grain is mashed, the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars.

text: To produce ethanol from starchy materials such as

text: cereal grain

text: s, the

text: starch

text: must first be converted into sugars. In brewing

text: beer

text: , this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or

text: malt

text: , which produces the

text: enzyme

text: amylase

text: . When the malted grain is

text: mashed

text: , the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars.

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answers: sugars

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answers: starchy materials

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The carbohydrate source is an essential part of the beer because unicellular yeast organisms convert carbohydrates into energy to live. Yeast metabolize the carbohydrate source to form a number of compounds including ethanol. The process of brewing beer starts with malting and mashing, which breaks down the long carbohydrates in the barley grain into more simple sugars. This is important because yeast can only metabolize very short chains of sugars.  Long-carbohydrates are polymers, large branching linkages of the same molecule over and over. In the case of barley, we mostly see polymers called amylopectin and amylose which are made of repeating linkages of glucose. On very large time-scales (thermodynamically) these polymers would break down on their own, and there would be no need for the malting process. However, the average brewer does not have years to wait, and so he speeds up this process by heating up the barley grain. This heating process activates protein enzymes called amylases. The shape of these enzymes, their active site, gives them the unique and powerful ability to speed these degradation reactions to over 100,000 times faster. The reaction that takes place at the active site is called a hydrolysis reaction, which is a cleavage the linkages between the sugars. Repeated hydrolysis breaks the long amylopectin polymers into simpler sugars that can be digested by the yeast.

text: The carbohydrate source is an essential part of the beer because

text: unicellular yeast organisms

text: convert carbohydrates into energy to live. Yeast metabolize the carbohydrate source to form a number of compounds including

text: ethanol

text: . The process of brewing beer starts with

text: malting

text: and

text: mashing

text: , which breaks down the long carbohydrates in the barley grain into more

text: simple sugars

text: . This is important because yeast can only metabolize very short chains of sugars.  Long-carbohydrates are polymers, large branching linkages of the same molecule over and over. In the case of barley, we mostly see polymers called

text: amylopectin

text: and amylose which are made of repeating linkages of glucose. On very large time-scales (thermodynamically) these polymers would break down on their own, and there would be no need for the malting process. However, the average brewer does not have years to wait, and so he speeds up this process by heating up the barley grain. This heating process activates protein enzymes called

text: amylase

text: s. The shape of these enzymes, their

text: active site

text: , gives them the unique and powerful ability to speed these degradation reactions to over 100,000 times faster. The reaction that takes place at the active site is called a

text: hydrolysis

text: reaction, which is a cleavage the linkages between the sugars. Repeated hydrolysis breaks the long amylopectin polymers into simpler sugars that can be digested by the yeast.

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answers: glucose

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answers: long-carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The composition of carbohydrates in the athlete's diet during carbohydrate loading is as important as their share of the overall caloric intake.

text: The composition of carbohydrates in the athlete's diet during carbohydrate loading is as important as their share of the overall caloric intake.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate loading

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answers: Cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour (known as self-raising outside North America), and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts.

text: Flour contains a high proportion of

text: starch

text: es, which are a subset of complex

text: carbohydrate

text: s also known as

text: polysaccharide

text: s. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour (known as self-raising outside North America), and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts.

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answers: starches

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: An auxiliary material for a capsule may be any readily water-soluble substance (e.g. carbohydrate such as dextrins (starch hydrolyzate), protein such as gelatin). For powdered alcohol, maltodextrin (a type of dextrin) was chosen.

text: An auxiliary material for a capsule may be any readily water-soluble substance (e.g.

text: carbohydrate

text: such as

text: dextrin

text: s (

text: starch

text: hydrolyzate

text: protein

text: such as

text: gelatin

text: ). For powdered alcohol,

text: maltodextrin

text: (a type of dextrin) was chosen.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: dextrins

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: maltodextrin

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: When carbohydrate counting is used without insulin, it can be used as a tool to manage blood sugar levels. A certain number of carbohydrate grams or carbohydrate units is consumed with each meal and with each snack. In keeping the carbohydrate at a certain level, the blood sugar is able to remain within a normal level. The American Diabetes Association recommends starting at around 45-60 carbohydrate grams (3-4 carb units) at each meal, with potential to increase or decrease that amount.

text: When carbohydrate counting is used without insulin, it can be used as a tool to manage blood sugar levels. A certain number of carbohydrate grams or carbohydrate units is consumed with each meal and with each snack. In keeping the carbohydrate at a certain level, the blood sugar is able to remain within a normal level. The

text: American Diabetes Association

text: recommends starting at around 45-60 carbohydrate grams (3-4 carb units) at each meal, with potential to increase or decrease that amount.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked -glucose units.Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.  The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50% and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%.

text: Cellulose is an

text: organic compound

text: with the

text: formula

text: , a

text: polysaccharide

text: consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of

text: β(1→4) linked

text: -glucose

text: units.Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary

text: cell wall

text: of

text: green plants

text: , many forms of

text: algae

text: and the

text: oomycete

text: s. Some species of

text: bacteria

text: secrete it to form

text: biofilm

text: s. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.  The cellulose content of

text: cotton

text: fiber is 90%, that of

text: wood

text: is 40–50% and that of dried

text: hemp

text: is approximately 57%.

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answers: 1 4 linked -glucose units

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answers: 4

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Bacteria that produce cellulose include Gram-negative bacteria species such as Acetobacter, Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Alcaligenes, and Gram-positive bacteria species such as Sarcina ventriculi. The most effective producers of cellulose are A. xylinum, A. hansenii, and A. pasteurianus. Of these, A. xylinum is the model microorganism for basic and applied studies on cellulose due to its ability to produce relatively high levels of polymer from a wide range of carbon and nitrogen sources.

text: Bacteria that produce cellulose include

text: Gram-negative bacteria

text: species such as

text: Acetobacter

text: Azotobacter

text: Rhizobium

text: Pseudomonas

text: Salmonella

text: Alcaligenes

text: , and

text: Gram-positive bacteria

text: species such as

text: Sarcina ventriculi

text: . The most effective producers of cellulose are

text: A. xylinum

text: , A. hansenii, and A. pasteurianus. Of these, A. xylinum is the model microorganism for basic and applied studies on cellulose due to its ability to produce relatively high levels of polymer from a wide range of carbon and nitrogen sources.

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text: In 1946, another experiment was made by Kark, Johnson and Lewis to determine effects of pemmican (a mixture of fat and dry meat) as an emergency ration for infantry troops in winter training in the Canadian Arctic.  Results on this study showed that in 3 days, soldiers were unable to complete their assigned tasks. Then, in the 1960s, with the resurgence of biomedical science, new research revealed that fat had limited utility as fuel for high intensity exercise, and that humans are physically impaired if they are given a low carbohydrate or no-carbohydrate diet.

text: In 1946, another experiment was made by Kark, Johnson and Lewis to determine effects of

text: pemmican

text: (a mixture of fat and dry meat) as an emergency ration for infantry troops in winter training in the Canadian Arctic.  Results on this study showed that in 3 days, soldiers were unable to complete their assigned tasks. Then, in the 1960s, with the resurgence of biomedical science, new research revealed that fat had limited utility as fuel for high intensity exercise, and that humans are physically impaired if they are given a low carbohydrate or no-carbohydrate diet.

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text: If the shirt has turn-down collars it usually has sleeves with double cuffs fastened with cufflinks as standard. If a wing collar is worn it should be with a single cuff shirt as in the past a starched stiff fronted shirt was worn with the cuffs also starched stiff as well as a starched detachable wing collar, worn with cufflinks and shirt studs (essentially, the same as the full evening dress shirt). Contemporary shirts often do not have a detachable collar at all.

text: If the shirt has

text: turn-down collars

text: it usually has sleeves with

text: double cuffs

text: fastened with

text: cufflinks

text: as standard. If a

text: wing collar

text: is worn it should be with a

text: single cuff

text: shirt as in the past a starched stiff fronted shirt was worn with the

text: cuffs

text: also

text: starched

text: stiff as well as a

text: starched detachable wing collar

text: , worn with

text: cufflinks

text: and

text: shirt studs

text: (essentially, the same as the

text: full evening dress

text: shirt

text: ). Contemporary shirts often do not have a

text: detachable collar

text: at all.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: No

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text: For people with diabetes, healthy eating is not simply a matter of "what one eats", but also when one eats. The question of how long before a meal one should inject insulin is asked in Sons Ken, Fox and Judd (1998). It depends upon the type one takes and whether it is long-, medium- or quick-acting insulin. If patients check their blood glucose at bedtime and find that it is low, for example below 6 millimoles per liter (108 mg/dL), it is advisable that they take some long-acting carbohydrate before retiring to bed to prevent night-time hypoglycemia. Night sweats, headaches, restless sleep, and nightmares can be a sign of nocturnal hypoglycemia, and patients should consult their doctor for adjustments to their insulin routine if they find that this is the case. Counterintuitively, another possible sign of nocturnal hypoglycemia is morning hyperglycemia, which actually occurs in response to blood sugar getting too low at night. This is called the Somogyi effect.

text: For people with diabetes, healthy eating is not simply a matter of "what one eats", but also when one eats. The question of how long before a meal one should inject

text: insulin

text: is asked in Sons Ken, Fox and Judd (1998). It depends upon the type one takes and whether it is long-, medium- or quick-acting insulin. If patients check their

text: blood glucose

text: at bedtime and find that it is low, for example below 6

text: millimoles

text: per liter (108 mg/dL), it is advisable that they take some long-acting carbohydrate before retiring to bed to prevent night-time

text: hypoglycemia

text: Night sweats

text: headaches

text: , restless sleep, and

text: nightmares

text: can be a sign of nocturnal

text: hypoglycemia

text: , and patients should consult their doctor for adjustments to their insulin routine if they find that this is the case. Counterintuitively, another possible sign of nocturnal hypoglycemia is morning hyperglycemia, which actually occurs in response to blood sugar getting too low at night. This is called the

text: Somogyi effect

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answers: long-acting

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answers: long-acting carbohydrate

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answers: long-acting carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In molecular biology, a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a protein domain found in carbohydrate-active enzymes (for example glycoside hydrolases). The majority of these domains have carbohydrate-binding activity. Some of these domains are found on cellulosomal scaffoldin proteins. CBMs were previously known as cellulose-binding domains. CBMs are classified into numerous families, based on amino acid sequence similarity. There are currently (June 2011) 64 families of CBM in the CAZy database.

text: In molecular biology, a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a

text: protein domain

text: found in

text: carbohydrate

text: -active enzymes (for example

text: glycoside hydrolases

text: ). The majority of these domains have carbohydrate-binding activity. Some of these domains are found on

text: cellulosomal

text: scaffoldin

text: proteins. CBMs were previously known as

text: cellulose

text: -binding domains. CBMs are classified into numerous families, based on

text: amino acid

text: sequence similarity. There are currently (June 2011) 64 families of CBM in the CAZy database.

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answers: glycoside

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: CBMs

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dissolving pulp, also called dissolving cellulose, is bleached wood pulp or cotton linters that has a high cellulose content (> 90%). It has special properties including a high level of brightness and uniform molecular-weight distribution. This pulp is manufactured for uses that require a high chemical purity, and particularly low hemicellulose content, since the chemically similar hemicellulose can interfere with subsequent processes. Dissolving pulp is so named because it is not made into paper, but dissolved either in a solvent or by derivatization into a homogeneous solution, which makes it completely chemically accessible and removes any remaining fibrous structure. Once dissolved, it can be spun into textile fibers (viscose or Lyocell), or chemically reacted to produce derivatized celluloses, such cellulose triacetate, a plastic-like material formed into fibers or films, or cellulose ethers such as methyl cellulose, used as a thickener.

text: Dissolving pulp, also called dissolving cellulose, is

text: bleached wood pulp

text: or

text: cotton linter

text: s that has a high

text: cellulose

text: content (> 90%). It has special properties including a high level of brightness and uniform molecular-weight distribution. This pulp is manufactured for uses that require a high chemical purity, and particularly low

text: hemicellulose

text: content, since the chemically similar hemicellulose can interfere with subsequent processes. Dissolving pulp is so named because it is not made into paper, but dissolved either in a solvent or by derivatization into a homogeneous solution, which makes it completely chemically accessible and removes any remaining fibrous structure. Once dissolved, it can be spun into textile fibers (

text: viscose

text: or

text: Lyocell

text: ), or chemically reacted to produce derivatized celluloses, such

text: cellulose triacetate

text: , a plastic-like material formed into fibers or films, or cellulose ethers such as

text: methyl cellulose

text: , used as a thickener.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: hemicellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose triacetate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cassava root is essentially a carbohydrate source. Its composition shows 60–65 percent moisture, 20–31 percent carbohydrate, 1–2 percent crude protein and a comparatively low content of vitamins and minerals. However, the roots are rich in calcium and vitamin C and contain a nutritionally significant quantity of thiamine, riboflavin and nicotinic acid. Cassava starch contains 70 percent amylopectin and 20 percent amylose. Cooked cassava starch has a digestibility of over 75 percent.

text: Cassava root is essentially a carbohydrate source. Its composition shows 60–65 percent moisture, 20–31 percent carbohydrate, 1–2 percent crude protein and a comparatively low content of vitamins and minerals. However, the roots are rich in calcium and vitamin C and contain a nutritionally significant quantity of thiamine, riboflavin and nicotinic acid. Cassava starch contains 70 percent

text: amylopectin

text: and 20 percent

text: amylose

text: . Cooked cassava starch has a digestibility of over 75 percent.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Cassava

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: amylose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Total Carbohydrates   30.1 g (23%)

text: Total Carbohydrates   30.1 g (23%)

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: 30.1 g (23%)

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate (saccharide) molecule as a result of the through-bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure. The physical forces that dictate the three-dimensional shapes of all molecules—here, of all monosaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide molecules—are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as "steric interactions" and "stereoelectronic effects" (see below).

text: Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a

text: carbohydrate

text: saccharide

text: ) molecule as a result of the through-bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its

text: molecular structure

text: . The physical forces that dictate the three-dimensional shapes of all molecules—here, of all

text: monosaccharide

text: oligosaccharide

text: , and

text: polysaccharide

text: molecules—are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as "

text: steric

text: interactions" and "

text: stereoelectronic

text: effects" (see below).

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answers: (saccharide)

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharide

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A biologically very important group of carbohydrates is the asparagine (Asn)-linked, or N-linked, oligosaccharides. Their biosynthetic pathway is very complex and involves a hundred or more glycosyltransferases, glycosidases, transporters and synthases. This plethora allows for the formation of a multitude of different final oligosaccharide structures, involved in protein folding, intracellular transport/localization, protein activity, and degradation/half-life. A vast amount of carbohydrate binding molecules (lectins) depend on correct glycosylation for appropriate binding; the selectins, involved in leukocyte extravasation, is a prime example. Their binding depends on a correct fucosylation of cell surface glycoproteins. Lack thereof leads to leukocytosis and increase sensitivity to infections as seen in SLC35C1-CDG(CDG-IIc);  caused by a GDP-fucose (Fuc) transporter deficiency.

text: A biologically very important group of

text: carbohydrates

text: is the

text: asparagine

text: Asn

text: )-linked, or

text: N-linked

text: oligosaccharide

text: s. Their

text: biosynthetic pathway

text: is very complex and involves a hundred or more

text: glycosyltransferase

text: s,

text: glycosidase

text: s,

text: transporters

text: and

text: synthase

text: s. This plethora allows for the formation of a multitude of different final oligosaccharide structures, involved in

text: protein folding

text: intracellular

text: transport/localization, protein activity, and degradation/half-life. A vast amount of carbohydrate binding molecules (

text: lectins

text: ) depend on correct glycosylation for appropriate binding; the

text: selectins

text: , involved in

text: leukocyte

text: extravasation, is a prime example. Their binding depends on a correct fucosylation of cell surface

text: glycoprotein

text: s. Lack thereof leads to leukocytosis and increase sensitivity to infections as seen in SLC35C1-CDG(CDG-IIc);  caused by a GDP-fucose (Fuc) transporter deficiency.

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answers: asparagine

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: glycosidases

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Milo contains 1,680 kJ (402 calories) in every 100 g of the powder, mostly from carbohydrates, mainly sugar. Carbohydrates can be used for energy by the body, which is the basis of Milo being marketed as an energy drink.

text: Milo contains 1,680

text: kJ

text: calories

text: ) in every 100

text: g

text: of the powder, mostly from

text: carbohydrates

text: , mainly sugar. Carbohydrates can be used for

text: energy

text: by the body, which is the basis of Milo being marketed as an energy drink.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Milo

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Milo

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane or switchgrass.

text: Bioethanol

text: is an

text: alcohol

text: made by

text: fermentation

text: , mostly from

text: carbohydrate

text: s produced in

text: sugar

text: or

text: starch

text: crops such as

text: corn

text: sugarcane

text: or

text: switchgrass

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answers: starch crops

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The smallest VSG protein (40 kDa in size) to date (1996) has been found in Trypanosoma vivax, which bears little carbohydrate.

text: The smallest VSG protein (40 kDa in size) to date (1996) has been found in

text: Trypanosoma vivax

text: , which bears little carbohydrate.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answer: 1

text: Glycoside hydrolase enzymes hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. This gene encodes a member of glycosyl hydrolases family 31. This enzyme hydrolyses terminal, non-reducing 1,4-linked alpha-D-glucose residues and releases alpha-D-glucose. This is a key enzyme in glycogen metabolism and its gene localizes to a chromosomal region (15q15) that is associated with susceptibility to diabetes.

text: Glycoside hydrolase

text: enzymes hydrolyse the

text: glycosidic bond

text: between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. This gene encodes a member of glycosyl hydrolases family 31. This enzyme hydrolyses terminal, non-reducing 1,4-linked alpha-D-glucose residues and releases alpha-D-glucose. This is a key enzyme in glycogen metabolism and its gene localizes to a chromosomal region (15q15) that is associated with susceptibility to diabetes.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Glycosidic bond

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: glycosidic bond

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Zemplén's publications can be found in numerous German and Hungarian chemical journals including the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (German), the Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie (German), the Zentralblatt für Physiologie (German), Vegyészeti Lapok (Hungarian), in Erdészeti Lapok (Hungarian), in Urania (German), and in the Jahresberichte über Gärungschemie und Gärungsorganismen (German). He had also written articles in Biochemisches Handlexikon on dextrin, inulin, alanine, leucine, histidine, proline, oxyproline, and indol, as well as various starches, celluloses, nitrogen-containing carbohydrates, sulphur-containing amino acids, indol-derivatives, and carbohydrates. In the Handbuch der biochemischen Arbeitsmethoden (1912-1913), Zemplén wrote about the production and detection of glucosides as well as other, higher carbohydrates. Professor Zemplén acted as a referee of several journals in chemistry. A reaction type (transesterifications among carbohydrate derivatives) was named after Zemplén.

text: Zemplén's publications can be found in numerous German and Hungarian chemical journals including the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (German), the Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie (German), the Zentralblatt für Physiologie (German), Vegyészeti Lapok (Hungarian), in Erdészeti Lapok (Hungarian), in Urania (German), and in the Jahresberichte über Gärungschemie und Gärungsorganismen (German). He had also written articles in Biochemisches Handlexikon on

text: dextrin

text: inulin

text: alanine

text: leucine

text: histidine

text: proline

text: oxyproline

text: , and

text: indol

text: , as well as various

text: starch

text: es,

text: cellulose

text: s,

text: nitrogen

text: -containing

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: sulphur

text: -containing

text: amino acid

text: s,

text: indol

text: -derivatives, and

text: carbohydrate

text: s. In the Handbuch der biochemischen Arbeitsmethoden (1912-1913), Zemplén wrote about the production and detection of

text: glucoside

text: s as well as other, higher

text: carbohydrate

text: s. Professor Zemplén acted as a referee of several journals in chemistry. A reaction type (

text: transesterification

text: s among

text: carbohydrate

text: derivatives) was named after Zemplén.

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answers: celluloses

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates (MACs) are carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion by a host's metabolism, and are made available for gut microbes, as prebiotics, to ferment or metabolize into beneficial compounds, such as short chain fatty acids. The term, ‘‘microbiota-accessible carbohydrate’’ contributes to a conceptual framework for investigating and discussing the amount of metabolic activity that a specific food or carbohydrate can contribute to a host's microbiota.

text: Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates (MACs) are

text: carbohydrates

text: that are resistant to

text: digestion

text: by a host's metabolism, and are made available for

text: gut microbes

text: , as

text: prebiotics

text: , to

text: ferment

text: or metabolize into beneficial compounds, such as

text: short chain fatty acids

text: . The term, ‘‘microbiota-accessible carbohydrate’’ contributes to a conceptual framework for investigating and discussing the amount of metabolic activity that a specific food or carbohydrate can contribute to a host's

text: microbiota

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: MACs

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answers: MACs

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In 1949, there were 45 units with about 7000 tonnes production of sago and starch. In 1957, there were 125 units producing about 23000 tonnes of sago and starch.

text: In 1949, there were 45 units with about 7000 tonnes production of sago and starch. In 1957, there were 125 units producing about 23000 tonnes of sago and starch.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In June 2006, a U.S. Senate hearing was told the current cost of producing cellulosic ethanol is US $2.25 per US gallon (US $0.59/litre), primarily due to the current poor conversion efficiency.  At that price, it would cost about $120 to substitute a barrel of oil (), taking into account the lower energy content of ethanol. However, the Department of Energy is optimistic and has requested a doubling of research funding. The same Senate hearing was told  the research target was to reduce the cost of production to US $1.07 per US gallon (US $0.28/litre) by 2012. "The production of cellulosic ethanol represents not only a step toward true energy diversity for the country, but a very cost-effective alternative to fossil fuels. It is advanced weaponry in the war on oil," said Vinod Khosla, managing partner of Khosla Ventures, who recently told a Reuters Global Biofuels Summit that he could see cellulosic fuel prices sinking to $1 per gallon within ten years.

text: In June 2006, a U.S. Senate hearing was told the current cost of producing cellulosic ethanol is US $2.25 per US gallon (US $0.59/litre), primarily due to the current poor conversion efficiency.  At that price, it would cost about $120 to substitute a barrel of oil (), taking into account the lower energy content of

text: ethanol

text: . However, the Department of Energy is optimistic and has requested a doubling of research funding. The same Senate hearing was told  the research target was to reduce the cost of production to US $1.07 per US gallon (US $0.28/litre) by 2012. "The production of cellulosic ethanol represents not only a step toward true energy diversity for the country, but a very cost-effective alternative to fossil fuels. It is advanced weaponry in the war on oil," said

text: Vinod Khosla

text: , managing partner of

text: Khosla Ventures

text: , who recently told a Reuters Global Biofuels Summit that he could see cellulosic fuel prices sinking to $1 per gallon within ten years.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Ethanol

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answers: cellulosic

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is synthesized by cellulose synthase or Rosette terminal complexes which reside on a cells membrane. As cellulose fibrils are synthesized and grow extracellularly they push up against neighboring cells. Since the neighboring cell can not move easily the Rosette complex is instead pushed around the cell through the fluid phospholipid membrane.  Eventually this results in the cell becoming wrapped in a microfibril layer. This layer becomes the cell wall. The organization of microfibrils forming the primary cell wall is rather disorganized. However, another mechanism is used in secondary cell walls leading to its organization. Essentially, lanes on the secondary cell wall are built with microtubules. These lanes force microfibrils to remain in a certain area while they wrap. During this process microtubules can spontaneously depolymerize and repolymerize in a different orientation. This leads to a different direction in which the cell continues getting wrapped.

text: Cellulose is synthesized by

text: cellulose synthase

text: or Rosette terminal complexes which reside on a cells membrane. As cellulose fibrils are synthesized and grow extracellularly they push up against neighboring cells. Since the neighboring cell can not move easily the Rosette complex is instead pushed around the cell through the fluid phospholipid membrane.  Eventually this results in the cell becoming wrapped in a microfibril layer. This layer becomes the cell wall. The organization of microfibrils forming the primary cell wall is rather disorganized. However, another mechanism is used in secondary cell walls leading to its organization. Essentially, lanes on the secondary cell wall are built with microtubules. These lanes force microfibrils to remain in a certain area while they wrap. During this process microtubules can spontaneously depolymerize and repolymerize in a different orientation. This leads to a different direction in which the cell continues getting wrapped.

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answers: phospholipid

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answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: It is a polymer of starch.

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting, and fermented to produce ethanol in the manufacture of beer, whisky and biofuel. It is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in warm water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process. Starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them.

text: In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by

text: malting

text: , and

text: fermented

text: to produce

text: ethanol

text: in the manufacture of

text: beer

text: whisky

text: and

text: biofuel

text: . It is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in warm water gives

text: wheatpaste

text: , which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the

text: papermaking

text: process. Starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to

text: stiffen them

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answers: sugars

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answers: starch is converted into sugars

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: ChemBioChem (2011-)ChemMedChem (2013-)Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem (2013-)

text: ChemBioChem (2011-)ChemMedChem (2013-)Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem (2013-)

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I and I. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of I. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.

text: Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I and I. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of I. Cellulose in

text: regenerated cellulose

text: fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is

text: metastable

text: and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.

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answers: hydrogen

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answers: cellulose of higher plants

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answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 1971, Bon Ami was purchased by the Faultless Starch Company, which later changed the corporation name to Faultless Starch/Bon Ami Company to help reintroduce Bon Ami to the market.

text: In 1971, Bon Ami was purchased by the

text: Faultless Starch Company

text: , which later changed the corporation name to

text: Faultless Starch/Bon Ami Company

text: to help reintroduce Bon Ami to the market.

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answers: Starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Bon Ami

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Bon Ami

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Plants produce starch with different types of structure and shape characteristics which may affect digestion. For instance, smaller starch granules are more available to enzyme digestion because the larger percentage of surface area increases the enzyme binding rate.

text: Plants produce starch with different types of structure and shape characteristics which may affect digestion. For instance, smaller starch granules are more available to enzyme digestion because the larger percentage of surface area increases the enzyme binding rate.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Kerogen Type III is formed from terrestrial plant matter that is lacking in lipids or waxy matter. It forms from cellulose, the carbohydrate polymer that forms the rigid structure of terrestrial plants, lignin, a non-carbohydrate polymer formed from phenyl-propane units that binds the strings of cellulose together, and terpenes and phenolic compounds in the plant. Type III kerogen involving rocks are found to be the least productive upon pyrolysis and probably the least favorable deposits for oil generation

text: Kerogen Type III is formed from terrestrial plant matter that is lacking in

text: lipid

text: s or waxy matter. It forms from

text: cellulose

text: , the

text: carbohydrate

text: polymer

text: that forms the rigid structure of terrestrial plants,

text: lignin

text: , a non-carbohydrate polymer formed from phenyl-propane units that binds the strings of cellulose together, and

text: terpene

text: s and

text: phenol

text: ic compounds in the plant. Type III kerogen involving rocks are found to be the least productive upon pyrolysis and probably the least favorable deposits for oil generation

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: It forms from cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The gelatinization temperature of starch depends upon plant type and the amount of water present, pH, types and concentration of salt, sugar, fat and protein in the recipe, as well as starch derivatisation technology are used. Some types of unmodified native starches start swelling at 55 °C, other types at 85 °C.  The gelatinization temperature of modified starch depends on for example on the degree of cross-linking of the amylopectin, the degree of acid treatment, acetylation.Gel temperature can also be modified by genetic manipulation of starch synthase genes. Gelatinization temperature also depends on the amount of damaged starch granules. These will swell faster. Damaged starch can be produced, for example, during the wheat milling process, or when drying the starch cake in the starch plant. There is an inverse correlation between gelatinization temperature and glycemic index.

text: The gelatinization temperature of starch depends upon plant type and the amount of water present,

text: pH

text: , types and concentration of salt, sugar, fat and protein in the recipe, as well as

text: starch derivatisation technology

text: are used. Some types of unmodified native starches start swelling at 55 °C, other types at 85 °C.  The gelatinization temperature of

text: modified starch

text: depends on for example on the degree of

text: cross-link

text: ing of the amylopectin, the degree of acid treatment, acetylation.Gel temperature can also be modified by genetic manipulation of

text: starch synthase

text: genes. Gelatinization temperature also depends on the amount of damaged starch granules. These will swell faster. Damaged starch can be produced, for example, during the wheat milling process, or when drying the starch cake in the starch plant. There is an inverse correlation between gelatinization temperature and

text: glycemic index

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answers: NDQ_016383

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Amylopectin

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There is volatility in yearly production of Tapioca Sago-Starch in the region. In 2001-02 At The Sagoserve, there was Total Turnover of Sago-Starch of 24.41 lakh bags valued Rs. 20470.37 lakh, whereas in 2012-13 the total Turnover of Sago-Starch was of only 12.92 lakh bags for total value of Rs. 35448.04.(source: http://www.sagoserve.com/Growth.htm )

text: There is volatility in yearly production of Tapioca Sago-Starch in the region. In 2001-02 At The Sagoserve, there was Total Turnover of Sago-Starch of 24.41 lakh bags valued Rs. 20470.37 lakh, whereas in 2012-13 the total Turnover of Sago-Starch was of only 12.92 lakh bags for total value of Rs. 35448.04.(source: http://www.sagoserve.com/Growth.htm )

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answers: Sago

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Tapioca

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Sago-Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Candex contains the fibre digesting enzymes, cellulase and hemicellulase. The manufacturer claims because yeast cell walls are built mainly of fibre, which is mostly made of the complex carbohydrate, cellulose, cellulase and hemicellulase are capable of killing yeast.

text: Candex contains the fibre digesting

text: enzyme

text: s,

text: cellulase

text: and hemicellulase. The manufacturer claims because yeast cell walls are built mainly of fibre, which is mostly made of the complex carbohydrate,

text: cellulose

text: , cellulase and hemicellulase are capable of killing yeast.

