text: All of the fossils are oval in outline.  Elongated specimens illustrate that the organism was capable of stretching in an anterior-posterior direction, perhaps by as much as a factor of two. The only type of symmetry visible in the White Sea specimens is bilateral; there is no sign of any of the kinds of radial symmetry that are normal in the Cnidaria, the group that includes jellyfish, sea anemones and hydras. The Australian fossils were originally described as a type of jellyfish, but this is inconsistent with the bilateral symmetry in the fossils. The White Sea fossils and the surrounding sediments also show that Kimberella lived on the surface of the sea-floor.

text: All of the fossils are oval in outline.  Elongated specimens illustrate that the organism was capable of stretching in an anterior-posterior direction, perhaps by as much as a factor of two. The only type of

entity_name: Symmetry in biology

text: symmetry

text: visible in the White Sea specimens is bilateral; there is no sign of any of the kinds of radial symmetry that are normal in the

entity_name: Cnidaria

text: Cnidaria

text: , the group that includes

entity_name: Jellyfish

text: jellyfish

entity_name: Sea anemone

text: sea anemone

text: s and

entity_name: Hydrozoa

text: hydra

text: s. The Australian fossils were originally described as a type of jellyfish, but this is inconsistent with the bilateral symmetry in the fossils. The White Sea fossils and the surrounding sediments also show that Kimberella lived on the

entity_name: Benthos

text: surface of the sea-floor

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

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answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: radial symmetry

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answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: All of the fossils are oval in outline

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: radial symmetry

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Cnidaria

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Fossils of plant remains are rare, but include up to 29 genera of plants.  The most common plant fossils found are leafy shoots of the dawn redwood, Metasequoia, and the floating fern Azolla primaeva as mats of plants or as isolated fossils. Leaves of alder (Alnus sp.) are also found, as well as the leaves or needles and seeds of pines (Pinus sp.), the golden larch (Pseudolarix sp.), cedars (Chamaecyparis and/or Thuja spp.), redwood (Sequoia sp.), and rare Ginkgo and sassafras (Sassafras hesperia) leaves. A permineralized pine cone (Pinus driftwoodensis) and associated 2-needle foliage was described from the site in the 1980s. Rare flowers and the seeds of flowering plants have been collected, including Ulmus, Florissantia, and Dipteronia, a genus of trees related to maples (Acer. spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia.

text: Fossils of plant remains are rare, but include up to 29

entity_name: Genus

text: genera

text: of plants.  The most common plant fossils found are leafy shoots of the dawn redwood,

entity_name: Metasequoia

text: Metasequoia

text: , and the floating fern

entity_name: Azolla primaeva

text: Azolla primaeva

text: as mats of plants or as isolated fossils. Leaves of alder (

entity_name: Alder

text: Alnus

text: sp.) are also found, as well as the leaves or needles and seeds of pines (

entity_name: Pine

text: Pinus

text: sp.), the golden larch (

entity_name: Pseudolarix

text: Pseudolarix

text: sp.), cedars (

entity_name: Chamaecyparis

text: Chamaecyparis

text: and/or

entity_name: Thuja

text: Thuja

text: spp.), redwood (

entity_name: Sequoia (genus)

text: Sequoia

text: sp.), and rare

entity_name: Ginkgo

text: Ginkgo

text: and

entity_name: Sassafras

text: sassafras

entity_name: Sassafras hesperia

text: Sassafras hesperia

text: ) leaves. A permineralized pine cone (

entity_name: Pinus driftwoodensis

text: Pinus driftwoodensis

text: ) and associated 2-needle foliage was described from the site in the 1980s. Rare flowers and the seeds of flowering plants have been collected, including

entity_name: Elm

text: Ulmus

entity_name: Florissantia

text: Florissantia

text: , and

entity_name: Dipteronia

text: Dipteronia

text: , a genus of trees related to maples (

entity_name: Maple

text: Acer

text: . spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia.

method: UNH-qee

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answers: plant remains

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: plant remains

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: bone

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Azolla primaeva as mats of plants or as isolated fossils

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Metasequoia

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: mats of plants

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: No

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: A permineralized pine cone

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When looking back at extinct organisms, there are some groups of organisms (or lineages) that have gaps in their fossil records. These organisms or species may be closely related to one another, but there are no traces in the fossil records or sediment beds that might shed some light on their origins. A classic example is the coelacanth, a type of fish related to the lungfishes and to primitive tetrapods. It seems that coelacanths have also been around for the past 80 million years, but have failed to leave us any fossils to look at. The reason for this is their environment, which is deep water near volcanic islands; therefore, these sediments are hard to get to, giving these coelacanths an 80 million year gap or ghost lineage. Another ghost lineage was that of the averostran theropods, a ghost lineage now reduced considerably thanks to the discovery of Tachiraptor.

text: When looking back at extinct organisms, there are some groups of organisms (or lineages) that have gaps in their fossil records. These organisms or species may be closely related to one another, but there are no traces in the fossil records or sediment beds that might shed some light on their origins. A classic example is the

entity_name: Coelacanth

text: coelacanth

text: , a type of fish related to the lungfishes and to primitive tetrapods. It seems that coelacanths have also been around for the past 80 million years, but have failed to leave us any fossils to look at. The reason for this is their environment, which is deep water near volcanic islands; therefore, these sediments are hard to get to, giving these coelacanths an 80 million year gap or ghost lineage. Another ghost lineage was that of the

entity_name: Averostra

text: averostra

text: n theropods, a ghost lineage now reduced considerably thanks to the discovery of

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text: The fossils found in the Sonbhadra Fossils Park are algae and stromatolites types of fossils. The park is spread over an area of about 25 hectares in Kaimur Range, adjacent to Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary. It comes under jurisdiction of the State forest department.

text: The fossils found in the Sonbhadra Fossils Park are

entity_name: Algae

text: algae

text: and

entity_name: Stromatolite

text: stromatolites

text: types of fossils. The park is spread over an area of about 25 hectares in

entity_name: Kaimur Range

text: Kaimur Range

text: , adjacent to

entity_name: Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

text: Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

text: . It comes under jurisdiction of the State forest department.

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answer: 1

text: Pseudofossils are inorganic objects, markings, or impressions that might be mistaken for fossils. Pseudofossils may be misleading, as some types of mineral deposits can mimic lifeforms by forming what appear to be highly detailed or organized structures. One common example is when manganese oxides crystallize with a characteristic treelike or dendritic pattern along a rock fracture. The formation of frost dendrites on a window is another common example of this crystal growth. Concretions are sometimes thought to be fossils, and occasionally one contains a fossil, but are generally not fossils themselves. Chert or flint nodules in limestone can often take forms that resemble fossils.

text: Pseudofossils are

entity_name: Inorganic compound

text: inorganic

text: objects, markings, or impressions that might be mistaken for

entity_name: Fossil

text: fossil

text: s. Pseudofossils may be misleading, as some types of mineral deposits can mimic lifeforms by forming what appear to be highly detailed or organized structures. One common example is when

entity_name: Manganese

text: manganese

text: oxides

entity_name: Crystallization

text: crystallize

text: with a characteristic treelike or

entity_name: Dendrite (crystal)

text: dendritic

text: pattern along a rock fracture. The formation of

entity_name: Frost

text: frost

text: dendrites on a window is another common example of this crystal growth.

entity_name: Concretion

text: Concretion

text: s are sometimes thought to be fossils, and occasionally one contains a fossil, but are generally not fossils themselves.

entity_name: Chert

text: Chert

text: or

entity_name: Flint

text: flint

text: nodules in

entity_name: Limestone

text: limestone

text: can often take forms that resemble fossils.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: limestone

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: treelike or dendritic pattern

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: a rock fracture

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: Bone

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: The formation of frost dendrites

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: manganese oxides crystallize

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: limestone can often take forms that resemble fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Greenschist, as a rock type, is defined by the presence of the minerals chlorite and actinolite and may contain albite or epidote.Greenschist often has a lepidoblastic, nematoblastic or schistose texture defined primarily by chlorite and actinolite. Greenschists often have some foliation resulting in mineral alignment, especially of chlorite and actinolite.Grain size is rarely coarse, due primarily to the mineral assemblage. Chlorite and to a lesser extent actinolite typically exhibit small, flat or acicular crystal habits.

text: Greenschist, as a rock type, is defined by the presence of the minerals chlorite and actinolite and may contain albite or epidote.Greenschist often has a lepidoblastic, nematoblastic or schistose texture defined primarily by chlorite and actinolite. Greenschists often have some

text: foliation

text: resulting in mineral alignment, especially of chlorite and actinolite.Grain size is rarely coarse, due primarily to the mineral assemblage. Chlorite and to a lesser extent actinolite typically exhibit small, flat or acicular crystal habits.

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answers: Greenschist

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: albite or epidote

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: foliation

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: cavity

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Greenschist

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Greenschist

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answers: Greenschist

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: foliation

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Greenschist

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Greenschist

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When an insect is partly or wholly replaced by minerals, usually completely articulated and with three-dimensional fidelity, is called Mineral replication. This is also called petrifaction, as in “petrified” wood. Insects preserved this way are often, but not always, preserved as concretions, or within nodules of minerals that formed around the insect as its nucleus. Such deposits generally form where the sediments and water are laden with minerals, and where there is also quick mineralization of the carcass by coats of bacteria.

text: When an insect is partly or wholly replaced by minerals, usually completely articulated and with three-dimensional fidelity, is called Mineral replication. This is also called petrifaction, as in “petrified” wood. Insects preserved this way are often, but not always, preserved as concretions, or within nodules of minerals that formed around the insect as its nucleus. Such deposits generally form where the sediments and water are laden with minerals, and where there is also quick mineralization of the carcass by coats of bacteria.

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answers: mineralization of the carcass

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In 1806, Binny & Ronaldson acquired from William Duane some tools and equipment that Benjamin Franklin had purchased from Pierre Simon Fournier in France twenty years earlier. In 1812 the foundry issued the first type specimen book ever produced in the United States. Archibald Binny created a spring lever, which improved the efficiency of type casting. Binny patented three improvements to type-founding: an improved printer's mold, a method of "smoothing or rubbing printers' types", and molds for casting printing types.

text: In 1806, Binny & Ronaldson acquired from William Duane some tools and equipment that

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: had purchased from

text: Pierre Simon Fournier

text: in France twenty years earlier. In 1812 the foundry issued the first type specimen book ever produced in the United States. Archibald Binny created a spring lever, which improved the efficiency of type casting. Binny patented three improvements to type-founding: an improved printer's mold, a method of "smoothing or rubbing printers' types", and molds for casting printing types.

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text: Some basic fossil trackway types:

text: Some basic fossil trackway types:

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: NDQ_006256

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answers: NDQ_006257

answers: fossil trackway types

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossilize fossils

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Aphaenogaster mayri is known from a series of fossil insects which are compression-impression fossils preserved in fine shales of the Florissant formation in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World. When A. mayri was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be Miocene in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Successive research and fossil descriptions moved the age older and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an Oligocene age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: Aphaenogaster mayri is known from a series of fossil insects which are

text: compression-impression fossils

text: preserved in fine

text: shale

text: s of the

entity_name: Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument

text: Florissant formation

text: in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World. When A. mayri was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be

text: Miocene

text: in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Successive research and fossil descriptions moved the age older and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an

text: Oligocene

text: age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Eocene Priabonian stage.

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answers: NDQ_006259

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answers: NDQ_006260

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_006252

answers: fine shales

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: insects

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Aphaenogaster mayri

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: No

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: shales

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The history of Peytoia is entangled with that of "Laggania" and Anomalocaris: all three were initially identified as isolated body parts and only later discovered to belong to one type of animal. This was due in part due to their makeup of a mixture of mineralized and unmineralized body parts; the mouth and feeding appendage was considerably harder and more easily fossilized than the delicate body.

text: The history of Peytoia is entangled with that of "Laggania" and

text: Anomalocaris

text: : all three were initially identified as isolated body parts and only later discovered to belong to one type of animal. This was due in part due to their makeup of a mixture of

text: mineralized

text: and unmineralized body parts; the mouth and feeding appendage was considerably harder and more easily

text: fossilized

text: than the delicate body.

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answers: unmineralized

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: the delicate body

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: mineralized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: unmineralized body parts

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Peytoia

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossilized

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: unmineralized

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: unmineralized body parts

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossilized

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Jurahylobittacus astictus is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007002-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007002-2" for the part and counterpart respectively.  The specimen is composed of an almost complete specimen of unidentified sex and is preserved as a compression fossil in a sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Chung-Kun Shih.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes collections housed in the Capital Normal University, located in Beijing, China.  Jurahylobittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008 type description of the genus and species was published online and then in print in the journal Zootaxa.  The generic name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of "Jura" a reference to the Jurassic; and the modern Bittacidae genus Hylobittacus to which Jurahylobittacus is related.  The etymology of the specific epithet astictus is in reference to the lack of maculae present on any of the holotype specimens' wings.

text: Jurahylobittacus astictus is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007002-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007002-2" for the

text: part and counterpart

text: respectively.  The specimen is composed of an almost complete specimen of unidentified sex and is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in a sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Chung-Kun Shih.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes

text: collections housed in the

text: Capital Normal University

text: , located in

text: Beijing

text: China

text: .  Jurahylobittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published online and then in print in the journal

text: Zootaxa

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of "Jura" a reference to the Jurassic; and the modern Bittacidae genus

text: Hylobittacus

text: to which Jurahylobittacus is related.  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: astictus is in reference to the lack of

text: maculae

text: present on any of the holotype specimens' wings.

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text: Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

text: Permanent mold casting is a

text: metal casting

text: process that employs reusable

text: molds

text: ("permanent molds"), usually made from

text: metal

text: . The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a

text: vacuum

text: are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called

text: slush casting

text: , produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are

text: aluminum

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: copper

text: alloys. Other materials include

text: tin

text: zinc

text: , and

text: lead

text: alloys and

text: iron

text: and steel are also cast in

text: graphite

text: molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

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answers: Gas pressure or a vacuum

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answers: Slush casting

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answers: gravity to fill the mold

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: gas pressure or a vacuum are also used

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: In 2001, Ralph E. Molnar published a survey of pathologies in theropod dinosaur bone. He found pathological features in 21 genera from 10 families. Pathologies were found in theropods of all body size although they were less common in fossils of small theropods, although this may be an artifact of preservation. They are very widely represented throughout the different parts of theropod anatomy. The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs are the ribs and tail vertebrae. Despite being abundant in ribs and vertebrae, injuries seem to be "absent... or very rare" on the bodies' primary weight supporting bones like the sacrum, femur, and tibia. The lack of preserved injuries in these bones suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage. The least common sites of preserved injury are the cranium and forelimb, with injuries occurring in about equal frequency at each site. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries like fractures, pits, and punctures, often likely originating with bites. Some theropod paleopathologies seem to be evidence of infections, which tended to be confined only to small regions of the animal's body. Evidence for congenital malformities have also been found in theropod remains. Such discoveries can provide information useful for understanding the evolutionary history of the processes of biological development. Unusual fusions in cranial elements or asymmetries in the same are probably evidence that one is examining the fossils of an extremely old individual rather than a diseased one.

text: In 2001,

text: Ralph E. Molnar

text: published a survey of

text: pathologies

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaur bone. He found pathological features in 21

text: genera

text: from 10

text: families

text: . Pathologies were found in theropods of all body size although they were less common in fossils of small theropods, although this may be an artifact of preservation. They are very widely represented throughout the different parts of theropod anatomy. The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs are the

text: ribs

text: and

text: tail vertebrae

text: . Despite being abundant in ribs and vertebrae, injuries seem to be "absent... or very rare" on the bodies' primary weight supporting bones like the

text: sacrum

text: femur

text: , and

text: tibia

text: . The lack of preserved injuries in these bones suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage. The least common sites of preserved injury are the

text: cranium

text: and forelimb, with injuries occurring in about equal frequency at each site. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries like fractures, pits, and punctures, often likely originating with bites. Some theropod paleopathologies seem to be evidence of

text: infections

text: , which tended to be confined only to small regions of the animal's body. Evidence for congenital malformities have also been found in theropod remains. Such discoveries can provide information useful for understanding the evolutionary history of the processes of biological development. Unusual

text: fusion

text: s in cranial elements or

text: asymmetries

text: in the same are probably evidence that one is examining the fossils of an extremely old individual rather than a diseased one.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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text: Die-casting is the process of forcing metal into steel molds so that smooth casting are produced without machining. H. H. Franklin launched commercial die-casting and was considered the "Godfather" of the process. He also pioneered the fabrication of aluminum.

text: Die-casting

text: is the process of forcing metal into steel molds so that smooth

text: casting

text: are produced without machining. H. H. Franklin launched commercial die-casting and was considered the "Godfather" of the process. He also pioneered the fabrication of aluminum.