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answers: carbon

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answers: cellulose

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Given a cellulose-containing material, the carbohydrate portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 °C is α cellulose, which is true cellulose. Acidification of the extract precipitates β cellulose. The portion that dissolves in base but does not precipitate with acid is γ cellulose.

text: Given a cellulose-containing material, the carbohydrate portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of

text: sodium hydroxide

text: at 20 °C is α cellulose, which is true cellulose. Acidification of the extract precipitates β cellulose. The portion that dissolves in base but does not precipitate with acid is γ cellulose.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates, the main energy source in most rations, are usually fed in the form of hay, grass, and grain. Soluble carbohydrates such as starches and sugars are readily broken down to glucose in the small intestine and absorbed. Insoluble carbohydrates, such as fiber (cellulose), are not digested by the horse's own enzymes, but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large colon to break down and release their energy sources, volatile fatty acids.

text: Carbohydrates

text: , the main energy source in most rations, are usually fed in the form of

text: hay

text: grass

text: , and

text: grain

text: Soluble

text: carbohydrates such as

text: starch

text: es and

text: sugar

text: s are readily broken down to

text: glucose

text: in the small intestine and absorbed. Insoluble carbohydrates, such as fiber (cellulose), are not digested by the horse's own enzymes, but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large colon to break down and release their energy sources, volatile

text: fatty acid

text: s.

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answers: hay

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answers: Insoluble carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Amylase inhibitors prevent the action of enzymes that break the glycosidic bonds of starches and other complex carbohydrates, preventing the release of simple sugars and absorption by the body. Amylase inhibitors, like lipase inhibitors, have been used as a diet aid and obesity treatment. Amylase inhibitors are present in many types of beans; commercially available amylase inhibitors are extracted from white kidney beans.

text: Amylase

text: inhibitors prevent the action of enzymes that break the

text: glycosidic bond

text: s of

text: starch

text: es and other complex

text: carbohydrate

text: s, preventing the release of simple sugars and absorption by the body. Amylase inhibitors, like lipase inhibitors, have been used as a diet aid and obesity treatment. Amylase inhibitors are present in many types of beans; commercially available amylase inhibitors are extracted from white kidney beans.

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answers: sugars

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answers: starches

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answers: starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In addition, protein and carbohydrate amounts were shown to have an effect on sperm production and fertility in the speckled cockroach. Holidic diets were used which allowed for specific protein and carbohydrate measurements to be taken, giving it credibility. A direct correlation was seen in sperm number and overall of food intake. More specifically, optimal sperm production was measured at a 1:2 protein to carbohydrate ratio. Sperm fertility was best at a similar protein to carbohydrate ratio of 1:2. This close alignment largely factors in determining male fertility in Nauphoeta cinerea. Surprisingly, sperm viability was not affected by any change in diet or diet ratios. It’s hypothesized that sperm viability is more affected by the genetic makeup, like in the "good sperm hypothesis". These ratios and results are not consistent with many other species and even conflict with some. It seems there can’t be any conclusions on what type of diet is needed to positively influence sperm competition but rather understand that different diets do play a role in determining sperm competition in mate choice.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The traditional furnish or material content of watercolor papers is cellulose, a structural carbohydrate found in many plants. The most common sources of paper cellulose are cotton, linen, or alpha cellulose extracted from wood pulp. To make paper, the cellulose is wetted, mechanically macerated or pounded, chemically treated, rinsed, and filtered to the consistency of thin oatmeal, then poured out into paper making moulds. In handmade papers, the pulp is hand poured ("cast") into individual paper moulds (a mesh screen stretched within a wood frame) and shaken by hand into an even layer. In industrial paper production, the pulp is formed by large papermaking machines that spread the paper over large cylinders—either heated metal cylinders that rotate at high speed (machinemade papers) or wire mesh cylinders that rotate at low speed (mouldmade papers). Both types of machine produce the paper in a continuous roll or web, which is then cut into individual sheets.

text: The traditional furnish or material content of watercolor papers is

text: cellulose

text: , a structural carbohydrate found in many plants. The most common sources of paper cellulose are cotton, linen, or alpha cellulose extracted from wood pulp. To make paper, the cellulose is wetted, mechanically macerated or pounded, chemically treated, rinsed, and filtered to the consistency of thin oatmeal, then poured out into paper making moulds. In handmade papers, the pulp is hand poured ("cast") into individual paper moulds (a mesh screen stretched within a wood frame) and shaken by hand into an even layer. In industrial paper production, the pulp is formed by large papermaking machines that spread the paper over large cylinders—either heated metal cylinders that rotate at high speed (machinemade papers) or wire mesh cylinders that rotate at low speed (mouldmade papers). Both types of machine produce the paper in a continuous roll or web, which is then cut into individual sheets.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: structural carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 4 (CBM4) includes the two cellulose-binding domains, CBD(N1) and CBD(N2), arranged in tandem at the N terminus of the 1,4-beta-glucanase, CenC, from Cellulomonas fimi. These  homologous CBMs are distinct in their selectivity for binding amorphous and not crystalline cellulose. Multidimensional heteronuclear nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to determine the tertiary structure of the 152 amino acid N-terminal cellulose-binding domain from C. fimi 1,4-beta-glucanase CenC (CBDN1). The tertiary structure of CBDN1 is strikingly similar to that of the bacterial 1,3-1,4-beta-glucanases, as well as other sugar-binding proteins with jelly-roll folds. CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 4 (CBM4) includes the two cellulose-binding domains, CBD(N1) and CBD(N2), arranged in tandem at the N terminus of the 1,4-beta-glucanase, CenC, from Cellulomonas fimi. These  homologous CBMs are distinct in their selectivity for binding amorphous and not crystalline cellulose. Multidimensional heteronuclear

text: nuclear magnetic resonance

text: (NMR) spectroscopy was used to determine the

text: tertiary structure

text: of the 152

text: amino acid

text: N-terminal cellulose-binding

text: domain

text: from C. fimi 1,4-beta-glucanase CenC (CBDN1). The tertiary

text: structure

text: of CBDN1 is strikingly similar to that of the bacterial 1,3-1,4-beta-glucanases, as well as other sugar-binding

text: protein

text: s with

text: jelly-roll fold

text: s. CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.

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answers: sugar

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answers: Cellulomonas

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulomonas fimi

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dietary management involves reducing both the digestible energy levels and the total non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) level of feed. NSC include starches, single sugars, and fructans, whereas cellulose and hemicelluloses are structural carbohydrates. High NSC levels cause a glucose and insulin spike following feeding, and may worsen insulin resistance. Current recommendations for NSC levels are less than 10% of the diet on a dry matter basis.

text: Dietary management involves reducing both the digestible energy levels and the total non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) level of feed. NSC include starches, single sugars, and fructans, whereas cellulose and hemicelluloses are structural carbohydrates. High NSC levels cause a glucose and insulin spike following feeding, and may worsen insulin resistance. Current recommendations for NSC levels are less than 10% of the diet on a dry matter basis.

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answers: sugars

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answers: NSC

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: NSC

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In 1939 two Danish scientists, Christensen and Hansen, made a study of low-carbohydrate, moderate-carbohydrate, and high-carbohydrate diets, each one lasting at least one week. At the end of each diet, the subjects' endurance time to exhaustion on a stationary bicycle was measured, and they found that with the low carbohydrate they lasted only 81 minutes, while they were able to ride for 206 minutes after the high carbohydrates  diet.

text: In 1939 two Danish scientists, Christensen and Hansen, made a study of low-carbohydrate, moderate-carbohydrate, and high-carbohydrate diets, each one lasting at least one week. At the end of each diet, the subjects' endurance time to exhaustion on a

text: stationary bicycle

text: was measured, and they found that with the low carbohydrate they lasted only 81 minutes, while they were able to ride for 206 minutes after the high carbohydrates  diet.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: This enzyme belongs to the family of isomerases, specifically those racemases and epimerases acting on carbohydrates and derivatives.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is aldose 1-epimerase. Other names in common use include mutarotase, and aldose mutarotase.  This enzyme participates in glycolysis and  gluconeogenesis.

text: This enzyme belongs to the family of

text: isomerase

text: s, specifically those

text: racemase

text: s and

text: epimerase

text: s acting on

text: carbohydrate

text: s and derivatives.  The

text: systematic name

text: of this enzyme class is aldose 1-epimerase. Other names in common use include mutarotase, and aldose mutarotase.  This enzyme participates in

text: glycolysis

text: and

text: gluconeogenesis

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: aldose 1-epimerase

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates and derivatives

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Sugar Busters diet is a diet focused on eliminating foods containing refined carbohydrates such as refined sugar, white flour, and white rice, as well as naturally occurring carbohydrates rating high on the glycemic index such as potatoes and carrots.

text: The Sugar Busters diet is a diet focused on eliminating foods containing refined

text: carbohydrates

text: such as refined

text: sugar

text: white flour

text: , and

text: white rice

text: , as well as naturally occurring carbohydrates rating high on the

text: glycemic index

text: such as

text: potatoes

text: and

text: carrots

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answers: carbohydrates

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: When ruminants consume diets high in starch or sugar, these easily fermentable carbohydrates promote the proliferation of S. bovis in the rumen.  Because S. bovis is a lactic acid bacterium, fermentation of these carbohydrates to lactic acid can cause a dramatic decline in ruminal pH, and subsequent development of adverse conditions such as ruminal acidosis or feedlot bloat.

text: When ruminants consume diets high in

text: starch

text: or

text: sugar

text: , these easily fermentable carbohydrates promote the proliferation of S. bovis in the rumen.  Because S. bovis is a lactic acid bacterium, fermentation of these carbohydrates to

text: lactic acid

text: can cause a dramatic decline in ruminal pH, and subsequent development of adverse conditions such as ruminal acidosis or feedlot bloat.

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answers: sugar

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In January 1977, after having held hearings on the national diet, the McGovern committee issued a new set of nutritional guidelines for Americans that sought to combat leading killer conditions such as heart disease, certain cancers, stroke, high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and arteriosclerosis.  Titled Dietary Goals for the United States, but also known as the "McGovern Report",  they suggested that Americans eat less fat, less cholesterol, less refined and processed sugars, and more complex carbohydrates and fiber.  (Indeed, it was the McGovern report that first used the term complex carbohydrate, denoting "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".) The recommended way of accomplishing this was to eat more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and less high-fat meat, egg, and dairy products.  While many public health officials had said all of this for some time, the committee's issuance of the guidelines gave it higher public profile.

text: In January 1977, after having held hearings on the national diet, the McGovern committee issued a new set of nutritional guidelines for Americans that sought to combat leading killer conditions such as heart disease, certain cancers, stroke, high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and arteriosclerosis.  Titled Dietary Goals for the United States, but also known as the "McGovern Report",  they suggested that Americans eat less fat, less cholesterol, less refined and processed sugars, and more complex carbohydrates and fiber.  (Indeed, it was the McGovern report that first used the term

text: complex carbohydrate

text: , denoting "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".) The recommended way of accomplishing this was to eat more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and less high-fat meat, egg, and dairy products.  While many public health officials had said all of this for some time, the committee's issuance of the guidelines gave it higher public profile.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: complex carbohydrates

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answers: fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.

text: Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in

text: tropical rain

text: and

text: temperate deciduous forest

text: s), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g.,

text: taiga

text: and arid

text: montane

text: coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and

text: biomass

text: per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant

text: detritus

text: . The woody component of a forest contains

text: lignin

text: , which is relatively slow to

text: decompose

text: compared with other organic materials such as

text: cellulose

text: or carbohydrate.

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Much of this biomass occurs below ground

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: lignin

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental  components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

text: Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple

text: monosaccharides

text: (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex

text: polysaccharides

text: (starch). Fats are

text: triglyceride

text: s, made of assorted

text: fatty acid

text: monomers

text: bound to

text: glycerol

text: backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are

text: essential

text: in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental  components of protein are nitrogen-containing

text: amino acids

text: , some of which are

text: essential

text: in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Rice protein is a vegetarian protein isolate that is an alternative to the more common whey and soy protein isolates. Brown rice can be treated with enzymes that will cause carbohydrates to separate from proteins. The resulting protein powder is then sometimes flavored or added to smoothies or health shakes.

text: Rice protein is a

text: vegetarian

text: protein

text: isolate that is an alternative to the more common whey and soy protein isolates.

text: Brown rice

text: can be treated with

text: enzyme

text: s that will cause

text: carbohydrate

text: s to separate from proteins. The resulting protein powder is then sometimes flavored or added to

text: smoothies

text: or

text: health shake

text: s.

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answers: proteins

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Brown rice

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Brown rice

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The remaining enzymes found in Candex: amylase, glucoamylase, diastase, and invertase are involved in basic carbohydrate and sugar metabolic pathways and are not involved in cell wall lysis. For example, Invertase catalyzes the conversion of sucrose (common table sugar) into glucose and fructose. Much of the invertase used in the food industry is actually purified from yeast itself as yeast contain an abundance of their own naturally produced invertase.

text: The remaining enzymes found in Candex:

text: amylase

text: glucoamylase

text: diastase

text: , and

text: invertase

text: are involved in basic carbohydrate and sugar

text: metabolic

text: pathways and are not involved in cell wall

text: lysis

text: . For example,

text: Invertase

text: catalyzes the conversion of

text: sucrose

text: (common table sugar) into

text: glucose

text: and

text: fructose

text: . Much of the invertase used in the food industry is actually purified from yeast itself as yeast contain an abundance of their own naturally produced invertase.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: sucrose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cell wall

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is composed of 75-85% recycled paper fiber, usually post-consumer waste newsprint. The other 15% is a fire retardant such as boric acid or ammonium sulphate. Cellulose has the highest recycled content of any insulation available. For example, fiberglass has a maximum amount of 50% recycled content.

text: Cellulose is composed of 75-85% recycled paper fiber, usually

text: post-consumer waste

text: newsprint. The other 15% is a fire retardant such as

text: boric acid

text: or ammonium sulphate. Cellulose has the highest recycled content of any insulation available. For example, fiberglass has a maximum amount of 50% recycled content.

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answers: Cellulose

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answers: Cellulose

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answers: Cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Endurance events are classified as prolonged exercise at submaximal levels of exertion. These events include dog sled racing, hunting and herding. To sustain this level of activity, energy is provided to the muscles through aerobic metabolism where high energy fat is utilized as the main fuel source. Several studies have shown an increase in stamina when dogs are fed a high fat diet. Increased protein is beneficial to support gluconeogenesis from amino acids during endurance events and to aid recovery., Carbohydrates are required in lesser amounts. A study conducted on sled dogs found that dogs fed a high carbohydrate diet showed signs of tying up and hypoglycaemia during intense exercise. Reducing the carbohydrate levels resolved these issues.

text: Endurance events are classified as prolonged exercise at submaximal levels of exertion. These events include dog sled racing, hunting and herding. To sustain this level of activity, energy is provided to the muscles through aerobic metabolism where high energy fat is utilized as the main fuel source. Several studies have shown an increase in stamina when dogs are fed a high fat diet. Increased protein is beneficial to support

text: gluconeogenesis

text: from amino acids during endurance events and to aid recovery., Carbohydrates are required in lesser amounts. A study conducted on sled dogs found that dogs fed a high carbohydrate diet showed signs of

text: tying up

text: and hypoglycaemia during intense exercise. Reducing the carbohydrate levels resolved these issues.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Digestion in the reticulorumen is a complex process.  Digestion occurs through fermentation by microbes in the reticulorumen rather than the animal per se.  The reticulorumen is one of the few organs present in animals in which digestion of cellulose and other recalcitrant carbohydrates can proceed to any appreciable degree.

text: Digestion in the reticulorumen is a complex process.  Digestion occurs through fermentation by microbes in the reticulorumen rather than the animal per se.  The reticulorumen is one of the few organs present in animals in which digestion of

text: cellulose

text: and other recalcitrant carbohydrates can proceed to any appreciable degree.

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answers: cellulose

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats, saturated fatty acid, polyunsaturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid, dietary cholesterol, and trans fatty acid. From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure. The chemical equation for metabolism of the twelve to sixteen carbon atoms in a saturated fatty acid molecule shows the difference between metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids. Palmitic acid is a commonly studied example of the saturated fatty acid molecule.

text: The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats,

text: saturated fatty acid

text: polyunsaturated fatty acid

text: monounsaturated fatty acid

text: , dietary

text: cholesterol

text: , and

text: trans fatty acid

text: . From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure. The chemical equation for metabolism of the twelve to sixteen carbon atoms in a saturated fatty acid molecule shows the difference between metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids.

text: Palmitic acid

text: is a commonly studied example of the saturated fatty acid molecule.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Low-carbohydrate diets in general recommend reducing nutritive carbohydrates, commonly referred to as "net carbs", i.e., grams of total carbohydrates reduced by the non-nutritive carbohydrates to very low levels. This means sharply reducing consumption of desserts, breads, pastas, potatoes, rice, and other sweet or starchy foods. Some recommend levels less than 20 g of "net carbs" per day, at least in the early stages of dieting (for comparison, a single slice of white bread typically contains 15 g of carbohydrate, almost entirely starch). By contrast, the U.S. Institute of Medicine recommends a minimum intake of 130 g of carbohydrate per day. The FAO and WHO similarly recommend that the majority of dietary energy come from carbohydrates.

text: Low-carbohydrate diets in general recommend reducing nutritive carbohydrates, commonly referred to as "net carbs", i.e., grams of total carbohydrates reduced by the non-nutritive carbohydrates to very low levels. This means sharply reducing consumption of desserts, breads, pastas, potatoes, rice, and other sweet or starchy foods. Some recommend levels less than 20 g of "net carbs" per day, at least in the early stages of dieting (for comparison, a single slice of white bread typically contains 15 g of carbohydrate, almost entirely starch). By contrast, the

text: U.S. Institute of Medicine

text: recommends a minimum intake of 130 g of carbohydrate per day. The

text: FAO

text: and

text: WHO

text: similarly recommend that the majority of dietary energy come from carbohydrates.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: "net carbs" per day

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answers: a single slice of white bread

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Glycoside hydrolases  are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

text: Glycoside hydrolases

text: are a widespread group of enzymes that

text: hydrolyse

text: the

text: glycosidic bond

text: between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 2002, three previously distinct species of Bifidobacterium, B. infantis, B. longum, and B. suis, were unified into a single species named B. longum with the biotypes infantis, longum, and suis, respectively. This occurred as the three species had extensive DNA similarity including a 16s rRNA gene sequence similarity greater than 97%. In addition, the three original species were phenotypically difficult to distinguish due to different carbohydrate fermentation patterns among strains of the same species.As probiotic activity varies among strains of B. longum, interest exists in the exact classification of new strains, although this is made difficult by the high gene similarity between the three biotypes. Currently, strain identification is done through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on the subtly different 16s rRNA gene sequences.

text: In 2002, three previously distinct species of Bifidobacterium, B. infantis, B. longum, and B. suis, were unified into a single species named B. longum with the biotypes infantis, longum, and suis, respectively. This occurred as the three species had extensive

text: DNA

text: similarity including a

text: 16s rRNA

text: gene sequence similarity greater than 97%. In addition, the three original species were phenotypically difficult to distinguish due to different

text: carbohydrate

text: fermentation patterns among strains of the same species.As probiotic activity varies among strains of B. longum, interest exists in the exact classification of new strains, although this is made difficult by the high gene similarity between the three biotypes. Currently, strain identification is done through

text: polymerase chain reaction

text: (PCR) on the subtly different 16s rRNA gene sequences.

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answers: carbon

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answers: carbohydrate fermentation patterns

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate fermentation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Although low-carbohydrate diets are most commonly discussed as a weight-loss approach, some experts have proposed using low-carbohydrate diets to mitigate or prevent diseases, including diabetes, metabolic disease, and epilepsy. Some low-carbohydrate proponents and others argue that the rise in carbohydrate consumption, especially refined carbohydrates, caused the epidemic levels of many diseases in modern society, including metabolic disease and type 2 diabetes.

text: Although low-carbohydrate diets are most commonly discussed as a weight-loss approach, some experts have proposed using low-carbohydrate diets to mitigate or prevent diseases, including diabetes, metabolic disease, and

text: epilepsy

text: . Some low-carbohydrate proponents and others argue that the rise in carbohydrate consumption, especially refined carbohydrates, caused the epidemic levels of many diseases in modern society, including metabolic disease and type 2 diabetes.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The Starch Division was started under the name of Bharat Starch Industries in the year 1937.  It was subsequently taken over by English Indian Clays Ltd. in the year 2002.

text: The Starch Division was started under the name of Bharat Starch Industries in the year 1937.  It was subsequently taken over by English Indian Clays Ltd. in the year 2002.

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answer: No

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text: Turbinado, demerara and so-called "raw" sugars are made from crystallized, partially evaporated sugar cane juice, and spun in a centrifuge to remove almost all of the molasses. The sugar crystals are large and golden coloured. This sugar can be sold as is or sent to the refinery to produce white sugar.

text: Turbinado, demerara and so-called "raw" sugars are made from crystallized, partially evaporated sugar cane juice, and spun in a centrifuge to remove almost all of the molasses. The sugar crystals are large and golden coloured. This sugar can be sold as is or sent to the refinery to produce white sugar.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits. The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood. Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Although insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown.

text: Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called

text: dietary fiber

text: , these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits. The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber binds to

text: bile acids

text: in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers

text: cholesterol

text: levels in the blood. Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces

text: short-chain fatty acid

text: s as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Although insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Soluble fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: α-glucosidases are enzymes involved in breaking down complex carbohydrates such as starch and glycogen into their monomers

text: α-glucosidases are enzymes involved in breaking down complex carbohydrates such as

text: starch

text: and

text: glycogen

text: into their monomers

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answers: glycogen

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is derived from -glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls, where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix.

text: Cellulose is derived from

text: -glucose

text: units, which

text: condense

text: through β(1→4)-

text: glycosidic bond

text: s. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in

text: starch

text: and

text: glycogen

text: . Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple

text: hydroxyl groups

text: on the glucose from one chain form

text: hydrogen bond

text: s with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high

text: tensile strength

text: . This confers tensile strength in

text: cell wall

text: s, where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: (1 4)-glycosidic bonds

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: no coiling or branching occurs

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Studies in animals have suggested that chronic consumption of refined sugars can contribute to metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunction.  Some experts have suggested that refined fructose is more damaging than refined glucose in terms of cardiovascular risk.  Cardiac performance has been shown to be impaired by switching from a carbohydrate diet including fiber to a high-carbohydrate diet.Switching from saturated fatty acids to carbohydrates with high glycemic index values shows a statistically-significant increase in the risk of myocardial infarction. Other studies have shown that the risk of developing coronary heart disease is decreased by adopting a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids but low in sugar, whereas a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet brings no reduction. This suggests that consuming a diet with a high glycemic load typical of the "junk food" diet is strongly associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease.

text: Studies in animals have suggested that chronic consumption of refined sugars can contribute to metabolic and

text: cardiovascular dysfunction

text: .  Some experts have suggested that refined fructose is more damaging than refined glucose in terms of cardiovascular risk.  Cardiac performance has been shown to be impaired by switching from a carbohydrate diet including fiber to a high-carbohydrate diet.Switching from saturated

text: fatty acid

text: s to carbohydrates with high

text: glycemic index

text: values shows a statistically-significant increase in the risk of

text: myocardial infarction

text: . Other studies have shown that the risk of developing

text: coronary heart disease

text: is decreased by adopting a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids but low in sugar, whereas a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet brings no reduction. This suggests that consuming a diet with a high

text: glycemic load

text: typical of the "

text: junk food

text: " diet is strongly associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: high-carbohydrate diet

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates, or particularly sugars, are yet another common craving. These cravings occur often in the middle of the afternoon when energy is at its lowest.

text: Carbohydrate

text: s, or particularly

text: sugar

text: s, are yet another common craving. These cravings occur often in the middle of the afternoon when energy is at its lowest.

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answers: sugars

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: "No added sugar" is commonly printed on labels of juice containers, but the products may contain large amounts of naturally occurring sugars; however, sugar content is listed with other carbohydrates on labels in many countries.

text: "No added sugar" is commonly printed on labels of juice containers, but the products may contain large amounts of naturally occurring sugars; however, sugar content is listed with other

text: carbohydrate

text: s on labels in many countries.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Eastwood soon ended his contract with Bill Shiffrin and hired Lester Salkow as his talent agent between 1961 and 1963. In regards to his contracts though, it was Irving Leonard and the attorney Frank Wells who played an important role. They structured Eastwood's earnings, (now at $750 per episode) to avoid paying undue taxes and guaranteed the paychecks from CBS well into the future. Leonard in particular tightly controlled his finances to the extent that when he wanted to buy a car he had to request permission. He and Maggie continued to live inexpensively but bought a home in Sherman Oaks off Beverly Glen, a modest hillside ranch. His first interview with TV Guide for Rawhide came in August 1959 in which they concentrated on his physical fitness, taking photographs of him doing pushups at home as Eastwood advised readers to keep in shape, warned against carbohydrates and recommended skipping beverages loaded with sugar and eating plenty of fruit and vegetables and vitamins.

text: Eastwood soon ended his contract with Bill Shiffrin and hired Lester Salkow as his talent agent between 1961 and 1963. In regards to his contracts though, it was Irving Leonard and the attorney

text: Frank Wells

text: who played an important role. They structured Eastwood's earnings, (now at $750 per episode) to avoid paying undue taxes and guaranteed the paychecks from CBS well into the future. Leonard in particular tightly controlled his finances to the extent that when he wanted to buy a car he had to request permission. He and Maggie continued to live inexpensively but bought a home in

text: Sherman Oaks

text: off

text: Beverly Glen

text: , a modest hillside ranch. His first interview with

text: TV Guide

text: for Rawhide came in August 1959 in which they concentrated on his physical fitness, taking photographs of him doing pushups at home as Eastwood advised readers to keep in shape, warned against carbohydrates and recommended skipping beverages loaded with sugar and eating plenty of fruit and vegetables and vitamins.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the chemistry of carbohydrates. It is published by Elsevier and was established in 1965. The editor-in-chief is R. Field (John Innes Centre). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 1.929.

text: Carbohydrate Research is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: covering research on the chemistry of

text: carbohydrate

text: s. It is published by

text: Elsevier

text: and was established in 1965. The

text: editor-in-chief

text: is R. Field (

text: John Innes Centre

text: ). According to the

text: Journal Citation Reports

text: , the journal has a 2014

text: impact factor

text: of 1.929.

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answers: Carbohydrate Research

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Rayon  is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is made from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp, which is chemically converted into a soluble compound.  It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments which are chemically solidified, resulting in synthetic fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Because rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring polymers, it is considered a semi-synthetic fiber. Specific types of rayon include viscose, modal and lyocell, each of which differs in manufacturing process and properties of the finished product.

text: Rayon  is a manufactured regenerated

text: cellulose fiber

text: . It is made from purified

text: cellulose

text: , primarily from

text: wood pulp

text: , which is chemically converted into a soluble compound.  It is then dissolved and forced through a

text: spinneret

text: to produce filaments which are chemically solidified, resulting in

text: synthetic fibers

text: of nearly pure cellulose. Because rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring

text: polymer

text: s, it is considered a

text: semi-synthetic

text: fiber. Specific types of rayon include

text: viscose

text: modal

text: and

text: lyocell

text: , each of which differs in manufacturing process and properties of the finished product.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: It is made from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Species within the Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called cecotropes. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the cecum, a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as rumination (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

text: Species within the

text: Lagomorpha

text: rabbit

text: s,

text: hare

text: s, and

text: pika

text: s) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called

text: cecotrope

text: s. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the

text: cecum

text: , a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as

text: rumination

text: (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways. The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of  all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl-phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, not within a specific organelle. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides.

text: In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized

text: de novo

text: or recycled through

text: salvage pathways

text: . The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and

text: amino acid

text: metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of  all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl-phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the

text: purine

text: and

text: pyrimidine

text: nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the

text: cytoplasm

text: of the cell, not within a specific

text: organelle

text: . Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides.

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answers: sugar

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answers: Nucleotides undergo breakdown

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A common argument in favor of high-carbohydrate diets is that most carbohydrates break down readily into glucose in the bloodstream, and therefore the body does not have to work as hard to get its energy in a high-carbohydrate diet as a low-carbohydrate diet. This argument, by itself, is incomplete. Although many dietary carbohydrates do break down into glucose, most of that glucose does not remain in the bloodstream for long. Its presence stimulates the beta cells in the pancreas to release insulin, which has the effect of causing about two-thirds of body cells to take in glucose, and causing fat cells to take in fatty acids and store them. As the blood-glucose level falls, the amount of insulin released is reduced; the entire process is completed in non-diabetics in an hour or two after eating. High-carbohydrate diets require more insulin production and release than low-carbohydrate diets, and some evidence indicates the increasingly large percentage of calories consumed as refined carbohydrates is positively correlated with the increased incidence of metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes.

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answers: high-carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. The Greek physician Dioscorides in the 1st century (AD) described sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica, and Pliny the Elder, a 1st century (AD) Roman, described sugar in his Natural History: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."

text: Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. The Greek physician

text: Dioscorides

text: in the 1st century (AD) described sugar in his medical treatise

text: De Materia Medica

text: , and

text: Pliny the Elder

text: , a 1st century (AD) Roman, described sugar in his

text: Natural History

text: : "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."

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answers: sugar

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answers: Cane

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answers: Cane

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dr. William Zev Hassid (1899–1974) was a pioneer research scientist in sugar biochemistry, who announced the synthesis of sucrose in 1944. He received the Sugar Research Award of the National Academy of Sciences (jointly with Doudoroff and Barker) for this discovery in 1945.He also received the Charles Reid Barnes Honorary Life Membership Award of the American Society of Plant Physiologists (1964), and the C. S. Hudson Award of the American Chemical Society (1967).In 1972 he was recognized the Sixth International Symposium on Carbohydrate Chemistry as one of three outstanding senior American carbohydrate chemists.  Hassid served as a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and as Chairman of the Division of Carbohydrate Chemistry of the American Chemical Society (1949–1950).

text: Dr. William Zev Hassid (1899–1974) was a pioneer research scientist in sugar

text: biochemistry

text: , who announced the synthesis of

text: sucrose

text: in 1944. He received the Sugar Research Award of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: (jointly with

text: Doudoroff

text: and

text: Barker

text: ) for this discovery in 1945.He also received the Charles Reid Barnes Honorary Life Membership Award of the

text: American Society of Plant Physiologists

text: (1964), and the

text: C. S. Hudson Award

text: of the

text: American Chemical Society

text: (1967).In 1972 he was recognized the Sixth International Symposium on Carbohydrate Chemistry as one of three outstanding senior American carbohydrate chemists.  Hassid served as a member of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: and the

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: , and as Chairman of the Division of Carbohydrate Chemistry of the American Chemical Society (1949–1950).

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answers: Plant Physiologists

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Hassid

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose  in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called acid growth, which involves turgor-driven movement of the strong cellulose microfibrils within the weaker hemicellulose/pectin matrix, catalyzed by expansin proteins. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle.

text: In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major

text: carbohydrate

text: s are

text: cellulose

text: hemicellulose

text: and

text: pectin

text: . The cellulose

text: microfibril

text: s are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose  in the primary cell wall is

text: xyloglucan

text: . In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called

text: acid growth

text: , which involves

text: turgor

text: -driven movement of the strong cellulose microfibrils within the weaker hemicellulose/pectin matrix, catalyzed by

text: expansin

text: proteins. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with

text: cutin

text: and

text: wax

text: , forming a permeability barrier known as the

text: plant cuticle

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The U.S. TTB has several classifications for absinthes and related spirits currently available for sale in the U.S., including "Other Herb & Seed Cordials/Liqueurs" and "Other Specialties & Proprietaries". Le Tourment Vert was classified as an "Other Herb & Seed Cordials/Liqueurs" because it was bottled with sugar, unlike true absinthes.

text: The U.S. TTB has several classifications for absinthes and related spirits currently available for sale in the U.S., including "Other Herb & Seed Cordials/Liqueurs" and "Other Specialties & Proprietaries". Le Tourment Vert was classified as an "Other Herb & Seed Cordials/Liqueurs" because it was bottled with sugar, unlike true absinthes.

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answers: Le Tourment Vert

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Le Tourment Vert

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements: usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The "fat" figure is likely to be further broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat, while the "carbohydrate" figure is likely to give a subtotal for sugars. With the "new" rules, the mandatory information is: energy, fat, saturates, carbohydrates, sugars, protein and salt, in that particular order, with options to extend this list to: mono-unsaturates, polyunsaturates, polyols, starch, fibre, and vitamins and minerals.

text: Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements: usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The "fat" figure is likely to be further broken down into

text: saturated

text: and unsaturated fat, while the "carbohydrate" figure is likely to give a subtotal for sugars. With the "new" rules, the mandatory information is: energy, fat, saturates, carbohydrates, sugars, protein and salt, in that particular order, with options to extend this list to: mono-unsaturates, polyunsaturates, polyols, starch, fibre, and vitamins and minerals.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Starch is often used in chemistry as an indicator for redox titrations where triiodide is present. Starch forms a very dark blue-black complex with triiodide which can be made by mixing iodine with iodide (often from potassium iodide). However, the complex is not formed if only iodine or only iodide (I) is present. The colour of the starch complex is so deep, that it can be detected visually when the concentration of the iodine is as low as 0.00002 M at 20 °C. The colour sensitivity decreases with increasing temperature (ten times less sensitive at 50 °C), and upon the addition of organic solvents such as ethanol or propanone. During iodine titrations, concentrated iodine solutions must be reacted with some titrant, often thiosulfate, in order to remove most of the iodine before the starch is added. This is due to the insolubility of the starch-iodine complex which may prevent some of the iodine reacting with the titrant. Close to the end-point, the starch is added, and the titration process is resumed taking into account the amount of thiosulfate added before adding the starch.

text: Starch

text: is often used in chemistry as an

text: indicator

text: for

text: redox titration

text: s where

text: triiodide

text: is present. Starch forms a very dark

text: blue

text: black

text: complex

text: with triiodide which can be made by mixing iodine with iodide (often from

text: potassium iodide

text: ). However, the complex is not formed if only iodine or only iodide (I) is present. The colour of the starch complex is so deep, that it can be detected visually when the concentration of the iodine is as low as 0.00002 M at 20 °C. The colour sensitivity decreases with increasing temperature (ten times less sensitive at 50 °C), and upon the addition of organic solvents such as ethanol or propanone. During iodine titrations, concentrated iodine solutions must be reacted with some titrant, often

text: thiosulfate

text: , in order to remove most of the iodine before the starch is added. This is due to the insolubility of the starch-iodine complex which may prevent some of the iodine reacting with the titrant. Close to the end-point, the starch is added, and the titration process is resumed taking into account the amount of thiosulfate added before adding the starch.

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Folk uses and views on the genus are incoherent and regional. Some species are regarded as narcotic or outright poisonous, but tests on sheep gave no positive result and some of the notionally toxic species are used in adulterating beer. Several species have been used in making various forms of beer, but it is not clear what the intended effect might be, although some species appears to have some activity in hydrolysing some carbohydrates. Some species are used as charms and non-specific "medicines".

text: Folk uses and views on the genus are incoherent and regional. Some species are regarded as narcotic or outright poisonous, but tests on sheep gave no positive result and some of the notionally toxic species are used in adulterating beer. Several species have been used in making various forms of beer, but it is not clear what the intended effect might be, although some species appears to have some activity in hydrolysing some carbohydrates. Some species are used as charms and non-specific "medicines".

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: hydrolysing some carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: hydrolysing some carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are dietary programs that restrict carbohydrate consumption, often for the treatment of obesity or diabetes. Foods high in easily digestible carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, bread, pasta) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of  fats and moderate protein (e.g., meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, cheese, nuts, and seeds) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most salad vegetables such as spinach, kale, chard and collards), although other vegetables and fruits (especially berries) are often allowed. The amount of carbohydrate  allowed varies with different low-carbohydrate diets.

text: Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are dietary programs that restrict

text: carbohydrate

text: consumption, often for the

text: treatment

text: of

text: obesity

text: or

text: diabetes

text: . Foods high in easily digestible carbohydrates (e.g.,

text: sugar

text: bread

text: pasta

text: ) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of

text: fat

text: s and moderate

text: protein

text: (e.g.,

text: meat

text: poultry

text: fish

text: shellfish

text: eggs

text: cheese

text: nuts

text: , and

text: seeds

text: ) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most

text: salad vegetables

text: such as

text: spinach

text: kale

text: chard

text: and

text: collards

text: ), although other

text: vegetable

text: s and

text: fruit

text: s (especially

text: berries

text: ) are often allowed. The amount of carbohydrate  allowed varies with different low-carbohydrate diets.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Phytochemical analysis of the bark revealed glycosides, terpenes, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids and other constituents. Further studies suggested that the bark is non-toxic in anti-inflammatory doses, supporting ethnomedical use of the plant in managing inflammation.

text: Phytochemical analysis of the bark revealed

text: glycosides

text: terpenes

text: tannin

text: s,

text: flavonoid

text: s,

text: saponin

text: s, carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids and other constituents. Further studies suggested that the bark is non-toxic in anti-inflammatory doses, supporting ethnomedical use of the plant in managing inflammation.

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answer: Yes

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text: Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in  staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava.

text: Starch or amylum is a

text: polymeric

text: carbohydrate

text: consisting of a large number of

text: glucose

text: units joined by

text: glycosidic bond

text: s. This

text: polysaccharide

text: is produced by most green

text: plant

text: s as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in

text: staple food

text: s such as

text: potato

text: es,

text: wheat

text: maize

text: (corn),

text: rice

text: , and

text: cassava

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: He was still responsible for the care of the heifers until 1911, and the care and feeding of his rats fell to a new volunteer, Marguerite Davis, a home economics-turned-biochemistry student who looked out for them daily, unpaid for five years. She earned $600 for her sixth and final year. Davis helped McCollum develop "the biological method for the analysis of food", and she co-authored a number of papers. Among them was "The Necessity Of Certain Lipins In The Diet During Growth" in 1913. They fed rats pure casein, carbohydrates (lactose, dextrine, and/or starch), with a little agar-agar and a mixture of six or seven salts. They substituted lard or olive oil for some of the carbohydrates for a group of rats. For 70 to 120 days, their rats grew, and then they stopped growing. They still appeared to be healthy, except the females did not have enough milk to nourish their young. They successfully restored about thirty rats to normality, after these rats had reached the stage of growth suspension, by adding a small amount of extracts of egg or butter. Their paper included charts for five rats, illustrating their weights over time compared to a normal growth curve, meant to show McCollum and Davis's "almost invariable success in inducing a resumption of growth after complete suspension for a time". One chart showed their results with a fat-free diet. They became convinced that without a substance in the egg or butter extract, rats could not grow, even though they appeared to be healthy.

text: He was still responsible for the care of the heifers until 1911, and the care and feeding of his rats fell to a new volunteer,

text: Marguerite Davis

text: , a

text: home economics

text: -turned-

text: biochemistry

text: student who looked out for them daily, unpaid for five years. She earned $600 for her sixth and final year. Davis helped McCollum develop "the biological method for the analysis of food", and she co-authored a number of papers. Among them was "The Necessity Of Certain Lipins In The Diet During Growth" in 1913. They fed rats pure

text: casein

text: carbohydrate

text: s (

text: lactose

text: dextrin

text: e, and/or

text: starch

text: ), with a little

text: agar-agar

text: and a mixture of six or seven

text: salt

text: s. They substituted

text: lard

text: or

text: olive oil

text: for some of the carbohydrates for a group of rats. For 70 to 120 days, their rats grew, and then they stopped growing. They still appeared to be healthy, except the females did not have enough milk to nourish their young. They successfully restored about thirty rats to normality, after these rats had reached the stage of growth suspension, by adding a small amount of extracts of

text: egg

text: or

text: butter

text: . Their paper included charts for five rats, illustrating their weights over time compared to a normal growth curve, meant to show McCollum and Davis's "almost invariable success in inducing a resumption of growth after complete suspension for a time". One chart showed their results with a fat-free diet. They became convinced that without a substance in the egg or butter extract, rats could not grow, even though they appeared to be healthy.

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2 The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: 0 The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In February 2014 Claire Julsing-Strydom, President of the Association for Dietetics in South Africa (ADSA), reported Noakes to the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) for advising a mother on Twitter that she should wean her child onto low-carbohydrate high-fat foods, which he described as real foods. "By implication I was saying that the child should not be weaned onto the traditional high sugar, high carbohydrate processed cereals." In response to the complaint, the Professional Conduct Committee of the HPCSA, chaired by Advocate Joan Adams, set up a hearing into the allegation of unprofessional conduct against Noakes. The hearing was scheduled for 4 June 2015, but following complaints from Noakes's legal team that the Committee was not properly constituted in accordance with the applicable regulations and the provisions of the Health Professions Act,  its commencement was delayed until November 2015. The first session of the hearing took place from 23 to 30 November 2015, after which proceedings were postponed to February 2016. The second  session resumed on 8 February and ended on 16 February 2016. The hearing continues and will resume on 17 October 2016.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Many critics argue that low-carbohydrate diets inherently require minimizing vegetable and fruit consumption, which in turn robs the body of important nutrients. Some critics imply or explicitly argue that vegetables and fruits are inherently all heavily concentrated sources of carbohydrates (so much so that some sources treat the words 'vegetable' and 'carbohydrate' as synonymous). While some fruits may contain relatively high concentrations of sugar, most are largely water and not particularly calorie-dense. Thus, in absolute terms, even sweet fruits and berries do not represent a significant source of carbohydrates in their natural form, and also typically contain a good deal of fiber which attenuates the absorption of sugar in the gut. Lastly, most of the sugar in fruit is fructose, which has a reported negligible effect on insulin levels in obese subjects.

text: Many critics argue that low-carbohydrate diets inherently require minimizing vegetable and fruit consumption, which in turn robs the body of important nutrients. Some critics imply or explicitly argue that vegetables and fruits are inherently all heavily concentrated sources of carbohydrates (so much so that some sources treat the words 'vegetable' and 'carbohydrate' as synonymous). While some fruits may contain relatively high concentrations of sugar, most are largely water and not particularly calorie-dense. Thus, in absolute terms, even sweet fruits and berries do not represent a significant source of carbohydrates in their natural form, and also typically contain a good deal of fiber which attenuates the absorption of sugar in the gut. Lastly, most of the sugar in fruit is fructose, which has a reported negligible effect on insulin levels in obese subjects.

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answers: sugar

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answers: While some fruits may contain relatively high concentrations of sugar

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answers: fiber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It is a starch blocker, and inhibits alpha glucosidase, an intestinal enzyme that releases glucose from larger carbohydrates. It is composed of an acarviosin moiety with a maltose at the reducing terminus.

text: It is a starch blocker, and inhibits

text: alpha glucosidase

text: , an intestinal enzyme that releases

text: glucose

text: from larger

text: carbohydrate

text: s. It is composed of an

text: acarviosin

text: moiety with a

text: maltose

text: at the reducing terminus.

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answers: glucose

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrases are produced in the pancreas but act in the stomach breaking down carbohydrates, hence the name.Carbohydrate is usually a compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrase is a protein/enzyme that catalyses carbohydrates to break down the compound Carbohydrate so the products can be simple sugar which is a Monosaccharide.

text: Carbohydrases are produced in the pancreas but act in the stomach breaking down carbohydrates, hence the name.Carbohydrate is usually a compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrase is a protein/enzyme that catalyses carbohydrates to break down the compound Carbohydrate so the products can be simple sugar which is a Monosaccharide.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Monosaccharide

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Jean-François Persoz (1808–1868) was a French chemist known for discovering the enzyme diastase and the carbohydrate cellulose.

text: Jean-François Persoz (1808–1868) was a French chemist known for discovering the enzyme

text: diastase

text: and the carbohydrate

text: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of beta 1-4 linkages between repeat glucose monomers.  It is the most abundant source of sugar in nature and is a major part of the paper industry.  Starch is also a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers; however, they are connected via an alpha 1-4 linkage instead of beta.  Starches, particularly amylase, are important in many industries, including the paper, cosmetic, and food.  Chitin is a derivation of cellulose, possessing an acetamide group instead of an –OH on one of its carbons.  Acetimide group is deacetylated the polymer chain is then called chitosan.  Both of these cellulose derivatives are a major source of research for the biomedical and food industries.  They have been shown to assist with blood clotting, have antimicrobial properties, and dietary applications.  A lot of engineering and research is focusing on the degree of deacetylation that provides the most effective result for specific applications.

text: Cellulose

text: is a polysaccharide made up of beta 1-4 linkages between repeat glucose monomers.  It is the most abundant source of sugar in nature and is a major part of the paper industry.

text: Starch

text: is also a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers; however, they are connected via an alpha 1-4 linkage instead of beta.  Starches, particularly

text: amylase

text: , are important in many industries, including the paper, cosmetic, and food.

text: Chitin

text: is a derivation of cellulose, possessing an

text: acetamide

text: group instead of an –OH on one of its carbons.  Acetimide group is deacetylated the polymer chain is then called

text: chitosan

text: .  Both of these cellulose derivatives are a major source of research for the biomedical and

text: food industries

text: .  They have been shown to assist with

text: blood clotting

text: , have antimicrobial properties, and dietary applications.  A lot of engineering and research is focusing on the degree of

text: deacetylation

text: that provides the most effective result for specific applications.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.

text: The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure.

text: Sugar

text: s are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and

text: genetic information

text: , as well as play important roles in cell to

text: cell interactions

text: and

text: communications

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sulfatases  are enzymes of the esterase class that catalyze the hydrolysis of sulfate esters. These may be found on a range of substrates, including steroids, carbohydrates and proteins. Sulfate esters may be formed from various alcohols and amines. In the latter case the resultant N-sulfates can also be termed sulfamates.

text: Sulfatases  are

text: enzyme

text: s of the

text: esterase

text: class that catalyze the hydrolysis of

text: sulfate

text: esters. These may be found on a range of substrates, including steroids, carbohydrates and proteins. Sulfate esters may be formed from various alcohols and amines. In the latter case the resultant N-sulfates can also be termed

text: sulfamate

text: s.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates.  They differ in the concentration and the balance between sugars, starches, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch.  Starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of West Africa, Central Africa, and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make fufu or poi.

text: Root vegetables are generally

text: storage organ

text: s, enlarged to store energy in the form of

text: carbohydrate

text: s.  They differ in the concentration and the balance between

text: sugar

text: s,

text: starch

text: es, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch.  Starchy root vegetables are important

text: staple food

text: s, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing

text: cereal

text: s throughout much of

text: West Africa

text: Central Africa

text: , and

text: Oceania

text: , where they are used directly or mashed to make

text: fufu

text: or

text: poi

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Starchy root vegetables

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The Lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in a special solvent, N-methylmorpholine N-oxide.  The process starts with woody sources of cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka and Courtaulds Fibres. As of 2013, Lenzing's Tencel brand is perhaps the most widely known lyocell fiber producer.

text: The

text: Lyocell

text: process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in a special solvent,

text: N-methylmorpholine N-oxide

text: .  The process starts with woody sources of cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka and Courtaulds Fibres. As of 2013, Lenzing's Tencel brand is perhaps the most widely known lyocell fiber producer.

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Woody sources of cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Lyocell

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The aldehyde and ketone functional groups in these carbohydrates react with neighbouring hydroxyl functional groups to form intramolecular hemiacetals and hemiketals, respectively. The resulting ring structure is related to pyran, and is termed a pyranose. The ring spontaneously opens and closes, allowing rotation to occur about the bond between the carbonyl group and the neighbouring carbon atom, yielding two distinct configurations (α and β). This process is termed mutarotation. Hexose sugars can form dihexose sugars with a condensation reaction to form a 1,6-glycosidic bond.

text: The aldehyde and ketone functional groups in these carbohydrates react with neighbouring

text: hydroxyl

text: functional groups to form

text: intramolecular

text: hemiacetal

text: s and

text: hemiketal

text: s, respectively. The resulting ring structure is related to

text: pyran

text: , and is termed a

text: pyranose

text: . The ring spontaneously opens and closes, allowing rotation to occur about the bond between the

text: carbonyl

text: group and the neighbouring carbon atom, yielding two distinct configurations (α and β). This process is termed

text: mutarotation

text: . Hexose sugars can form

text: dihexose

text: sugars with a condensation reaction to form a 1,6-

text: glycosidic bond

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answers: carbon

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answers: Hexose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Hexose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Joisher's 45-day Everest expedition culminated in his climbing the summit on On 19 May 2016. Everest ascent is a multi-staged climb. First stage is getting to the base camp, then there are camps 1 to 4, from camp 4 is the final ascent to the summit. At the base camp, Joisher ate pohe, puri bhaji, dal rice, pav bhaji and vegan breads, pastas and burgers and vegan cakes were baked to celebrate birthdays and for the summit party. From base camp to Camp 4, climbers retain appetite for solid food, non-vegan climbers eat high protein products made from meat, dairy and eggs, which according to Joisher is wrong as what is needed is carbohydrates and electrolytes. However for four days that Joisher took for climbing from camp 3 to the summit and back to camp 2, including the Death Zone (height above 7925 m), Joisher only ate two Oreo biscuits which are vegan, he subsisted on a vegan gel manufactured by Unived, which according to Joisher, on ingestion releases carbohydrates and electrolytes instantly, unlike other foods that could take up to 10 hours. On successfully reaching the base camp, the first food that Joisher had was paper masala dosa, “It’s twice the size of a normal dosa.”  he is quoted saying.

text: Joisher's 45-day Everest expedition culminated in his climbing the summit on On 19 May 2016. Everest ascent is a multi-staged climb. First stage is getting to the base camp, then there are camps 1 to 4, from camp 4 is the final ascent to the summit. At the base camp, Joisher ate

text: pohe

text: puri bhaji

text: dal rice

text: pav bhaji

text: and vegan breads, pastas and burgers and vegan cakes were baked to celebrate birthdays and for the summit party. From base camp to Camp 4, climbers retain appetite for solid food, non-vegan climbers eat high protein products made from meat, dairy and eggs, which according to Joisher is wrong as what is needed is carbohydrates and electrolytes. However for four days that Joisher took for climbing from camp 3 to the summit and back to camp 2, including the

text: Death Zone

text: (height above 7925 m), Joisher only ate two

text: Oreo biscuits

text: which are vegan, he subsisted on a vegan gel manufactured by Unived, which according to Joisher, on ingestion releases carbohydrates and electrolytes instantly, unlike other foods that could take up to 10 hours. On successfully reaching the base camp, the first food that Joisher had was

text: paper masala dosa

text: , “It’s twice the size of a normal dosa.”  he is quoted saying.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: On ingestion releases carbohydrates and electrolytes instantly

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answers: paper

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are  commonly referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see illustration).

text: The term is most common in

text: biochemistry

text: , where it is a synonym of '

text: saccharide

text: ', a group that includes

text: sugar

text: s,

text: starch

text: , and

text: cellulose

text: . The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups:

text: monosaccharide

text: s,

text: disaccharide

text: s,

text: oligosaccharide

text: s, and

text: polysaccharide

text: s. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower

text: molecular weight

text: ) carbohydrates, are  commonly referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the

text: Greek

text: word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix

text: -ose

text: . For example,

text: grape sugar

text: is the monosaccharide

text: glucose

text: cane sugar

text: is the disaccharide

text: sucrose

text: , and milk sugar is the disaccharide

text: lactose

text: (see illustration).

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Since alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevent the degradation of complex carbohydrates into glucose, the carbohydrates will remain in the intestine.  In the colon, bacteria will digest the complex carbohydrates, thereby causing gastrointestinal side effects such as flatulence and diarrhea.  Since these effects are dose-related, it is generally advised to start with a low dose and gradually increase the dose to the desired amount.Pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis is another reported side effect.If a patient using an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor suffers from an episode of hypoglycemia, the patient should eat something containing monosaccharides, such as glucose tablets.  Since the drug will prevent the digestion of polysaccharides (or non-monosaccharides), non-monosaccharide foods may not effectively reverse a hypoglycemic episode in a patient taking an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor.

text: Since alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevent the degradation of complex carbohydrates into glucose, the carbohydrates will remain in the intestine.  In the

text: colon

text: , bacteria will digest the complex carbohydrates, thereby causing gastrointestinal side effects such as

text: flatulence

text: and

text: diarrhea

text: .  Since these effects are dose-related, it is generally advised to start with a low dose and gradually increase the dose to the desired amount.

text: Pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis

text: is another reported side effect.If a patient using an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor suffers from an episode of

text: hypoglycemia

text: , the patient should eat something containing monosaccharides, such as glucose tablets.  Since the drug will prevent the digestion of polysaccharides (or non-monosaccharides), non-monosaccharide foods may not effectively reverse a hypoglycemic episode in a patient taking an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor.

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: polysaccharides (or non-monosaccharides)

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates (polymeric CHO) releases H in a bioreformer mediated by the enzyme cocktail—cell-free synthetic pathway biotransformation. Carbohydrate provides high hydrogen storage densities as a liquid with mild pressurization and cryogenic constraints: It can also be stored as a solid powder. Carbohydrate is the most abundant renewable bioresource in the world.

text: Carbohydrates

text: (polymeric CHO) releases H in a bioreformer mediated by the enzyme cocktail—cell-free synthetic pathway biotransformation. Carbohydrate provides high hydrogen storage densities as a liquid with mild pressurization and cryogenic constraints: It can also be stored as a solid powder. Carbohydrate is the most abundant renewable bioresource in the world.

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answers: 3

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: CHO

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: CHO

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Amylose is important in plant energy storage. It is less readily digested than amylopectin; however, because it is more linear than amylopectin, it takes up less space. As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage in plants.  It makes up about 30% of the stored starch in plants, though the specific percentage varies by species. The digestive enzyme α-amylase is responsible for the breakdown of the starch molecule into maltotriose and maltose, which can be used as sources of energy.

text: Amylose is important in plant energy storage. It is less readily digested than

text: amylopectin

text: ; however, because it is more linear than amylopectin, it takes up less space. As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage in plants.  It makes up about 30% of the stored starch in plants, though the specific percentage varies by species. The digestive enzyme α-

text: amylase

text: is responsible for the breakdown of the starch molecule into

text: maltotriose

text: and

text: maltose

text: , which can be used as sources of energy.

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answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Wańkowicz begins this chapter by recalling the destruction, caused by the senseless de-forestation in northeastern portion of the Second Polish Republic (currently this area belongs to Belarus). By the late 1930s, due to the invention of cellulose, Polish forests ceased to be depleted. A brand new cellulose factory was opened in the town of Niedomice, 15 kilometers from Tarnów. The factory was built from July 1935 to November 1937, on an 80-hectare plot of wet meadow, purchased from the Sanguszko family: "The Niedomice plant daily uses 50,000 cubic meters of water from the Dunajec, while the city of Warsaw uses 80,000 cubic meters of water (...) It processes spruce from the Carpathians and the Kresy, and among its products there is silk. Furthermore, thanks to the existence of the Niedomice plant, we will no longer have to import nitrocellulose, as it will be replaced by Polish-made cellulose (...) And when I look at the mighty machines, crushing the immense tree trunks into little splinters, I think of the wasteful economy of the past generations, and I am thankful that there is a provident hand, which begins to rule Polish national household". (pages 226 - 240)

text: Wańkowicz begins this chapter by recalling the destruction, caused by the senseless de-forestation in northeastern portion of the Second Polish Republic (currently this area belongs to

text: Belarus

text: ). By the late 1930s, due to the invention of

text: cellulose

text: , Polish forests ceased to be depleted. A brand new cellulose factory was opened in the town of

text: Niedomice

text: , 15 kilometers from

text: Tarnów

text: . The factory was built from July 1935 to November 1937, on an 80-hectare plot of wet meadow, purchased from the

text: Sanguszko family

text: : "The Niedomice plant daily uses 50,000

text: cubic meter

text: s of water from the

text: Dunajec

text: , while the city of

text: Warsaw

text: uses 80,000 cubic meters of water (...) It processes

text: spruce

text: from the

text: Carpathians

text: and the

text: Kresy

text: , and among its products there is

text: silk

text: . Furthermore, thanks to the existence of the Niedomice plant, we will no longer have to import

text: nitrocellulose

text: , as it will be replaced by Polish-made

text: cellulose

text: (...) And when I look at the mighty machines, crushing the immense tree trunks into little splinters, I think of the wasteful economy of the past generations, and I am thankful that there is a provident hand, which begins to rule Polish national household". (pages 226 - 240)

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text: Increases in Crude Fibre contentCuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985) stated that "In sprouted barley, crude fibre, a major constituent of cell walls, increases both in percentage and real terms, with the synthesis of structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose”. Chung et al. (1989) found that the fibre content increased from 3.75% in unsprouted barley seed to 6% in 5-day sprouts."

text: Increases in Crude Fibre contentCuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985) stated that "In sprouted barley, crude fibre, a major constituent of cell walls, increases both in percentage and real terms, with the synthesis of structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose”. Chung et al. (1989) found that the fibre content increased from 3.75% in unsprouted barley seed to 6% in 5-day sprouts."

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: George Audemars first manufactured regenerated nitrocellulose fibers in 1855. Though these fibers were soft and strong -resembling silk- they had the drawback of being highly flammable. Hilaire de Chardonnet perfected production of nitrocellulose fibers, but manufacturing of these fibers was relatively uneconomical. In 1890, L.H. Despeissis invented the cuprammonium process -which uses a cuprammonium solution to solubilize cellulose- a method still used today for production of artificial silk. In 1891, it was discovered that treatment of cellulose with alkali and carbon disulfide generated a soluble cellulose derivative known as viscose. This process, patented by the founders of the Viscose Development Company, is the most widely used method for manufacturing regenerated cellulose products. Courtaulds purchased the patents for this process in 1904, leading to significant growth of viscose fiber production. By 1931, expiration of patents for the viscose process led to its adoption worldwide. Global production of regenerated cellulose fiber peaked in 1973 at 3,856,000 tons.

text: George Audemars first manufactured regenerated

text: nitrocellulose

text: fibers in 1855. Though these fibers were soft and strong -resembling silk- they had the drawback of being highly flammable.

text: Hilaire de Chardonnet

text: perfected production of nitrocellulose fibers, but manufacturing of these fibers was relatively uneconomical. In 1890, L.H. Despeissis invented the

text: cuprammonium process

text: -which uses a cuprammonium solution to solubilize cellulose- a method still used today for production of

text: artificial silk

text: . In 1891, it was discovered that treatment of cellulose with alkali and carbon disulfide generated a soluble cellulose derivative known as

text: viscose

text: . This process, patented by the founders of the Viscose Development Company, is the most widely used method for manufacturing regenerated cellulose products.

text: Courtaulds

text: purchased the patents for this process in 1904, leading to significant growth of viscose fiber production. By 1931, expiration of patents for the viscose process led to its adoption worldwide. Global production of regenerated cellulose fiber peaked in 1973 at 3,856,000 tons.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are several different types of carbohydrates: polysaccharides (e.g., starch, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose), monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose) and the disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, maltose, lactose).

text: There are several different types of

text: carbohydrate

text: s:

text: polysaccharide

text: s (e.g.,

text: starch

text: amylopectin

text: glycogen

text: cellulose

text: monosaccharide

text: s (e.g.,

text: glucose

text: galactose

text: fructose

text: ribose

text: ) and the

text: disaccharide

text: s (e.g.,

text: sucrose

text: maltose

text: lactose

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answers: glucose

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answers: polysaccharides

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answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 2

text: The blood glucose can usually be raised to normal within minutes with 15-20 grams of carbohydrate, although overtreatment should be avoided if at all possible. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3-4 ounces (100-120 mL) of orange, apple, or grape juice, about 4-5 ounces (120-150 mL) of regular (non-diet) soda, about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. Starch is quickly digested to glucose, but adding fat or protein retards digestion.  Composition of the treatment should be considered, as fruit juice is typically higher in fructose which takes the body longer to metabolize than simple dextrose alone.  Following treatment, symptoms should begin to improve within 5 to 10 minutes, although full recovery may take 10–20 minutes. It should be noted that over treatment does not speed recovery, and will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards, which ultimately will need to be corrected. On the other hand, since the excess of insulin over the amount required to normalize blood sugar may continue to reduce blood sugar levels after treatment has produced an initial normalization, continued monitoring is required to determine if further treatment is necessary.

text: The blood glucose can usually be raised to normal within minutes with 15-20 grams of

text: carbohydrate

text: , although

text: overtreatment

text: should be avoided if at all possible. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3-4 ounces (100-120 mL) of orange, apple, or grape juice, about 4-5 ounces (120-150 mL) of regular (non-diet) soda, about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods.

text: Starch

text: is quickly digested to glucose, but adding fat or protein retards digestion.  Composition of the treatment should be considered, as fruit juice is typically higher in fructose which takes the body longer to metabolize than simple dextrose alone.  Following treatment, symptoms should begin to improve within 5 to 10 minutes, although full recovery may take 10–20 minutes. It should be noted that over treatment does not speed recovery, and will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards, which ultimately will need to be corrected. On the other hand, since the excess of insulin over the amount required to normalize blood sugar may continue to reduce blood sugar levels after treatment has produced an initial normalization, continued monitoring is required to determine if further treatment is necessary.