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answers: Franklin launched commercial die-casting

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text: The Solite Quarry, is which straddles the border between Virginia and North Carolina is another source of Late Triassic fossils. The vertebrate fauna it preserved included crocodilians, phytosaurs, and lizard-like animals. These left behind fragmentary skeletal remains like teeth and a few bones, as well as trace fossils like footprints. Dinosaur footprints were also laid down here during the Triassic. Despite the vertebrate fossils, the Solite Quarry is most famous for its fossil insects. This is the only place on earth where complete well-preserved Triassic insects are known from. The oldest known examples of many living groups have been preserved here. Insects of the Solite Quarry include staphylinid beetles, caddis-flies, belostomatids, and thrips. Fossil insects are common at other places in Virginia and North Carolina as well. Small specimens were often preserved in association with unusually rich concentrations of conchostracans.

text: The Solite Quarry, is which straddles the border between Virginia and North Carolina is another source of Late Triassic fossils. The vertebrate fauna it preserved included crocodilians, phytosaurs, and

text: lizard

text: -like animals. These left behind fragmentary skeletal remains like teeth and a few bones, as well as trace fossils like footprints. Dinosaur footprints were also laid down here during the Triassic. Despite the vertebrate fossils, the Solite Quarry is most famous for its fossil

text: insects

text: . This is the only place on earth where complete well-preserved Triassic insects are known from. The oldest known examples of many living groups have been preserved here. Insects of the Solite Quarry include

text: staphylinid

text: beetle

text: s,

text: caddis-flies

text: belostomatids

text: , and

text: thrips

text: . Fossil insects are common at other places in Virginia and North Carolina as well. Small specimens were often preserved in association with unusually rich concentrations of

text: conchostracans

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text: Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.

text: Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy,

text: paleontology

text: and

text: biology

text: . It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.

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text: Additional support for the aquatic nature of the Princeton Chert deposits comes from animal fossils. Several fossils of a freshwater fish, Amia (bowfin), have been found in the shale overlying the plant deposits, along with remains of the freshwater fishes Amyzon and Libotoniusm, and a soft-shelled turtle.Once the lacustrine nature of the fossils has been established, it seems fairly likely they were preserved in situ, especially considering the method of preservation. The growth position, large number of plant organs of the same type, preservation of delicate plant material, and presence of rooted axes all provide further evidence for the preservation of plants where they grew.

text: Additional support for the aquatic nature of the Princeton Chert deposits comes from animal fossils. Several fossils of a freshwater fish,

text: Amia

text: (bowfin), have been found in the shale overlying the plant deposits, along with remains of the freshwater fishes

text: Amyzon

text: and Libotoniusm, and a soft-shelled turtle.Once the lacustrine nature of the fossils has been established, it seems fairly likely they were preserved in situ, especially considering the method of preservation. The growth position, large number of plant organs of the same type, preservation of delicate plant material, and presence of rooted axes all provide further evidence for the preservation of plants where they grew.

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answers: in situ

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: delicate plant material

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: in situ

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It seems fairly likely they were preserved in situ

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: in situ

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Chert deposits

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Type III has relatively high early strength.  Its typical compound composition is: 57% (CS), 19% (CS), 10% (CA), 7% (CAF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.  This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer.  Some manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher CS and/or CA content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a specific surface area typically 50–80% higher.  The gypsum level may also be increased a small amount.  This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II.  Its seven-day compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II.  The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I and II.  Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed a little.  It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover of molds.  It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.

text: Type III has relatively high early strength.  Its typical compound composition is: 57% (CS), 19% (CS), 10% (CA), 7% (CAF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.  This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer.  Some manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher CS and/or CA content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a

text: specific surface area

text: typically 50–80% higher.  The gypsum level may also be increased a small amount.  This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II.  Its seven-day compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II.  The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I and II.  Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed a little.  It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover of molds.  It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.

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answers: Type III

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: Type III

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: Ignition loss

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: cavity

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Type III has relatively high early strength

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It may also be used in emergency construction

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: clinker

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: Type III

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It is usually used for precast

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: It may also be used in emergency construction

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Wallace created two different models, which were followed by two additional models, so, in all, there were four types of Wallace fountains varying in such properties as height and motif.  The material that was used to create them was cast-iron.  Inexpensive, easy to mold, and robust, it was one of the most popular materials of the age.  The majority of the cost was paid for by Wallace.  The city of Paris allocated 1,000 francs for the large model and 450 francs for the wall-mounted model.

text: Wallace created two different models, which were followed by two additional models, so, in all, there were four types of Wallace fountains varying in such properties as height and motif.  The material that was used to create them was cast-iron.  Inexpensive, easy to mold, and robust, it was one of the most popular materials of the age.  The majority of the cost was paid for by Wallace.  The city of Paris allocated 1,000 francs for the large model and 450 francs for the wall-mounted model.

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answers: cast-iron

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answers: mold

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: model

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: The majority of the cost was paid for by Wallace

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: cast-iron

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: mold

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Conservationists today are faced with a serious dilemma.  They are certain that the use of fossil fuels is leading toward a global catastrophe.  But at the same time they are increasingly aware that many types of renewable energy, because of the large amount of land that they require, will have a seriously detrimental impact on the natural world, especially if their use expands.

text: Conservationists today are faced with a serious dilemma.  They are certain that the use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s is leading toward a global catastrophe.  But at the same time they are increasingly aware that many types of renewable energy, because of the large amount of land that they require, will have a seriously detrimental impact on the natural world, especially if their use expands.

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text: Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of thelodont agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.

text: Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the

text: Ordovician

text: period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of

text: thelodont

text: agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the

text: Silurian

text: period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized

text: calcium phosphate

text: , an

text: apatite

text: . When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.

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answers: When a shark dies

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answers: No

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answers: rapid burial in bottom sediments

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: 1

text: This list of Mesozoic theropod type specimens is a list of fossils serving as the official standard-bearers for inclusion in the Mesozoic species and genera of the dinosaur clade Theropoda, which includes the carnivorous dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptor, their herbivorous relatives like the therizinosaurs, and birds. Type specimens are those which are definitionally members of biological taxa and additional specimens can only be "referred" to these taxa if an expert deems them sufficiently similar to the type.

text: This list of Mesozoic theropod type specimens is a list of fossils serving as the official standard-bearers for inclusion in the

text: Mesozoic

text: species

text: and

text: genera

text: of the

text: dinosaur

text: clade

text: Theropoda

text: , which includes the carnivorous dinosaurs like

text: Tyrannosaurus

text: and

text: Velociraptor

text: , their herbivorous relatives like the

text: therizinosaurs

text: , and

text: birds

text: . Type specimens are those which are definitionally members of biological

text: taxa

text: and additional specimens can only be "referred" to these taxa if an expert deems them sufficiently similar to the type.

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text: In fact, if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable, then for any lossless compression that reduces the size of some file, the expected length of a compressed file (averaged over all possible files of length N) must necessarily be greater than N. So if we know nothing about the properties of the data we are compressing, we might as well not compress it at all. A lossless compression algorithm is useful only when we are more likely to compress certain types of files than others; then the algorithm could be designed to compress those types of data better.

text: In fact, if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable, then for any lossless compression that reduces the size of some file, the expected length of a compressed file (averaged over all possible files of length N) must necessarily be greater than N. So if we know nothing about the properties of the data we are compressing, we might as well not compress it at all. A lossless compression algorithm is useful only when we are more likely to compress certain types of files than others; then the algorithm could be designed to compress those types of data better.

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answers: N

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answers: lossless compression

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answers: if all files were equally probable

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answers: if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable

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text: Replacement is a complex form of neomorphism in which the recrystallization process involves the dissolution of one mineral and the almost immediate "precipitation" of another in its place; the resultant mineral differs from its predecessor in terms of its chemical composition. Replacement occurs without any substantial changes in volume between the original and the reformed minerals, and the process is often characterized as being either fabric-destructive or fabric-preserving, which refer to texture loss and texture retention, respectively. The replacement of fossils with chert, for example, is often fabric-preserving, while the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite is fabric-destructive. On a side note, this particular process (the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite) is the most common form of recrystallization by replacement. Being similar to wet polymorphic transformations, recrystallization by replacement occurs on a variety of minerals, including chert, pyrite, hematite, apatite, anhydrite, and dolomite, among others.

text: Replacement is a complex form of neomorphism in which the recrystallization process involves the dissolution of one mineral and the almost immediate "precipitation" of another in its place; the resultant mineral differs from its predecessor in terms of its chemical composition. Replacement occurs without any substantial changes in volume between the original and the reformed minerals, and the process is often characterized as being either fabric-destructive or fabric-preserving, which refer to texture loss and texture retention, respectively. The replacement of

text: fossil

text: s with

text: chert

text: , for example, is often fabric-preserving, while the replacement of

text: aragonite

text: and

text: calcite

text: with

text: dolomite

text: is fabric-destructive. On a side note, this particular process (the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite) is the most common form of recrystallization by replacement. Being similar to wet polymorphic transformations, recrystallization by replacement occurs on a variety of minerals, including chert,

text: pyrite

text: hematite

text: apatite

text: anhydrite

text: , and dolomite, among others.

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text: Fossils in general provide geologic clues to the environment of deposition, rock formation,  and the types of biological activities present at the time. Index fossils are more helpful in providing geologic references or reference markers.

text: Fossils in general provide geologic clues to the environment of deposition, rock formation,  and the types of biological activities present at the time.

text: Index fossils

text: are more helpful in providing geologic references or reference markers.

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text: Dating of these abandoned terrace surfaces (treads) is possible using a variety of geochronologic techniques.  The type of technique used, however, is dependent on the composition and age of the terraces.  Currently used techniques are magnetostratigraphy, low temperature thermochronology, cosmogenic nuclides, radiocarbon, thermoluminescence, optically stimulated luminescence, and U-Th disequilibria. Additionally, if there is a succession of preserved fossils, biostratigraphy can be used.

text: Dating of these abandoned terrace surfaces (treads) is possible using a variety of

text: geochronologic

text: techniques.  The type of technique used, however, is dependent on the composition and age of the terraces.  Currently used techniques are

text: magnetostratigraphy

text: , low temperature

text: thermochronology

text: cosmogenic nuclide

text: s,

text: radiocarbon

text: thermoluminescence

text: optically stimulated luminescence

text: , and

text: U-Th disequilibria

text: . Additionally, if there is a succession of preserved fossils,

text: biostratigraphy

text: can be used.

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text: CAT scans can be used to infer the 3D structure of a fossil egg's interior by compiling images taken of slices through the egg in small regular increments. Scientists have tried to use CAT scans to look for embryo fossils contained inside the egg without having to damage the egg itself by physically extracting them. However, as of Ken Carpenter's 1999 book on dinosaur eggs, Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs, all alleged embryos discovered using this method were actually false alarms. Variations in the type of infilling mineral or cement binding the infilling sediment into rock sometimes resemble bones in CAT scan images. Sometimes eggshell fragments that fell back into the egg when it hatched have been mistaken for embryonic bones. The use of CAT scans to search for embryonic remains is actually conceptually flawed since embryonic bones have not yet mineralized. Since the infilling sediment is their only source of minerals they will be preserved at basically the same density and therefore have poor visibility in the scan. The validity of this issue has been confirmed by performing Cat scans on fossil eggs known to have embryos inside and noting their poor visibility in the scan images. The only truly reliable way to discover a dinosaur embryo is to cut the egg open or dissolve some of its eggshell away.

text: CAT scans

text: can be used to infer the 3D structure of a fossil egg's interior by compiling images taken of slices through the egg in small regular increments. Scientists have tried to use CAT scans to look for embryo fossils contained inside the egg without having to damage the egg itself by physically extracting them. However, as of Ken Carpenter's 1999 book on dinosaur eggs, Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs, all alleged embryos discovered using this method were actually false alarms. Variations in the type of infilling mineral or cement binding the infilling sediment into rock sometimes resemble bones in CAT scan images. Sometimes eggshell fragments that fell back into the egg when it hatched have been mistaken for embryonic bones. The use of CAT scans to search for embryonic remains is actually conceptually flawed since embryonic bones have not yet

text: mineralized

text: . Since the infilling sediment is their only source of minerals they will be preserved at basically the same density and therefore have poor visibility in the scan. The validity of this issue has been confirmed by performing Cat scans on fossil eggs known to have embryos inside and noting their poor visibility in the scan images. The only truly reliable way to discover a dinosaur embryo is to cut the egg open or dissolve some of its eggshell away.

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text: Few details were known of its origin or preparation, but it was concluded that the type of preservation indicated a Mörnsheim formation origin, which overlies the Solnhofen proper and is slightly younger. Since the best-known vertebrate Mörnsheim fossils come from the Daiting quarry, the eighth specimen is thought to have originated there. However, it remains possible that it came instead from a quarry near Mülheim.

text: Few details were known of its origin or preparation, but it was concluded that the type of preservation indicated a Mörnsheim formation origin, which overlies the Solnhofen proper and is slightly younger. Since the best-known vertebrate Mörnsheim fossils come from the Daiting quarry, the eighth specimen is thought to have originated there. However, it remains possible that it came instead from a quarry near Mülheim.

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answer: No

answer: 1

text: The type species of Whatcheeria, W. deltae, was named in 1995. Whatcheeria is named after What Cheer, Iowa, the hometown of the man who discovered the first skeletons of the animal. The species is named after Delta, Iowa, the location where the fossils were uncovered. Hundreds of tetrapod fossils were found in the locality, and the majority of these specimens are thought to belong to Whatcheeria. Fish and plant fossils have also been found in the same deposits. Several other tetrapods, including temnospondyls and embolomeres, are known from the Delta locality.

text: The

text: type species

text: of Whatcheeria, W. deltae, was named in 1995. Whatcheeria is named after

text: What Cheer, Iowa

text: , the hometown of the man who discovered the first skeletons of the animal. The species is named after

text: Delta, Iowa

text: , the location where the fossils were uncovered. Hundreds of tetrapod fossils were found in the locality, and the majority of these specimens are thought to belong to Whatcheeria. Fish and plant fossils have also been found in the same deposits. Several other tetrapods, including

text: temnospondyl

text: s and

text: embolomere

text: s, are known from the Delta locality.

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answers: Fish and plant

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answers: fossils were uncovered

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as  per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.

text: An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as  per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning

text: fossil fuel

text: s try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.

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answers: fossil fuels

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answers: 11 GW

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Fossils appear in casts and molds, as well as original material.

text: Fossils appear in casts and molds, as well as original material.

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text: Although it is an extremely difficult task to figure out the evolution of the hominins, knowledge of these hominins has been growing. As indicated in the image of the family tree of the evolution of hominins, Kenyanthropus platyops were previously known to be one of the older hominins until the finding of the fossils in Kenya in the year 1999.  Kenyanthropus platyops actually made the evolutionary path of the hominins more confusing, because of the fact that the specific species represented a new type of species and genus.  However, after the discovery of the fossil in Kenya, it came to the notion that the K. platyops were one of the earlier species, living in the same time of the Australopithecus afarensis. After the finding of the K. platyops skull, the common ancestor has shifted to the K. platyops from the A. afarensis.

text: Although it is an extremely difficult task to figure out the evolution of the hominins, knowledge of these hominins has been growing. As indicated in the image of the family tree of the evolution of hominins, Kenyanthropus platyops were previously known to be one of the older hominins until the finding of the fossils in Kenya in the year 1999.  Kenyanthropus platyops actually made the evolutionary path of the hominins more confusing, because of the fact that the specific species represented a new type of species and genus.  However, after the discovery of the fossil in Kenya, it came to the notion that the K. platyops were one of the earlier species, living in the same time of the Australopithecus afarensis. After the finding of the K. platyops skull, the common ancestor has shifted to the K. platyops from the A. afarensis.

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text: At the time of description the species was known from a series of forty-one type fossils and over two hundred good fossils were examined for the species description.  The holotype was deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology paleontology collections at Harvard University.  Along with a number of other insect type specimens, the A. mayri holotype is part of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder insect collection donated to Harvard in 1902.  The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Frank M. Carpenter of the Museum of Comparative Zoology with his 1930 type description of the new species being published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.  The etymology for the specific epithet mayri was not given with the type description.  A. mayri was one of two Aphaenogaster species which Carpenter described in the paper, the other species being Aphaenogaster donisthorpei, both from the Florissant Formation.

text: At the time of description the species was known from a series of forty-one type fossils and over two hundred good fossils were examined for the species description.  The

text: holotype

text: was deposited in the

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: paleontology collections at

text: Harvard University

text: .  Along with a number of other insect type specimens, the A. mayri holotype is part of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: insect collection donated to Harvard in 1902.  The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist

text: Frank M. Carpenter

text: of the Museum of Comparative Zoology with his 1930

text: type description

text: of the new species being published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.  The

text: etymology

text: for the

text: specific epithet

text: mayri was not given with the type description.  A. mayri was one of two Aphaenogaster species which Carpenter described in the paper, the other species being

text: Aphaenogaster donisthorpei

text: , both from the Florissant Formation.

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text: As of 2014, an estimated 80% of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by net shape molding.Molded gearing is usually either powder metallurgy or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including injection molded plastic and die cast metal gears), but powdered metal gears require sintering and sand castings or investment castings require gear cutting or other machining to finish them. The most common form of gear cutting is hobbing, but gear shaping, milling, and broaching also exist. 3D printing as a production method is expanding rapidly. For metal gears in the transmissions of cars and trucks, the teeth are heat treated to make them hard and more wear resistant while leaving the core soft and tough. For large gears that are prone to warp, a quench press is used.

text: As of 2014, an estimated 80% of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by

text: net shape

text: molding.Molded gearing is usually either

text: powder metallurgy

text: or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including

text: injection molded

text: plastic and

text: die cast

text: metal gears), but powdered metal gears require

text: sintering

text: and

text: sand casting

text: s or

text: investment casting

text: s require

text: gear cutting

text: or other

text: machining

text: to finish them. The most common form of gear cutting is

text: hobbing

text: , but

text: gear shaping

text: milling

text: , and

text: broaching

text: also exist.

text: 3D printing

text: as a production method is expanding rapidly. For metal gears in the

text: transmissions

text: of cars and trucks, the teeth are

text: heat treated

text: to make them hard and more

text: wear resistant

text: while leaving the core soft and

text: tough

text: . For large gears that are prone to warp, a

text: quench press

text: is used.

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text: At the time, the technology for including these hints in fonts was carefully guarded, and the hinted fonts were compressed and encrypted into what Adobe called a Type 1 Font (also known as PostScript Type 1 Font, PS1, T1 or Adobe Type 1). Type 1 was effectively a simplification of the PS system to store outline information only, as opposed to being a complete language (PDF is similar in this regard). Adobe would then sell licenses to the Type 1 technology to those wanting to add hints to their own fonts. Those who did not license the technology were left with the Type 3 Font (also known as PostScript Type 3 Font, PS3 or T3). Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.

text: At the time, the technology for including these hints in fonts was carefully guarded, and the hinted fonts were compressed and encrypted into what Adobe called a

text: Type 1 Font

text: (also known as PostScript Type 1 Font, PS1, T1 or Adobe Type 1). Type 1 was effectively a simplification of the PS system to store outline information only, as opposed to being a complete language (PDF is similar in this regard). Adobe would then sell licenses to the Type 1 technology to those wanting to add hints to their own fonts. Those who did not license the technology were left with the

text: Type 3 Font

text: (also known as PostScript Type 3 Font, PS3 or T3). Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.

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text: The preservational regime of Beecher's Trilobite Bed (Upper Ordovician) and other similar localities involves the replacement of soft tissues with pyrite, producing a three-dimensional fossil replicating the anatomy of the original organism. Only gross morphological information is preserved (unlike Orsten type phosphate replacement), although the fossils are compressed some relief is preserved (unlike Burgess Shale type preservation).

text: The preservational regime of

text: Beecher's Trilobite Bed

text: (Upper

text: Ordovician

text: ) and other similar localities involves the replacement of soft tissues with

text: pyrite

text: , producing a three-dimensional

text: fossil

text: replicating the anatomy of the original organism. Only gross morphological information is preserved (unlike

text: Orsten

text: type

text: phosphate

text: replacement), although the fossils are compressed some relief is preserved (unlike

text: Burgess Shale type preservation

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text: The Bureau of Natural History holds a diverse collection of about 250,000 specimens which have historic and cultural significance, in addition to their scientific value.  The natural history collections are especially strong in industrial minerals and ores, paleontology specimens (fossils), osteology specimens (bones), modern shells, and a systematic study skin component.  Smaller sub-collections include pinned insects, fluid-preserved fauna, taxidermy mounts and glass lantern slides.  The bureau is also the repository for about 300 type (first documented) specimens of Paleozoic and Mesozoic fossils, as well as a large number of fossils documenting the Paleozoic strata within the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area.  Minerals from the zinc-mining locality of Franklin-Sterling Hill are well represented, including the largest number of fluorescent mineral species in the world, as are mine-specific specimens from New Jersey’s industrial iron mining past.  Specimens from beyond New Jersey are used for comparative purposes in exhibitions and educational programming, to augment the systematic collections, and for research purposes.

text: The Bureau of Natural History holds a diverse collection of about 250,000 specimens which have historic and cultural significance, in addition to their scientific value.  The natural history collections are especially strong in industrial

text: minerals

text: and

text: ores

text: paleontology

text: specimens (fossils),

text: osteology

text: specimens (bones), modern shells, and a systematic study skin component.  Smaller sub-collections include pinned

text: insects

text: , fluid-preserved

text: fauna

text: taxidermy

text: mounts and glass lantern slides.  The bureau is also the repository for about 300 type (first documented) specimens of

text: Paleozoic

text: and

text: Mesozoic

text: fossils

text: , as well as a large number of fossils documenting the Paleozoic

text: strata

text: within the

entity_name: Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area

text: Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area

text: .  Minerals from the zinc-mining locality of Franklin-Sterling Hill are well represented, including the largest number of fluorescent mineral

text: species

text: in the world, as are mine-specific specimens from New Jersey’s industrial iron mining past.  Specimens from beyond New Jersey are used for comparative purposes in exhibitions and educational programming, to augment the systematic collections, and for research purposes.

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answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: paleontology specimens (fossils)

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: industrial iron mining past

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The species was described from a series of type specimens, the holotype specimen USNM 355036, which is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. and nine paratype specimens which are in the University of Florida collections. The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: The species was described from a series of

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen USNM 355036, which is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: and nine

text: paratype

text: specimens which are in the

text: University of Florida

text: collections. The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: paleobotanical collections

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: 20,000 specimens

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: USNM 355036

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: collected

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: 20,000 specimens

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Differences in preservation and diagenesis make it difficult to confidently identify eggshell pathologies in the fossil record. Multilayered eggshell identification can be complicated if the secondary eggshell is disconnected from the original. When this happens the two shells can vary in structure and may even be mistaken as coming from different types of eggs. Stacked eggshells from collapsed or compressed eggs may resemble multilayered eggshells but in thin cross-sections viewed under a microscope the stacked shell will have mammilae facing opposite directions whereas egg shells that developed in layers on top of each other will have mammilae facing the same direction. Also, in stacked shells the layer separating the shells will resemble the sediment surrounding the fossil and in multilayer the layer between shells will resemble the primary shell more than the surrounding sediment.

text: Differences in preservation and

text: diagenesis

text: make it difficult to confidently identify eggshell

text: pathologies

text: in the fossil record. Multilayered eggshell identification can be complicated if the secondary eggshell is disconnected from the original. When this happens the two shells can vary in structure and may even be mistaken as coming from different types of eggs. Stacked eggshells from collapsed or compressed eggs may resemble multilayered eggshells but in thin cross-sections viewed under a microscope the stacked shell will have

text: mammilae

text: facing opposite directions whereas egg shells that developed in layers on top of each other will have mammilae facing the same direction. Also, in stacked shells the layer separating the shells will resemble the sediment surrounding the fossil and in multilayer the layer between shells will resemble the primary shell more than the surrounding sediment.

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answers: the fossil record

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answers: eggshell pathologies

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: diagenesis

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: diagenesis

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Stacked eggshells

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: diagenesis

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: diagenesis

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The fossil record

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossil record

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.

text: The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.

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text: The starter bar, also called a dummy bar, has a free end portion which is flexible for storage and a substantially rigid portion at the end which plugs the mold. The starter bar is constructed in discrete blocks secured to one side of a planar spine provided in segments and arranged end to end. Adjustable spacers in the form of tapered blocks are disposed between the blocks of the bar to allow the starter bar to be self-supporting in a curved configuration corresponding to the casting path. A more flexible spine in the end portion of the starter bar allows the starter bar to be curved to a tighter radius than that of the casting path while the blocks fan out in an unsupported configuration. A storage ramp is provided to support the flexible end in the stored position. Before a cast is started, the starter bars are fed through the caster (in reverse direction of casting) using hydraulic actuators. Once fed all the way to the bottom of the mold, the process of packing the mold can continue to ensure a smooth start up.

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answers: the bottom of the mold

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answers: The starter bar is constructed in discrete blocks

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: National Fossil Park, Thiruvakkarai is the first fossil park in India.  It is maintained by the Geological Survey of India. The wood fossils are spread over 247 acres in nine separate enclaves around Thiruvakkarai.

text: National Fossil Park, Thiruvakkarai is the first fossil park in India.  It is maintained by the Geological Survey of India. The wood fossils are spread over 247 acres in nine separate enclaves around Thiruvakkarai.

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text: One motivation behind taphonomy is to better understand biases present in the fossil record. Fossils are ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks, yet paleontologists cannot draw the most accurate conclusions about the lives and ecology of the fossilized organisms without knowing about the processes involved in their fossilization. For example, if a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another, one can infer either that the organism was present in greater numbers, or that its remains were more resistant to decomposition.

text: One motivation behind taphonomy is to better understand biases present in the

text: fossil

text: record. Fossils are ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks, yet

text: paleontologist

text: s cannot draw the most accurate conclusions about the lives and ecology of the fossilized organisms without knowing about the processes involved in their fossilization. For example, if a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another, one can infer either that the organism was present in greater numbers, or that its remains were more resistant to decomposition.

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text: Greg Retallack's hypothesis that Ediacaran organisms were lichens is not widely accepted by the scientific community. He argues that the fossils are not as squashed as known fossil jellyfish, and their relief is closer to compressed woody branches whose compaction can be estimated as compressed cylinders. He points out the chitinous walls of lichen colonies would provide a similar resistance to compaction, and claims the large size of the organisms (up to 1.5 metres long, far larger than any of the preserved burrows) also hints against classification with animals. Finally, Ediacaran fossils from classic localities of the Flinders Ranges have been found in growth position within red calcareous and gypsiferous paleosols, interpreted as soils of well-drained temperate desert soils. Such habitats limit interpretive options for fractal Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia to lichenised or unlichenised fungi, but other Ediacaran fossils could have been slime moulds or microbial colonies.

text: Greg Retallack

text: 's hypothesis that Ediacaran organisms were

text: lichen

text: s is not widely accepted by the scientific community. He argues that the fossils are not as squashed as known fossil jellyfish, and their relief is closer to compressed woody branches whose compaction can be estimated as compressed cylinders. He points out the

text: chitin

text: ous walls of lichen colonies would provide a similar resistance to compaction, and claims the large size of the organisms (up to 1.5 metres long, far larger than any of the preserved burrows) also hints against classification with animals. Finally, Ediacaran fossils from classic localities of the Flinders Ranges have been found in growth position within red calcareous and gypsiferous

text: paleosol

text: s, interpreted as soils of well-drained temperate desert soils. Such habitats limit interpretive options for fractal Ediacaran fossils such as

text: Dickinsonia

text: to lichenised or unlichenised fungi, but other Ediacaran fossils could have been slime moulds or microbial colonies.

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answers: chitinous walls

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answers: fossilisation

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answers: lichens

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Ediacaran

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answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The primary facade of the building displays the high-style characteristics of Roman architecture with sweeping steps leading to the pedimented portico. The two-story portico, capped by an enclosed pediment with modillions, is composed of six full-height, fluted granite columns, each capped by cast-iron capitals designed in the Corinthian order. Centered under the projecting portico is a pair of entrance doors flanked by elongated windows embellished with granite surrounds. Single-leaf entry doors at the corners of the ground floor were originally designed as separate male and female entrances to the Post Office lobby. Window openings, placed between the strong vertical forms of the Corinthian pilasters, pierce the symmetrically fenestrated side elevations of the building. The openings are embellished with molded granite surrounds, pedimented lintels, flat arches, and bracketed sills. The building is richly adorned by a classically inspired cast-iron entablature with frieze, modillions, and molded cornice.

text: The primary facade of the building displays the high-style characteristics of Roman architecture with sweeping steps leading to the pedimented portico. The two-story portico, capped by an enclosed pediment with modillions, is composed of six full-height, fluted granite columns, each capped by cast-iron capitals designed in the

text: Corinthian order

text: . Centered under the projecting portico is a pair of entrance doors flanked by elongated windows embellished with granite surrounds. Single-leaf entry doors at the corners of the ground floor were originally designed as separate male and female entrances to the Post Office lobby. Window openings, placed between the strong vertical forms of the Corinthian pilasters, pierce the symmetrically fenestrated side elevations of the building. The openings are embellished with molded granite surrounds, pedimented lintels, flat arches, and bracketed sills. The building is richly adorned by a classically inspired cast-iron entablature with frieze, modillions, and molded cornice.

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answers: It must have formed in exceptional circumstances

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answers: cast-iron

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answers: molded

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answers: It is not possible to tell

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answers: molded cornice

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park’s petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these permineralized fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, cones, pollen grains, spores, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as compression fossils, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.

text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during

text: petrification

text: but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park’s petrified animal bones have

text: cells

text: and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these

text: permineralized

text: fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, cones, pollen grains,

text: spore

text: s, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as

text: compression fossil

text: s, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: the park

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: cells and other spaces that are mineral-filled

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: petrification

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Petrified Forest National Park

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: petrification

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: compression

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: fish, insect, and animal remains

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: lost their internal structure

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by

text: erosion

text: or

text: metamorphism

text: before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralised

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus

text: phyla

text: of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

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answers: Fossilisation is a rare event

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: bones

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answers: Fossilisation

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answers: fossil

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answers: Only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved

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answers: Fossilisation is a rare event

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answers: metamorphism

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answers: erosion or metamorphism

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answers: Fossil record is very incomplete

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answers: Fossilisation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Hydriomena? protrita is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen "AMNH-FI-19033". It is a single, complete forewing, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The shale specimen is one of a group of fossils obtained in 1909 by George Sternberg, Terry Duce, and Willard Rusk from the Florissant Formation, named for its outcrop around Florissant.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomological collections housed in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, USA.  H.? protrita was first studied by Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell of the University of Colorado, with his 1922 type description being published in the journal American Museum Novitates.  Though Cockerell did not provide an explicit explanation for the specific epithet protrita  The description of the specimen was delayed for five years due expectation that the description of the fossil would be completed by another researcher in 1910. However, after the description failed to be presented, Cockerell wrote the American Museum Novitates article rather than let the fossil continue to go undescribed.

text: Hydriomena? protrita is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen "AMNH-FI-19033". It is a single, complete

text: forewing

text: , preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The

text: shale

text: specimen is one of a group of fossils obtained in 1909 by George Sternberg, Terry Duce, and Willard Rusk from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: , named for its outcrop around Florissant.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomological

text: collections housed in the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: New York City

text: , USA.  H.? protrita was first studied by

text: Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell

text: of the

text: University of Colorado

text: , with his 1922

text: type description

text: being published in the journal American Museum Novitates.  Though Cockerell did not provide an explicit

text: explanation

text: for the

text: specific epithet

text: protrita  The description of the specimen was delayed for five years due expectation that the description of the fossil would be completed by another researcher in 1910. However, after the description failed to be presented, Cockerell wrote the American Museum Novitates article rather than let the fossil continue to go undescribed.