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answers: starch

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answers: starchy foods

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulases are rapidly synthesized by M. thermophila and can be used to degrade cellulose into simple carbohydrates as a food source for livestock. Also expressed by this species are broad-specificity phytases that are efficient in breaking down phytic acid to be used for supplementing livestock feed with phosphorus.

text: Cellulase

text: s are rapidly synthesized by M. thermophila and can be used to degrade cellulose into simple carbohydrates as a food source for livestock. Also expressed by this species are broad-specificity

text: phytase

text: s that are efficient in breaking down phytic acid to be used for supplementing livestock feed with phosphorus.

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answers: simple

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulases

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Schweizer's reagent is an alkaline solution of copper sulfate in ammonia, [Cu(NH)](OH)–3HO, or CuHNO.Schweizer's reagent may be prepared by covering technical grade, stabilized Copper(II) hydroxide with ammonium hydroxide.It was the basis for the process patented in 1890 by the French chemist Louis-Henri Despeissis for making fibers from cuprammonium rayon.He extruded the cuprammonium solution of cellulose into water, then used dilute sulfuric acid to neutralize the ammonia and precipitate the cellulose fibers.Despeissis died in 1892 and his patent was not renewed.

text: Schweizer's reagent is an alkaline solution of copper sulfate in ammonia, [Cu(NH)](OH)–3HO, or CuHNO.Schweizer's reagent may be prepared by covering technical grade, stabilized

text: Copper(II) hydroxide

text: with

text: ammonium hydroxide

text: .It was the basis for the process patented in 1890 by the French chemist Louis-Henri Despeissis for making fibers from cuprammonium rayon.He extruded the cuprammonium solution of cellulose into water, then used dilute

text: sulfuric acid

text: to neutralize the ammonia and precipitate the cellulose fibers.Despeissis died in 1892 and his patent was not renewed.

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answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: CBH1, for example, is composed of a carbohydrate binding site, a linker region and a catalytic domain. Once the cellulose chain is bound, it is strung through a tunnel-shaped active site where the cellulose is broken down into two-sugar segments called cellobiose. The structure of the enzyme can be seen in the first figure. The second figure shows the activity of the enzyme, and shows both cellulose binding to the enzyme, as well as the product of this step, cellobiose. Research suggests, however, that the activity of CBH1 is very strong inhibited by the product, cellobiose. Determination of an enzyme that is not as strongly inhibited by the product or finding a way to remove cellobiose from the environment of the enzyme are just more examples of the many challenges that face the use of these enzymes for the creation of biofuels.

text: CBH1, for example, is composed of a carbohydrate binding site, a linker region and a catalytic domain. Once the cellulose chain is bound, it is strung through a tunnel-shaped active site where the cellulose is broken down into two-sugar segments called cellobiose. The structure of the enzyme can be seen in the first figure. The second figure shows the activity of the enzyme, and shows both cellulose binding to the enzyme, as well as the product of this step, cellobiose. Research suggests, however, that the activity of CBH1 is very strong inhibited by the product, cellobiose. Determination of an enzyme that is not as strongly inhibited by the product or finding a way to remove cellobiose from the environment of the enzyme are just more examples of the many challenges that face the use of these enzymes for the creation of biofuels.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Plants store starch within specialized organelles called amyloplasts. When energy is needed for cell work, the plant hydrolyzes the starch, releasing the glucose subunits. Humans and other animals that eat plant foods also use amylase, an enzyme that assists in breaking down amylopectin.

text: Plants store starch within specialized

text: organelles

text: called

text: amyloplasts

text: . When

text: energy

text: is needed for

text: cell

text: work, the plant hydrolyzes the starch, releasing the glucose subunits.

text: Humans

text: and other animals that eat plant foods also use

text: amylase

text: , an

text: enzyme

text: that assists in breaking down amylopectin.

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answers: glucose

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answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental  components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.

text: Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple

text: monosaccharides

text: (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex

text: polysaccharides

text: (starch). Fats are

text: triglyceride

text: s, made of assorted

text: fatty acid

text: monomers

text: bound to a

text: glycerol

text: backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are

text: essential

text: in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental  components of protein are nitrogen-containing

text: amino acids

text: , some of which are

text: essential

text: in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when

text: atrophy

text: takes place, or during periods of starvation.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A diet with carefully controlled levels of the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine must be maintained at all times in order to prevent neurological damage. Since these three amino acids occur in all natural protein, and most natural foods contain some protein, any food intake must be closely monitored, and day-to-day protein intake calculated on a cumulative basis, to ensure individual tolerance levels are not exceeded at any time.  As the MSUD diet is so protein-restricted, and adequate protein is a requirement for all humans, tailored metabolic formula containing all the other essential amino acids, as well as any vitamins, minerals, omega-3 fatty acids and trace elements (which may be lacking due to the limited range of permissible foods), are an essential aspect of MSUD management.  These complement the MSUD patient's natural food intake to meet normal nutritional requirements without causing harm.  If adequate calories cannot be obtained from natural food without exceeding protein tolerance, specialised low protein products such as starch-based baking mixtures, imitation rice and pasta may be prescribed, often alongside a protein-free carbohydrate powder added to food and/or drink, and increased at times of metabolic stress. Some patients with MSUD may also improve with administration of high doses of thiamine, a cofactor of the enzyme that causes the condition.

text: A diet with carefully controlled levels of the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine must be maintained at all times in order to prevent neurological damage. Since these three amino acids occur in all natural protein, and most natural foods contain some protein, any food intake must be closely monitored, and day-to-day protein intake calculated on a cumulative basis, to ensure individual tolerance levels are not exceeded at any time.  As the MSUD diet is so protein-restricted, and adequate protein is a requirement for all humans, tailored metabolic formula containing all the other essential amino acids, as well as any

text: vitamins

text: minerals

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: s and

text: trace elements

text: (which may be lacking due to the limited range of permissible foods), are an essential aspect of MSUD management.  These complement the MSUD patient's natural food intake to meet normal nutritional requirements without causing harm.  If adequate calories cannot be obtained from natural food without exceeding protein tolerance, specialised low protein products such as starch-based baking mixtures, imitation rice and pasta may be prescribed, often alongside a protein-free carbohydrate powder added to food and/or drink, and increased at times of metabolic stress. Some patients with MSUD may also improve with administration of high doses of

text: thiamine

text: , a cofactor of the enzyme that causes the condition.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: A mixture of sugars and other carbohydrates, honey is mainly fructose (about 38-55%) and glucose (about 31%), with remaining sugars including maltose, sucrose, and other complex carbohydrates. Its glycemic index ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety. The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.

text: A mixture of sugars and other carbohydrates, honey is mainly fructose (about 38-55%) and glucose (about 31%), with remaining sugars including

text: maltose

text: , sucrose, and other

text: complex carbohydrates

text: . Its

text: glycemic index

text: ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety. The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The carbohydrate by difference approach presents several problems. First, it does not distinguish between sugars, starch and the unavailable carbohydrates (dietary fibre).

text: The carbohydrate by difference approach presents several problems. First, it does not distinguish between sugars, starch and the unavailable carbohydrates (dietary fibre).

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answer: Yes

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text: "Big food" has come under fire not only because a small number of players are responsible for a large percentage of the food supply chain, but because of concerns about the links between the highly processed foods they produce and the obesity epidemic both in the U.S. and worldwide.   The director general of the World Health Organization, in a speech given at the 8th Global Conference on Health Promotion in Helsinki, Finland in June 2013, noted that the public health community's efforts to combat chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease are pitted against the economic interests of the powerful food industry. Several studies are exploring processed foods with high concentrations of sugar, refined carbohydrates, fat, salt and caffeine for addictive properties.

text: "Big food" has come under fire not only because a small number of players are responsible for a large percentage of the food supply chain, but because of concerns about the links between the highly processed foods they produce and the

text: obesity epidemic

text: both in the U.S. and worldwide.   The director general of the World Health Organization, in a speech given at the 8th Global Conference on Health Promotion in Helsinki, Finland in June 2013, noted that the public health community's efforts to combat chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease are pitted against the economic interests of the powerful food industry. Several studies are exploring processed foods with high concentrations of sugar, refined carbohydrates, fat, salt and caffeine for addictive properties.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products."  They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. In order for the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.

text: The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products."  They are regenerated and later used again in the

text: Light-dependent reactions

text: ). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. In order for the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.

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answers: carbons

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex digestive system composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down cellulose from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler carbohydrates. When sheep graze, vegetation is chewed into a mass called a bolus, which is then passed into the rumen, via the reticulum. The rumen is a 19- to 38-liter (5 to 10 gal) organ in which feed is fermented. The fermenting organisms include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.  (Other important rumen organisms include some archaea, which produce methane from carbon dioxide.)  The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as cud for additional chewing and salivation. After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes into the reticulum and the omasum; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves into the abomasum for final digestion before processing by the intestines. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach, and is sometimes called the "true stomach".

text: Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex

text: digestive system

text: composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down

text: cellulose

text: from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler

text: carbohydrate

text: s. When sheep

text: graze

text: , vegetation is chewed into a mass called a

text: bolus

text: , which is then passed into the

text: rumen

text: , via the

text: reticulum

text: . The rumen is a 19- to 38-liter (5 to 10 gal) organ in which feed is

text: fermented

text: . The fermenting organisms include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.  (Other important rumen organisms include some archaea, which produce methane from carbon dioxide.)  The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as

text: cud

text: for additional chewing and

text: salivation

text: . After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes into the

text: reticulum

text: and the

text: omasum

text: ; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves into the

text: abomasum

text: for final digestion before processing by the

text: intestine

text: s. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach, and is sometimes called the "true stomach".

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answers: carbon

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Microfiber textiles tend to be flammable if manufactured from hydrocarbons (polyester) or carbohydrates (cellulose) and emit toxic gases when burning, more so if aromatic (PET, PS, ABS) or treated with halogenated flame retarders and aromatic dyes.  Their polyester and nylon stock are made from petrochemicals, which are not a renewable resource and are not biodegradable. However, if made out of polypropylene, they are recyclable (Prolen).

text: Microfiber textiles tend to be

text: flammable

text: if manufactured from hydrocarbons (polyester) or carbohydrates (cellulose) and emit

text: toxic

text: gases when burning, more so if aromatic (PET, PS, ABS) or treated with halogenated flame retarders and aromatic dyes.  Their

text: polyester

text: and

text: nylon

text: stock are made from

text: petrochemical

text: s, which are not a

text: renewable resource

text: and are not

text: biodegradable

text: . However, if made out of

text: polypropylene

text: , they are recyclable (Prolen).

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Biodegradable

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In ruminants, which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.

text: An important function of enzymes is in the

text: digestive systems

text: of animals. Enzymes such as

text: amylases

text: and

text: proteases

text: break down large molecules (

text: starch

text: or

text: protein

text: s, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as

text: maltose

text: and eventually

text: glucose

text: , which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In

text: ruminants

text: , which have

text: herbivorous

text: diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme,

text: cellulase

text: , to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Starch molecules

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: plant fiber

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Lipoarabinomannan is synthesized via addition of mannose residues to phosphoinositol by a series of mannosyltransferases to produce PIMs and lipomannan(LM). PIM and LM are then glycosylated with arabinan to form LAM. LAM is known to have three primary structural domains. These include a glycosylphosphatidyl anchor which attaches the molecule to the cell wall, a D-mannan core serving as a carbohydrate skeleton, and a terminal D-arabinan, also composing the carbohydrate skeleton. Many arabinofuranosyl side chains branch off the mannose core. It is the covalent modifications to this terminal D-arabinan that creates various LAM structures with their own unique functions to mediate bacterial survival within a host. The presence and the structure of capping allow classification of LAM molecules into three major classes.

text: Lipoarabinomannan is synthesized via addition of mannose residues to phosphoinositol by a series of mannosyltransferases to produce PIMs and

text: lipomannan

text: (LM). PIM and LM are then glycosylated with arabinan to form LAM. LAM is known to have three primary structural domains. These include a glycosylphosphatidyl anchor which attaches the molecule to the cell wall, a D-mannan core serving as a carbohydrate skeleton, and a terminal D-arabinan, also composing the carbohydrate skeleton. Many arabinofuranosyl side chains branch off the mannose core. It is the covalent modifications to this terminal D-arabinan that creates various LAM structures with their own unique functions to mediate bacterial survival within a host. The presence and the structure of capping allow classification of LAM molecules into three major classes.

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answers: glycosyl

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Lipoarabinomannan

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: LAM

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Breath tests have been developed to test for bacterial overgrowth, based on bacterial metabolism of carbohydrates to hydrogen and/or methane, or based on the detection of by-products of digestion of carbohydrates that are not usually metabolized.  The hydrogen breath test involves having the patient fast for a minimum of 12 hours then having them drink a substrate usually glucose or lactulose, then measuring expired hydrogen and methane concentrations typically over a period of 2–3 hours.  It compares well to jejunal aspirates in making the diagnosis of bacterial overgrowth.  C and C based tests have also been developed based on the bacterial metabolism of D-xylose.  Increased bacterial concentrations are also involved in the deconjugation of bile acids.  The glycocholic acid breath test involves the administration of the bile acid C glychocholic acid, and the detection of CO, which would be elevated in bacterial overgrowth.

text: Breath tests have been developed to test for bacterial overgrowth, based on bacterial metabolism of

text: carbohydrates

text: to

text: hydrogen

text: and/or

text: methane

text: , or based on the detection of by-products of digestion of carbohydrates that are not usually metabolized.  The

text: hydrogen breath test

text: involves having the patient fast for a minimum of 12 hours then having them drink a substrate usually glucose or lactulose, then measuring expired hydrogen and methane concentrations typically over a period of 2–3 hours.  It compares well to jejunal aspirates in making the diagnosis of bacterial overgrowth.  C and C based tests have also been developed based on the bacterial metabolism of D-xylose.  Increased bacterial concentrations are also involved in the deconjugation of bile acids.  The glycocholic acid breath test involves the administration of the bile acid C glychocholic acid, and the detection of CO, which would be elevated in bacterial overgrowth.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: lactulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: lactulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The legume lectins (or L-type lectins) are a family of sugar binding proteins or lectins found in the seeds and, in smaller amounts, in the roots, stems, leaves and bark of plants belonging to the Fabaceae family. The exact function of the legume lectins in vivo is unknown but they are probably involved in the defense of plants against predators. Related proteins in other plant families and in animals have also been found. They have been used for decades as a model system for the study of protein-carbohydrate interactions, because they show an amazing variety of binding specificities and are easy to obtain and purify. Over the years, aquite impressive amount of structural data has been gathered. Well-studied members of this protein family include phytohemagglutinin and concanavalin A.

text: The legume lectins (or L-type lectins) are a family of sugar binding proteins or

text: lectin

text: s found in the seeds and, in smaller amounts, in the roots, stems, leaves and bark of plants belonging to the

text: Fabaceae

text: family. The exact function of the legume lectins in vivo is unknown but they are probably involved in the defense of plants against predators. Related proteins in other plant families and in animals have also been found. They have been used for decades as a model system for the study of protein-carbohydrate interactions, because they show an amazing variety of binding specificities and are easy to obtain and purify. Over the years, aquite impressive amount of structural data has been gathered. Well-studied members of this protein family include

text: phytohemagglutinin

text: and

text: concanavalin A

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answers: legume lectins

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Fabaceae

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Starch was retailed through Dabs Press which was closely associated with the publisher Alien Images.

text: Starch was retailed through

text: Dabs Press

text: which was closely associated with the publisher Alien Images.

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answers: Starch

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answers: Starch

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answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The original glucose syrups were manufactured by acid hydrolysis of corn starch at high temperature and pressure. The typical product had a DE of 42, but quality was variable due to the difficulty of controlling the reaction.  Higher DE syrups made by acid hydrolysis tend to have a bitter taste and a dark colour, due to the production of hydroxymethylfurfural and other byproducts. This type of product is now manufactured using a continuous process and is still widely used due to the low cost of acid hydrolysis.  The sugar profile of a confectioner's syrup can also be mimicked by enzyme hydrolysis. A typical confectioner's syrup contains 19% glucose, 14% maltose, 11% maltotriose and 56% higher molecular mass carbohydrates.

text: The original glucose syrups were manufactured by acid hydrolysis of corn starch at high temperature and pressure. The typical product had a DE of 42, but quality was variable due to the difficulty of controlling the reaction.  Higher DE syrups made by acid hydrolysis tend to have a bitter taste and a dark colour, due to the production of

text: hydroxymethylfurfural

text: and other byproducts. This type of product is now manufactured using a continuous process and is still widely used due to the low cost of acid hydrolysis.  The sugar profile of a confectioner's syrup can also be mimicked by enzyme hydrolysis. A typical confectioner's syrup contains 19% glucose, 14% maltose, 11%

text: maltotriose

text: and 56% higher

text: molecular mass

text: carbohydrate

text: s.

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answers: glucose

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answers: corn starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: corn starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Two older prefixes still commonly used to distinguish diastereomers are threo and erythro. In the case of carbohydrates, when drawn in the Fischer projection the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on the same side and the threo isomer has them on opposite sides. When drawn as a zig-zag chain, the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on different sides of the plane (anti). The names are derived from the diastereomeric aldoses erythrose (a syrup) and threose (melting point 126 °C). These prefixes are not recommended for use outside of the realm of carbohydrates because their definitions can lead to conflicting interpretations.

text: Two older prefixes still commonly used to distinguish diastereomers are threo and erythro. In the case of carbohydrates, when drawn in the

text: Fischer projection

text: the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on the same side and the threo isomer has them on opposite sides. When drawn as a zig-zag chain, the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on different sides of the plane (anti). The names are derived from the diastereomeric aldoses

text: erythrose

text: (a syrup) and

text: threose

text: (melting point 126 °C). These prefixes are not recommended for use outside of the realm of carbohydrates because their definitions can lead to conflicting interpretations.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: threo

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Syrup

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Because the climate of the Arctic is ill-suited for agriculture and lacks forageable plant matter for much of the year, the traditional Inuit diet is lower in carbohydrates and higher in fat and animal protein compared to the global average. When carbohydrate intake is inadequate for total energy requirements, protein is broken down in the liver through gluconeogenesis and utilized as an energy source. Inuit studied in the 1970s were found to have abnormally large livers, presumably to assist in this process. Their urine volumes were also high, a result of additional urea which the body uses to purge waste products from gluconeogenesis. However, in multiple studies the traditional Inuit diet has not been shown to be a ketogenic diet. Not only have multiple researchers been unable to detect any evidence of ketosis resulting from the traditional Inuit Diet, but the ratios of fatty-acid to glucose were observed to be well below the generally accepted level of ketogenesis.

text: Because the

text: climate of the Arctic

text: is ill-suited for agriculture and lacks forageable plant matter for much of the year, the traditional Inuit diet is lower in

text: carbohydrate

text: s and higher in

text: fat

text: and animal

text: protein

text: compared to the global average. When carbohydrate intake is inadequate for total energy requirements,

text: protein

text: is broken down in the

text: liver

text: through

text: gluconeogenesis

text: and utilized as an energy source. Inuit studied in the 1970s were found to have abnormally large livers, presumably to assist in this process. Their urine volumes were also high, a result of additional

text: urea

text: which the body uses to purge waste products from gluconeogenesis. However, in multiple studies the traditional Inuit diet has not been shown to be a

text: ketogenic diet

text: . Not only have multiple researchers been unable to detect any evidence of

text: ketosis

text: resulting from the traditional Inuit Diet, but the ratios of fatty-acid to

text: glucose

text: were observed to be well below the generally accepted level of

text: ketogenesis

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, adequate-protein, low-carbohydrate diet that in medicine is used primarily to treat difficult-to-control (refractory) epilepsy in children. The diet forces the body to burn fats rather than carbohydrates. Normally, the carbohydrates contained in food are converted into glucose, which is then transported around the body and is particularly important in fueling brain-function. However, if there is very little carbohydrate in the diet, the liver converts fat into fatty acids and ketone bodies. The ketone bodies pass into the brain and replace glucose as an energy source. An elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood, a state known as ketosis, leads to a reduction in the frequency of epileptic seizures.

text: The ketogenic diet is a high-

text: fat

text: , adequate-

text: protein

text: low-carbohydrate diet

text: that in medicine is used primarily to treat difficult-to-control (refractory)

text: epilepsy

text: in children. The diet forces the body to burn fats rather than

text: carbohydrate

text: s. Normally, the carbohydrates contained in food are converted into

text: glucose

text: , which is then transported around the body and is particularly important in

text: fueling brain-function

text: . However, if there is very little carbohydrate in the diet, the

text: liver

text: converts

text: fat

text: into

text: fatty acid

text: s and

text: ketone bodies

text: . The ketone bodies pass into the brain and replace glucose as an energy source. An elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood, a state known as

text: ketosis

text: , leads to a reduction in the frequency of

text: epileptic seizure

text: s.

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: After surviving gunfire from  in which shells filled with lyddite were tested, she was towed back to Portsmouth. There, she was used to test the effect of guns of 6-inch and of 9.2 inch calibre, and of torpedoes. The torpedo experiments were expected to demonstrate the protective effect of cellulose against these weapons; the cellulose was expected to swell and plug the holes caused by the torpedoes. This did not happen, and Belleisle sank into the mud. She was raised with difficulty in October 1903 and sold for scrap to Germany.

text: After surviving gunfire from  in which shells filled with

text: lyddite

text: were tested, she was towed back to Portsmouth. There, she was used to test the effect of guns of 6-inch and of 9.2 inch calibre, and of torpedoes. The torpedo experiments were expected to demonstrate the protective effect of cellulose against these weapons; the cellulose was expected to swell and plug the holes caused by the torpedoes. This did not happen, and Belleisle sank into the mud. She was raised with difficulty in October 1903 and sold for scrap to Germany.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The body, sitting on the standard Rover 10/25 chassis, was constructed of cellulose over a frame of "selected seasoned hardwood": the cellulose bodywork triggered mild derision in some quarters, but its light weight was an aid to performance.   Two body colours were offered.   Cars with light blue bodies were fitted with light blue leather seats and darker blue wheels and wings, while the black bodied car came with green or red wheels and wings and green or red leather seats.

text: The body, sitting on the standard Rover 10/25 chassis, was constructed of

text: cellulose

text: over a frame of "selected seasoned hardwood": the cellulose bodywork triggered mild derision in some quarters, but its light weight was an aid to performance.   Two body colours were offered.   Cars with light blue bodies were fitted with light blue leather seats and darker blue wheels and wings, while the black bodied car came with green or red wheels and wings and green or red leather seats.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Diastatic power (DP), also called the "diastatic activity" or "enzymatic power", is a property of malts, grains that have begun to germinate, and is used to measure the malt's ability to break down starches into simpler fermentable sugars during the mashing process.  The act of germination produces a number of enzymes such as amylase that can convert the starch naturally present in barley and other grains into sugar.  The mashing process activates these enzymes by soaking the grain in water at a controlled temperature.

text: Diastatic power (DP), also called the "diastatic activity" or "enzymatic power", is a property of

text: malt

text: s, grains that have begun to

text: germinate

text: , and is used to measure the malt's ability to break down starches into simpler fermentable sugars during the mashing process.  The act of germination produces a number of

text: enzymes

text: such as

text: amylase

text: that can convert the

text: starch

text: naturally present in barley and other grains into sugar.  The mashing process activates these enzymes by soaking the grain in water at a controlled temperature.

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answers: sugars

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answers: starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates, made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy storing molecules. The simplest one of carbohydrates is glucose, CHO, is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which supplies cells with energy.

text: Carbohydrates, made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy storing molecules. The simplest one of carbohydrates is glucose, CHO, is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which supplies cells with energy.

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answers: carbon

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins, macromolecules that are highly specific for sugar moieties.

text: Lectins are

text: carbohydrate

text: -binding

text: protein

text: s, macromolecules that are highly specific for sugar

text: moieties

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answers: sugar

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answers: Lectins

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The nest pedicel, which is the stalk by which the entire nest hangs from the horizontal face of the overhang, is made from a durable material composed of the wasps’ oral secretion. It has a nitrogen content of 11% and is mainly carbohydrates and proteins. Pedicel proteins are rich in glycine, proline, alanine, and serine. These amino acids are also found in the silks of other insects. Another minor component is N-acetylglucosamine, which is probably bound to the pedicel protein. Proline is a major component of structural proteins and likely contributes to the structural strength of the pedicel in holding up the rest of the nest. The pedicel suspends the nest high in the air and precludes many predators from getting close to the nest. However, birds often try to knock nests off the cliff, and colonies that hang low toward the ground can be attacked and eaten by raccoons. Cellulose makes up most of the nest paper. Larval silk is a protein with high amounts of serine and alanine. When larvae mature, silk is produced in their labial glands. Larvae spin cocoons that enclose themselves into their cell in the nest.

text: The nest pedicel, which is the stalk by which the entire nest hangs from the horizontal face of the overhang, is made from a durable material composed of the wasps’ oral secretion. It has a nitrogen content of 11% and is mainly

text: carbohydrate

text: s and

text: protein

text: s. Pedicel proteins are rich in

text: glycine

text: proline

text: alanine

text: , and

text: serine

text: . These

text: amino acid

text: s are also found in the

text: silk

text: s of other insects. Another minor component is

text: N-acetylglucosamine

text: , which is probably bound to the pedicel protein. Proline is a major component of structural proteins and likely contributes to the structural strength of the pedicel in holding up the rest of the nest. The pedicel suspends the nest high in the air and precludes many predators from getting close to the nest. However, birds often try to knock nests off the cliff, and colonies that hang low toward the ground can be attacked and eaten by

text: raccoon

text: s.

text: Cellulose

text: makes up most of the nest paper.

text: Larva

text: l silk is a protein with high amounts of serine and alanine. When larvae mature, silk is produced in their

text: labial glands

text: . Larvae spin

text: cocoons

text: that enclose themselves into their cell in the nest.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: It has a nitrogen content of 11%

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Phase One of the Bible diet restricts foods high in carbohydrates such as grains, pastas, breads, sugar, potatoes, corn, beans, and legumes. Although the people on the diet consumed foods containing carbohydrates, they were of high quality and less processed.

text: Phase One of the Bible diet restricts foods high in

text: carbohydrate

text: s such as grains,

text: pasta

text: s,

text: bread

text: s,

text: sugar

text: , potatoes,

text: corn

text: , beans, and legumes. Although the people on the diet consumed foods containing carbohydrates, they were of high quality and less processed.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Some plants have a large number of amyloplasts (starch containing organelles) in their endodermal cells, in which case the endodermis may be called a starch sheath.

text: Some plants have a large number of amyloplasts (starch containing organelles) in their endodermal cells, in which case the endodermis may be called a starch sheath.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch containing organelles

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Anselme Payen (; 6 January 1795 – 12 May 1878) was a French chemist known for discovering the enzyme diastase, and the carbohydrate cellulose.

text: Anselme Payen (; 6 January 1795 – 12 May 1878) was a

text: French

text: chemist

text: known for discovering the enzyme

text: diastase

text: , and the carbohydrate

text: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: An example of an enzyme containing a domain belonging to this family is one of the cellulases (celA) from the genome of the thermophilic anaerobic bacterium Caldocellum saccharolyticum. The celA gene product is a polypeptide of 1751 amino acids; this has a multidomain structure comprising two catalytic domains and two cellulose-binding domains, linked by Pro-Thr-rich regions. The N-terminal domain encodes an endoglucanase activity on carboxymethylcellulose, consistent with its similarity to several endo-1, 4-beta-D-glucanase sequences, and is a member of the glycoside hydrolase family 9. The C-terminal domain belongs to this family shows similarity to a cellulase from Clostridium thermocellum (CelS), which acts synergistically with a second component to hydrolyse crystalline cellulose.

text: An example of an enzyme containing a domain belonging to this family is one of the

text: cellulases

text: (celA) from the genome of the thermophilic anaerobic bacterium

text: Caldocellum saccharolyticum

text: . The celA gene product is a polypeptide of 1751 amino acids; this has a multidomain structure comprising two catalytic domains and two cellulose-binding domains, linked by Pro-Thr-rich regions. The N-terminal domain encodes an endoglucanase activity on

text: carboxymethylcellulose

text: , consistent with its similarity to several endo-1, 4-beta-D-glucanase sequences, and is a member of the

text: glycoside hydrolase family 9

text: . The C-terminal domain belongs to this family shows similarity to a cellulase from

text: Clostridium thermocellum

text: (CelS), which acts synergistically with a second component to hydrolyse crystalline cellulose.

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answers: carboxymethyl

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carboxymethylcellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carboxymethylcellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Starch is not often used alone as a plastic material because of its brittle nature, but is commonly used as a biodegradation additive. Many plasticizers use starch-glycerol-water to modify starch’s brittle nature. Biodegradation of this blend was tested and was found that by the second day the degraded carbon had already attained about 100% of the initial carbon of the sample.

text: Starch is not often used alone as a plastic material because of its brittle nature, but is commonly used as a biodegradation additive. Many plasticizers use starch-glycerol-water to modify starch’s brittle nature. Biodegradation of this blend was tested and was found that by the second day the degraded carbon had already attained about 100% of the initial carbon of the sample.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glycerol

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: All carbohydrates share a general formula of approximately CHO; glucose is CHO. Monosaccharides may be chemically bonded together to form disaccharides such as sucrose and longer polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose.

text: All carbohydrates share a general formula of approximately CHO; glucose is CHO. Monosaccharides may be chemically bonded together to form

text: disaccharides

text: such as

text: sucrose

text: and longer

text: polysaccharides

text: such as

text: starch

text: and

text: cellulose

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answers: 4

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answers: 3

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: CHO

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Wheat is often a cryptic contaminant of many foods; more obvious items are bread crumbs, maltodextrin, bran, cereal extract, couscous, cracker meal, enriched flour, gluten, high-gluten flour, high-protein flour, seitan, semolina wheat, vital gluten, wheat bran, wheat germ, wheat gluten, wheat malt, wheat starch or whole wheat flour. Less obvious sources of wheat could be gelatinized starch, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, modified food starch, modified starch, natural flavoring, soy sauce, soy bean paste, hoisin sauce, starch, vegetable gum, specifically Beta-glucan, vegetable starch.

text: Wheat is often a cryptic contaminant of many foods; more obvious items are bread crumbs,

text: maltodextrin

text: bran

text: , cereal extract,

text: couscous

text: , cracker meal,

text: enriched flour

text: gluten

text: , high-gluten flour, high-protein flour,

text: seitan

text: semolina

text: wheat, vital gluten, wheat bran, wheat germ, wheat gluten, wheat malt, wheat starch or

text: whole wheat flour

text: . Less obvious sources of wheat could be

text: gelatinized starch

text: hydrolyzed vegetable protein

text: , modified food starch,

text: modified starch

text: , natural flavoring,

text: soy sauce

text: , soy bean paste, hoisin sauce, starch,

text: vegetable gum

text: , specifically

text: Beta-glucan

text: , vegetable starch.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: vegetable starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: vegetable gum

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.

text: The

text: glycemic index (GI)

text: and

text: glycemic load

text: concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on

text: blood glucose

text: levels. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food

text: glucose

text: is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The

text: insulin index

text: is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on

text: blood insulin

text: levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Glycemic load

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: glucose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Maltitol is a disaccharide produced by hydrogenation of maltose obtained from starch. Maltitol syrup, a hydrogenated starch hydrolysate, is created by hydrogenating corn syrup: a mixture of carbohydrates produced from the hydrolysis of starch; this product contains between 50% and 80% maltitol by weight. The remainder is mostly sorbitol, with a small quantity of other sugar-related substances.

text: Maltitol is a

text: disaccharide

text: produced by

text: hydrogenation

text: of

text: maltose

text: obtained from

text: starch

text: . Maltitol syrup, a

text: hydrogenated starch hydrolysate

text: , is created by hydrogenating

text: corn syrup

text: : a mixture of carbohydrates produced from the

text: hydrolysis

text: of starch; this product contains between 50% and 80% maltitol by weight. The remainder is mostly

text: sorbitol

text: , with a small quantity of other sugar-related substances.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In the textile industry regenerated cellulose is used as fibers such as rayon, (including modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell). Cellulose fibers are manufactured from dissolving pulp. Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.

text: In the textile industry

text: regenerated cellulose

text: is used as

text: fiber

text: s such as

text: rayon

text: , (including

text: modal

text: , and the more recently developed

text: Lyocell

text: ). Cellulose fibers are manufactured from

text: dissolving pulp

text: . Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the

text: cellulose acetate

text: s.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose acetates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulose fibers

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Since acarbose prevents the degradation of complex carbohydrates into glucose, some carbohydrate will remain in the intestine and be delivered to the colon.  In the colon, bacteria digest the complex carbohydrates, causing gastrointestinal side-effects such as flatulence (78% of patients) and diarrhea (14% of patients). Since these effects are dose-related, in general it is advised to start with a low dose and gradually increase the dose to the desired amount. One study found that G.I. side effects decreased significantly (from 50% to 15%) over 24 weeks, even on constant dosing.

text: Since acarbose prevents the degradation of complex carbohydrates into glucose, some carbohydrate will remain in the intestine and be delivered to the colon.  In the

text: colon

text: , bacteria digest the complex carbohydrates, causing gastrointestinal side-effects such as

text: flatulence

text: (78% of patients) and

text: diarrhea

text: (14% of patients). Since these effects are dose-related, in general it is advised to start with a low dose and gradually increase the dose to the desired amount. One study found that G.I. side effects decreased significantly (from 50% to 15%) over 24 weeks, even on constant dosing.

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answers: glucose

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Mycena galopus is a saprobic fungus, and plays an important role in forest ecosystems as a decomposer of leaf litter. It has been estimated in the UK to account for a large portion of the decomposition of the autumn leaf litter in British woodlands. It is able to break down the lignin and cellulose components of leaf litter. Grown in axenic culture in the laboratory, the fungus mycelium has been shown to degrade (in addition to lignin and cellulose) hemicelluloses, protein, soluble carbohydrates, and purified xylan and pectin using enzymes such as polyphenol oxidases, cellulases, and catalase. It is particularly adept at breaking down lignin, which is the second most abundant renewable organic compound in the biosphere, after cellulose. Research also suggests that the fungus weathers soil minerals, making them more available to mycorrhizal plants. Phosphorus, an important macronutrient influencing plant growth, typically occurs in primary minerals like apatite, or other organic complexes, and its low solubility often results in low phosphorus availability in soil. The biological activity of M. galopus mycelium can increase the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients, both as a result of soil acidification due to cation uptake and via the release of weathering agents such low molecular mass organic acids. Studies have shown that the fungus is sensitive to low concentrations of sulphite (SO), a byproduct of sulphur dioxide pollution, suggesting that this pollution can be toxic to the growth of the fungus (and the subsequent decomposition of leaf litter) at environmentally relevant concentrations.

text: Mycena galopus is a

text: saprobic

text: fungus, and plays an important role in

text: forest ecosystems

text: as a decomposer of

text: leaf litter

text: . It has been estimated in the UK to account for a large portion of the decomposition of the autumn leaf litter in British woodlands. It is able to break down the

text: lignin

text: and

text: cellulose

text: components of leaf litter. Grown in

text: axenic

text: culture in the laboratory, the fungus mycelium has been shown to degrade (in addition to lignin and cellulose)

text: hemicellulose

text: s, protein, soluble carbohydrates, and purified

text: xylan

text: and

text: pectin

text: using enzymes such as

text: polyphenol oxidase

text: s,

text: cellulase

text: s, and

text: catalase

text: . It is particularly adept at breaking down lignin, which is the second most abundant

text: renewable

text: organic compound in the

text: biosphere

text: , after cellulose. Research also suggests that the fungus weathers soil minerals, making them more available to mycorrhizal plants.

text: Phosphorus

text: , an important

text: macronutrient

text: influencing plant growth, typically occurs in primary minerals like

text: apatite

text: , or other organic

text: complexes

text: , and its low

text: solubility

text: often results in low phosphorus availability in soil. The biological activity of M. galopus mycelium can increase the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients, both as a result of soil acidification due to

text: cation

text: uptake and via the release of weathering agents such low molecular mass

text: organic acid

text: s. Studies have shown that the fungus is sensitive to low concentrations of

text: sulphite

text: (SO), a byproduct of

text: sulphur dioxide

text: pollution, suggesting that this pollution can be toxic to the growth of the fungus (and the subsequent decomposition of leaf litter) at environmentally relevant concentrations.

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answers: Mycena galopus

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose, and galactose. The table or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide. (In the body, sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose.) Other disaccharides include maltose and lactose. Longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides. Chemically-different substances may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars. Some are used as lower-calorie food substitutes for sugar described as artificial sweeteners.

text: Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble

text: carbohydrates

text: , many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called

text: monosaccharide

text: s and include

text: glucose

text: (also known as dextrose),

text: fructose

text: , and

text: galactose

text: . The table or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is

text: sucrose

text: , a

text: disaccharide

text: . (In the body, sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose.) Other disaccharides include

text: maltose

text: and

text: lactose

text: . Longer chains of sugars are called

text: oligosaccharides

text: . Chemically-different substances may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars. Some are used as

text: lower-calorie

text: food substitutes for sugar described as

text: artificial sweetener

text: s.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Longer chains

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: 2. β-ovomucin - carbohydrate-rich with a molecular mass of 400-610kDa

text: 2. β-ovomucin - carbohydrate-rich with a molecular mass of 400-610kDa

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answers: carbon

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The GI represents the total rise in a person's blood sugar level following consumption of the food; it may or may not represent the rapidity of the rise in blood sugar.  The steepness of the rise can be influenced by a number of other factors, such as the quantity of fat eaten with the food.  The GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks down carbohydrates and only takes into account the available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food.   Although the food may contain fats and other components that contribute to the total rise in blood sugar, these effects are not reflected in the GI.

text: The GI represents the total rise in a person's blood sugar level following consumption of the food; it may or may not represent the rapidity of the rise in blood sugar.  The steepness of the rise can be influenced by a number of other factors, such as the quantity of fat eaten with the food.  The GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks down

text: carbohydrate

text: s and only takes into account the available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus

text: fiber

text: ) in a food.   Although the food may contain fats and other components that contribute to the total rise in blood sugar, these effects are not reflected in the GI.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: The GI

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: fiber

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The word cellulose comes from the French word cellule, for a living cell, and glucose, which is sugar. Building insulation is low-thermal-conductivity material used to reduce building heat loss and gain, and reduce noise transmission. Cellulose insulation is plant fiber used in wall and roof cavities to insulate, draught proof and reduce noise.

text: The word

text: cellulose

text: comes from the French word cellule, for a living cell, and

text: glucose

text: , which is sugar.

text: Building insulation

text: is low-

text: thermal-conductivity

text: material used to reduce building heat loss and gain, and reduce noise transmission. Cellulose insulation is plant fiber used in wall and roof cavities to insulate, draught proof and reduce noise.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Cellulose insulation

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Plant fiber

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The structural component of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units bonded together by beta-linkages.  Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the beta-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals such as termites can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

text: The structural component of

text: plant

text: s are formed primarily from

text: cellulose

text: . Wood is largely cellulose and

text: lignin

text: , while

text: paper

text: and

text: cotton

text: are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a

text: polymer

text: made with repeated glucose units bonded together by beta-linkages.  Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the beta-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals such as

text: termite

text: s can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: It is the most abundant carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates have five major functions within the body:

text: Carbohydrates have five major functions within the body:

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answers: 4: The answer is mostly relevant and complete, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: NDQ_016383

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch is a polymer of cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The chemical composition of fruit bodies collected from Turkey has been analyzed, and the dried fruit bodies determined to contain the following nutritional components: protein, 19.46%; fat, 3.65%; ash, 32.51%; carbohydrates, 44.38% (including 6.71% as non-digestible cellulose).

text: The chemical composition of fruit bodies collected from Turkey has been analyzed, and the dried fruit bodies determined to contain the following nutritional components:

text: protein

text: , 19.46%;

text: fat

text: , 3.65%;

text: ash

text: , 32.51%;

text: carbohydrate

text: s, 44.38% (including 6.71% as non-digestible

text: cellulose

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: non-digestible

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: non-digestible cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The liver is also the main site in the body for gluconeogenesis, the formation of carbohydrates from precursors such as alanine, glycerol, and oxaloacetate.

text: The liver is also the main site in the body for

text: gluconeogenesis

text: , the formation of carbohydrates from precursors such as

text: alanine

text: glycerol

text: , and

text: oxaloacetate

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answers: glycerol

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answers: glycerol

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answers: Gluconeogenesis

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Galectin-1 and galectin-3 have been found, surprisingly, to associate with nuclear ribonucleoprotein complexes including the spliceosome. Studies revealed that galectin-1 and -3 are required splicing factors, since removal of the galectins by affinity chromatography with lactose resulted in loss of splicing activity. It appears that the splicing capability of galectins is independent of their sugar-binding specificities. Site-directed mutagenesis studies to the carbohydrate recognition domain removes glycan binding but does not prevent association with the spliceosome.

text: Galectin-1 and galectin-3 have been found, surprisingly, to associate with nuclear

text: ribonucleoprotein

text: complexes including the

text: spliceosome

text: . Studies revealed that galectin-1 and -3 are required

text: splicing

text: factors, since removal of the galectins by

text: affinity chromatography

text: with lactose resulted in loss of splicing activity. It appears that the splicing capability of galectins is independent of their sugar-binding specificities.

text: Site-directed mutagenesis

text: studies to the carbohydrate recognition domain removes glycan binding but does not prevent association with the spliceosome.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: lactose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glycan

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There is some effort being made to clean up the terminology of sugars produced over the world as there are various synonyms used to describe unrefined through poorly refined to partially refined sugars with high molasses content and a dark colour made from sugar cane, such as panela (Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Argentina), rapadura (Brazil), chancaca (Chile, Peru, Bolivia), piloncillo (Mexico), muscovado (Philippines, Mauritius), panocha (Philippines), raspadura (Panama), kokuto (Japan), jaggery (India, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria) and papelon (Venezuela)

text: There is some effort being made to clean up the terminology of sugars produced over the world as there are various synonyms used to describe unrefined through poorly refined to partially refined sugars with high molasses content and a dark colour made from sugar cane, such as panela (Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Argentina), rapadura (Brazil), chancaca (Chile, Peru, Bolivia), piloncillo (Mexico), muscovado (Philippines, Mauritius), panocha (Philippines), raspadura (Panama), kokuto (Japan), jaggery (India, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria) and papelon (Venezuela)

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: molasses

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: muscovado

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Starch can be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates by acids, various enzymes, or a combination of the two. The resulting fragments are known as dextrins. The extent of conversion is typically quantified by dextrose equivalent (DE), which is roughly the fraction of the glycosidic bonds in starch that have been broken.

text: Starch can be

text: hydrolyzed

text: into simpler carbohydrates by

text: acid

text: s, various

text: enzyme

text: s, or a combination of the two. The resulting fragments are known as

text: dextrin

text: s. The extent of conversion is typically quantified by

text: dextrose equivalent

text: (DE), which is roughly the fraction of the

text: glycosidic bond

text: s in starch that have been broken.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Cellulosic sugars are derived from non-food biomass (e.g. wood, agricultural residues, municipal solid waste). The biomass is primarily composed of carbohydrate polymers cellulose, hemicellulose, and an aromatic polymer (lignin). The hemicellulose is a polymer of mainly five-carbon sugars CHO (xylose). and the cellulose is a polymer of six-carbon sugar CHO (glucose). Cellulose fibers are considered to be a plant’s structural building blocks and are tightly bound to lignin, but the biomass can be deconstructed using Acid hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, organosolv dissolution, autohydrolysis or supercritical hydrolysis.

text: Cellulosic sugars are derived from non-food

text: biomass

text: (e.g. wood, agricultural residues, municipal solid waste). The biomass is primarily composed of carbohydrate polymers

text: cellulose

text: hemicellulose

text: , and an aromatic polymer (lignin). The hemicellulose is a polymer of mainly five-carbon sugars CHO (

text: xylose

text: ). and the cellulose is a polymer of six-carbon sugar CHO (

text: glucose

text: ). Cellulose fibers are considered to be a plant’s structural building blocks and are tightly bound to lignin, but the biomass can be deconstructed using

text: Acid hydrolysis

text: enzymatic hydrolysis

text: , organosolv dissolution, autohydrolysis or

text: supercritical hydrolysis

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cellulose fibers

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: hemicellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is treated with sulfuric acid and potassium nitrate to give cellulose mononitrate. This was used commercially as 'celluloid', a highly flammable plastic used in the first half of the 20th century for lacquers and photographic film.

text: Cellulose is treated with sulfuric acid and

text: potassium nitrate

text: to give cellulose mononitrate. This was used commercially as 'celluloid', a highly flammable plastic used in the first half of the 20th century for lacquers and photographic film.

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answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Celluloid

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In Escherichia coli, for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.

text: Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of

text: energy

text: . Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other

text: monosaccharide

text: s and

text: disaccharide

text: s but glucose is often metabolized first. In

text: Escherichia coli

text: , for example, the

text: lac operon

text: will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see:

text: Diauxie

text: Polysaccharide

text: s are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize

text: cellulose

text: or other polysaccharides like

text: chitin

text: and

text: arabinoxylans

text: . These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists.

text: Ruminant

text: s and

text: termite

text: s, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called

text: dietary fiber

text: . Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Most organisms can easily break down starches into glucose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The terms glycan and polysaccharide are defined by IUPAC as synonyms meaning "compounds consisting of a large number of monosaccharides linked glycosidically". However, in practice the term glycan may also be used to refer to the carbohydrate portion of a glycoconjugate, such as a glycoprotein, glycolipid, or a proteoglycan, even if the carbohydrate is only an oligosaccharide. Glycans usually consist solely of O-glycosidic linkages of monosaccharides. For example, cellulose is a glycan (or, to be more specific, a glucan) composed of β-1,4-linked

text: The terms glycan and

text: polysaccharide

text: are defined by

text: IUPAC

text: as synonyms meaning "compounds consisting of a large number of

text: monosaccharides

text: linked glycosidically". However, in practice the term glycan may also be used to refer to the

text: carbohydrate

text: portion of a

text: glycoconjugate

text: , such as a

text: glycoprotein

text: glycolipid

text: , or a

text: proteoglycan

text: , even if the carbohydrate is only an

text: oligosaccharide

text: . Glycans usually consist solely of

text: O-glycosidic linkage

text: s of monosaccharides. For example, cellulose is a glycan (or, to be more specific, a

text: glucan

text: ) composed of β-1,4-linked

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answers: -1,4-linked

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answers: monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Monosaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Structurally the major basic protein (MBP) is similar to lectins (sugar-binding proteins), and has a fold similar to that seen in C-type lectins. However, unlike other C-type lectins (those that bind various carbohydrates in the presence of calcium), MBP does not bind either calcium or any of the other carbohydrates that this family recognize.

text: Structurally the major basic protein (MBP) is similar to

text: lectins

text: (sugar-binding proteins), and has a fold similar to that seen in C-type lectins. However, unlike other C-type lectins (those that bind various

text: carbohydrates

text: in the presence of

text: calcium

text: ), MBP does not bind either calcium or any of the other carbohydrates that this family recognize.

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answers: sugar

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A measured amount of dry rice is placed within the bowl. For long-grain rice or scented rice (e.g., basmati rice, Thai jasmine rice), neither washing or soaking is usually necessary unless contaminating dirt is suspected. For Japanese rice (e.g., Calrose or medium/short grain rice), the rice is washed to remove surface starch powder and the trace of rice bran from the grains. For washing, a generous amount of water is added to the rice then the mixture is stirred a few times with a hand quickly. The water is then drained immediately while the lighter starch is still in the water, and the heavier rice grains settle at the bottom of the container. The washing process may need to be repeated up to three times until the water draining out is clear of starch. Excessive washing, however, is believed to be detrimental, since it will remove too many water-soluble nutrients, e.g., vitamins.

text: A measured amount of dry rice is placed within the bowl. For long-grain rice or scented rice (e.g.,

text: basmati rice

text: Thai

text: jasmine rice

text: ), neither washing or soaking is usually necessary unless contaminating dirt is suspected. For

text: Japanese rice

text: (e.g.,

text: Calrose

text: or medium/short grain rice), the rice is washed to remove surface starch powder and the trace of rice bran from the grains. For washing, a generous amount of water is added to the rice then the mixture is stirred a few times with a hand quickly. The water is then drained immediately while the lighter starch is still in the water, and the heavier rice grains settle at the bottom of the container. The washing process may need to be repeated up to three times until the water draining out is clear of starch. Excessive washing, however, is believed to be detrimental, since it will remove too many water-soluble nutrients, e.g., vitamins.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch powder and the trace of rice bran

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: For Japanese rice

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: For two years, Humphrey followed a strict doctor-controlled diet regimen. He was not allowed to exercise (in order to avoid fluid loss via sweat) and was confined to the air-conditioned clinic itself. The regimen included strictly-measured amounts of food and water, with about 1,000 calories total per day and a rotation in 56-day cycles. The first cycle consisted of high-protein foods, including eggs, skim milk, ground beef, margarine with toast, tomato soup, ketchup, green peas, and applesauce. The next cycle was high-carbohydrate, including toast, corn, lima beans, shortbread, peaches, applesauce, pineapple, puffed rice, skim milk, grape juice, orange juice, and small amounts of sugar. The third cycle was a high-fat diet: salt-free mayonnaise and butter, tomatoes, eggs, whipped cream, and cream cheese.

text: For two years, Humphrey followed a strict doctor-controlled diet regimen. He was not allowed to exercise (in order to avoid fluid loss via

text: sweat

text: ) and was confined to the air-conditioned clinic itself. The regimen included strictly-measured amounts of food and water, with about 1,000

text: calories

text: total per day and a rotation in 56-day cycles. The first cycle consisted of high-

text: protein

text: foods, including

text: eggs

text: skim milk

text: ground beef

text: margarine

text: with toast, tomato soup, ketchup, green peas, and applesauce. The next cycle was high-carbohydrate, including toast,

text: corn

text: , lima beans, shortbread,

text: peach

text: es, applesauce, pineapple, puffed

text: rice

text: , skim milk, grape juice, orange juice, and small amounts of

text: sugar

text: . The third cycle was a high-fat diet: salt-free

text: mayonnaise

text: and butter,

text: tomato

text: es, eggs, whipped cream, and cream cheese.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: 1. α-ovomucin - carbohydrate-poor with a molecular mass of 254kDa

text: 1. α-ovomucin - carbohydrate-poor with a molecular mass of 254kDa

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answers: cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the Nurses' Health Study — a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the

text: Nurses' Health Study

text: — a

text: cohort study

text: that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's

text: population

text: during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.93,

text: CI

text: : 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.17,

text: CI

text: : 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of

text: food energy

text: from trans fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sucroferric oxyhydroxide comprises a polynuclear iron(III)-oxyhydroxide core that is stabilised with a carbohydrate shell composed of sucrose and starch. The carbohydrate shell stabilises the iron(III)-oxyhydroxide core to preserve the phosphate adsorption capacity.

text: Sucroferric oxyhydroxide comprises a polynuclear iron(III)-oxyhydroxide core that is stabilised with a

text: carbohydrate

text: shell composed of

text: sucrose

text: and

text: starch

text: . The carbohydrate shell stabilises the iron(III)-oxyhydroxide core to preserve the phosphate adsorption capacity.

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answers: sucrose

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: sucrose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate macromolecules (polysaccharides) are formed from polymers of monosaccharides. Because monosaccharides have multiple functional groups, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g. cellulose) or complex branched structures (e.g. glycogen). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g. Starch) and as structural components (e.g.chitin in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.

text: Carbohydrate

text: macromolecules (

text: polysaccharide

text: s) are formed from polymers of

text: monosaccharides

text: . Because monosaccharides have multiple

text: functional groups

text: , polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g.

text: cellulose

text: ) or complex branched structures (e.g.

text: glycogen

text: ). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g.

text: Starch

text: ) and as structural components (e.g.

text: chitin

text: in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.

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answers: monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: MOGS is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme, belonging to Family 63 as classified within the Carbohydrate-Active Enzyme database.

text: MOGS is a

text: glycoside hydrolase

text: enzyme, belonging to

text: Family 63

text: as classified within the Carbohydrate-Active Enzyme database.

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answers: glycoside

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose.

text: Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like

text: chitin

text: and

text: arabinoxylans

text: . These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists.

text: Ruminant

text: s and

text: termite

text: s, for example, use microorganisms to process

text: cellulose

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answers: 3

answers: NDQ_016383

answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Most organisms can easily break down starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Glycoside hydrolases  are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy<http://www.cazy.org/GH1.html> web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

text: Glycoside hydrolases

text: are a widespread group of enzymes that

text: hydrolyse

text: the

text: glycosidic bond

text: between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy<http://www.cazy.org/GH1.html> web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.

text: Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: 1

text: The production of cyclodextrins is relatively simple and involves treatment of ordinary starch with a set of easily available enzymes. Commonly cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase (CGTase) is employed along with α-amylase. First starch is liquified either by heat treatment or using α-amylase, then CGTase is added for the enzymatic conversion. CGTases can synthesize all forms of cyclodextrins, thus the product of the conversion results in a mixture of the three main types of cyclic molecules, in ratios that are strictly dependent on the enzyme used: each CGTase has its own characteristic α:β:γ synthesis ratio. Purification of the three types of cyclodextrins takes advantage of the different water solubility of the molecules: β-CD which is very poorly water-soluble (18.5 g/l or 16.3mM) (at 25C) can be easily retrieved through crystallization while the more soluble α- and γ-CDs (145 and 232 g/l respectively) are usually purified by means of expensive and time consuming chromatography techniques. As an alternative a "complexing agent" can be added during the enzymatic conversion step: such agents (usually organic solvents like toluene, acetone or ethanol) form a complex with the desired cyclodextrin which subsequently precipitates. The complex formation drives the conversion of starch towards the synthesis of the precipitated cyclodextrin, thus enriching its content in the final mixture of products. Wacker Chemie AG uses dedicated enzymes, that can produce alpha-, beta- or gamma-cyclodextrin specifically. This is very valuable especially for the food industry, as only alpha- and gamma-cyclodextrin can be consumed without a daily intake limit.

text: The production of cyclodextrins is relatively simple and involves treatment of ordinary starch with a set of easily available enzymes. Commonly

text: cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase

text: (CGTase) is employed along with α-

text: amylase

text: . First starch is liquified either by heat treatment or using α-amylase, then CGTase is added for the enzymatic conversion. CGTases can synthesize all forms of cyclodextrins, thus the product of the conversion results in a mixture of the three main types of cyclic molecules, in ratios that are strictly dependent on the enzyme used: each CGTase has its own characteristic α:β:γ synthesis ratio. Purification of the three types of cyclodextrins takes advantage of the different water solubility of the molecules: β-CD which is very poorly water-soluble (18.5 g/l or 16.3mM) (at 25C) can be easily retrieved through

text: crystallization

text: while the more soluble α- and γ-CDs (145 and 232 g/l respectively) are usually purified by means of expensive and time consuming

text: chromatography

text: techniques. As an alternative a "complexing agent" can be added during the enzymatic conversion step: such agents (usually organic solvents like

text: toluene

text: acetone

text: or

text: ethanol

text: ) form a complex with the desired cyclodextrin which subsequently precipitates. The complex formation drives the conversion of starch towards the synthesis of the precipitated cyclodextrin, thus enriching its content in the final mixture of products. Wacker Chemie AG uses dedicated enzymes, that can produce alpha-, beta- or gamma-cyclodextrin specifically. This is very valuable especially for the food industry, as only alpha- and gamma-cyclodextrin can be consumed without a daily intake limit.