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answers: fine grained shale

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answers: fine grained shale

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answers: compression

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: It is a single, complete forewing

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The shale specimen

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: shale

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The genus is notable as the first well-preserved example of a North American oviraptorosaur. According to Sues, "for almost a hundred years, the presence of oviraptorosaurs in North America was only known from a few bits of skeleton, and the details of their appearance and biology remained a mystery. With the discovery of A. wyliei, we finally have the fossil evidence to show what this species looked like and how it is related to other dinosaurs."

text: The genus is notable as the first well-preserved example of a North American oviraptorosaur. According to Sues, "for almost a hundred years, the presence of oviraptorosaurs in North America was only known from a few bits of skeleton, and the details of their appearance and biology remained a mystery. With the discovery of A. wyliei, we finally have the fossil evidence to show what this species looked like and how it is related to other dinosaurs."

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text: Aciculopoda is an extinct prawn which existed in what is now Oklahoma approximately . It was described in 2010 on the basis of a single fossil from Oklahoma. The single species, Aciculopoda mapesi, was named by Rodney Feldmann and Carrie Schweitzer in honour of Royal Mapes, a paleontologist who discovered the type specimen. It is only the third unambiguous fossil decapod from before the Mesozoic.

text: Aciculopoda is an extinct

text: prawn

text: which existed in what is now

text: Oklahoma

text: approximately . It was described in 2010 on the basis of a single

text: fossil

text: from

text: Oklahoma

text: . The single species, Aciculopoda mapesi, was named by Rodney Feldmann and Carrie Schweitzer in honour of Royal Mapes, a paleontologist who discovered the

text: type specimen

text: . It is only the third unambiguous fossil

text: decapod

text: from before the

text: Mesozoic

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text: This page lists the Small Shelly Fossils, ordered by their type.

text: This page lists the

text: Small Shelly Fossils

text: , ordered by their type.

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text: Undichna simplicitas is a fish-fin, or fish-swimming fossil trackway left as a fossil impression on a substrate; this type of fossil is an ichnofossil, and in this case an ichnospecies. The ichnogenus for the fish-fin, or fish tracks is named Undichna.

text: Undichna simplicitas is a

text: fish

text: -fin, or fish-swimming

text: fossil trackway

text: left as a

text: fossil

text: impression on a substrate; this type of fossil is an

text: ichnofossil

text: , and in this case an

text: ichnospecies

text: . The ichnogenus for the fish-fin, or fish tracks is named

text: Undichna

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answers: fish-fin

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answers: Undichna simplicitas

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answers: ichnogenus

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answers: Undichna simplicitas

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The fossils occur in a section of mudstone 50 meters thick in the Yuanshan Member of the Qiongzhusi Formation. The Yuanshan Member is extensive, covering tens of thousands of square kilometers of eastern Yunnan Province, where there are many scattered outcrops yielding fossils. Studies of the strata are consistent with a tropical environment with sea level changes and tectonic activity. The region is believed to have been a shallow sea with a muddy bottom. The preserved fauna is primarily benthic and was likely buried by periodic turbidity currents, since most fossils do not show evidence of post-mortem transport. Like the younger Burgess Shale fossils, the paleo-environment enabled preservation of non-mineralized, soft body parts. Fossils are found in thin layers less than an inch thick. The soft parts are preserved as aluminosilicate films, often with high oxidized iron content and often exhibiting exquisite details.

text: The fossils occur in a section of mudstone 50 meters thick in the Yuanshan Member of the Qiongzhusi Formation. The Yuanshan Member is extensive, covering tens of thousands of square kilometers of eastern Yunnan Province, where there are many scattered outcrops yielding fossils. Studies of the strata are consistent with a tropical environment with sea level changes and tectonic activity. The region is believed to have been a shallow sea with a muddy bottom. The preserved fauna is primarily

text: benthic

text: and was likely buried by periodic

text: turbidity current

text: s, since most fossils do not show evidence of post-mortem transport. Like the younger Burgess Shale fossils, the paleo-environment enabled preservation of non-mineralized, soft body parts. Fossils are found in thin layers less than an inch thick. The soft parts are preserved as aluminosilicate films, often with high oxidized iron content and often exhibiting exquisite details.

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answers: mudstone

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: aluminosilicate films

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: mineralized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: mineralized

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: non-mineralized

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answers: The region is believed to have been a shallow sea with a muddy bottom

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: mineralized

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answers: post-mortem transport

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The preserved fauna is primarily benthic

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: aluminosilicate films

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification.

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same

text: diagenetic processes

text: as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by

text: blood vessel

text: s,

text: vascular tissue

text: or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called

text: permineralization

text: . The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of

text: carbonate

text: s (especially calcite), forms of

text: amorphous silica

text: chalcedony

text: flint

text: chert

text: ) and

text: pyrite

text: . In the case of silica cements, the process is called

text: lithification

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answers: sedimentary

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answers: vascular tissue

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answers: permineralization

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answers: cavity

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answers: sedimentary or metamorphic rock

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answers: It is impossible to say

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answers: permineralization

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answers: lithification

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: sedimentary or metamorphic rock

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: lithification

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Her speciality was in the Middle Cretaceous Upper Greenland in the Vale of Wardour and her collection was one of the largest and most diverse of its time resulting in many visitors to her home. Some fossils within her collection were the first to be illustrated and described whilst some were extremely rare or incredibly well preserved. Bennett had contact with many authors of fossil works including the Sowerbys. Forty-one of her specimens were included in Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, a major fossil reference work, which was the second highest number of contributed fossils in which many were the best quality available at the time. After seeing part of her collection, and assuming she was male, Tsar Nicholas I granted her a Doctorate of Civil Law from the University of St Petersberg at a time when women were not admitted into higher education institutions. As an early female geologist and as a response to her honorary doctorate, Bennett noted 'that scientific people in general have a very low opinion of the abilities of my sex.

text: Her speciality was in the

text: Middle Cretaceous

text: Upper Greenland in the Vale of

text: Wardour

text: and her collection was one of the largest and most diverse of its time resulting in many visitors to her home. Some fossils within her collection were the first to be illustrated and described whilst some were extremely rare or incredibly well preserved. Bennett had contact with many authors of fossil works including the

text: Sowerbys

text: . Forty-one of her specimens were included in Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, a major fossil reference work, which was the second highest number of contributed fossils in which many were the best quality available at the time. After seeing part of her collection, and assuming she was male, Tsar Nicholas I granted her a Doctorate of Civil Law from the University of St Petersberg at a time when women were not admitted into higher education institutions. As an early female geologist and as a response to her honorary doctorate, Bennett noted 'that scientific people in general have a very low opinion of the abilities of my sex.

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answers: Middle Cretaceous

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answers: incredibly well preserved

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answers: geology

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answers: fossil

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answers: Permineralization

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answers: incredibly well preserved

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answers: Cretaceous

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Middle Cretaceous

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answers: geologist

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The large size of Deinosuchus has generally been recognized despite the fragmentary nature of the fossils assigned to it. However, estimates of how large it really was have varied considerably over the years. The original estimate from 1954 for the type specimen of the then-named "Phobosuchus riograndensis" were based on a skull of  and a lower jaw of  long, reconstructed with similar proportions to the Cuban crocodile giving  a total estimated length of . However, this reconstruction is currently considered to be inaccurate. Using more complete remains, it was estimated in 1999 that the size attained by specimens of Deinosuchus varied from  with weights from . This was later corroborated when it was noted that most known specimens of D. rugosus usually had skulls of about  with estimated total lengths of  and weights of . A reasonably well-preserved skull specimen discovered in Texas indicated the animal's head measured about , and its body length was estimated at . However, the largest fragmentary remains of D. riograndensis were 1.5 times the size of those of the average D. rugosus and it was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to  in length and perhaps weighed as much as .

text: The large size of Deinosuchus has generally been recognized despite the fragmentary nature of the fossils assigned to it. However, estimates of how large it really was have varied considerably over the years. The original estimate from 1954 for the type specimen of the then-named "Phobosuchus riograndensis" were based on a skull of  and a lower jaw of  long, reconstructed with similar proportions to the

text: Cuban crocodile

text: giving  a total estimated length of . However, this reconstruction is currently considered to be inaccurate. Using more complete remains, it was estimated in 1999 that the size attained by specimens of Deinosuchus varied from  with weights from . This was later corroborated when it was noted that most known specimens of D. rugosus usually had skulls of about  with estimated total lengths of  and weights of . A reasonably well-preserved skull specimen discovered in

text: Texas

text: indicated the animal's head measured about , and its body length was estimated at . However, the largest fragmentary remains of D. riograndensis were 1.5 times the size of those of the average D. rugosus and it was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to  in length and perhaps weighed as much as .

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answers: It was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: The museum's collections contain over 126 million specimens of plants, animals, fossils, minerals, rocks, meteorites, human remains, and human cultural artifacts. With 8 million visitors in 2013, it is the most visited of all of the Smithsonian museums and is also home to about 185 professional natural history scientists — the largest group of scientists dedicated to the study of natural and cultural history in the world.

text: The museum's collections contain over 126 million specimens of

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

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text: fossil

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text: cultural artifact

text: s. With 8 million visitors in 2013, it is the most visited of all of the Smithsonian museums and is also home to about 185 professional natural history

text: scientist

text: s — the largest group of scientists dedicated to the study of natural and cultural history in the world.

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text: The type fossil for P. eocenica is a female gyne that was preserved as a lateral imprint in the matrix.  Overall the body length as preserved is  with fore-wings that are  long.  The eyes, funicular segment, tibial spurs and pretarsal claws are all missing or not preserved in the only known fossil.  The head capsule is longer than wide, and The scape is 1.5 times as long as the head capsule, extending beyond the occipital margin. Over half of the head length is composed of the mandibles, which are triangular in outline, with no tooth dentition preserved.

text: The type fossil for P. eocenica is a female gyne that was preserved as a lateral imprint in the matrix.  Overall the body length as preserved is  with fore-wings that are  long.  The eyes, funicular segment, tibial spurs and pretarsal claws are all missing or not preserved in the only known fossil.  The head capsule is longer than wide, and The

text: scape

text: is 1.5 times as long as the head capsule, extending beyond the occipital margin. Over half of the head length is composed of the mandibles, which are triangular in outline, with no tooth dentition preserved.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: The preserved remains presently visitable comprise:

text: The preserved remains presently visitable comprise:

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Catcott left his book collection and two cabinets of his fossils and minerals as a bequest to Bristol's public library. These were housed in the Old Library on King Street and were one of the first public displays of fossils in the country. Later transferred to the Bristol Museum, the fossils were destroyed in World War II. However Catcott's books were in the new Central Library building and survived.

text: Catcott left his book collection and two cabinets of his

text: fossil

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s as a bequest to Bristol's public library. These were housed in the

text: Old Library

text: on

text: King Street

text: and were one of the first public displays of fossils in the country. Later transferred to the

text: Bristol Museum

text: , the fossils were destroyed in

text: World War II

text: . However Catcott's books were in the new

text: Central Library

text: building and survived.

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text: The Argiles de Châtillon is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.  Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.

text: The Argiles de Châtillon is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: France

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Jurassic

text: period

text: Dinosaur

text: remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific

text: genus

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text: A riser is categorized based on three criteria: where it is located, whether it is open to the atmosphere, and how it is filled. If the riser is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser, but if it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser. Top risers are advantageous because they take up less space in the flask than a side riser, plus they have a shorter feeding distance. If the riser is open to the atmosphere it is known as an open riser, but if the risers is completely contained in the mold it is known as a blind riser. An open riser is usually bigger than a blind because the open riser loses more heat to mold through the top of the riser. Finally, if the riser receives material from the gating system and fills before the mold cavity it is known as a live riser or hot riser. If the riser fills with material that has already flowed through the mold cavity it is known as a dead riser or cold riser. Live risers are usually smaller than dead risers. Top risers are almost always dead risers and risers in the gating system are almost always live risers.

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answers: A riser is categorized based on three criteria: where it is located, whether it is open to the atmosphere, and how it is filled

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The dispute centred upon an attempt by the Miners Federation of Great Britain, the main trade union representing coal miners, to secure a minimum wage for miners in their district, and to replace the complicated wage structure then in place, which often made it difficult for a miner to earn a fair days wage. The same issues had caused a major dispute the previous year in South Wales, and had become a national issue.  The strike was a repeat of the unsuccessful strike of 1894, which also sought a minimum wage.

text: The dispute centred upon an attempt by the

text: Miners Federation of Great Britain

text: , the main

text: trade union

text: representing coal miners, to secure a

text: minimum wage

text: for miners in their district, and to replace the complicated wage structure then in place, which often made it difficult for a miner to earn a fair days wage. The same issues had caused

text: a major dispute

text: the previous year in

text: South Wales

text: , and had become a national issue.  The strike was a repeat of the unsuccessful strike of 1894, which also sought a minimum wage.

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answers: Fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

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answer: No

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text: Co-processing is the use of waste as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as cement, lime, steel, glass, and power generation. Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

text: Co-processing is the use of

text: waste

text: as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as

text: cement

text: lime

text: steel

text: glass

text: , and

text: power generation

text: . Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

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answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: The sea withdrew from Minnesota for the duration of the ensuing Silurian period. At this time local sediments were eroded away rather than deposited, so there are no rocks in which contemporary local wildlife could have been fossilized. During the ensuing Devonian period, the sea returned to southern Minnesota and local sediment deposition resumed. Brachiopods, cephalopods, corals, and trilobites lived there. Late Devonian life of Minnesota also included brachiopods and corals. Their remains were preserved in Fillmore, Freeborn, and Mower Counties. Fishes were present but none of the local fossils are complete, and only fragments remain to testify of their presence. This is where the local Paleozoic fossil record ends, as Minnesota has no Carboniferous or Permian rocks wherein fossil of those ages could have been preserved.

text: The sea withdrew from Minnesota for the duration of the ensuing

text: Silurian

text: period. At this time local sediments were eroded away rather than deposited, so there are no rocks in which contemporary local wildlife could have been fossilized. During the ensuing

text: Devonian

text: period, the sea returned to southern Minnesota and local sediment deposition resumed. Brachiopods, cephalopods, corals, and trilobites lived there.

text: Late Devonian

text: life of Minnesota also included brachiopods and corals. Their remains were preserved in

text: Fillmore

text: Freeborn

text: , and

text: Mower Counties

text: Fishes

text: were present but none of the local fossils are complete, and only fragments remain to testify of their presence. This is where the local Paleozoic fossil record ends, as Minnesota has no

text: Carboniferous

text: or

text: Permian

text: rocks wherein fossil of those ages could have been preserved.

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text: Gas-guzzlers are not only seeing a scale back in engine size and weight but also in the type of fuel used to power it to prevent environmental damage caused by the use of fossil fuels. The problem with these alternative fuel technologies is that they are either too expensive for widespread use and/or they are scarcely available especially in smaller countries.

text: Gas-guzzlers are not only seeing a scale back in engine size and weight but also in the type of fuel used to power it to prevent environmental damage caused by the use of fossil fuels. The problem with these alternative fuel technologies is that they are either too expensive for widespread use and/or they are scarcely available especially in smaller countries.

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text: Historically, taperes were almost always wedge-shaped - the boundaries beginning at defined points on the outer reef and running inland to enclose an ever narrowing strip of land until converging at a point in or near the center of the island. By this type of delineation, any one tapere included every category of soil type and land surface of the island, from the typically mountainous interior, where forest products were collected, through fertile valleys where the major food crops were grown, across the rocky coastal strip of elevated fossil coral (makatea), out to the lagoon and fringing reef.

text: Historically, taperes were almost always wedge-shaped - the boundaries beginning at defined points on the outer reef and running inland to enclose an ever narrowing strip of land until converging at a point in or near the center of the island. By this type of delineation, any one tapere included every category of soil type and land surface of the island, from the typically mountainous interior, where forest products were collected, through fertile valleys where the major food crops were grown, across the rocky coastal strip of elevated fossil coral (makatea), out to the lagoon and fringing reef.