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answers: CGTases

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Wheat flour is composed of six main groups, carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, lipids, minerals and vitamins.  Flour is added to tomato soup to increase its viscosity. The starch in the flour acts as a gelling agent and increases the viscosity of the product. When starch granules found in the flour are heated in solution they become less ordered and begin to gel. During this process of gelatinization the crystal like structures of the starch granules disappear and the swelling starts creating a viscoelastic product.

text: Wheat flour is composed of six main groups, carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, lipids, minerals and vitamins.  Flour is added to tomato soup to increase its viscosity. The

text: starch

text: in the flour acts as a gelling agent and increases the viscosity of the product. When starch granules found in the flour are heated in solution they become less ordered and begin to gel. During this process of gelatinization the crystal like structures of the starch granules disappear and the swelling starts creating a viscoelastic product.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Wheat

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Although there has been some research done throughout the twentieth century, most directly relevant scientific studies have occurred in the 1990s and early 2000s and, as such, are relatively new and the results are still debated in the medical community. Supporters and opponents of low-carbohydrate diets frequently cite many articles (sometimes the same articles) as supporting their positions. One of the fundamental criticisms of those who advocate the low-carbohydrate diets has been the lack of long-term studies evaluating their health risks. This has begun to change as longer term studies are emerging.

text: Although there has been some research done throughout the twentieth century, most directly relevant scientific studies have occurred in the 1990s and early 2000s and, as such, are relatively new and the results are still debated in the medical community. Supporters and opponents of low-carbohydrate diets frequently cite many articles (sometimes the same articles) as supporting their positions. One of the fundamental criticisms of those who advocate the low-carbohydrate diets has been the lack of long-term studies evaluating their health risks. This has begun to change as longer term studies are emerging.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate–protein interactions form the basis of specific recognition of carbohydrates by lectins. Carbohydrates are important biopolymers and have a variety of functions. Often carbohydrates serve a function as a recognition element. That is, they are specifically recognized by other biomolecules. Proteins which bind carbohydrate structures are known as lectins. Compared to the study of protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction, it is the recent even those scientists get to know the protein–carbohydrate binding.

text: Carbohydrate–protein interactions form the basis of specific recognition of carbohydrates by lectins.

text: Carbohydrates

text: are important

text: biopolymers

text: and have a variety of functions. Often carbohydrates serve a function as a recognition element. That is, they are specifically recognized by other biomolecules. Proteins which bind carbohydrate structures are known as

text: lectin

text: s. Compared to the study of protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction, it is the recent even those scientists get to know the protein–carbohydrate binding.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In 1858 William Thomas Benson, along with his business partner Thomas Aspden, constructed, owned and operated the first corn wet-milling factory in Canada, located in Cardinal, Ontario. The plant is additionally notable for being the first to produce high fructose corn syrup in Canada and, more recently, for being one of the oldest industries in Canada. The factory was originally named Benson & Aspden after its founders; when both men sold their shares in the 1860s, it became known as the Edwardsburg Starch Company and later the Canada Starch Company (CASCO). As of 1954, the factory is a wholly owned subsidiary of Ingredion Inc., and produces corn syrup solids, dextrose, maltodextrin as well as starch.

text: In 1858 William Thomas Benson, along with his business partner Thomas Aspden, constructed, owned and operated the first corn wet-milling factory in Canada, located in Cardinal, Ontario. The plant is additionally notable for being the first to produce high fructose corn syrup in Canada and, more recently, for being one of the oldest industries in Canada. The factory was originally named Benson & Aspden after its founders; when both men sold their shares in the 1860s, it became known as the Edwardsburg Starch Company and later the Canada Starch Company (CASCO). As of 1954, the factory is a wholly owned subsidiary of Ingredion Inc., and produces corn syrup solids, dextrose, maltodextrin as well as starch.

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answers: dextrose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: high fructose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: maltodextrin

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A bilayer of phospholipids makes up the membrane of cells that constitutes a barrier, containing everything within the cell and preventing compounds from freely passing into, and out of, the cell. Due to the selective permeability of the phospholipid membraine only specific compounds can pass through it. In some multicellular organisms they serve as a storage of energy and mediate communication between cells. Carbohydrates are more easily broken down than lipids and yield more energy to compare to lipids and proteins. In fact, carbohydrates are the number one source of energy for all living organisms.

text: A bilayer of

text: phospholipid

text: s makes up the

text: membrane

text: of cells that constitutes a barrier, containing everything within the cell and preventing compounds from freely passing into, and out of, the cell. Due to the selective permeability of the phospholipid membraine only specific compounds can pass through it. In some multicellular organisms they serve as a storage of energy and mediate communication between cells. Carbohydrates are more easily broken down than lipids and yield more energy to compare to lipids and proteins. In fact, carbohydrates are the number one source of energy for all living organisms.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: Carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As of July 2016, the company offered 28 nutritional supplement products, two topical products, nine skin care products, and eleven weight management/physical fitness products. Mannatech is most widely known for Ambrotose, its glyconutritional dietary supplement, which is a patented blend of plant-sourced saccharides used in its line of Ambrotose products. Glyconutritionals were formulated to support cellular communication by positively impacting human glycoforms, a claim that has generated controversy among some members of the scientific community. In an SEC filing, the company stated that its products "are formulated with predominately  naturally-occurring, plant-derived, carbohydrate-based ingredients that are designed to use nutrients working through normal physiology to help achieve and maintain optimal health and wellness, rather than developing synthetic, carbohydrate-based products, as other companies are doing."

text: As of July 2016, the company offered 28

text: nutritional supplement

text: products, two

text: topical

text: products, nine

text: skin care products

text: , and eleven

text: weight management

text: physical fitness

text: products. Mannatech is most widely known for Ambrotose, its glyconutritional dietary supplement, which is a patented blend of plant-sourced

text: saccharides

text: used in its line of Ambrotose products. Glyconutritionals were formulated to support

text: cellular communication

text: by positively impacting human

text: glycoform

text: s, a claim that has generated controversy among some members of the scientific community. In an

text: SEC

text: filing, the company stated that its products "are formulated with predominately  naturally-occurring, plant-derived, carbohydrate-based ingredients that are designed to use nutrients working through normal physiology to help achieve and maintain optimal health and wellness, rather than developing synthetic, carbohydrate-based products, as other companies are doing."

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answers: saccharides

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answers: NDQ_016391

answers: saccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (from the digestion of table sugar) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex.

text: Carbohydrates include the common sugar,

text: sucrose

text: (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as

text: glucose

text: (from the digestion of table sugar) and

text: fructose

text: (from fruit), and

text: starch

text: es from sources such as cereal flour, rice,

text: arrowroot

text: and potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex.

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answers: glucose

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answers: starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A characteristic type of food chain called the detritus cycle takes place involving detritus feeders (detritivores), detritus and the micro-organisms that multiply on it. For example, mud flats are inhabited by many univalves which are detritus feeders, such as moon shells. When these detritus feeders take in detritus with micro-organisms multiplying on it, they mainly break down and absorb the micro-organisms, which are rich in proteins, and excrete the detritus, which is mostly complex carbohydrates, having hardly broken it down at all. At first this dung is a poor source of nutrition, and so univalves pay no attention to it, but after several days, micro-organisms begin to multiply on it again, its nutritional balance improves, and so they eat it again. Through this process of eating the detritus many times over and harvesting the micro-organisms from it, the detritus thins out, becomes fractured and becomes easier for the micro-organisms to use, and so the complex carbohydrates are also steadily broken down and disappear over time.

text: A characteristic type of

text: food chain

text: called the

text: detritus cycle

text: takes place involving detritus feeders (

text: detritivores

text: ), detritus and the micro-organisms that multiply on it. For example, mud flats are inhabited by many univalves which are detritus feeders, such as

text: moon shell

text: s. When these detritus feeders take in detritus with micro-organisms multiplying on it, they mainly break down and absorb the micro-organisms, which are rich in proteins, and excrete the detritus, which is mostly complex carbohydrates, having hardly broken it down at all. At first this dung is a poor source of nutrition, and so univalves pay no attention to it, but after several days, micro-organisms begin to multiply on it again, its nutritional balance improves, and so they eat it again. Through this process of eating the detritus many times over and harvesting the micro-organisms from it, the detritus thins out, becomes fractured and becomes easier for the micro-organisms to use, and so the complex carbohydrates are also steadily broken down and disappear over time.

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answers: proteins

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answers: complex carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: complex carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The researchers in the Biomolecular Systems department, headed by Peter H. Seeberger, are using new methods for synthesizing sugar chains. Until recently most of the known naturally occurring sugars were those that supply energy to organisms such as sucrose (household sugar) and starch (in plants). However, the complex sugar molecules, which belong to the carbohydrate, are also involved in many biological processes. They cover all cells in the human body and play a crucial part in molecular identification of cell surfaces for example in infections, immune reactions and cancer metastases. Complex sugars are omnipresent as cell coatings in nature and can therefore also be used for vaccine development, e.g. against malaria. Carbohydrates are thus of significant interest for medicine; the major significance of sugar residues on the surfaces of cells for biology and medicine has only been recognized during the past approximately 20 years.

text: The researchers in the Biomolecular Systems department, headed by Peter H. Seeberger, are using new methods for synthesizing sugar chains. Until recently most of the known naturally occurring sugars were those that supply energy to organisms such as

text: sucrose

text: (household sugar) and

text: starch

text: (in plants). However, the complex sugar molecules, which belong to the carbohydrate, are also involved in many biological processes. They cover all cells in the human body and play a crucial part in molecular identification of cell surfaces for example in infections, immune reactions and cancer metastases. Complex sugars are omnipresent as cell coatings in nature and can therefore also be used for vaccine development, e.g. against malaria. Carbohydrates are thus of significant interest for medicine; the major significance of sugar residues on the surfaces of cells for biology and medicine has only been recognized during the past approximately 20 years.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete oxidation of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed.

text: Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete

text: oxidation

text: of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The main principles that are adhered to are that fat and sugar should be completely avoided, and carbohydrates and salt should be kept at a minimum. Protein is always to be quite high during any stage of body building as it has a major involvement in muscle repair and maintenance. The time in which carbohydrates are eaten are usually in the morning with breakfast and thereafter in very small portions with meals. It is common for those ripping to have a protein shake after a workout as it helps with the muscle damage that has taken place during the workout. During the ripping period, the protein shake that is consumed usually contains zero or very little amounts of carbohydrates. Most meals usually contain a piece of meat or fish with vegetables. If the person ripping wishes to include carbohydrates then it would often be foods low in fat like potato, rice or pasta fruits and vegetables often in smoothie (blended) form.

text: The main principles that are adhered to are that fat and

text: sugar

text: should be completely avoided, and carbohydrates and

text: salt

text: should be kept at a minimum.

text: Protein

text: is always to be quite high during any stage of body building as it has a major involvement in muscle repair and maintenance. The time in which carbohydrates are eaten are usually in the morning with breakfast and thereafter in very small portions with meals. It is common for those ripping to have a

text: protein shake

text: after a workout as it helps with the muscle damage that has taken place during the workout. During the ripping period, the protein shake that is consumed usually contains zero or very little amounts of carbohydrates. Most meals usually contain a piece of meat or fish with vegetables. If the person ripping wishes to include carbohydrates then it would often be foods low in fat like

text: potato

text: rice

text: or

text: pasta

text: fruits and vegetables often in smoothie (blended) form.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Concanavalin A (ConA) is a lectin (carbohydrate-binding protein) originally extracted from the jack-bean, Canavalia ensiformis. It is a member of the legume lectin family. It binds specifically to certain structures found in various sugars, glycoproteins, and glycolipids, mainly internal and nonreducing terminal α-D-mannosyl and α-D-glucosyl groups. ConA is a plant mitogen, and is known for its ability to stimulate mouse T-cell subsets giving rise to four functionally distinct T cell populations, including precursors to suppressor T-cell; one subset of human suppressor T-cells as well is sensitive to ConA. ConA was the first lectin to be available on a commercial basis, and is widely used in biology and biochemistry to characterize glycoproteins and other sugar-containing entities on the surface of various cells. It is also used to purify glycosylated macromolecules in lectin affinity chromatography, as well as to study immune regulation by various immune cells.

text: Concanavalin A (ConA) is a

text: lectin

text: carbohydrate

text: -binding

text: protein

text: ) originally extracted from the

text: jack-bean

text: Canavalia ensiformis

text: . It is a member of the

text: legume lectin

text: family. It binds specifically to certain structures found in various

text: sugar

text: s,

text: glycoprotein

text: s, and

text: glycolipid

text: s, mainly internal and nonreducing terminal α-D-

text: mannosyl

text: and α-D-glucosyl groups. ConA is a plant

text: mitogen

text: , and is known for its ability to stimulate mouse T-cell subsets giving rise to four functionally distinct T cell populations, including precursors to suppressor T-cell; one subset of human suppressor T-cells as well is sensitive to ConA. ConA was the first lectin to be available on a commercial basis, and is widely used in

text: biology

text: and

text: biochemistry

text: to characterize

text: glycoprotein

text: s and other sugar-containing entities on the surface of various cells. It is also used to purify glycosylated macromolecules in

text: lectin affinity chromatography

text: , as well as to study immune regulation by various immune cells.

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answers: sugars

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In addition, this claim neglects the nature of the carbohydrates ingested. Some are indigestible in humans (e.g., cellulose), some are poorly digested in humans (e.g., the amylose starch variant), and some require considerable processing to be converted to absorbable forms. In general, uncooked or unprocessed (e.g., milling, crushing, etc.) foods are harder (typically much harder) to absorb, so do not raise glucose levels as much as might be expected from the proportion of carbohydrate present. Cooking (especially moist cooking above the temperature necessary to expand starch granules) and mechanical processing both considerably raise the amount of absorbable carbohydrate and reduce the digestive effort required.

text: In addition, this claim neglects the nature of the carbohydrates ingested. Some are indigestible in humans (e.g., cellulose), some are poorly digested in humans (e.g., the amylose starch variant), and some require considerable processing to be converted to absorbable forms. In general, uncooked or unprocessed (e.g., milling, crushing, etc.) foods are harder (typically much harder) to absorb, so do not raise glucose levels as much as might be expected from the proportion of carbohydrate present. Cooking (especially moist cooking above the temperature necessary to expand starch granules) and mechanical processing both considerably raise the amount of absorbable carbohydrate and reduce the digestive effort required.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Amylose starch

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answers: indigestible

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: What has not generally been included in diabetic diet recommendations is the variation in effect from different carbohydrates. It has been recommended that carbohydrates eaten by people with diabetes should be complex carbohydrates.

text: What has not generally been included in diabetic diet recommendations is the variation in effect from different carbohydrates. It has been recommended that carbohydrates eaten by people with diabetes should be

text: complex carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: complex carbohydrates

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answers: complex carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: By far the largest class of tunicates is the Ascidiacea. The body of an ascidiacean is surrounded by a test or tunic, from which the subphylum derives its name. This varies in thickness between species but may be tough, resembling cartilage, thin and delicate, or transparent and gelatinous. The tunic is composed of proteins and complex carbohydrates, and includes tunicin, a variety of cellulose. The tunic is unique among invertebrate exoskeletons in that it can grow as the animal enlarges and does not need to be periodically shed. Inside the tunic is the body wall or mantle composed of connective tissue, muscle fibres, blood vessels, and nerves. Two openings are found in the body wall: the buccal siphon at the top through which water flows into the interior, and the atrial siphon on the ventral side through which it is expelled. A large pharynx occupies most of the interior of the body. It is a muscular tube linking the buccal opening with the rest of the gut. It has a ciliated groove known as an endostyle on its ventral surface, and this secretes a mucous net which collects food particles and is wound up on the dorsal side of the pharynx. The gullet, at the lower end of the pharynx, links it to a loop of gut which terminates near the atrial siphon. The walls of the pharynx are perforated by several bands of slits, known as stigmata, through which water escapes into the surrounding water-filled cavity, the atrium. This is criss-crossed by various rope-like mesenteries which extend from the mantle and provide support for the pharynx, preventing it from collapsing, and also hold up the other organs.

text: By far the largest class of tunicates is the

text: Ascidiacea

text: . The body of an ascidiacean is surrounded by a

text: test

text: or tunic, from which the

text: subphylum

text: derives its name. This varies in thickness between species but may be tough, resembling cartilage, thin and delicate, or transparent and gelatinous. The tunic is composed of proteins and complex carbohydrates, and includes

text: tunicin

text: , a variety of cellulose. The tunic is unique among invertebrate exoskeletons in that it can grow as the animal enlarges and does not need to be periodically shed. Inside the tunic is the body wall or mantle composed of

text: connective tissue

text: muscle

text: fibres,

text: blood vessel

text: s, and

text: nerve

text: s. Two openings are found in the body wall: the buccal siphon at the top through which water flows into the interior, and the atrial siphon on the ventral side through which it is expelled. A large pharynx occupies most of the interior of the body. It is a muscular tube linking the buccal opening with the rest of the gut. It has a ciliated groove known as an

text: endostyle

text: on its ventral surface, and this secretes a mucous net which collects food particles and is wound up on the dorsal side of the pharynx. The gullet, at the lower end of the pharynx, links it to a loop of gut which terminates near the atrial siphon. The walls of the pharynx are perforated by several bands of slits, known as stigmata, through which water escapes into the surrounding water-filled cavity, the atrium. This is criss-crossed by various rope-like

text: mesenteries

text: which extend from the mantle and provide support for the pharynx, preventing it from collapsing, and also hold up the other organs.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: tunicin

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: tunicin

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The word "starch" is from a Germanic root with the meanings "strong, stiff, strengthen, stiffen". Modern German Stärke (starch) is related.

text: The word "starch" is from a

text: Germanic

text: root with the meanings "strong, stiff, strengthen, stiffen". Modern German Stärke (starch) is related.

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answers: starch

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answers: Starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g. crisps/potato chips, may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to sugars by salivary amylase (an enzyme in the saliva) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as toffee, are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of chocolate or most fruits.

text: Sugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g.

text: crisps/potato chips

text: , may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to sugars by

text: salivary amylase

text: (an enzyme in the

text: saliva

text: ) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as

text: toffee

text: , are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of

text: chocolate

text: or most fruits.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: All cereal crops are members of the grass family (Poaceae). Cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy.

text: All

text: cereal

text: crops are members of the grass family (

text: Poaceae

text: ). Cereal grains contain a substantial amount of

text: starch

text: , a

text: carbohydrate

text: that provides dietary energy.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In the contemporary process to make HFCS, an "acid-enzyme" process is used in which the corn starch solution is acidified to begin breaking up the existing carbohydrates, and then enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the resulting sugars to their constituents of fructose and glucose. A chemical used to separate corn starch from the kernel, lye was formerly manufactured using a process that included mercury, and scientists decided to investigate if HFCS used in food contained mercury. Two papers published in 2009 found that there were traces of inorganic mercury in some foods. However, the mercury was not methylmercury, the form of mercury that is of most concern to human health.

text: In the contemporary process to make HFCS, an "acid-enzyme" process is used in which the corn starch solution is acidified to begin breaking up the existing carbohydrates, and then enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the resulting sugars to their constituents of fructose and glucose. A chemical used to separate corn starch from the kernel,

text: lye

text: was formerly manufactured using a process that included mercury, and scientists decided to investigate if HFCS used in food contained mercury. Two papers published in 2009 found that there were traces of inorganic mercury in some foods. However, the mercury was not

text: methylmercury

text: , the form of mercury that is of most concern to human health.

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answers: sugars

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answers: HFCS

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: HFCS

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide (more correctly 4-methylmorpholine 4-oxide), NMO or NMMO is an organic compound. This heterocyclic amine oxide and morpholine derivative is used in organic chemistry as a co-oxidant and sacrificial catalyst in oxidation reactions for instance in osmium tetroxide oxidations and the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation or oxidations with TPAP. NMO is commercially supplied both as a monohydrate CHNO·HO and as the anhydrous compound. The monohydrate is used as a solvent for cellulose in the Lyocell process to produce cellulose fibers.

text: N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide (more correctly 4-methylmorpholine 4-oxide), NMO or NMMO is an

text: organic compound

text: . This

text: heterocyclic

text: amine oxide

text: and

text: morpholine

text: derivative is used in

text: organic chemistry

text: as a co-oxidant and

text: sacrificial catalyst

text: in

text: oxidation

text: reactions for instance in

text: osmium tetroxide

text: oxidations and the

text: Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation

text: or oxidations with

text: TPAP

text: . NMO is commercially supplied both as a

text: monohydrate

text: CHNO·HO and as the anhydrous compound. The monohydrate is used as a

text: solvent

text: for

text: cellulose

text: in the

text: Lyocell

text: process to produce

text: cellulose fiber

text: s.

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answer: No

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text: Carbohydrates are another important biomolecule.  These are polymers, called polysaccharides, which are made up of chains of simple sugars connected via glycosidic bonds.  These monosaccharides consist of a five to six carbon ring that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - typically in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively.  Common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and ribose.  When linked together monosaccharides can form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides:  the nomenclature is dependent on the number of monosaccharides linked together.  Common dissacharides, two monosaccharides joined together, are sucrose, maltose, and lactose.  Important polysaccharides, links of many monosaccharides, are cellulose, starch, and chitin.

text: Carbohydrates

text: are another important biomolecule.  These are polymers, called

text: polysaccharides

text: , which are made up of chains of simple sugars connected via

text: glycosidic bonds

text: .  These

text: monosaccharides

text: consist of a five to six carbon ring that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - typically in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively.  Common monosaccharides are

text: glucose

text: fructose

text: , and ribose.  When linked together monosaccharides can form

text: disaccharides

text: oligosaccharides

text: , and polysaccharides:  the nomenclature is dependent on the number of monosaccharides linked together.  Common dissacharides, two monosaccharides joined together, are

text: sucrose

text: maltose

text: , and

text: lactose

text: .  Important polysaccharides, links of many monosaccharides, are

text: cellulose

text: starch

text: , and

text: chitin

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Mashing converts the starches released during the malting stage into sugars that can be fermented. The milled grain is mixed with hot water in a large vessel known as a mash tun. In this vessel, the grain and water are mixed together to create a cereal mash. During the mash, naturally occurring enzymes present in the malt convert the starches (long chain carbohydrates) in the grain into smaller molecules or simple sugars (mono-, di-, and tri-saccharides). This "conversion" is called saccharification. The result of the mashing process is a sugar-rich liquid or "wort", which is then strained through the bottom of the mash tun in a process known as lautering. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to about  (known as a mashout) to free up more starch and reduce mash viscosity. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as sparging).

text: Mashing

text: converts the starches released during the malting stage into sugars that can be fermented. The milled grain is mixed with hot water in a large vessel known as a

text: mash tun

text: . In this vessel, the grain and water are mixed together to create a cereal mash. During the mash, naturally occurring enzymes present in the malt convert the starches (long chain carbohydrates) in the grain into smaller molecules or simple sugars (mono-, di-, and tri-saccharides). This "conversion" is called

text: saccharification

text: . The result of the mashing process is a sugar-rich liquid or

text: "wort"

text: , which is then strained through the bottom of the mash tun in a process known as

text: lautering

text: . Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to about  (known as a mashout) to free up more starch and reduce mash viscosity. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as

text: sparging

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answers: long chain

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answers: long chain carbohydrates

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answers: long chain carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Non-volatile materials were discovered in 2015 to also exhibit a 'reactive Leidenfrost effect,' whereby solid particles were observed to float above hot surfaces and skitter around erratically.  Detailed characterization of the reactive Leidenfrost effect was completed for small particles of cellulose (~0.5 mm) on high temperature polished surfaces by high speed photography.  Cellulose was shown to decompose to short-chain oligomers which melt and wet smooth surfaces with increasing heat transfer associated with increasing surface temperature. Above , cellulose was observed to exhibit transition boiling with violent bubbling and associated reduction in heat transfer.  Liftoff of the cellulose droplet (depicted at the right) was observed to occur above about  associated with a dramatic reduction in heat transfer. High speed photography of the reactive Leidenfrost effect of cellulose on porous surfaces (macroporous alumina) was also shown to suppress the reactive Leidenfrost effect and enhance overall heat transfer rates to the particle from the surface.  The new phenomenon of a 'reactive Leidenfrost (RL) effect' was characterized by a dimensionless quantity (φ= τ/τ), which relates the time constant of solid particle heat transfer to the time constant of particle reaction, with the reactive Leidenfrost effect occurring for 10< φ< 10.  The reactive Leidenfrost effect with cellulose will occur in numerous high temperature applications with carbohydrate polymers including biomass conversion to biofuels, preparation and cooking of food, and tobacco use.

text: Non-volatile materials were discovered in 2015 to also exhibit a 'reactive Leidenfrost effect,' whereby solid particles were observed to float above hot surfaces and skitter around erratically.  Detailed characterization of the reactive Leidenfrost effect was completed for small particles of

text: cellulose

text: (~0.5 mm) on high temperature polished surfaces by high speed photography.  Cellulose was shown to decompose to short-chain

text: oligomers

text: which melt and wet smooth surfaces with increasing heat transfer associated with increasing surface temperature. Above , cellulose was observed to exhibit transition boiling with violent bubbling and associated reduction in heat transfer.  Liftoff of the cellulose droplet (depicted at the right) was observed to occur above about  associated with a dramatic reduction in heat transfer. High speed photography of the reactive Leidenfrost effect of cellulose on porous surfaces (macroporous

text: alumina

text: ) was also shown to suppress the reactive Leidenfrost effect and enhance overall heat transfer rates to the particle from the surface.  The new phenomenon of a 'reactive Leidenfrost (RL) effect' was characterized by a dimensionless quantity (φ= τ/τ), which relates the time constant of solid particle heat transfer to the time constant of particle reaction, with the reactive Leidenfrost effect occurring for 10< φ< 10.  The reactive Leidenfrost effect with cellulose will occur in numerous high temperature applications with carbohydrate polymers including biomass conversion to

text: biofuels

text: , preparation and

text: cooking

text: of food, and

text: tobacco

text: use.

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Patients with fluctuating insulin requirements may benefit from a closed-loop predictive modeling approach. As an extension on "carb counting", in this closed-loop predictive modeling approach, the four daily insulin dosages needed to reach the target blood sugar levels for the “normal” daily carbohydrate consumption and amount of physical activity, are continuously adjusted based on the pre-meal and pre-night blood sugar level readings. Each new blood sugar reading provides the feedback to fine-tune and track the body’s insulin requirements. Within this strategy the key patient specific factors, which have to be determined experimentally, are the blood sugar correction factor and the carbohydrate ratio. The blood sugar correction factor sets both the “proportional gain” and “integral gain” factors for the four feedback loops. When taken too low, deviations from the target blood sugar level are not corrected for effectively, when taken too high, the blood sugar regulation will become unstable. Since in this approach, the carbohydrate ratio is only used to account for non-standard carbohydrate intakes, it is usually not required to work with meal specific ratios.

text: Patients with fluctuating insulin requirements may benefit from a closed-loop

text: predictive modeling

text: approach. As an extension on "carb counting", in this closed-loop predictive modeling approach, the four daily insulin dosages needed to reach the target blood sugar levels for the “normal” daily carbohydrate consumption and amount of physical activity, are continuously adjusted based on the pre-meal and pre-night blood sugar level readings. Each new blood sugar reading provides the feedback to fine-tune and track the body’s insulin requirements. Within this strategy the key patient specific factors, which have to be determined experimentally, are the blood sugar correction factor and the carbohydrate ratio. The blood sugar correction factor sets both the “proportional gain” and “integral gain” factors for the four

text: feedback loops

text: . When taken too low, deviations from the target blood sugar level are not corrected for effectively, when taken too high, the blood sugar regulation will become unstable. Since in this approach, the carbohydrate ratio is only used to account for non-standard carbohydrate intakes, it is usually not required to work with meal specific ratios.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrate

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a polymer of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a

text: polymer

text: of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

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answers: It cannot be digested by most organisms

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 2

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 2 (CBM2) contains two conserved cysteines - one at each extremity of the domain - which have been shown  to be involved in a disulfide bond. There are also four conserved tryptophans, two of which are involved in cellulose binding.

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 2 (CBM2) contains two conserved

text: cysteine

text: s - one at each extremity of the domain - which have been shown  to be involved in a

text: disulfide bond

text: . There are also four conserved

text: tryptophan

text: s, two of which are involved in cellulose binding.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Paramylon is a carbohydrate similar to starch. The chloroplasts found in Euglena contain chlorophyll which aids in the synthesis of carbohydrates to be stored as starch granules and paramylon. Paramylon is made in the pyrenoids of Euglena. The euglenoids have chlorophylls a and b and they store their photosynthate in an unusual form called paramylon starch, a B-1,3 polymer of glucose. The paramylon is stored in rod like bodies throughout the cytoplasm, called paramylon bodies, which are often visible as colorless or white particles in light microscopy. Their shape is often characteristic of the Euglena species that produces them.

text: Paramylon is a

text: carbohydrate

text: similar to

text: starch

text: . The

text: chloroplast

text: s found in

text: Euglena

text: contain

text: chlorophyll

text: which aids in the synthesis of carbohydrates to be stored as starch granules and paramylon. Paramylon is made in the

text: pyrenoid

text: s of Euglena. The euglenoids have chlorophylls a and b and they store their photosynthate in an unusual form called paramylon starch, a B-1,3 polymer of glucose. The paramylon is stored in rod like bodies throughout the cytoplasm, called paramylon bodies, which are often visible as colorless or white particles in light microscopy. Their shape is often characteristic of the Euglena species that produces them.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: starch granules

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Paramylon

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Commonly, the reaction is performed using a solution or suspension of the carbohydrate in the alcohol as the solvent. The carbohydrate is usually completely unprotected. The Fischer glycosidation reaction is an equilibrium process and can lead to a mixture of ring size isomers, and anomers, plus in some cases, small amounts of acyclic forms. With hexoses, short reactions times usually lead to furanose ring forms, and longer reaction times lead to pyranose forms. With long reaction times the most thermodynamically stable product will result which, owing to the anomeric effect, is usually the alpha anomer.

text: Commonly, the reaction is performed using a solution or suspension of the

text: carbohydrate

text: in the alcohol as the solvent. The carbohydrate is usually completely unprotected. The Fischer glycosidation reaction is an equilibrium process and can lead to a mixture of ring size isomers, and anomers, plus in some cases, small amounts of acyclic forms. With hexoses, short reactions times usually lead to furanose ring forms, and longer reaction times lead to pyranose forms. With long reaction times the most thermodynamically stable product will result which, owing to the

text: anomeric effect

text: , is usually the alpha anomer.

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answers: hexoses

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The dissolution of cellulose by ILs has attracted interest.  A patent application from 1930 showed that 1-alkylpyridinium chlorides dissolve cellulose. Following in the footsteps of the lyocell process, which uses hydrated N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide, as a non-aqueous solvent for the dissolution of the pulp and paper. The dissolution of cellulose–based materials like tissue paper waste, generated in chemical industries and at research laboratories, in room temperature IL 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, bmimCl and the recovery of valuable compounds by electrodeposition from this cellulose matrix was studied.  The "valorization" of cellulose, i.e. its conversion to more valuable chemicals, has been achieved by the use of  ionic liquids.  Representative products are glucose esters, sorbitol, and alkylgycosides. IL 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride dissolves freeze dried banana pulp and with an additional 15% DMSO, lends itself to Carbon-13 NMR analysis. In this way the entire complex of starch, sucrose, glucose, and fructose can be monitored as a function of banana ripening.

text: The dissolution of

text: cellulose

text: by ILs has attracted interest.  A patent application from 1930 showed that 1-alkylpyridinium chlorides dissolve cellulose. Following in the footsteps of the

text: lyocell

text: process, which uses hydrated

text: N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide

text: , as a non-aqueous solvent for the dissolution of the pulp and paper. The dissolution of cellulose–based materials like

text: tissue paper

text: waste, generated in chemical industries and at research laboratories, in room temperature IL 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, bmimCl and the recovery of valuable compounds by

text: electrodeposition

text: from this cellulose matrix was studied.  The "valorization" of cellulose, i.e. its conversion to more valuable chemicals, has been achieved by the use of  ionic liquids.  Representative products are glucose esters,

text: sorbitol

text: , and alkylgycosides. IL 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride dissolves

text: freeze dried

text: banana

text: pulp and with an additional 15%

text: DMSO

text: , lends itself to

text: Carbon-13 NMR

text: analysis. In this way the entire complex of

text: starch

text: sucrose

text: glucose

text: , and

text: fructose

text: can be monitored as a function of banana ripening.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: The "valorization" of cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibres (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses, (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers).  The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.

text: Wood

text: and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water):

text: cellulose

text: fibres

text: (desired for

text: paper

text: making),

text: lignin

text: (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the

text: cellulose

text: fibres together) and

text: hemicellulose

text: s, (shorter branched

text: carbohydrate

text: polymers).  The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: hemicelluloses

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: hemicelluloses

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CHO, where n is at least 3). Glucose  (CHO) is one of the most important carbohydrates, others include fructose (CHO), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits, and deoxyribose (CHO).

text: The simplest type of carbohydrate is a

text: monosaccharide

text: , which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CHO, where n is at least 3).

text: Glucose

text: (CHO) is one of the most important carbohydrates, others include

text: fructose

text: (CHO), the sugar commonly associated with the

text: sweet taste

text: of

text: fruit

text: s, and

text: deoxyribose

text: (CHO).

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answers: carbon

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answers: Fructose (CHO)

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: monosaccharide

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: There are different kinds of carbohydrates: simple (for example from fruits) and complex (for example from grains such as wheat). Simple sugars can be from an unrefined natural source, or may be refined and added to processed food. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as refined sugars. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 204 litres (54 US gallons @ 3.78l per gallon) of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars. Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful.  When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined.  These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.

text: There are different kinds of carbohydrates: simple (for example from fruits) and complex (for example from grains such as wheat). Simple sugars can be from an unrefined natural source, or may be refined and added to processed food. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as refined sugars. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 204

text: litres

text: (54 US gallons @ 3.78l per gallon) of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars. Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful.  When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined.  These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: grains such as wheat

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: grains such as wheat

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Miglitol is an oral anti-diabetic drug that acts by inhibiting the ability of the patient to break down complex carbohydrates into glucose. It is primarily used in diabetes mellitus type 2 for establishing greater glycemic control by preventing the digestion of carbohydrates (such as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides) into monosaccharides which can be absorbed by the body.

text: Miglitol is an oral

text: anti-diabetic drug

text: that acts by inhibiting the ability of the patient to break down complex carbohydrates into glucose. It is primarily used in

text: diabetes mellitus type 2

text: for establishing greater

text: glycemic control

text: by preventing the digestion of

text: carbohydrate

text: s (such as

text: disaccharide

text: s,

text: oligosaccharide

text: s, and

text: polysaccharide

text: s) into

text: monosaccharide

text: s which can be absorbed by the body.

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Dissolving pulp is used in production of regenerated cellulose. In the regenerated cellulose process the cellulose is converted to cellulose xanthate which dissolves easily in caustic soda.  The resulting viscous liquid can be extruded through spinnerettes and regenerated as man-made fibres.  Cellulose can also be dissolved in some organic solvents directly and processed to regenerate the cellulose fibres in different forms.  The lyocell process uses an amine oxide to dissolve cellulose and Tencel is the only commercial example of this direct-dissolution process, which unlike the viscose process is pollution-free.

text: Dissolving pulp is used in production of

text: regenerated cellulose

text: . In the regenerated cellulose process the cellulose is converted to cellulose xanthate which dissolves easily in caustic soda.  The resulting viscous liquid can be extruded through spinnerettes and regenerated as man-made fibres.  Cellulose can also be dissolved in some organic solvents directly and processed to regenerate the cellulose fibres in different forms.  The

text: lyocell

text: process uses an

text: amine oxide

text: to dissolve cellulose and

text: Tencel

text: is the only commercial example of this direct-dissolution process, which unlike the viscose process is pollution-free.

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answers: cellulose xanthate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose is converted to cellulose xanthate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The three macronutrients are fats (lipids), carbohydrates (sugars and starches), and protein. Fats are calorie dense and nutritionally important, nuts are a good example. Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) that release energy slowly (as measure by glycemic index and glycemic load or the insulin index) give sustained energy, such as legumes and whole grains. Some sources of protein are meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, whole grains, pulses, legumes, and nuts. These are the reasons that "trail" mix usually has dried fruit and a variety of nuts. Nuts and dried fruit can last a long time based on their expiration date. The USDA's page on expiration dates is available online.

text: The three

text: macronutrient

text: s are fats (lipids), carbohydrates (sugars and starches), and protein.

text: Fat

text: s are calorie dense and nutritionally important,

text: nuts

text: are a good example. Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) that release energy slowly (as measure by

text: glycemic index

text: and

text: glycemic load

text: or the

text: insulin index

text: ) give sustained energy, such as

text: legume

text: s and

text: whole grain

text: s. Some sources of

text: protein

text: are meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, whole grains, pulses, legumes, and nuts. These are the reasons that "trail" mix usually has dried fruit and a variety of nuts. Nuts and dried fruit can last a long time based on their expiration date. The USDA's page on expiration dates is available online.

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answers: sugars

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starches

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).

text: Sugar

text: can be characterized by having

text: reducing

text: or non-reducing ends. A

text: reducing end

text: of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain

text: aldehyde

text: aldose

text: ) or keto form (

text: ketose

text: ). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the

text: pyranose

text: or

text: furanose

text: form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full

text: acetal

text: . This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose.

text: Saccharose

text: does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Plants stores extra glucose as starches.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: There are many other phospholipids, some of which are glycolipids. The glycolipids include phosphatidyl sugars where the alcohol functional group is part of a carbohydrate. Phosphatidyl sugars are present in plants and certain microorganisms. A carbohydrate is very hydrophilic due to the large number of hydroxyl groups present.

text: There are many other phospholipids, some of which are

text: glycolipids

text: . The glycolipids include phosphatidyl sugars where the alcohol functional group is part of a carbohydrate. Phosphatidyl sugars are present in plants and certain microorganisms. A carbohydrate is very hydrophilic due to the large number of hydroxyl groups present.

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answers: glycolipids

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answers: A carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Before the advent of fire, the hominid diet was limited to mostly plant parts composed of simple sugars and carbohydrates such as seeds, flowers, and fleshy fruits. Parts of the plant such as stems, mature leaves, enlarged roots, and tubers would have been inaccessible as a food source due to the indigestibility of raw cellulose and starch. Cooking, however, made starchy and fibrous foods edible and greatly increased the diversity of other foods available to early humans. Toxin-containing foods including seeds and similar carbohydrate sources, such as cyanogenic glycosides found in linseed and cassava, were incorporated into their diets as cooking rendered them non-toxic.

text: Before the advent of fire, the hominid diet was limited to mostly plant parts composed of simple sugars and

text: carbohydrate

text: s such as seeds, flowers, and fleshy fruits. Parts of the plant such as stems, mature leaves, enlarged roots, and tubers would have been inaccessible as a food source due to the indigestibility of raw

text: cellulose

text: and

text: starch

text: . Cooking, however, made starchy and fibrous foods edible and greatly increased the diversity of other foods available to early humans. Toxin-containing foods including seeds and similar carbohydrate sources, such as

text: cyanogenic glycosides

text: found in

text: linseed

text: and

text: cassava

text: , were incorporated into their diets as cooking rendered them non-toxic.

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answers: sugars

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answers: Starch

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answers: fibrous foods

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates with only one simple sugar. They essentially contain an aldehyde or ketone group in their structure. The presence of an aldehyde group in a monosaccharide is indicated by the prefix aldo-. Similarly, a ketone group is denoted by the prefix keto-. Examples of monosaccharides are the hexoses glucose, fructose, and galactose and pentoses, ribose, and deoxyribose Consumed fructose and glucose have different rates of gastric emptying, are differentially absorbed and have different metabolic fates, providing multiple opportunities for 2 different saccharides to differentially affect food intake. Most saccharides eventually provide fuel for cellular respiration.

text: Monosaccharides

text: are the simplest form of

text: carbohydrate

text: s with only one simple sugar. They essentially contain an

text: aldehyde

text: or

text: ketone

text: group in their structure. The presence of an aldehyde group in a monosaccharide is indicated by the prefix aldo-. Similarly, a ketone group is denoted by the prefix keto-. Examples of monosaccharides are the

text: hexose

text: s

text: glucose

text: fructose

text: , and

text: galactose

text: and

text: pentose

text: s, ribose, and

text: deoxyribose

text: Consumed fructose and

text: glucose

text: have different rates of gastric emptying, are differentially absorbed and have different metabolic fates, providing multiple opportunities for 2 different saccharides to differentially affect food intake. Most saccharides eventually provide fuel for cellular respiration.

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answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Monosaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In molecular biology, the CHB HEX N-terminal domain represents the N-terminal domain in chitobiases and beta-hexosaminidases. Chitobiases degrade chitin, which forms the exoskeleton in insects and crustaceans, and which is one of the most abundant polysaccharides on earth. Beta-hexosaminidases are composed of either a HexA/HexB heterodimer or a HexB homodimer, and can hydrolyse diverse substrates, including GM(2)-gangliosides; mutations in this enzyme are associated with Tay-Sachs disease. HexB is structurally similar to chitobiase, consisting of a beta sandwich structure; this structure is similar to that found in the cellulose-binding domain of cellulase from Cellulomonas fimi. This domain may function as a carbohydrate binding module.

text: In molecular biology, the CHB HEX N-terminal domain represents the

text: N-terminal

text: domain

text: in

text: chitobiase

text: s and

text: beta-hexosaminidase

text: s. Chitobiases degrade

text: chitin

text: , which forms the

text: exoskeleton

text: in

text: insects

text: and

text: crustaceans

text: , and which is one of the most abundant

text: polysaccharide

text: s on earth. Beta-hexosaminidases are composed of either a HexA/HexB

text: heterodimer

text: or a HexB homodimer, and can

text: hydrolyse

text: diverse substrates, including GM(2)-

text: gangliosides

text: mutations

text: in this

text: enzyme

text: are associated with

text: Tay-Sachs

text: disease. HexB is

text: structurally

text: similar to chitobiase, consisting of a

text: beta sandwich

text: structure; this

text: structure

text: is similar to that found in the cellulose-binding domain of cellulase from Cellulomonas fimi. This domain may function as a carbohydrate binding module.

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: GM(2)-gangliosides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulomonas fimi

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Diets to promote weight loss are  divided into four categories: low-fat, low-carbohydrate, low-calorie, and very low calorie. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between the main diet types (low calorie, low carbohydrate, and low fat), with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss in all studies.  At two years, all calorie-reduced diet types cause equal weight loss irrespective of the macronutrients emphasized.

text: Diets to promote

text: weight loss

text: are  divided into four categories:

text: low-fat

text: low-carbohydrate

text: low-calorie

text: , and

text: very low calorie

text: . A

text: meta-analysis

text: of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between the main diet types (low calorie, low carbohydrate, and low fat), with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss in all studies.  At two years, all calorie-reduced diet types cause equal weight loss irrespective of the macronutrients emphasized.

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text: However, a review of the scientific literature suggests that this mechanism of action is unlikely to be true. For while plant cell walls are made predominantly of cellulose, yeast cell walls are not (yeast are classified as fungi).  For example, in the article, "Synthesis of the yeast cell wall and its regulation" in the Annual Review of Biochemistry, there is mention of many other complex carbohydrates found in yeast cell walls, but there is no mention of cellulose nor is cellulose mentioned as a cell wall component in candida albicans, the yeast strain most frequently associated with human fungal infections. Indeed, scientists have even modified yeast cells so they can make their own cellulases. This allows the modified yeast to ferment widely available plant material, which is made mostly of cellulose, and turn plant cellulose into alcohol for biofuels (cellulosic ethanol). One scientific article even called yeast an "ideal host strain" for producing cellulases. This is consistent with cellulase not being toxic to yeast and no mention was made of any toxic effect of cellulases on the modified yeast.

text: However, a review of the scientific literature suggests that this mechanism of action is unlikely to be true. For while plant

text: cell wall

text: s are made predominantly of

text: cellulose

text: , yeast

text: cell wall

text: s are not (

text: yeast

text: are classified as fungi).  For example, in the article, "Synthesis of the yeast cell wall and its regulation" in the Annual Review of Biochemistry, there is mention of many other complex carbohydrates found in yeast cell walls, but there is no mention of cellulose nor is cellulose mentioned as a cell wall component in

text: candida albicans

text: , the yeast strain most frequently associated with human fungal infections. Indeed, scientists have even modified yeast cells so they can make their own cellulases. This allows the modified yeast to ferment widely available plant material, which is made mostly of cellulose, and turn plant cellulose into alcohol for biofuels (

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: ). One scientific article even called yeast an "ideal host strain" for producing cellulases. This is consistent with cellulase not being toxic to yeast and no mention was made of any toxic effect of cellulases on the modified yeast.

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text: Enzymes are used to break down the carbohydrates into fermentable sugars. The fermentation takes place continuously over six cascading tanks, producing a 20-proof beer. The bread-wine is then distilled into spirit using a five-step process. The water used in the vodka comes from a natural spring 150 metres (500 feet) below the blending facility in Cognac, which is lined with limestone, providing calcium-rich spring water. The vodka is also filtered through a copper filtration system in order to impart additional flavours. That water is then filtered to remove impurities. After the filtration the vodka is bottled in a plant dedicated solely to bottling Grey Goose. Grey Goose vodka is bottled with a replaceable cork rather than a screw-top cap.

text: Enzymes are used to break down the carbohydrates into fermentable sugars. The fermentation takes place continuously over six cascading tanks, producing a 20-proof beer. The bread-wine is then distilled into spirit using a five-step process. The water used in the vodka comes from a natural spring 150 metres (500 feet) below the blending facility in Cognac, which is lined with limestone, providing calcium-rich spring water. The vodka is also filtered through a copper filtration system in order to impart additional flavours. That water is then filtered to remove impurities. After the filtration the vodka is bottled in a plant dedicated solely to bottling Grey Goose. Grey Goose vodka is bottled with a replaceable cork rather than a screw-top cap.

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Malt extract is frequently used in the brewing of beer. Its production begins by germinating barley grain in a process known as malting,  immersing barley in water to encourage the grain to sprout, then drying the barley to halt the progress when the sprouting begins. The drying step stops the sprouting, but the enzymes remain active due to the low temperatures used in base malt production. In one before-and-after comparison, malting decreased barley's extractable starch content by about 7% on a dry matter basis, and turned that portion into various other carbohydrates.

text: Malt extract is frequently used in the brewing of

text: beer

text: . Its production begins by germinating

text: barley

text: grain in a process known as

text: malting

text: ,  immersing barley in water to encourage the grain to sprout, then drying the barley to halt the progress when the sprouting begins. The drying step stops the sprouting, but the

text: enzyme

text: s remain active due to the low temperatures used in base malt production. In one before-and-after comparison, malting decreased barley's extractable starch content by about 7% on a dry matter basis, and turned that portion into various other carbohydrates.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Malt extract

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: barley's extractable starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate are the products of plant photosynthesis and animal gluconeogenesis. Photosynthesis produces initially 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde, a three carbon atom containing sugar (a triose).  This triose in turn may be converted into glucose (a six carbon atom containing sugar) or a variety of pentoses  (five carbon atom containing sugars) through the Calvin cycle. In animals, the three carbon precursors lactate or glycerol can be converted into pyruvate which in turn can be converted into carbohydrates in the liver.

text: Carbohydrate are the products of plant

text: photosynthesis

text: and animal

text: gluconeogenesis

text: . Photosynthesis produces initially

text: , a three carbon atom containing sugar (a

text: triose

text: ).  This triose in turn may be converted into

text: glucose

text: (a six carbon atom containing sugar) or a variety of

text: pentose

text: s  (five carbon atom containing sugars) through the

text: Calvin cycle

text: . In animals, the three carbon precursors

text: lactate

text: or

text: glycerol

text: can be converted into

text: pyruvate

text: which in turn can be converted into carbohydrates in the liver.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize.  All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest.Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite).

text: Carnivore

text: and

text: herbivore

text: diets are contrasting, with basic

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize.  All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest.Animal tissue contains

text: chemical compound

text: s, such as

text: water

text: carbohydrate

text: s (sugar, starch, and fiber),

text: amino acid

text: s (in

text: protein

text: s),

text: fatty acid

text: s (in

text: lipid

text: s), and

text: nucleic acid

text: s (

text: DNA

text: and

text: RNA

text: ). These compounds in turn consist of

text: elements

text: such as

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: oxygen

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: calcium

text: iron

text: zinc

text: magnesium

text: manganese

text: , and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g.

text: hormone

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: phospholipid

text: s,

text: hydroxyapatite

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Animal tissue contains chemical compounds

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Inhibition of these enzyme systems reduces the rate of digestion of carbohydrates. Less glucose  is absorbed because the carbohydrates are not broken down into glucose molecules. In diabetic patients, the short-term effect of these drugs therapies is to decrease current blood glucose levels: the long-term effect is a small reduction in hemoglobin  level.

text: Inhibition of these enzyme systems reduces the rate of digestion of carbohydrates. Less glucose  is absorbed because the carbohydrates are not broken down into glucose molecules. In

text: diabetic

text: patients, the short-term effect of these drugs therapies is to decrease current blood glucose levels: the long-term effect is a small reduction in

text: hemoglobin

text: level.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Weight gain can be accomplished through the ingestion of and storage of carbohydrates and fat. Under normal conditions, adrenal hormone receptors, type I and type II, mediate the storage of carbohydrates and fats during eating. In some cases, obesity in individuals is due to the overproduction of corticoids leads to the over-activation of receptor type I and type II, causing the deposition of fat and the storage of carbohydrates, respectively; furthermore, activation of either receptor causes the individual to sustain eating.

text: Weight gain can be accomplished through the ingestion of and storage of carbohydrates and fat. Under normal conditions, adrenal hormone receptors, type I and type II, mediate the storage of carbohydrates and fats during eating. In some cases, obesity in individuals is due to the overproduction of corticoids leads to the over-activation of receptor type I and type II, causing the deposition of fat and the storage of carbohydrates, respectively; furthermore, activation of either receptor causes the individual to sustain eating.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 9 (CBM9) binds to crystalline cellulose. CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 9 (CBM9) binds to crystalline cellulose. CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.

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answers: cellulose

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The carbon-bonded hydrogen isotopic composition of cellulose, as inherited from leaf water, has the potential of preserving the original meteoric water signal. This was first demonstrated in the 1970s. In a systematic survey across North America, tree cellulose δD was found to have a temperature sensitivity of 5.8‰/°C, similar to precipitation δD sensitivity of 5.6‰/°C. This spatial correlation may be complicated by local effects of soil evaporation and leaf transpiration, and the spatial gradient may not be representative of temporal changes in tree ring cellulose at a single place. The mechanism that generates the δD signal in cellulose from meteoric water is not completely understood, but at least includes leaf water transpiration, synthesis of carbohydrates, synthesis of cellulose from photosynthetic sugars, and exchange of sugars with xylem water. Modeling studies show that observed tree ring cellulose δD can be produced when 36% of the hydrogen in sugars can exchange with xylem water, and effects such as humidity and rainfall seasonality may complicate the cellulose δD proxy. Despite these complications, tree ring δD have been used for paleoclimate reconstructions of the past few millennia. For example, a tree ring cellulose δD records from pine trees in the White Mountains, California shows a 50‰ depletion from 6800 year ago to present. The cooling trend since the mid-Holocene thermal maximum is consistent with ice core and pollen records, but the corresponding magnitude of cooling is elusive due to complicated influences from local effects such as humidity and soil water composition. The meaning of isotopes in cellulose and its applications is still an area of active study.

text: The carbon-bonded hydrogen isotopic composition of

text: cellulose

text: White Mountains

text: , California shows a 50‰ depletion from 6800 year ago to present. The cooling trend since the mid-Holocene thermal maximum is consistent with ice core and pollen records, but the corresponding magnitude of cooling is elusive due to complicated influences from local effects such as humidity and soil water composition. The meaning of isotopes in cellulose and its applications is still an area of active study.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Tree ring cellulose  D

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Tree cellulose  D

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Maltose is a biomolecule that belongs to the group of carbohydrates within the division of biomolecules into the three main groups: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen C, O, H and are either polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones.

text: Maltose is a

text: biomolecule

text: that belongs to the group of carbohydrates within the division of biomolecules into the three main groups: carbohydrates,

text: lipid

text: s and

text: protein

text: s. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen C, O, H and are either polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones.

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answers: carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Maltose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Prebiotics are non-digestible carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are mainly made up of oligosaccharides which are short chains of monosaccharides. The two most commonly studied prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS). FOS has been studied for use in chicken feed. MOS works as a competitive binding site, as bacteria bind to it rather than the intestine and are carried out.

text: Prebiotics

text: are non-digestible carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are mainly made up of oligosaccharides which are short chains of monosaccharides. The two most commonly studied prebiotics are fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS). FOS has been studied for use in chicken feed. MOS works as a competitive binding site, as bacteria bind to it rather than the intestine and are carried out.

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answers: monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: FOS has been studied for use in chicken feed

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: oligosaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.

text: Carbohydrates

text: are the main source of energy in organisms for

text: metabolism

text: . They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a

text: carbohydrate

text: and

text: electrolyte

text: solution on muscle

text: glycogen

text: use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher

text: plasma glucose

text: concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrates

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Amylase breaks down carbohydrates into mono- and disaccharides, so a starch agar must be used for this assay. Once the bacteria is streaked on the agar, the plate is flooded with iodine. Since iodine binds to starch but not its digested byproducts, a clear area will appear where the amylase reaction has occurred. Bacillus subtilis is a bacterium that results in a positive assay as shown in the picture.

text: Amylase breaks down carbohydrates into mono- and disaccharides, so a

text: starch

text: agar must be used for this assay. Once the bacteria is streaked on the agar, the plate is flooded with

text: iodine

text: . Since iodine binds to starch but not its digested

text: byproducts

text: , a clear area will appear where the amylase reaction has occurred.

text: Bacillus subtilis

text: is a bacterium that results in a positive assay as shown in the picture.

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Amylase breaks down carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In 2011, France, the United States, Germany, Russia, and Ukraine were the world's five largest sugar beet producers by mass, whilst by value Turkey takes the place of Ukraine. However, in 2010–2011, North America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe did not produce enough sugar from sugar beets to meet overall demand for sugar, and were all net importers of sugar. The US harvested  of sugar beets in 2008.  In 2009, sugar beets accounted for 20% of the world's sugar production.

text: In 2011, France, the United States, Germany, Russia, and Ukraine were the world's five largest sugar beet producers by mass, whilst by value Turkey takes the place of Ukraine. However, in 2010–2011, North America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe did not produce enough sugar from sugar beets to meet overall demand for sugar, and were all net importers of sugar. The US harvested  of sugar beets in 2008.  In 2009, sugar beets accounted for 20% of the world's sugar production.

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answers: NDQ_016383

answers: sugar

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: sugar beets

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: sugar beets

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.

text: Carbohydrate is one of three major

text: macronutrient

text: s found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as

text: glucose

text: and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with

text: diabetes

text: , the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sequence-based classifications are among the most powerful predictive method for suggesting function for newly sequenced enzymes for which function has not been biochemically demonstrated. A classification system for glycosyl hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of more than 100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy (CArbohydrate-Active EnZymes) web site. The database provides a series of regularly updated sequence based classification that allow reliable prediction of mechanism (retaining/inverting), active site residues and possible substrates.  The online database is supported by CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes. Based on three-dimensional structural similarities, the sequence-based families have been classified into 'clans' of related structure. Recent progress in glycosidase sequence analysis and 3D structure comparison has allowed the proposal of an extended hierarchical classification of the glycoside hydrolases.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: glycoside hydrolases

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The oxidative system (aerobic) is the primary source of ATP supplied to the body at rest and during low intensity activities and uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Protein is not normally metabolized significantly, except during long term starvation and long bouts of exercise (greater than 90 minutes.) At rest approximately 70% of the ATP produced is derived from fats and 30% from carbohydrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of the exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100% of the energy is derived from carbohydrates, if an adequate supply is available.

text: The oxidative system (aerobic) is the primary source of ATP supplied to the body at rest and during low intensity activities and uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Protein is not normally metabolized significantly, except during long term starvation and long bouts of exercise (greater than 90 minutes.) At rest approximately 70% of the ATP produced is derived from fats and 30% from carbohydrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of the exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100% of the energy is derived from carbohydrates, if an adequate supply is available.

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plants store extra glucose as starches

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Although the team had 2010 runner-up Mosquera on their books, they elected not to send him – having been on the team's pre-selection list – to the race due to the ongoing investigation into his positive doping case for hydroxyethyl starch. Instead, the team elected to place leadership upon the shoulders of Poels, who had taken second place and a stage victory in the Tour de l'Ain, held one week before the Vuelta. The team started with another mediocre performance in the team time trial, coming in 18th of the 22 teams, but Pidgornyy was part of a successful four-man breakaway on the third stage, and although he eventually finished 15 seconds down on the eventual stage winner Pablo Lastras (), Pidgornyy moved into fourth place in the general classification.

text: Although the team had

text: runner-up Mosquera on their books, they elected not to send him – having been on the team's pre-selection list – to the race due to the ongoing investigation into his positive doping case for

text: hydroxyethyl starch

text: . Instead, the team elected to place leadership upon the shoulders of Poels, who had taken second place and a stage victory in the

text: Tour de l'Ain

text: , held one week before the Vuelta. The team started with another mediocre performance in the team time trial, coming in 18th of the 22 teams, but Pidgornyy was part of a successful four-man breakaway on the third stage, and although he eventually finished 15 seconds down on the eventual stage winner

text: Pablo Lastras

text: (), Pidgornyy moved into fourth place in the general classification.

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answers: starch

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answers: hydroxyethylene starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged. The energy component of photosynthesis, the capture and storage of the Sun's radiant energy in carbon bonds (a process on which all life depends) was first elucidated in 1847 by Mayer, but the details of how this was done would take many more years. Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined, to be finally resolved in the early 20th century. The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid-19th century when Sachs, in 1862, noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants. The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915.

text: At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged. The energy component of photosynthesis, the capture and storage of the Sun's radiant energy in carbon bonds (a process on which all life depends) was first elucidated in 1847 by

text: Mayer

text: , but the details of how this was done would take many more years. Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined, to be finally resolved in the early 20th century. The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid-19th century when Sachs, in 1862, noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants. The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915.

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answers: carbon

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answers: starch

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answers: Starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sorbitol is identified as a potential key chemical intermediate for production of fuels from biomass resources. Carbohydrate fractions in biomass such as cellulose undergo sequential hydrolysis and hydrogenation in the presence of metal catalysts to produce sorbitol. Complete reduction of sorbitol opens the way to alkanes, such as hexane, which can be used as a biofuel. Hydrogen required for this reaction can be produced by aqueous phase reforming of sorbitol.

text: Sorbitol is identified as a potential key chemical intermediate for production of fuels from

text: biomass

text: resources.

text: Carbohydrate

text: fractions in biomass such as

text: cellulose

text: undergo sequential

text: hydrolysis

text: and

text: hydrogenation

text: in the presence of metal catalysts to produce sorbitol. Complete reduction of sorbitol opens the way to

text: alkane

text: s, such as

text: hexane

text: , which can be used as a

text: biofuel

text: . Hydrogen required for this reaction can be produced by aqueous phase reforming of sorbitol.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Around 160 million tonnes of sugar are produced every year. The largest producers are Brazil (22%), India (15%) and the European Union (10%). Altogether, there are more than 123 countries sugar-producing countries, but only 30% of the produce is traded on the international market. In 2011 global sugar export trade was worth $47bn with $33.5bn of sugar exports are from developing countries and $12.2bn from developed countries.

text: Around 160 million tonnes of sugar are produced every year. The largest producers are Brazil (22%), India (15%) and the European Union (10%). Altogether, there are more than 123 countries sugar-producing countries, but only 30% of the produce is traded on the international market. In 2011 global sugar export trade was worth $47bn with $33.5bn of sugar exports are from developing countries and $12.2bn from developed countries.