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text: Some fossils discovered in the Eureka Sound Formation were Paleogene land vertebrates that include fish, turtles, and several types of mammals. Other types of fossils found were reptilian species and several types of birds.  Fresh water molluscs were also found.

text: Some fossils discovered in the Eureka Sound Formation were Paleogene land vertebrates that include fish, turtles, and several types of mammals. Other types of fossils found were reptilian species and several types of birds.  Fresh water

text: molluscs

text: were also found.

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text: Burrow fossils are the remains of holes or tunnels excavated into the ground or seafloor by animals to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion preserved in the rock record. Because burrow fossils represent the preserved byproducts of behavior rather than physical remains, they are considered a kind of trace fossil.

text: Burrow fossils are the remains of holes or tunnels excavated into the ground or seafloor by

text: animals

text: to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of

text: locomotion

text: preserved in the

text: rock record

text: . Because burrow fossils represent the preserved byproducts of behavior rather than physical remains, they are considered a kind of

text: trace fossil

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answers: ground or seafloor

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: holes or tunnels

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: trace fossil

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: tunnel

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: animals

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Burrow fossils

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: excavated into the ground

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The earliest fossils of chytrids are from the Scottish Rhynie chert, a Devonian-age lagerstätte with anatomical preservation of plants and fungi. Among the microfossils are chytrids preserved as parasites on rhyniophytes. These fossils closely resemble the modern genus Allomyces. Holocarpic chytrid remains were found in cherts from Combres in central France that date back to the late Visean. These remains were found along with eucarpic remains and are ambiguous in nature although they are thought to be of chytrids. Other chytrid-like fossils were found in cherts from the upper Pennsylvanian in the Saint-Etienne Basin in France, dating between 300 and 350ma.

text: The earliest

text: fossil

text: s of chytrids are from the

text: Scottish

text: Rhynie chert

text: , a

text: Devonian

text: -age

text: lagerstätte

text: with anatomical preservation of

text: plant

text: s and fungi. Among the microfossils are chytrids preserved as

text: parasite

text: s on

text: rhyniophyte

text: s. These fossils closely resemble the modern genus

text: Allomyces

text: . Holocarpic chytrid remains were found in cherts from Combres in central France that date back to the late

text: Visean

text: . These remains were found along with eucarpic remains and are ambiguous in nature although they are thought to be of chytrids. Other chytrid-like fossils were found in cherts from the upper

text: Pennsylvanian

text: in the

text: Saint-Etienne

text: Basin in

text: France

text: , dating between 300 and 350

text: ma

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: chert

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: chytrids

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: lagerstätte

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: lagerstätte

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: eucarpic

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answers: lagerstätte

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: lagerstätte

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: parasites

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: chytrids

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: chert

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most of the vertebrate fossils are preserved by CaCo permineralization. This type of preservation preserves high levels of detail, even down to the microscopic level. However, it also leaves specimens vulnerable to weathering when exposed to the surface.

text: Most of the vertebrate fossils are preserved by

text: CaCo

text: permineralization

text: . This type of preservation preserves high levels of detail, even down to the microscopic level. However, it also leaves specimens vulnerable to

text: weathering

text: when exposed to the surface.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: exposed to the surface

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: high levels of detail

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: CaCo

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: CaCo permineralization

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: vertebrate

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: CaCo

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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text: Mollusks (silicified) in casts and molds.

text: Mollusk

text: s (silicified) in casts and molds.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Powerpoint:  What are fossils, reasons for formation, types of fossils and why we study fossils. Clay practical included(Grade 5 - 7: Social Sciences / History).

text: Powerpoint:  What are fossils, reasons for formation, types of fossils and why we study fossils. Clay practical included(Grade 5 - 7: Social Sciences / History).

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answer: 1

text: Cast during the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1050 B.C.), this wine vessel is representative of the highly evolved piece-mold technologies developed within China’s Bronze Age. Due to the large number of surviving bronze vessels from this era, scholars have deduced that this age in China’s history must have been a highly developed state with strong control over resources such as copper, tin, and lead, needed to create the alloy bronze. Additionally, the Chinese technique of using piece-mold casting was considered extremely sophisticated compared to the lost-wax method used by other world cultures during their own Bronze Ages. During piece-mold casting, the object to be created is first designed as a model, and then enclosed in a clay mold that can be cut into pieces to remove it from the model. These clay pieces are then decorated or stamped with intricate designs before being fired back together, creating a mold for the bronze casting. For vessels such as this one, the central cavity of the container would have been created by placing a core inside the mold before casting with molten bronze. By casting the objects into molds already decorated with designs, craftsmen were able to use this technique to attain a higher level of definition than in any previously utilized casting methods. Furthermore, unlike many other early bronze wine vessels, guang have no history of prior ceramic prototypes, marking them as unique casts specifically from the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

text: Cast during the

text: Shang dynasty

text: ca.

text: 1600–1050 B.C.), this wine vessel is representative of the highly evolved piece-mold technologies developed within

text: China’s Bronze Age

text: . Due to the large number of surviving bronze vessels from this era, scholars have deduced that this age in China’s history must have been a highly developed state with strong control over resources such as copper, tin, and lead, needed to create the alloy bronze. Additionally, the Chinese technique of using piece-mold casting was considered extremely sophisticated compared to the

text: lost-wax

text: Zhou

text: dynasties.

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text: Couch was also interested in Cornish geology, and did useful work in developing the difficult subject of Cornish fossil remains. From 1848 onwards he was curator of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and contributed to its Transactions several valuable papers, as well as annual reports. The diseases of the Cornish miners were a subject of his careful investigation, and his papers on the mortality of miners in the Polytechnic Reports (185760) are, as far as they go, of permanent value; they were translated into French.

text: Couch was also interested in

text: Cornish geology

text: , and did useful work in developing the difficult subject of Cornish fossil remains. From 1848 onwards he was curator of the

text: Royal Geological Society of Cornwall

text: , and contributed to its Transactions several valuable papers, as well as annual reports. The diseases of the Cornish miners were a subject of his careful investigation, and his papers on the mortality of miners in the Polytechnic Reports (185760) are, as far as they go, of permanent value; they were translated into French.

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text: C. longiventris was originally described 132 years before C. inversa and the erection of a new genus for the species.  The species was based on a group of seven separate fossil ants, which were preserved as compression fossils in sedimentary rock from the Radoboj area of what is now Croatia.  The deposits are the result of sedimentation in an inland sea basin, possibly a shallow lagoon environment, during the Burdigalian of the Early Miocene.  The fossil impressions are preserved in micrite limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details. The fossils were first studied by Oswald Heer, then a professor with the University of Zürich, who placed the fossils into the genus Formica as F. longiventris in 1849.  This placement was not changed until a re-examination of two of Heers type specimens was published in 2014.  Examination by Dlussky and Putyatina of two of Heers "syntypes" resulted in the removal of the species from Formica and placement into Casaleia.  Of the two specimens, one was designated lectotype for the species, while the second was determined not to belong to the genus.

text: C. longiventris was originally described 132 years before C. inversa and the erection of a new genus for the species.  The species was based on a group of seven separate fossil ants, which were preserved as

text: compression fossil

text: s in sedimentary rock from the

text: Radoboj

text: area of what is now Croatia.  The deposits are the result of sedimentation in an inland sea basin, possibly a shallow lagoon environment, during the

text: Burdigalian

text: of the

text: Early Miocene

text: .  The fossil impressions are preserved in

text: micrite

text: limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details. The fossils were first studied by

text: Oswald Heer

text: , then a professor with the

text: University of Zürich

text: , who placed the fossils into the genus

text: Formica

text: as F. longiventris in 1849.  This placement was not changed until a re-examination of two of Heers type specimens was published in 2014.  Examination by Dlussky and Putyatina of two of Heers "

text: syntype

text: s" resulted in the removal of the species from Formica and placement into Casaleia.  Of the two specimens, one was designated

text: lectotype

text: for the species, while the second was determined not to belong to the genus.

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answers: sedimentation

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answers: compression fossils

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text: A few specimens preserve actual stomach contents. Unfortunately, none of these preserve the skull, so direct correlation between their known diet and snout/tooth shape cannot be made. Eoalulavis was found to have the remains of exoskeletons from aquatic crustaceans preserved in its digestive tract, and Enantiophoenix preserved corpuscles of amber among the fossilized bones, suggesting that this animal fed on tree sap, much like modern sapsuckers and other birds. The sap would have fossilized and become amber.

text: A few specimens preserve actual stomach contents. Unfortunately, none of these preserve the skull, so direct correlation between their known diet and snout/tooth shape cannot be made.

text: Eoalulavis

text: was found to have the remains of

text: exoskeleton

text: s from aquatic

text: crustacean

text: s preserved in its digestive tract, and

text: Enantiophoenix

text: preserved corpuscles of amber among the fossilized bones, suggesting that this animal fed on tree sap, much like modern

text: sapsucker

text: s and other birds. The sap would have fossilized and become amber.

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answers: amber

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answers: corpuscles of amber

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answers: amber

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answers: exoskeleton

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answers: permineralization

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answers: The sap would have fossilized and become amber

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answers: fossilized

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answers: sapsuckers

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: aquatic crustaceans

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answers: sap

answer: Yes

answer: No

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text: The museum's collection of taxidermied birds is one of the largest in the country.  The museum also has some skeletons of animal species, including primates, whale as well as extinct species such as dodo and woolly rhinoceros. Also included in the display are fossils and minerals. Insects displayed include over 650 types of butterfly. Victorian curiosities such as a hoax merman are also found in the museum.

text: The museum's collection of

text: taxidermied

text: birds is one of the largest in the country.  The museum also has some skeletons of animal species, including primates, whale as well as extinct species such as

text: dodo

text: and

text: woolly rhinoceros

text: . Also included in the display are fossils and minerals. Insects displayed include over 650 types of butterfly. Victorian curiosities such as a hoax

text: merman

text: are also found in the museum.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Another type of Michigan fossil site is the quarry drop off.  This is when quarries put backfill in areas that have been dubbed unusable or abandoned for building. These sites are usually large piles of rock that appear to be out of place, and usually  are in public places. The advantages to these sites is that they are easy to find, and are easy to access. They usually yield close to quarry-quality fossils, and require no digging to access, but the fossils have been exposed to the weather and have been picked up and transported by large vehicles, thus some fossils are scraped and gouged.

text: Another type of Michigan fossil site is the quarry drop off.  This is when quarries put

text: backfill

text: in areas that have been dubbed unusable or abandoned for building. These sites are usually large piles of rock that appear to be out of place, and usually  are in public places. The advantages to these sites is that they are easy to find, and are easy to access. They usually yield close to quarry-quality fossils, and require no digging to access, but the fossils have been exposed to the weather and have been picked up and transported by large vehicles, thus some fossils are scraped and gouged.

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answers: Michigan

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: scraped and gouged

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answers: backfill

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answers: fossil

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answers: scraped

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answers: backfill

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answers: scraped

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Michigan fossil site

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: quarry

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Denaeaspis chelonopsis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "USNM 58373".  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of unidentified sex which is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary rock.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member at the Denson site,locality 42053, in Garfield County, Colorado, USA.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Department of Paleobiology collections housed in the National Museum of Natural History, located in Washington, D.C., USA.  Denaeaspis was first studied by Caroline S. Chaboo and Michael S. Engel of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.  Their 2009 type description of the genus and species was published online and in print in the journal Systematic Entomology.  The generic name was coined by Chaboo and Engel from a combination of the Greek denaios meaning "old" and the Greek word aspis meaning "shield".  The etymology of the specific epithet chelonopsis, from the Greek chelone for "tortoise" and opsis for "lookalike", is in reference to tortoise beetles, the common name of the group.

text: Denaeaspis chelonopsis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "USNM 58373".  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of unidentified sex which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary rock.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member at the Denson site,locality 42053, in

text: Garfield County, Colorado

text: , USA.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Department of Paleobiology

text: collections housed in the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: , located in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: , USA.  Denaeaspis was first studied by Caroline S. Chaboo and

text: Michael S. Engel

text: of the

text: University of Kansas

text: Lawrence, Kansas

text: , USA.  Their 2009

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published online and in print in the journal

text: Systematic Entomology

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Chaboo and Engel from a combination of the

text: Greek

text: denaios meaning "old" and the Greek word aspis meaning "shield".  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: chelonopsis, from the Greek chelone for "tortoise" and opsis for "lookalike", is in reference to tortoise beetles, the common name of the group.

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answers: Tortoise beetles

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answers: compression fossil

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: sedimentary rock

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Green River Formations Parachute Member

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Profitable operations as well as market demand prompted a major commitment to build a Continuous Casting department in 1967 with the announcement of four curved mold continuous casting strands and six lines of three induction slab reheaters. Two additional 110 ton BOP vessels were also added to replace old and obsolete equipment (the 60 ton vessels). With these improvements to McLouth's steel making process, McLouth became the first steel mill to eventually produce 100% of its product by the continuous casting process, which added significantly to the efficiency of the operations and improved the quality of the finished product.

text: Profitable operations as well as market demand prompted a major commitment to build a

text: Continuous Casting

text: department in 1967 with the announcement of four curved mold continuous casting strands and six lines of three induction slab reheaters. Two additional 110 ton BOP vessels were also added to replace old and obsolete equipment (the 60 ton vessels). With these improvements to McLouth's steel making process, McLouth became the first steel mill to eventually produce 100% of its product by the continuous casting process, which added significantly to the efficiency of the operations and improved the quality of the finished product.

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answers: fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: In geology the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass. Compressive strength refers to the maximum compressive stress that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation, thrust faulting can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the crust. When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in normal faults, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in folding of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of lithostatic stress in tectonic plates, tectonic-scale deformation is always subjected to net compressive stress.

text: In

text: geology

text: the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass.

text: Compressive strength

text: refers to the maximum

text: compressive stress

text: that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation,

text: thrust fault

text: ing can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the

text: crust

text: . When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in

text: normal fault

text: s, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in

text: folding

text: of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of

text: lithostatic stress

text: in

text: tectonic plate

text: s, tectonic-scale

text: deformation

text: is always subjected to net compressive stress.

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answers: rock mass

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answers: Compressive stresses

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answers: Bone

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answers: Permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It must have formed in exceptional circumstances.

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: normal faulting

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: tectonic plates

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: tectonic plates

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The nearby site of Estaquería may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have been used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process. This may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin.

text: The nearby site of

text: Estaquería

text: may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have been used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process. This may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin.

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answers: cemeteries

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: remains of soft tissue

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: mummification

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: remains

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: a mummification process

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: The nearby site of Estaquer a

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: mummification

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answers: mummification

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answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Estaquer a

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Emiliana alexandri is known only from one fossil, the part and counterpart holotype, specimen number "PIN no. 4621/546". The specimen is composed of a single isolated tegmen which is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered by David Kohls of Colorado Mountain College and A. P. Rasnitsyn of the Russian Academy of Sciences from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member exposed in the Anvil Points area of Garfield County, Colorado, USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomology collections housed in the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, located in Moscow, Russia. Emiliana was first studied by Dmitry Shcherbakov of the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences with his 2006 type description of the tribe, genus and species being published in the Russian Entomological Journal. The generic name was coined by Shcherbakov in recognition of the world authority in planthoppers, A. F. Emeljanov, with the tribe name being a derivative of the genus name. The etymology of the specific epithet alexandri is in reference to Emeljanov's first name Alexandr.

text: Emiliana alexandri is known only from one fossil, the

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "PIN no. 4621/546". The specimen is composed of a single isolated

text: tegmen

text: which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered by David Kohls of

text: Colorado Mountain College

text: and A. P. Rasnitsyn of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member exposed in the Anvil Points area of

text: Garfield County, Colorado

text: , USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomology collections

text: housed in the

entity_name: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: , located in

text: Moscow

text: , Russia. Emiliana was first studied by Dmitry Shcherbakov of the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences with his 2006

text: type description

text: of the tribe, genus and species being published in the Russian Entomological Journal. The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Shcherbakov in recognition of the world authority in planthoppers, A. F. Emeljanov, with the tribe name being a derivative of the genus name. The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: alexandri is in reference to Emeljanov's first name Alexandr.