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answers: sugar

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answers: sugar

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answers: cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In mammals, amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fats are seen to influence reproductive success. This was evaluated among 28 female black bears evaluated by measuring the number of cubs born. Using different foods during the fall including corn, herbaceous, red oak, beech, and cherry, nutritional facts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat were noted, as each varied in percent compositions. Seventy-percent of the bears who had high fat and high carbohydrate diets produced cubs. Conversely, all 10 females who had low carbohydrate diets did not reproduce cubs, deeming carbohydrates a critical factor for reproductive success where fat was not a hindrance.

text: In mammals, amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fats are seen to influence reproductive success. This was evaluated among 28 female black bears evaluated by measuring the number of cubs born. Using different foods during the fall including corn, herbaceous, red oak, beech, and cherry, nutritional facts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat were noted, as each varied in percent compositions. Seventy-percent of the bears who had high fat and high carbohydrate diets produced cubs. Conversely, all 10 females who had low carbohydrate diets did not reproduce cubs, deeming carbohydrates a critical factor for reproductive success where fat was not a hindrance.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking". Some rodents have cheek pouches, which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose, the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum, where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy, eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin.

text: Rodents generally have well-developed senses of

text: smell

text: , hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to

text: ultraviolet

text: light. Many species have long, sensitive

text: whiskers

text: or vibrissae for touch or

text: "whisking"

text: . Some rodents have

text: cheek pouches

text: , which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating

text: cellulose

text: , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the

text: cecum

text: , where bacteria reduce it to its

text: carbohydrate

text: elements. The rodent then practices

text: coprophagy

text: , eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the

text: baculum

text: ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: When eating cellulose, the food is softened in the stomach

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: The rodent then practices coprophagy

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glycoconjugates is the general classification for carbohydrates covalently linked with other chemical species such as proteins, peptides, lipids and saccharides. Glycoconjugates are formed in processes termed glycosylation.

text: Glycoconjugates is the general classification for

text: carbohydrate

text: s

text: covalently linked

text: with other chemical species such as proteins, peptides, lipids and saccharides. Glycoconjugates are formed in processes termed

text: glycosylation

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answers: glycosylation

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answers: glycoconjugates

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answers: Glycosylation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 2

text: α-Amylase is a protein enzyme  that hydrolyses alpha bonds of large, alpha-linked polysaccharides, such as starch and glycogen, yielding glucose and maltose. It is the major form of amylase found in humans and other mammals. It is also present in seeds containing starch as a food reserve, and is secreted by many fungi.

text: α-Amylase is a protein

text: enzyme

text: that

text: hydrolyses

text: alpha bonds of large, alpha-linked

text: polysaccharide

text: s, such as

text: starch

text: and

text: glycogen

text: , yielding

text: glucose

text: and

text: maltose

text: . It is the major form of

text: amylase

text: found in humans and other mammals. It is also present in seeds containing starch as a food reserve, and is secreted by many fungi.

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answers: alpha-linked

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: -Amylase

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton.

text: Cellulose is mainly used to produce

text: paperboard

text: and

text: paper

text: . Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as

text: cellophane

text: and

text: rayon

text: . Conversion of cellulose from

text: energy crop

text: s into

text: biofuel

text: s such as

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: is under investigation as an alternative fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from

text: wood pulp

text: and

text: cotton

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Energy crops

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cellulosic ethanol

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being glucose. Almost all sugars have the formula  (n is between 3 and 7). Glucose has the molecular formula . The names of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water () per bond.

text: Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or

text: oligosaccharide

text: s. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being glucose. Almost all sugars have the formula  (n is between 3 and 7).

text: Glucose

text: has the

text: molecular formula

text: . The names of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "

text: glucose

text: " and "

text: fructose

text: ". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of

text: carbohydrates

text: soluble in

text: water

text: . The

text: acyclic

text: mono- and disaccharides contain either

text: aldehyde

text: groups or

text: ketone

text: groups. These

text: carbon-oxygen

text: double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by

text: glycosidic bond

text: s with the resultant loss of a molecule of water () per bond.

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answers: carbon

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answers: Plants stores extra glucose as starches.

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: "Carbohydrate", "glycan", "saccharide", and "sugar" are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”, i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length.

text: Carbohydrate

text: glycan

text: saccharide

text: ", and "

text: sugar

text: " are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes

text: monosaccharide

text: s,

text: oligosaccharide

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”, i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length.

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answers: hydrated carbon

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Monosaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption and metabolism.

text: Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption and metabolism.

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answers: sugars

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answers: Isomaltulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Isomaltulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Contrary to the recommendations of most low-carbohydrate diet guides, some individuals may choose to avoid vegetables altogether to minimize carbohydrate intake. Low-carbohydrate vegetarianism is also practiced.

text: Contrary to the recommendations of most low-carbohydrate diet guides, some individuals may choose to avoid vegetables altogether to minimize carbohydrate intake. Low-carbohydrate

text: vegetarianism

text: is also practiced.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 3 (CBM3) is involved in cellulose binding  and is found associated with a wide range of bacterial glycosyl hydrolases. The structure of this domain is known; it forms a beta sandwich.

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 3 (CBM3) is involved in

text: cellulose

text: binding  and is found associated with a wide range of

text: bacteria

text: l glycosyl hydrolases. The

text: structure

text: of this domain is known; it forms a

text: beta sandwich

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answers: glycosyl

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answers: carbohydrate

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As the Earth’s most common organic material, cellulose can be classified into plant cellulose and bacterial cellulose, both of which are naturally occurring. Plant cellulose, which makes up the cell walls of most plants, is a tough, mesh-like bulkwork in which cellulose fibrils are the primary architectural elements. While bacterial cellulose has the same molecular formula as plant cellulose, it has significantly different macromolecular properties and characteristics. In general, microbial cellulose is more chemically pure, containing no hemicellulose or lignin, has a higher water holding capacity and hydrophilicity, greater tensile strength resulting from a larger amount of polymerization, ultrafine network architecture. Furthermore, bacterial cellulose can be produced on a variety of substrates and can be grown to virtually any shape due to the high moldability during formation. Additionally, bacterial cellulose has a more crystalline structure compared to plant cellulose and forms characteristic ribbon-like microfibrils. A hallmark of microbial cellulose, these thin microfibrils are significantly smaller than those in plant cellulose, making bacterial cellulose much more porous.

text: As the Earth’s most common

text: organic

text: material, cellulose can be classified into plant cellulose and bacterial cellulose, both of which are naturally occurring. Plant cellulose, which makes up the cell walls of most plants, is a tough, mesh-like bulkwork in which cellulose fibrils are the primary architectural elements. While bacterial cellulose has the same molecular formula as plant cellulose, it has significantly different macromolecular properties and characteristics. In general, microbial cellulose is more chemically pure, containing no

text: hemicellulose

text: or

text: lignin

text: , has a higher water holding capacity and

text: hydrophilicity

text: , greater

text: tensile strength

text: resulting from a larger amount of

text: polymerization

text: , ultrafine network architecture. Furthermore, bacterial cellulose can be produced on a variety of substrates and can be grown to virtually any shape due to the high moldability during formation. Additionally, bacterial cellulose has a more crystalline structure compared to plant cellulose and forms characteristic ribbon-like

text: microfibrils

text: . A hallmark of microbial cellulose, these thin

text: microfibrils

text: are significantly smaller than those in plant cellulose, making bacterial cellulose much more porous.

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answers: cellulose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Plant cellulose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Plant cellulose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Glycemic load of a serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content measured in grams (g), multiplied by the food's GI, and divided by 100. For example, watermelon has a GI of 72. A 100 g serving of watermelon has 5 g of available carbohydrates (it contains a lot of water), making the calculation 5 × 72/100=3.6, so the GL is 3.6. A food with a GI of 100 and 10 g of available carbohydrates has a GL of 10 (10 × 100/100=10), while a food with 100 g of carbohydrate and a GI of just 10 also has a GL of 10 (100 × 10/100=10).

text: Glycemic load of a serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content measured in grams (g), multiplied by the food's GI, and divided by 100. For example, watermelon has a GI of 72. A 100 g serving of watermelon has 5 g of available carbohydrates (it contains a lot of water), making the calculation 5 × 72/100=3.6, so the GL is 3.6. A food with a GI of 100 and 10 g of available carbohydrates has a GL of 10 (10 × 100/100=10), while a food with 100 g of carbohydrate and a GI of just 10 also has a GL of 10 (100 × 10/100=10).

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: carbohydrate

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.

text: In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g.

text: fructose

text: ) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Soy protein isolates or soybean flour and gluten are usually used as foundation for most meat analogs that are available on the market. Soy protein isolate is a highly pure form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90%. The process of extracting the protein from the soybeans starts with the dehulling, or decortication, of the seeds. The seeds are then treated with solvents such as hexane in order extract the oil from them. The oil-free soybean meal is then suspended in water and treated with alkali to dissolve the protein while leaving behind the carbohydrates. The alkaline solution is then treated with acidic substances in order to precipitate the protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates, results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor. Soy protein is also considered a “complete protein” as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development.

text: Soy protein isolates

text: or soybean flour and gluten are usually used as foundation for most meat analogs that are available on the market. Soy protein isolate is a highly pure form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90%. The process of extracting the protein from the soybeans starts with the dehulling, or decortication, of the seeds. The seeds are then treated with solvents such as hexane in order extract the oil from them. The oil-free soybean meal is then suspended in water and treated with alkali to dissolve the protein while leaving behind the carbohydrates. The alkaline solution is then treated with acidic substances in order to precipitate the protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates, results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor. Soy protein is also considered a “complete protein” as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development.

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

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answers: gluten

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides).

text: Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the

entity_name: United States Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs

text: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs

text: publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (

text: monosaccharide

text: s and

text: disaccharide

text: s) and complex if they are

text: polysaccharide

text: s (or

text: oligosaccharide

text: s).

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answers: saccharide

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answers: polysaccharides

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: polysaccharides

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 17 (CBM17) appears to have a very shallow binding cleft that may be more accessible to cellulose chains in non-crystalline cellulose than the deeper binding clefts of family 4 CBMs. Sequence and structural conservation in families CBM17 and CBM28 suggests that they have evolved through gene duplication and subsequent divergence. CBM17 does not compete with CBM28 modules when binding to non-crystalline cellulose. Different CBMs have been shown to bind to different sirtes in amorphous cellulose, CBM17 and CBM28 recognise distinct non-overlapping sites in amorphous cellulose.

text: Carbohydrate-binding module family 17 (CBM17) appears to have a very shallow binding cleft that may be more accessible to cellulose

text: chain

text: s in non-crystalline cellulose than the deeper binding clefts of family 4 CBMs. Sequence and structural conservation in families CBM17 and CBM28 suggests that they have

text: evolved

text: through

text: gene duplication

text: and subsequent divergence. CBM17 does not compete with CBM28 modules when binding to non-crystalline cellulose. Different CBMs have been shown to bind to different sirtes in amorphous cellulose, CBM17 and CBM28 recognise distinct non-overlapping sites in amorphous cellulose.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: Carbohydrate-binding module family 17

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answers: Non-crystalline cellulose

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: CAZy is a database of Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes (CAZymes).  The database contains a classification and associated information about enzymes involved in the synthesis, metabolism, and transport of carbohydrates.  Included in the database are glycoside hydrolases, glycosyltransferases,  polysaccharide lyases, carbohydrate esterase and carbohydrate-binding families.

text: CAZy is a database of Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes (CAZymes).  The database contains a classification and associated information about

text: enzyme

text: s involved in the synthesis, metabolism, and transport of

text: carbohydrate

text: s.  Included in the database are

text: glycoside hydrolase

text: s,

text: glycosyltransferase

text: s,  polysaccharide

text: lyase

text: s, carbohydrate

text: esterase

text: and carbohydrate-binding families.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: polysaccharide

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Weil is widely recognized as having a seminal role in establishing the field of integrative medicine, where this field is defined as: He says that patients are urged to take the Western medicine prescribed by their physicians. and—in what Publishers Weekly describes as a message "becoming a signature formula"—then "bend the 'biomedical model' [conventional, evidence-based medicine] to incorporate alternative therapies, including supplements like omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, and herbal remedies; [and] meditation and other 'spiritual' strategies." Proper nutrition, exercise, and stress reduction are also emphasized by Weil. In particular, he is a proponent of diets that are rich in organic fruits, organic vegetables, and fish, and is a vocal critic of foods and diets rich in partially hydrogenated oils. In an interview on Larry King Live, Weil focused on a view that sugar, starch, refined carbohydrates, and trans-fats are more dangerous to the human body than saturated fats.

text: Weil is widely recognized as having a seminal role in establishing the field of

text: integrative medicine

text: , where this field is defined as: He says that patients are urged to take the

text: Western medicine

text: prescribed by their physicians. and—in what Publishers Weekly describes as a message "becoming a signature formula"—then "bend the 'biomedical model' [conventional, evidence-based medicine] to incorporate alternative therapies, including supplements like omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, and herbal remedies; [and] meditation and other 'spiritual' strategies." Proper

text: nutrition

text: exercise

text: , and

text: stress reduction

text: are also emphasized by Weil. In particular, he is a proponent of diets that are rich in organic fruits, organic vegetables, and fish, and is a vocal critic of foods and diets rich in

text: partially hydrogenated oils

text: . In an interview on

text: Larry King Live

text: , Weil focused on a view that sugar, starch, refined carbohydrates, and trans-fats are more dangerous to the human body than

text: saturated fats

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answers: sugar

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. β-amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose molecules, i.e. maltose. β-amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some help is found here through low α-amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase. The maltose will be the yeast's main food source during fermentation. During this rest starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases the lautering process.

text: Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. β-amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose molecules, i.e.

text: maltose

text: . β-amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some help is found here through low α-amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase. The maltose will be the yeast's main food source during fermentation. During this rest starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases the lautering process.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: Starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen. Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of D-glucose units linked by α-(1→4) or α-(1→6) glycosidic bonds.

text: Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight

text: carbohydrate

text: s produced by the

text: hydrolysis

text: of

text: starch

text: or

text: glycogen

text: . Dextrins are mixtures of

text: polymer

text: s of D-

text: glucose

text: units linked by α-(1→4) or α-(1→6)

text: glycosidic bonds

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answers: glycogen

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answers: Dextrins

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Dextrins

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market. International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents  per pound in the  50 years. About 100 of the world's 180 countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium. Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35 kg per person per year in middle income countries.

text: One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market. International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents  per pound in the  50 years. About 100 of the world's 180 countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium. Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35 kg per person per year in middle income countries.

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answers: sugar

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answers: Cane

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Cane

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are inborn error of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates.

text: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are

text: inborn error of metabolism

text: that affect the catabolism and anabolism of

text: carbohydrates

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: carbohydrate metabolism

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: carbohydrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Cassava, which is rich in starch in the form of carbohydrate, has multiple uses. It is consumed in many processed forms, in the industry and also as livestock feed. Roots or leaves are made into flours. Flours are of three types, yellow garri, white garri, or intermediate colour, with yellow garri considered the best product in Nigeria. Its other products are as dry extraction of starch, glue or adhesives, modified starch in pharmaceutical as dextrines, as processing inputs, as industrial starch for drilling, and processed foods.

text: Cassava, which is rich in starch in the form of

text: carbohydrate

text: , has multiple uses. It is consumed in many processed forms, in the industry and also as livestock feed. Roots or leaves are made into flours. Flours are of three types, yellow garri, white garri, or intermediate colour, with yellow garri considered the best product in Nigeria. Its other products are as dry extraction of starch, glue or adhesives, modified starch in pharmaceutical as

text: dextrine

text: s, as processing inputs, as industrial starch for drilling, and processed foods.

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answers: Cassava

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answers: dextrines

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The potato is best known for its carbohydrate content (approximately 26 grams in a medium potato). The predominant form of this carbohydrate is starch. A small but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, and so reaches the large intestine essentially intact. This resistant starch is considered to have similar physiological effects and health benefits as fiber: It provides bulk, offers protection against colon cancer, improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, lowers plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations, increases satiety, and possibly even reduces fat storage. The amount of resistant starch in potatoes depends much on preparation methods. Cooking and then cooling potatoes significantly increases resistant starch. For example, cooked potato starch contains about 7% resistant starch, which increases to about 13% upon cooling.

text: The potato is best known for its

text: carbohydrate

text: content (approximately 26 grams in a medium potato). The predominant form of this carbohydrate is

text: starch

text: . A small but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by

text: enzyme

text: s in the

text: stomach

text: and

text: small intestine

text: , and so reaches the

text: large intestine

text: essentially intact. This

text: resistant starch

text: is considered to have similar physiological effects and health benefits as

text: fiber

text: : It provides bulk, offers protection against

text: colon cancer

text: , improves

text: glucose

text: tolerance and insulin sensitivity, lowers plasma cholesterol and

text: triglyceride

text: concentrations, increases satiety, and possibly even reduces fat storage. The amount of resistant starch in potatoes depends much on preparation methods. Cooking and then cooling potatoes significantly increases resistant starch. For example, cooked

text: potato starch

text: contains about 7% resistant starch, which increases to about 13% upon cooling.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: The potato

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: NMMO monohydrate is used as a solvent in the Lyocell process to produce Tencel fiber. It dissolves cellulose to form a solution called dope, and the cellulose is reprecipitated in a water bath to produce a fiber. The process is similar but not analogous to the viscose process. In the viscose process, cellulose is made soluble by conversion to its xanthate derivatives. With NMMO, cellulose is not derivatized but dissolves to give a homogeneous polymer solution. The resulting fiber is similar to viscose; this was observed, for example, for Valonia cellulose microfibrils. Dilution with water causes the cellulose to reprecipitate, i.e. the solvation of cellulose with NMMO is a water sensitive process.

text: NMMO monohydrate is used as a

text: solvent

text: in the

text: Lyocell

text: process to produce Tencel fiber. It dissolves cellulose to form a solution called dope, and the cellulose is reprecipitated in a water bath to produce a fiber. The process is similar but not analogous to the

text: viscose

text: process. In the viscose process, cellulose is made soluble by conversion to its

text: xanthate

text: derivatives. With NMMO, cellulose is not derivatized but dissolves to give a homogeneous polymer solution. The resulting fiber is similar to

text: viscose

text: ; this was observed, for example, for

text: Valonia

text: cellulose microfibrils. Dilution with water causes the cellulose to reprecipitate, i.e. the solvation of cellulose with NMMO is a water sensitive process.

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answers: monohydrate

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: cellulose to form a solution called dope

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: It dissolves cellulose to form a solution called dope

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Nutritionally, mochi is composed primarily of carbohydrates, most of which take the form of starch.

text: Nutritionally, mochi is composed primarily of carbohydrates, most of which take the form of starch.

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answers: starch

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answers: starch

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are oral anti-diabetic drugs used for diabetes mellitus type 2 that work by preventing the digestion of carbohydrates (such as starch and table sugar). Carbohydrates are normally converted into simple sugars (monosaccharides), which can be absorbed through the intestine.  Hence, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors reduce the impact of carbohydrates on blood sugar.

text: Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are oral

text: anti-diabetic drug

text: s used for

text: diabetes mellitus type 2

text: that work by preventing the digestion of carbohydrates (such as

text: starch

text: and

text: table sugar

text: ). Carbohydrates are normally converted into simple sugars (

text: monosaccharide

text: s), which can be absorbed through the intestine.  Hence, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors reduce the impact of carbohydrates on

text: blood sugar

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The pancreas secretes substances which help in the digestion of starch and other carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Proteases, the enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins, include trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen.  The enzyme involved in the digestion of fats is lipase. Amylase, also secreted by the pancreas, breaks down starch (amylum) and other carbohydrates. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.

text: The pancreas secretes substances which help in the digestion of starch and other carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

text: Protease

text: s, the enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins, include

text: trypsinogen

text: and

text: chymotrypsinogen

text: .  The enzyme involved in the digestion of fats is

text: lipase

text: . Amylase, also secreted by the pancreas, breaks down starch (amylum) and other carbohydrates. The pancreas also secretes

text: phospholipase A2

text: lysophospholipase

text: , and

text: cholesterol

text: esterase

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answers: starch

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answers: Amylase

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answers: Amylase

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A 2011 systematic review found that a Mediterranean diet appeared to be more effective than a low-fat diet in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors, such as lowering cholesterol level and blood pressure. A 2013 Cochrane review found limited evidence that a Mediterranean diet favorably affects cardiovascular risk factors.  A meta-analysis in 2013 compared Mediterranean, vegan, vegetarian, low-glycemic index, low-carbohydrate, high-fiber, and high-protein diets with control diets. The research concluded that Mediterranean, low-carbohydrate, low-glycemic index, and high-protein diets are effective in improving markers of risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. However, concerns have been raised about the quality of previously performed systematic reviews and meta-analyses examining the impact of a Mediterranean diet on cardiovascular risk factors.  Newer reviews have reached similar conclusions about the ability of a Mediterranean diet to improve cardiovascular risk factors such as high blood pressure.

text: A 2011 systematic review found that a Mediterranean diet appeared to be more effective than a

text: low-fat diet

text: in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors, such as lowering

text: cholesterol level

text: and

text: blood pressure

text: . A 2013

text: Cochrane review

text: found limited evidence that a Mediterranean diet favorably affects cardiovascular risk factors.  A meta-analysis in 2013 compared Mediterranean, vegan, vegetarian, low-glycemic index, low-carbohydrate, high-fiber, and

text: high-protein diet

text: s with control diets. The research concluded that Mediterranean, low-carbohydrate, low-glycemic index, and high-protein diets are effective in improving markers of risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. However, concerns have been raised about the quality of previously performed systematic reviews and meta-analyses examining the impact of a Mediterranean diet on cardiovascular risk factors.  Newer reviews have reached similar conclusions about the ability of a Mediterranean diet to improve cardiovascular risk factors such as

text: high blood pressure

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: Carbohydrate

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Tagatose has very similar sweetness to sugar while its glycemic index (GI 3) is very low. GI is a measure of the effects of carbohydrates in food on blood sugar levels. It estimates how much each gram of available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food raises a person's blood glucose level following consumption of the food, relative to consumption of glucose. Glucose has a glycemic index of 100, by definition, and other foods have lower glycemic index. Sucrose has a GI of 68, fructose is 24, and tagatose has very low GI compared with other sweeteners.

text: Tagatose has very similar sweetness to sugar while its

text: glycemic index

text: (GI 3) is very low. GI is a measure of the effects of

text: carbohydrates

text: in food on blood sugar levels. It estimates how much each gram of available carbohydrate (total

text: carbohydrate

text: minus

text: fiber

text: ) in a food raises a person's

text: blood glucose level

text: following consumption of the food, relative to consumption of glucose. Glucose has a glycemic index of 100, by definition, and other foods have lower glycemic index.

text: Sucrose

text: has a GI of 68,

text: fructose

text: is 24, and tagatose has very low GI compared with other

text: sweetener

text: s.

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answers: glucose

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answers: Tagatose

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: Glucose

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In the 1860s, an American, John Wesley Hyatt, acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing billiard balls, which until that time were made from ivory. He used cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the Albany Billiard Ball Company (1868–1986) in Albany, New York, to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor.  Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill (see below) listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed his material "celluloid" in 1872.

text: In the 1860s, an American,

text: John Wesley Hyatt

text: , acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing

text: billiard ball

text: s, which until that time were made from

text: ivory

text: . He used

text: cloth

text: , ivory dust, and

text: shellac

text: , and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the

text: Albany Billiard Ball Company

text: (1868–1986) in

text: Albany, New York

text: , to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor.  Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill (see below) listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed his material "celluloid" in 1872.

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose

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answers: cellulose nitrate

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The cells range in shape from egg-shaped, ellipsoidal, to elongated, measuring 2.5–5.0 by 5.0–15.0 µm, and occurring singly, doubly, or in groups of four. Asymmetrical blastoconidia are borne on short sterigmata, and measure 2.0–5.0 by 3.0–7.0 µm. The optimal growth temperature for the fungus occurs at a range of ; growth stops at . Like other Sporobolomyces species, S. koalae has coenzyme Q as its major ubiquinone, it lacks the monosaccharide xylose in whole-cell hydrolysates, and it cannot ferment sugars. In carbon assimilation tests (used to assess the ability of the yeast to utilize different carbohydrates as its sole source of carbon aerobically), S. koalae was shown to be able to use glucose, sucrose, maltose, cellobiose,  raffinose, soluble starch, D-mannitol, and succinic acid; it has a weak ability to use trehalose, melezitose, inulin, L-arabinose, glycerine, D-sorbitol, salicin, and D-gluconate. It can use ammonium sulphate and potassium nitrate as nitrogen sources.

text: The cells range in shape from egg-shaped, ellipsoidal, to elongated, measuring 2.5–5.0 by 5.0–15.0

text: µm

text: , and occurring singly, doubly, or in groups of four. Asymmetrical

text: blastoconidia

text: are borne on short

text: sterigma

text: ta, and measure 2.0–5.0 by 3.0–7.0 µm. The optimal growth temperature for the fungus occurs at a range of ; growth stops at . Like other Sporobolomyces species, S. koalae has

text: coenzyme Q

text: as its major

text: ubiquinone

text: , it lacks the

text: monosaccharide

text: xylose

text: in whole-cell

text: hydrolysate

text: s, and it cannot

text: ferment

text: sugars. In

text: carbon

text: assimilation tests (used to assess the ability of the yeast to utilize different

text: carbohydrate

text: s as its sole source of carbon

text: aerobically

text: ), S. koalae was shown to be able to use

text: glucose

text: sucrose

text: maltose

text: cellobiose

text: raffinose

text: , soluble

text: starch

text: , D-

text: mannitol

text: , and

text: succinic acid

text: ; it has a weak ability to use

text: trehalose

text: melezitose

text: inulin

text: , L-

text: arabinose

text: glycerine

text: , D-

text: sorbitol

text: salicin

text: , and D-

text: gluconate

text: . It can use

text: ammonium sulphate

text: and

text: potassium nitrate

text: as

text: nitrogen

text: sources.

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answers: glucose

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answers: soluble starch

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answers: soluble starch

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The berry has been used in West Africa since at least the 18th century, when European explorer the Chevalier des Marchais provided an account of its use there. Marchais, who was searching West Africa for many different fruits in a 1725 excursion, noticed that local people picked the berry from shrubs and chewed it before meals.In the 1970s in the USA, an attempt was made to commercialize the fruit for its ability to turn unsweet foods into sweet foods without a caloric penalty, but ended in failure when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classified the berry as a food additive. There were controversial circumstances with accusations that the project was sabotaged and the research files stolen by the sugar industry to prevent loss of business caused by a drop in demand for sugar. However, the FDA has denied receiving any pressure from the sugar industry. Arguments similar to the ones used for this classification were used for the FDA's regulation on stevia now labeled as a "dietary supplement" instead of a "sweetener".

text: The berry has been used in West Africa since at least the 18th century, when European explorer the

text: Chevalier des Marchais

text: provided an account of its use there. Marchais, who was searching

text: West Africa

text: for many different fruits in a 1725 excursion, noticed that local people picked the berry from shrubs and

text: chewed

text: it before meals.In the 1970s in the USA, an attempt was made to commercialize the fruit for its ability to turn unsweet foods into sweet foods without a caloric penalty, but ended in failure when the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) classified the berry as a

text: food additive

text: . There were controversial circumstances with accusations that the project was sabotaged and the research files stolen by the

text: sugar

text: industry to prevent loss of business caused by a drop in demand for sugar. However, the FDA has denied receiving any pressure from the sugar industry. Arguments similar to the ones used for this classification were used for the FDA's regulation on

text: stevia

text: now labeled as a "

text: dietary supplement

text: " instead of a "sweetener".

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answers: sugar

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answers: shrubs

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: cellulose is a polymer of starch

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Some dog food products differentiate themselves as grain- or carbohydrate-free to offer the consumer an alternative, claiming carbohydrates in pet foods to be fillers with little or no nutritional value.  Carbohydrates in dog food contribute to approximately 3.5 cals of energy per gram, the same as protein per the modified Atwater method of calculating metabolizable energy.  The grain-free diets have created a trend toward avoiding commercial pet food. However, a recent study published in Nature suggests that domestic dogs are able to metabolize carbohydrates.

text: Some dog food products differentiate themselves as grain- or carbohydrate-free to offer the consumer an alternative, claiming carbohydrates in pet foods to be fillers with little or no nutritional value.  Carbohydrates in dog food contribute to approximately 3.5 cals of energy per gram, the same as protein per the modified Atwater method of calculating metabolizable energy.  The grain-free diets have created a trend toward avoiding commercial pet food. However, a recent study published in

text: Nature

text: suggests that domestic dogs are able to metabolize carbohydrates.

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answers: carbohydrate

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answers: grain

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: grain

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: On a high-carbohydrate diet, glucose is used by cells in the body for the energy needed for their basic functions, and about two-thirds of body cells require insulin to use glucose. Excessive amounts of blood glucose are thought to be a primary cause of the complications of diabetes, when glucose reacts with body proteins (resulting in glycosolated proteins) and change their behavior. Perhaps for this reason, the amount of glucose tightly maintained in the blood is quite low. Unless a meal is very low in starches and sugars, blood glucose will rise for a period of an hour or two after a meal. When this occurs, beta cells in the pancreas release insulin to cause uptake of glucose into cells. In liver and muscle cells, more glucose is taken in than is needed and stored as glycogen (once called 'animal starch'). Diets with a high starch/sugar content, therefore, cause release of more insulin, and so more cell absorption. In diabetics, glucose levels vary in time with meals and vary a little more as a result of high-carbohydrate meals. In nondiabetics, blood-sugar levels are restored to normal levels within an hour or two, regardless of the content of a meal.

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answers: glucose

answers: NDQ_016387

answers: In liver and muscle cells

answers: NDQ_016391

answers: glycogen

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: A systematic review published in 2014 included 19 trials with a total of 3,209 overweight and obese participants, some with diabetes. The review included both extreme low carbohydrate diets high in both protein and fat, as well as less extreme low carbohydrate diets that are high in protein but with recommended intakes of fat. The authors found that when the amount of energy (kilojoules/calories) consumed by people following the low carbohydrate and balanced diets (45 to 65% of total energy from carbohydrates, 25 to 35% from fat, and 10 to 20% from protein) was similar, there was no difference in weight loss after 3 to 6 months and after 1 to 2 years in those with and without diabetes. For blood pressure, cholesterol levels and diabetes markers there was also no difference detected between the low carbohydrate and the balanced diets. The follow-up of these trials was no longer than two years, which is too short to provide an adequate picture of the long term risk of following a low carbohydrate diet.

text: A

text: systematic review

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