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answers: sedimentary rock

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: tegmen

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: holotype

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: sedimentary rock

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: The specimen is composed of a single isolated tegmen which is preserved as a compression fossil

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: compression fossil

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: sedimentary rock

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It is not known from one fossil

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Green River Formations Parachute Member

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Replacement, the second process involved in petrification, occurs when water containing dissolved minerals dissolves the original solid material of an organism, which is then replaced by minerals.  This can take place extremely slowly, replicating the microscopic structure of the organism.  The slower the rate of the process, the better defined the microscopic structure will be.  The minerals commonly involved in replacement are calcite, silica, pyrite, and hematite. It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone (as opposed to in combination with permineralization), but these fossils present significant importance to paleontologists because these fossils tend to be very detailed.

text: Replacement, the second process involved in petrification, occurs when water containing dissolved minerals dissolves the original solid material of an organism, which is then replaced by minerals.  This can take place extremely slowly, replicating the microscopic structure of the organism.  The slower the rate of the process, the better defined the microscopic structure will be.  The minerals commonly involved in replacement are calcite, silica, pyrite, and hematite. It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone (as opposed to in combination with permineralization), but these fossils present significant importance to paleontologists because these fossils tend to be very detailed.

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answers: The faster the process, the better defined the microscopic structure will be

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answers: permineralization

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answers: fossil

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answers: It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone

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answers: It is rare to find organisms preserved

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: petrification

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answers: permineralization

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answers: It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: dissolved minerals dissolves

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: When described Agroecomyrmex was known only from five separate fossils, the holotype worker, number 639/10246 plus three paratype workers and a single paratype female, which are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber.  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene.  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis relative or a Pseudolarix relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the living genus Myrmica.  Mayr's 1868 type description of the new species was published in the journal Beitrage zur Naturkunde Preussens.The species was moved to the new genus Agroecomyrmex in a short note in 1910 by William Morton Wheeler.  Wheeler expanded upon and gave a full description of the new genus in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber.  In the description Wheeler recognized the very distinct morphology of the species, and that it was not closely related to the Myrmica species.  Since its description two other related genera have been described, the late Eocene genus Eulithomyrmex from the Florissant Formation of Colorado, and the living genus Tatuidris from Central and South America.  Placement of the group has changed several times, with the genera being placed in the Myrmicinae tribe Agroecomyrmecini from 1930 until 2003.  The placement of the tribe was challenged in 2003 by Barry Bolton who suggested a closer relationship between the group and the "poneromorph" subfamilies.  in addition to the suggested relationship, Bolton moved the tribe from Myrmicinae to a new subfamily, Agroecomyrmecinae.

text: When described Agroecomyrmex was known only from five separate fossils, the

text: holotype

text: worker, number 639/10246 plus three

text: paratype

text: workers and a single paratype female, which are fossilized as

text: inclusions

text: in transparent chunks of

text: Baltic amber

text: .  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during

text: Lutetian

text: stage of the

text: Middle Eocene

text: .  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an

text: Agathis

text: relative or a

text: Pseudolarix

text: relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the

text: University of Königsberg

text: amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist

text: Gustav Mayr

text: who placed the species in the living genus

text: Myrmica

text: .  Mayr's 1868

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the journal

text: Beitrage zur Naturkunde Preussens

text: .The species was moved to the new genus Agroecomyrmex in a short note in 1910 by

text: William Morton Wheeler

text: .  Wheeler expanded upon and gave a full description of the new genus in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber.  In the description Wheeler recognized the very distinct morphology of the species, and that it was not closely related to the Myrmica species.  Since its description two other related genera have been described, the late Eocene genus

text: Eulithomyrmex

text: from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: of Colorado, and the living genus

text: Tatuidris

text: from Central and South America.  Placement of the group has changed several times, with the genera being placed in the

text: Myrmicinae

text: tribe Agroecomyrmecini from 1930 until 2003.  The placement of the tribe was challenged in 2003 by

text: Barry Bolton

text: who suggested a closer relationship between the group and the "poneromorph" subfamilies.  in addition to the suggested relationship, Bolton moved the tribe from Myrmicinae to a new subfamily,

text: Agroecomyrmecinae

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answers: amber

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answers: inclusions

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: poneromorph

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Baltic amber

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Baltic amber

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: amber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The type represents one of the few remaining examples of humans' original domestic dog and its physical features are the same as those of the dogs whose fossil remains have been found in various parts of the world, from very early remains in Israel and China to later ones such as those found in the volcanic lava at Pompeii, near Naples in Italy.

text: The type represents one of the few remaining examples of humans' original

text: domestic dog

text: and its physical features are the same as those of the dogs whose

text: fossil

text: remains have been found in various parts of the world, from very early remains in Israel and

text: China

text: to later ones such as those found in the

text: volcanic

text: lava at

text: Pompeii

text: , near

text: Naples

text: in

text: Italy

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text: La Hermana del Hombre Bóveda was hollow cast in a multi-part mold in Madrid in 1963.

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answers: Hombre Bóveda

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answers: hollow

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answers: La Hermana del Hombre Bóveda

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answers: hollow cast

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answers: hollow cast

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: mold

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The most common form of manufacture for kits is injection molded polystyrene plastic, using carbon steel molds. Today, this takes place mostly in China, Taiwan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Eastern Europe. Injection molding allows a high degree of precision and automation not available in the other manufacturing processes used for models but the molds are expensive and require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Smaller and cheaper runs can be done with cast copper molds, and some companies do even smaller runs using cast resin or rubber molds, but the durability is of a lower standard than carbon steel and labour costs are higher.

text: The most common form of manufacture for kits is

text: injection molded

text: polystyrene

text: plastic, using carbon steel molds. Today, this takes place mostly in China, Taiwan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Eastern Europe. Injection molding allows a high degree of precision and automation not available in the other manufacturing processes used for models but the molds are expensive and require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Smaller and cheaper runs can be done with cast copper molds, and some companies do even smaller runs using cast resin or rubber molds, but the durability is of a lower standard than carbon steel and labour costs are higher.

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answers: Injection molding allows a high degree of precision

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answers: cast

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answers: cast copper molds

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The most common form of manufacture for kits

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: cast copper molds

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. When transitional fossils are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge, they are often popularly referred to as "missing links".

text: The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. When

text: transitional fossil

text: s are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge, they are often popularly referred to as "missing links".

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text: As of the 2015 description of P. petrosum six species of Proceratium had been described from fossils. P. denticulatum, P. dominicanum, P. gibberum and P. poinari are younger then P. petrosum, being described from the Middle Miocene Dominican amber.  P. eocenicum from Baltic amber is of similar age to P. petrosum, and the only other species with a described fossil male.  Of the six fossil species, P. petrosum was the first to be described from a compression fossil.

text: As of the 2015 description of P. petrosum six species of

text: Proceratium

text: had been described from fossils.

text: P. denticulatum

text: P. dominicanum

text: P. gibberum

text: and

text: P. poinari

text: are younger then P. petrosum, being described from the

text: Middle Miocene

text: Dominican amber

text: P. eocenicum

text: from

text: Baltic amber

text: is of similar age to P. petrosum, and the only other species with a described fossil male.  Of the six fossil species, P. petrosum was the first to be described from a compression fossil.

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answers: amber

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: No

answer: 1

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti was described from a pair of type specimen workers which are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber.  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene.  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis relative or a Pseudolarix relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster.  Mayr's 1868 type description of the new species was published in the Königsberg journal Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens.

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti was described from a pair of

text: type specimen

text: workers which are fossilized as

text: inclusions

text: in transparent chunks of

text: Baltic amber

text: .  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during

text: Lutetian

text: stage of the

text: Middle Eocene

text: .  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an

text: Agathis

text: relative or a

text: Pseudolarix

text: relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the

text: University of Königsberg

text: amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist

text: Gustav Mayr

text: who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster.  Mayr's 1868

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the Königsberg journal

text: Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens

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answers: All the type specimens were collected

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answers: fossilized

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answers: amber

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Some fossil species have been discovered in amber and as compression fossils in rock:

text: Some

text: fossil

text: species have been discovered in

text: amber

text: and as

text: compression fossil

text: s in rock:

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text: Greene amassed most of the fossils in his collection, totaling about 75,000 specimens, during the 1880s and 1890s.  The majority of these specimens come from the Silurian Niagara Formation and the Devonian Hamilton Formation in the vicinity of southeastern Wisconsin.  Preserved mostly as internal molds in dolomite, these fossils include a wide range of Silurian marine invertebrate groups including trilobites, crinoids, tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods, cephalopods, and gastropods.  Devonian fossils consist mainly of fish and plant remains.  All of these fossils were collected from quarry outcrops that no longer exist, making the collection irreplaceable.

text: Greene amassed most of the fossils in his collection, totaling about 75,000 specimens, during the 1880s and 1890s.  The majority of these specimens come from the Silurian Niagara Formation and the Devonian Hamilton Formation in the vicinity of southeastern Wisconsin.  Preserved mostly as internal molds in dolomite, these fossils include a wide range of Silurian marine invertebrate groups including trilobites, crinoids, tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods, cephalopods, and gastropods.  Devonian fossils consist mainly of fish and plant remains.  All of these fossils were collected from quarry outcrops that no longer exist, making the collection irreplaceable.

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answers: The majority of these specimens come from the Silurian Niagara Formation

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answers: internal molds

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answers: trilobites, crinoids

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: No

answer: 1

text: Before firing, the bolt body is separated from the locked bolt head by a stiff spring. As the shotgun recoils after firing, inertia causes the bolt body to remain stationary while the recoiling gun and locked bolt head move rearward. This movement compresses the spring between the bolt head and bolt body, storing the energy required to cycle the action. Since the spring can only be compressed a certain amount, this limits the amount of force the spring can absorb, and provides an inherent level of self-regulation to the action, allowing a wide range of shotshells to be used, from standard to magnum loads, as long as they provide the minimum recoil level to compress the spring.  Note that the shotgun must be free to recoil for this to work—the compressibility of the shooter's body is sufficient to allow this movement, but firing the shotgun from a secure position in a rest or with the stock against the ground will not allow it to recoil sufficiently to operate the mechanism. Likewise, weapons of this type must be modified (with the addition of extended magazines or stock saddled ammunition slings on shotguns, for example) with care, as any sizable increase in weapon mass can reduce the force of recoil below that required to cycle the action.

text: Before firing, the bolt body is separated from the locked bolt head by a stiff spring. As the shotgun recoils after firing, inertia causes the bolt body to remain stationary while the recoiling gun and locked bolt head move rearward. This movement compresses the spring between the bolt head and bolt body, storing the energy required to cycle the action. Since the spring can only be compressed a certain amount, this limits the amount of force the spring can absorb, and provides an inherent level of self-regulation to the action, allowing a wide range of

text: shotshell

text: s to be used, from standard to magnum loads, as long as they provide the minimum recoil level to compress the spring.  Note that the shotgun must be free to recoil for this to work—the compressibility of the shooter's body is sufficient to allow this movement, but firing the shotgun from a secure position in a rest or with the stock against the ground will not allow it to recoil sufficiently to operate the mechanism. Likewise, weapons of this type must be modified (with the addition of extended magazines or stock saddled ammunition slings on shotguns, for example) with care, as any sizable increase in weapon mass can reduce the force of recoil below that required to cycle the action.

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text: Agile tooling is the design and fabrication of manufacturing related-tools such as dies, molds, patterns, jigs and fixtures in a configuration that aims to maximise the tools' performance, minimise manufacturing time and cost, and avoid delay in prototyping.  A fully functional agile tooling laboratory consists of CNC milling, turning and routing equipment. It can also include additive manufacturing platforms (such as fused filament fabrication, selective laser sintering, Stereolithography, and direct metal laser sintering), hydroforming, vacuum forming, die casting, stamping, injection molding and welding equipment.

text: Agile tooling is the design and fabrication of

text: manufacturing

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text: die

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text: molds

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text: in a configuration that aims to maximise the tools' performance, minimise manufacturing time and cost, and avoid delay in

text: prototyping

text: .  A fully functional agile tooling laboratory consists of

text: CNC milling

text: turning

text: and

text: routing

text: equipment. It can also include

text: additive manufacturing

text: platforms (such as

text: fused filament fabrication

text: selective laser sintering

text: Stereolithography

text: , and

text: direct metal laser sintering

text: hydroforming

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text: stamping

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text: Although there is no formal classification system for EVEs, they are categorised according to the taxonomy of their viral origin. Indeed, all known viral genome types and replication strategies, as defined by the Baltimore classification, have been found in the genomic fossil record. Acronyms have been designated to describe different types of viral fossil.

text: Although there is no formal classification system for EVEs, they are categorised according to the taxonomy of their viral origin. Indeed, all known viral genome types and replication strategies, as defined by the

text: Baltimore classification

text: , have been found in the genomic fossil record. Acronyms have been designated to describe different types of viral fossil.

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late Silurian. Their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features.

text: The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late

text: Silurian

text: . Their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features.

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answers: Silurian

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answers: roots

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: infilled voids

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: void

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: infilled voids

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It can be discriminated using a range of features

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: rotted after death

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Silurian

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: roots rotted after death

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Behind the mold disk is the type metal pot, which contains molten type metal. A piston in the pot pushes the molten metal down into the pot, which forces the metal through the pot throat and into the mold, forcing it against the faces of the matrices. These have character shapes cut into them, so the result is a cast slug with the character shapes of the line on its front face. The mold disk is sometimes water-cooled, and often air-cooled with a blower, to carry away the heat of the molten type metal and allow the cast slugs to solidify quickly.

text: Behind the mold disk is the type metal pot, which contains molten

text: type metal

text: . A piston in the pot pushes the molten metal down into the pot, which forces the metal through the pot throat and into the mold, forcing it against the faces of the matrices. These have character shapes cut into them, so the result is a cast slug with the character shapes of the line on its front face. The mold disk is sometimes water-cooled, and often air-cooled with a blower, to carry away the heat of the molten type metal and allow the cast slugs to solidify quickly.

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answers: cast slugs

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: character shapes

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: cast slugs

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: slug

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It must have formed in exceptional circumstances

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: molten

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: cast slugs

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It does not say

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Cast slugs

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Both of the destroyers were upgraded in 2011. The four Type 76A guns were replaced by two Type 730 CIWS on top of the helicopter hangar. The Crotale/HHQ-7 short-range SAM may have been replaced by the newer model (FM-90?) which provides better interception against sea-skimming AShMs. Two Type 726-4 decoy launchers were installed on both sides of the forward bridge for better self-protection. Various onboard systems were integrated together (to a certain degree) by a Thomson-CSF TAVITAC combat data system which is thought to have been replaced by a new indigenous C3I system (ZJK-4B or a newer model). The Thomson-CSF Sea Tiger air/surface search radar was first replaced by an indigenous Type 518 Hai Ying radar, and now replaced by a Type 517M long-range air search radar. The Type 362 air/surface radar installed on top of the aft mast has been replaced by a Type 364. A pair of SATCOM antennas have been installed on top of the helicopter hangar as well.

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text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts isostasy. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in fossil plants.

text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The

text: Continental shelf

text: of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts

text: isostasy

text: . Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in

text: fossil plants

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answers: analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean

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text: In some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as the inside of a bivalve or snail or the hollow of a skull.

text: In some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An

text: endocast

text: or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as the inside of a

text: bivalve

text: or

text: snail

text: or the hollow of a

text: skull

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answers: completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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text: There are very few fossil remains of Kimmerosaurus known. In fact, nothing has been found to show what Kimmerosaurus may have looked like below the neck, although the atlas and the axis are similar to those of the plesiosaur Colymbosaurus. It is this lack of any post-cranial fossils, and the bone similarities that has led to the belief that Kimmerosaurus fossils could be the missing head of Colymbosaurus, a  similar plesiosaur with no known skull fossils.

text: There are very few fossil remains of Kimmerosaurus known. In fact, nothing has been found to show what Kimmerosaurus may have looked like below the

text: neck

text: , although the

text: atlas

text: and the

text: axis

text: are similar to those of the plesiosaur

text: Colymbosaurus

text: . It is this lack of any post-

text: cranial

text: fossils, and the bone similarities that has led to the belief that Kimmerosaurus fossils could be the missing head of Colymbosaurus, a  similar plesiosaur with no known skull fossils.

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answers: fossil remains

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Bicycles are allowed on half of the trails; equestrians and hikers on all of the trails. Dogs are allowed. Cows, calves, steers and an occasional free-ranging bull can be encountered on the trails; their grazing keeps the grass short for summer fire safety. Deer, coons, and skunks can be seen, as well as hawks, vultures and an occasional eagle.  The commonest trees are California bay laurel and coast live oak. Some of the exposed rocks contain compressed layers of fossils.

text: Bicycles are allowed on half of the trails; equestrians and hikers on all of the trails. Dogs are allowed. Cows, calves, steers and an occasional free-ranging bull can be encountered on the trails; their grazing keeps the grass short for summer fire safety. Deer, coons, and skunks can be seen, as well as hawks, vultures and an occasional eagle.  The commonest trees are California bay laurel and coast live oak. Some of the exposed rocks contain compressed layers of fossils.

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answers: compressed layers

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answers: fossil

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answers: an occasional free-ranging bull

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answers: fossils

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answers: grazing

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answers: Some of the exposed rocks

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answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Protostephanus is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen number "2035" and formerly number 13913 of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder collection.  The specimen is housed in the fossil collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, part of Harvard University.  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female crown wasp that has been preserved as an compression fossil in shale of fine volcanic ash from the Florissant Formation in Colorado.  When the fossil was first recovered and studied, the age of the Florissant Formation was not firmly determined, and a tentative Miocene date was advocated.  The formation has subsequently been determined to be late Eocene in age.  The Protostephanus  fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Cockerell's 1906 type description of the new genus and species was published in the journal Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.  The genus name Protostephanus was coined by Cockerell as a combination of the Greek word proto meaning "first" and the stephanid genus Stephanus.  The specific epithet ashmeadi was coined in honor of William Harris Ashmead whose entomology works were referenced by Cockerell to determine the affinities of the insect.  Protostephanus is the first crown wasp genus to have been described from a fossil, and is the youngest fossil genus in the family.  Cockerell was uncertain of his placement for the Protostephanus as a crown wasp, not being able to see all the features typical of the family.  This uncertainty remained until the holotype was reexamined by Alexandre Aguiar and Jens-Wilhelm Janzen in 1999.  Aguiar and Janzen concluded that the placement was sound with most of the expected features being present partly or fully.  The incomplete nature of the specimen lead to the genus being left unplaced in the subfamily Stephaninae when it was subdivided into tribes.

text: Protostephanus is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "2035" and formerly number 13913 of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: collection.  The specimen is housed in the fossil collection of the

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: , part of

text: Harvard University

text: .  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female crown wasp that has been preserved as an

text: compression fossil

text: in shale of fine volcanic ash from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: in

text: Colorado

text: .  When the fossil was first recovered and studied, the age of the Florissant Formation was not firmly determined, and a tentative

text: Miocene

text: date was advocated.  The formation has subsequently been determined to be

text: late Eocene

text: in age.  The Protostephanus  fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist

text: Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell

text: of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Cockerell's 1906

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the journal Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.  The genus name Protostephanus was coined by Cockerell as a combination of the

text: Greek

text: word proto meaning "first" and the stephanid genus

text: Stephanus

text: .  The

text: specific epithet

text: ashmeadi was coined in honor of

text: William Harris Ashmead

text: whose entomology works were referenced by Cockerell to determine the affinities of the insect.  Protostephanus is the first crown wasp genus to have been described from a fossil, and is the youngest fossil genus in the family.  Cockerell was uncertain of his placement for the Protostephanus as a crown wasp, not being able to see all the features typical of the family.  This uncertainty remained until the holotype was reexamined by Alexandre Aguiar and Jens-Wilhelm Janzen in 1999.  Aguiar and Janzen concluded that the placement was sound with most of the expected features being present partly or fully.  The incomplete nature of the specimen lead to the genus being left unplaced in the subfamily Stephaninae when it was subdivided into

text: tribes

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answers: was first recovered and studied

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Fairyflies are well represented in fossil amber inclusions, copal, and compression fossils. Their fossils have been found from the Early Cretaceous up to the Miocene epoch. It is, in fact, the only family of chalcid wasps definitely known to date back to the Cretaceous period.

text: Fairyflies are well represented in

text: fossil

text: amber inclusion

text: s,

text: copal

text: , and

text: compression fossil

text: s. Their fossils have been found from the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: up to the

text: Miocene

text: epoch

text: . It is, in fact, the only family of chalcid wasps definitely known to date back to the

text: Cretaceous

text: period.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Vertebrate fossils found in the Boquillas Formation include mosasaurs, fish bones, and shark's teeth. Invertebrate fossils found in the formation include ammonites, swimming crinoids, inoceramid clams, sea urchins, oysters, and foraminifera

text: Vertebrate

text: fossil

text: s found in the Boquillas Formation include

text: mosasaur

text: s,

text: fish

text: bones, and

text: shark

text: 's teeth.

text: Invertebrate

text: fossil

text: s found in the formation include

text: ammonite

text: s, swimming

text: crinoid

text: s,

text: inoceramid

text: clams,

text: sea urchin

text: s,

text: oyster

text: s, and

text: foraminifera

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answers: permineralization

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answers: foraminifera

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answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Europe is relatively rich in fossils from the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and much of what is known about European dinosaurs dates from this time.  As the timeline below illustrates, there are substantial gaps in our knowledge from the rest of the Mesozoic.  The absence of dinosaur genera from this time is because few fossils have been discovered, and almost certainly not because Europe contained few types of dinosaur—except, perhaps, immediately after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.

text: Europe is relatively rich in fossils from the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and much of what is known about European dinosaurs dates from this time.  As the timeline below illustrates, there are substantial gaps in our knowledge from the rest of the Mesozoic.  The absence of dinosaur

text: genera

text: from this time is because few fossils have been discovered, and almost certainly not because Europe contained few types of dinosaur—except, perhaps, immediately after the

text: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event

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text: This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.

text: This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous

text: Mazon Creek fossil beds

text: of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.

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answers: Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA

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answers: The chemistry is right

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Langebaanweg has been an important mining center, with its mai minerals consisting of phosphorites, primarily calcium phosphate. The mining uncovered fossils dating from the late Miocene and early Pliocene, approximately 5 million years ago.  Fossil species found there include invertebrates and also a type of rhinoceros, as well as a mousebird and a diving petrel. The West Coast Fossil Park includes displays of fossils found in a former phosphate mine. Brett Hendey, formally of the Iziko South African Museum, documented the significance of the Langebaanweg fossil sites.

text: Langebaanweg has been an important

text: mining

text: center, with its mai minerals consisting of

text: phosphorites

text: , primarily

text: calcium phosphate

text: . The mining uncovered

text: fossils

text: dating from the late Miocene and early Pliocene, approximately 5 million years ago.  Fossil species found there include

text: invertebrates

text: and also a type of

text: rhinoceros

text: , as well as a

text: mousebird

text: and a

text: diving petrel

text: . The

text: West Coast Fossil Park

text: includes displays of fossils found in a former phosphate mine. Brett Hendey, formally of the

text: Iziko South African Museum

text: , documented the significance of the Langebaanweg fossil sites.

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answers: NDQ_006253

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answers: NDQ_006255

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answers: NDQ_006256

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answers: NDQ_006257

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answers: NDQ_006258

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answers: NDQ_006259

answers: mining

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: invertebrates

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: phosphate

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In addition to mollusk shells, various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay, including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate. This condition is of concern for museum scientists, and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds. In order to avoid Bynesian decay, the use of metal, non-reactive polymers and acid-free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper, wood-based materials, ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments. Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying, with a subsequent realocation to an archival setting.

text: In addition to mollusk shells, various other

text: natural history

text: specimen

text: s are susceptible to this form of decay, including

text: eggshell

text: s and some

text: fossil

text: s and

text: mineral

text: samples that are composed of

text: calcium carbonate

text: . This condition is of concern for

text: museum

text: scientists, and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds. In order to avoid Bynesian decay, the use of metal, non-reactive polymers and acid-free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper, wood-based materials, ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments. Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying, with a subsequent realocation to an archival setting.

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text: The subsequent describers have always dedicated much effort at restoring the armour configuration. Hulke understood that Polacanthus had a large "pelvic shield" or "sacral shield", a single fused sheet of dermal bone over its hips (sacral area) which perhaps was not attached to the underlying bone and decorated with tubercles. This feature is shared with other "polacanthine" (basal nodosaurids) dinosaurs such as Gastonia and Mymoorapelta. With the holotype, this shield is 108 centimetres wide and 90 centimetres long. It features four horizontal rows of larger keeled osteoderms per side, surrounded by smaller ossicles. These latter are sometimes completely fused to form flat armour plates. Hulke thought that on the tail there were two rows of keeled osteoderms per side. Of a set of spikes found with the fossil, he assumed they had adorned the sides of the rump. A different arrangement was hypothesised by Nopcsa. He thought that both the tail and the front of the body including the neck featured two parallel rows of spikes, one per side. On the front body each row would have consisted of five spikes and he claimed that seven of these had been conserved with the fossil, five of the right side and two of the left. The tail rows would have consisted of twenty-two shorter pairs, fifteen spikes being still extant, eight of the left side and seven of the right. As the spikes are asymmetrical their position can more or less be deduced. Blows in 1987 basically agreed with Nopcsa but also distinguished three spike types, a Type A, B and C, allowing him to classify additional fossil finds, which often differed from the holotype spikes in several details.

text: The subsequent describers have always dedicated much effort at restoring the armour configuration. Hulke understood that Polacanthus had a large "pelvic shield" or "sacral shield", a single fused sheet of dermal bone over its hips (sacral area) which perhaps was not attached to the underlying bone and decorated with tubercles. This feature is shared with other "

text: polacanthine

text: basal

text: nodosaurids) dinosaurs such as

text: Gastonia

text: and

text: Mymoorapelta

text: . With the holotype, this shield is 108 centimetres wide and 90 centimetres long. It features four horizontal rows of larger keeled

text: osteoderms

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: These latter are sometimes completely fused to form flat armour plates

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text: One of the greatest threats to the long-term well being of human remains in museum collections is improper storage and packing. Proper storage of human human remains is not only necessary for their physical preservation, but it also demonstrates the respect that sensitive materials such as these should be accorded. The ideal storage location for sacred artifacts and human remains is a designated space away from the rest of the collection; however, there are often many constraints which prevent this from being possible. At the minimum, ethical guidelines suggest that remains from different individuals should be stored in separate boxes or compartments from each other.Generally speaking, human remains are best preserved in cool, dark, dry conditions while wrapped in acid-free (non-buffered) tissue and packing materials. Corporeal materials should not be stored in or near any wood or in any containers which previously housed wood due to potentially increased lignin levels, which produce an acid that can lead to the deterioration of DNA and proteins in the remains. Excessive exposure to light should be avoided in order to prevent bleaching of materials, especially bone.

text: lignin

text: levels, which produce an acid that can lead to the deterioration of DNA and proteins in the remains. Excessive exposure to light should be avoided in order to prevent bleaching of materials, especially bone.

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answers: human remains

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: DNA and proteins

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: Bone

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answers: remains

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Excessive exposure to light

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: bleaching

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: human remains

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Excessive exposure to light

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Excessive exposure to light

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The best fossils of leaves are found preserved in fine layers of sediment that have been compressed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the deposited sediment.  Since leaves are basically flat, the resulting distortion is minimal.  Plant stems and other three-dimensional plant structures do not preserve as well under compression. Typically, only the basic outline and surface features are preserved in compression fossils; internal anatomy is not preserved.  These fossils may be studied while still partially entombed in the sedimentary rock matrix where they are preserved, or once lifted out of the matrix by a peel or transfer technique.

text: The best fossils of

text: leaves

text: are found preserved in fine layers of

text: sediment

text: that have been compressed in a direction

text: perpendicular

text: to the plane of the deposited sediment.  Since leaves are basically flat, the resulting distortion is minimal.

text: Plant stem

text: s and other three-dimensional plant structures do not preserve as well under compression. Typically, only the basic outline and surface features are preserved in compression fossils; internal

text: anatomy

text: is not preserved.  These fossils may be studied while still partially entombed in the sedimentary rock matrix where they are preserved, or once lifted out of the matrix by a peel or transfer technique.

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answers: Typically, only the basic outline and surface features are preserved

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answers: perpendicular

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answers: internal anatomy is not preserved

answers: NDQ_006258

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answers: NDQ_006259

answers: sediment that have been compressed

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils of leaves are found preserved in fine layers of sediment

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Uintascorpio halandrasorum is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "DMNH No. 6004". The specimen is composed of a single entire adult that is preserved as a compression fossil in finely bedded, light gray shale. The fossil was recovered by Gus and Christine Halandras of Meeker, Colorado from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member exposing sediments of Lake Unitah, Rio Blanco County, Colorado, USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomology collections housed in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, located in Denver, Colorado, USA. Uintascorpio was first studied by M. L. Perry with his 1995 brief description type description of the genus and species being published in a Grand Junction Geological Society publication. The generic name was coined by Perry as a combination of the Latin "scorpio" for scorpion, and "Uintah" referring to Lake Uintah of the Green River Formation. The etymology of the specific epithet halandrasorum is in recognition of Gus and Christine Halandras. The species name was originally spelled halandrasi by Perry, however, per the naming regulations in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the species name was corrected to halandrasorum in the 2004 redescription of Uintascorpio.

text: Uintascorpio halandrasorum is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "DMNH No. 6004". The specimen is composed of a single entire adult that is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in finely bedded, light gray

text: shale

text: . The fossil was recovered by Gus and Christine Halandras of

text: Meeker, Colorado

text: from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member exposing sediments of

text: Lake Unitah

text: Rio Blanco County, Colorado

text: , USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomology collections

text: housed in the

text: Denver Museum of Nature and Science

text: , located in

text: Denver

text: , Colorado, USA. Uintascorpio was first studied by M. L. Perry with his 1995 brief description

text: type description

text: of the genus and species being published in a Grand Junction Geological Society publication. The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Perry as a combination of the Latin "scorpio" for scorpion, and "Uintah" referring to Lake Uintah of the Green River Formation. The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: halandrasorum is in recognition of Gus and Christine Halandras. The species name was originally spelled halandrasi by Perry, however, per the naming regulations in the

entity_name: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: , the species name was corrected to halandrasorum in the 2004 redescription of Uintascorpio.

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: The specimen is composed of a single entire adult

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: shale

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The pyroxenites are often subject serpentinization under low temperature retrograde metamorphism and weathering. The rocks are often completely replaced by serpentines, which sometimes preserve the original structures of the primary minerals, such as the lamination of hypersthene and the rectangular cleavage of augite. Under pressure-metamorphism hornblende is developed and various types of amphibolite and hornblende-schist are produced. Occasionally rocks rich in pyroxene are found as basic facies of nepheline syenite; a good example is provided by the melanite pyroxenites associated with the borolanite variety found in the Loch Borralan igneous complex of Scotland.

text: The pyroxenites are often subject

text: serpentinization

text: under low temperature retrograde metamorphism and

text: weathering

text: . The rocks are often completely replaced by

text: serpentine

text: s, which sometimes preserve the original structures of the primary minerals, such as the lamination of hypersthene and the rectangular cleavage of augite. Under pressure-metamorphism hornblende is developed and various types of

text: amphibolite

text: and hornblende-

text: schist

text: are produced. Occasionally rocks rich in pyroxene are found as basic facies of

text: nepheline syenite

text: ; a good example is provided by the

text: melanite

text: pyroxenites associated with the borolanite variety found in the Loch Borralan igneous complex of

text: Scotland

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answers: serpentinization

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answers: Loch Borralan igneous complex

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answers: serpentinization

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Helminthochiton Grayiae was recognised as the type species for Septemchiton. This was named for Elizabeth Gray who collected fossils at Girvan.

text: Helminthochiton Grayiae was recognised as the type species for Septemchiton. This was named for

text: Elizabeth Gray

text: who collected fossils at

text: Girvan

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: A geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or geological pick is a hammer used for splitting and breaking rocks. In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to determine its composition, nature, mineralogy, history, and field estimate of rock strength. In fossil and mineral collecting, they are employed to break rocks with the aim of revealing fossils inside. Geologist's hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a photograph.

text: A geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or geological pick is a

text: hammer

text: used for splitting and breaking rocks. In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to determine its composition, nature,

text: mineralogy

text: , history, and field estimate of rock strength. In

text: fossil

text: and

text: mineral collecting

text: , they are employed to break rocks with the aim of revealing fossils inside. Geologist's hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a photograph.

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text: There are two basic types, the smaller type (ca. 3 cm) cast in molds, and the larger (ca. 5 cm) wrought from sheet metal. A type of bone pendants found in Iron Age (Biblical period) Palestine is also associated with the Club-of-Hercules jewelry of the Roman era (Platt 1978). A votive mace made of bronze found in Willingham Fen, Cambridgeshire in 1857 follows the Roman model in shape and the representation of wooden knobs on the club, but adding indigenous (Celtic) iconography by depicting animal heads, anthropomorphic figures and a wheel at the club's base.

text: There are two basic types, the smaller type (ca. 3 cm) cast in molds, and the larger (ca. 5 cm) wrought from sheet metal. A type of bone pendants found in Iron Age (Biblical period) Palestine is also associated with the Club-of-Hercules jewelry of the Roman era (Platt 1978). A votive mace made of bronze found in

text: Willingham Fen, Cambridgeshire

text: in 1857 follows the Roman model in shape and the representation of wooden knobs on the club, but adding indigenous (Celtic) iconography by depicting animal heads, anthropomorphic figures and a wheel at the club's base.

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answer: 1

text: A number of E. britannicus fossils are known and were described under three different names.  The oldest descriptions are that of Theodore Cockerell who named both Dolichoderus britannicus and Dolichoderus ovigerus, citing small wing differences tentatively separating the two species.  A third species, Emplastus emeryi, was named by Horace Donisthorpe in 1920, and was the type species of the genus Emplastus.  In the time since the initial descriptions of the species, a number of additional queens and several males have been found, and a group of over twenty body fossils plus twenty seven wing fossils were studied by Dlussky and Perfilieva and published in 2014.  The fossils showed a spectrum of wing morphology that bridged all three species, and as such they deemed both D. ovigerus and E. emeryi to be synonyms of the first published species name D. britannicus. However the propodeum is different than that of Dolichoderus species, being rounded in profile, and as such the species was retained in the genus Emplastus.

text: A number of E. britannicus fossils are known and were described under three different names.  The oldest descriptions are that of

text: Theodore Cockerell

text: who named both Dolichoderus britannicus and Dolichoderus ovigerus, citing small wing differences tentatively separating the two species.  A third species, Emplastus emeryi, was named by

text: Horace Donisthorpe

text: in 1920, and was the type species of the genus Emplastus.  In the time since the initial descriptions of the species, a number of additional queens and several males have been found, and a group of over twenty body fossils plus twenty seven wing fossils were studied by Dlussky and Perfilieva and published in 2014.  The fossils showed a spectrum of wing morphology that bridged all three species, and as such they deemed both D. ovigerus and E. emeryi to be synonyms of the first published species name D. britannicus. However the

text: propodeum

text: is different than that of Dolichoderus species, being rounded in profile, and as such the species was retained in the genus Emplastus.

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text: In British archaeology a Watching Brief is a method of preserving archaeological remains by record in the face of development threat.<ref><br>

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text: Tilia johnsoni was described from a single type specimen, a leaf, the holotype being UW 39712, in the paleobotanical collections of Burke Museum, and its counterpart UCMP 9291 in the University of California Museum of Paleontology in California. Working from this specimen, collected in the Republic, Washington area in the early 1980s, the fossil was studied by Jack A. Wolfe of the University of California and Wesley C. Wehr of the Burke Museum.  They published their 1987 type description for the species in a United States Geological Survey monograph on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils.  The specific epithet johnsoni is a patronym recognizing the help provided to Wolfe and Wehr by a young  Kirk Johnson, now director of the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History.  Wolfe and Wehr noted that, at the time of publication, T. johnsoni was the oldest macrofossil occurrence for the genus to be described,; older microfossil records of pollen date near to the Paleocene – Eocene boundary, and fruits of an extinct Tilia relative are known from the Eocene of England.

text: Tilia johnsoni was described from a single

text: type specimen

text: , a leaf, the

text: holotype

text: being UW 39712, in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of

text: Burke Museum

text: , and its

text: counterpart

text: UCMP 9291 in the

entity_name: University of California Museum of Paleontology

text: University of California Museum of Paleontology

text: in

text: California

text: . Working from this specimen, collected in the Republic, Washington area in the early 1980s, the fossil was studied by

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: of the

text: University of California

text: and

text: Wesley C. Wehr

text: of the Burke Museum.  They published their 1987

text: type description

text: for the species in a

text: United States Geological Survey

text: monograph

text: on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils.  The

text: specific epithet

text: johnsoni is a

text: patronym

text: recognizing the help provided to Wolfe and Wehr by a young

text: Kirk Johnson

text: , now director of the

text: Smithsonian

text: 's

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: .  Wolfe and Wehr noted that, at the time of publication, T. johnsoni was the oldest macrofossil occurrence for the genus to be described,; older microfossil records of pollen date near to the

text: Paleocene – Eocene boundary

text: , and fruits of an extinct Tilia relative are known from the Eocene of England.

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text: The majority of fossil trackways are foot impressions on land, or subsurface water, but other types of creatures will leave distinctive impressions. Examples of creatures supported, or partially supported, in a water environment are known. The fossil "millipede-type" genus Arthropleura left its multi-legged/feet trackways on land.

text: The majority of fossil trackways are

text: foot

text: impressions on land, or subsurface water, but other types of creatures will leave distinctive impressions. Examples of creatures supported, or partially supported, in a

text: water

text: environment are known. The fossil "

text: millipede

text: -type" genus

text: Arthropleura

text: left its multi-legged/feet trackways on land.

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answers: Other types of creatures will leave distinctive impressions

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answers: fossil trackways

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Internally, an enlarged-bore 3.8 L (231 in³),  DOHC straight-6 replaced the previous 3.4 L (210 in³)  unit.  The B-type head of the Mark VIII was retained, but with a chamfer at the bottom of the combustion chamber to accommodate the enlarged bore.  Twin HD6 1.75" SU carburettors were fitted.  A smaller electromagnetically controlled auxiliary carburettor was placed between the main pair of carburettors to act as a choke. It often proved troublesome in operation and many were converted to manual switching . Standard compression ratio was 8:1, but a higher performance 9:1 compression ratio was also available, as was a 7:1 compression ratio for export markets, such as Africa, where quality of petrol was sometimes a problem.

text: Internally, an enlarged-bore 3.8 L (231 in³),

text: DOHC

text: replaced the previous 3.4 L (210 in³)  unit.  The B-type head of the Mark VIII was retained, but with a chamfer at the bottom of the combustion chamber to accommodate the enlarged bore.  Twin HD6 1.75" SU carburettors were fitted.  A smaller electromagnetically controlled auxiliary carburettor was placed between the main pair of carburettors to act as a choke. It often proved troublesome in operation and many were converted to manual switching . Standard compression ratio was 8:1, but a higher performance 9:1 compression ratio was also available, as was a 7:1 compression ratio for export markets, such as Africa, where quality of petrol was sometimes a problem.

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answers: It often proved troublesome

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answers: fossilization

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answers: Africa

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The original type description of the new species by Dr. Edward W. Berry, based on a compression fossil leaf specimen, was published in 1929.  When first published the holotype specimen's type locality was misidentified as being from the Latah Formation in Spokane.  Rowland W. Brown corrected the type locality to the older Republic area strata in a 1937 paper, but occasional confusion as to the species' age still occurred: notably Daniel I. Axelrod in this 1966 paper on the Copper Basin flora of Nevada misidentified the age of S. hesperia as Oligocene.

text: The original

text: type description

text: of the new species by Dr.

text: Edward W. Berry

text: , based on a

text: compression fossil

text: leaf specimen, was published in 1929.  When first published the holotype specimen's

text: type locality

text: was misidentified as being from the Latah Formation in Spokane.

text: Rowland W. Brown

text: corrected the type locality to the older

text: Republic area

text: strata in a 1937 paper, but occasional confusion as to the species' age still occurred: notably

text: Daniel I. Axelrod

text: in this 1966 paper on the Copper Basin flora of Nevada misidentified the age of S. hesperia as Oligocene.

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answers: Latah Formation

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answers: compression fossil leaf

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answers: compression

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answers: compression fossil leaf specimen

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the

text: history of the Earth

text: . They contain

text: fossil

text: s, the preserved remains of ancient

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.

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text: La Voulte-sur-Rhône is a marine Lagerstätte (sedimentary deposit) located in France. It is Middle Jurassic (Callovian) in age, and is known for the variety of fossils it produces, including cephalopods, such as Proteroctopus ribeti, Rhomboteuthis lehmani, and Vampyronassa rhodanica. Fossilized cephalopods are rare, and Voulte-sur-Rhône is prized among paleontologists as one of only a few known localities known to produce such cephalopod fossils. Fossil preservation is by pyrite, a geologically rare process. Other sites with pyrite preserved fossils are Beecher's Trilobite Bed and the Hunsrück Slate.Also found at the site are ophiuroids, crustaceans, fish, and other pyritized specimens. The exceptional preservation of the fossils at this site is most likely due to the result of oxygen deficient water at the time of the deposition of the fossils, and possibly repeated sediment blanketing.

text: La Voulte-sur-Rhône is a marine

text: Lagerstätte

text: (sedimentary deposit) located in

text: France

text: . It is

text: Middle Jurassic

text: Callovian

text: ) in age, and is known for the variety of

text: fossil

text: s it produces, including

text: cephalopod

text: s, such as

text: Proteroctopus ribeti

text: Rhomboteuthis lehmani

text: , and

text: Vampyronassa rhodanica

text: . Fossilized cephalopods are rare, and Voulte-sur-Rhône is prized among

text: paleontologists

text: as one of only a few known localities known to produce such cephalopod fossils. Fossil preservation is by

text: pyrite

text: , a geologically rare process. Other sites with pyrite preserved fossils are

text: Beecher's Trilobite Bed

text: and the

text: Hunsrück Slate

text: .Also found at the site are

text: ophiuroids

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: fish

text: , and other pyritized specimens. The exceptional preservation of the fossils at this site is most likely due to the result of oxygen deficient water at the time of the deposition of the fossils, and possibly repeated sediment blanketing.

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answers: Fossilized cephalopods are rare

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text: In paleobotany, two terms were formerly used in the codes of nomenclature, "form genera" and "organ genera", to mean groups of fossils of a particular part of a plant, such as a leaf or seed, whose parent plant is not known because the fossils were preserved unattached to the parent plant. A later term "morphotaxa" also allows for differences in preservational state. These three terms have been replaced as of 2011 by provisions for "fossil-taxa" that are more similar to the provisions for other types of plants.

text: In

text: paleobotany

text: , two terms were formerly used in the

entity_name: International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

text: codes of nomenclature

text: , "form genera" and "organ genera", to mean groups of fossils of a particular part of a plant, such as a leaf or seed, whose parent plant is not known because the fossils were preserved unattached to the parent plant. A later term "morphotaxa" also allows for differences in preservational state. These three terms have been replaced as of 2011 by provisions for "fossil-taxa" that are more similar to the provisions for other types of plants.

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answers: unattached to the parent plant

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answers: a leaf or seed

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answers: unattached

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answers: preserved unattached to the parent plant

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answers: fossils were preserved unattached

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answers: fossils

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Y. orthosemos is known only from one fossil, a part and counterpart holotype, specimen number RBCM.EH2015.004.0001.001A&B, which is housed in the collections of the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, British Columbia.  Ypresiosirex was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene, Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia.  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being Microthermal, although further study has shown them to be more mesothermal in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with alder and elm dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

text: Y. orthosemos is known only from one fossil, a

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number RBCM.EH2015.004.0001.001A&B, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Royal British Columbia Museum

text: in

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: .  Ypresiosirex was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene,

text: Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: .  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being

text: Microthermal

text: , although further study has shown them to be more

text: mesothermal

text: in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with

text: alder

text: and

text: elm

text: dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

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text: In September 2008 Oktar issued a challenge offering "10 trillion Turkish lira to anyone who produces a single intermediate-form fossil demonstrating evolution". He has stated: "Not one [fossil] belongs to strange-looking creatures in the course of development of the kind supposed by evolutionists." Dr Kevin Padian at the University of California has criticized the notion that such fossils do not exist, stating that Oktar "does not have any sense of what we know about how things change through time. If he sees a fossil crab, he says, 'It looks just like a regular crab, there's no evolution.'"

text: In September 2008 Oktar issued a challenge offering "10

text: trillion

text: Turkish lira

text: to anyone who produces a single

text: intermediate-form fossil

text: demonstrating evolution". He has stated: "Not one [fossil] belongs to strange-looking creatures in the course of development of the kind supposed by evolutionists." Dr

text: Kevin Padian

text: at the University of California has criticized the notion that such fossils do not exist, stating that Oktar "does not have any sense of what we know about how things change through time. If he sees a fossil crab, he says, 'It looks just like a regular crab, there's no evolution.'"

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Palliser shot was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time.  Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check.  This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the driving band had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.

text: Palliser shot was made of

text: cast iron

text: , the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time.

text: Bronze

text: studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in

text: casting

text: large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check.  This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the

text: driving band

text: had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.

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text: The entire mineral and rock collection includes more than 30 types of exotic rocks, fossil stones, crystal, agate, sandstone, and petrified wood.

text: The entire mineral and rock collection includes more than 30 types of exotic rocks, fossil stones, crystal, agate, sandstone, and petrified wood.

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text: Today the museum contains Fabre's collections of fossils, minerals, 594 watercolors of mushrooms, manuscripts, a private herbarium of more than 20,000 specimens including plants harvested by Fabre during his stay in Corsica (1849-1852), and the small table on which his manuscripts were written, most notably the Souvenirs Entomologiques. The gardens contain 20 historic trees and over 500 plant species, as well as trails and a pool, and a small cold greenhouse built in 1880.

text: Today the museum contains Fabre's collections of

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text: Corsica

text: (1849-1852), and the small table on which his manuscripts were written, most notably the Souvenirs Entomologiques. The gardens contain 20 historic trees and over 500 plant

text: species

text: , as well as trails and a pool, and a small cold

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answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006256

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answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: plants

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Fabre's collections

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Most trace fossils are known from marine deposits. Essentially, there are two types of traces, either exogenic ones, which are made on the surface of the sediment (such as tracks) or endogenic ones, which are made within the layers of sediment (such as burrows).

text: Most trace fossils are known from marine deposits. Essentially, there are two types of traces, either exogenic ones, which are made on the surface of the sediment (such as tracks) or endogenic ones, which are made within the layers of sediment (such as burrows).

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: marine deposits

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: burrows

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: endogenic

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: exogenic ones

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: burrows

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: exogenic ones

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: exogenic ones

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: marine

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 2

text: Priabona is known from a compression-impression fossil preserved in fine shale of the Florissant formation in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World.  When Priabona was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be Miocene in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions permitted a re-examined dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an Oligocene age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years, which places the formation in the Late Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: Priabona is known from a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in fine

text: shale

text: of the

text: Florissant formation

text: in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World.  When Priabona was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be

text: Miocene

text: in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions permitted a re-examined dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an

text: Oligocene

text: age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years, which places the formation in the Late Eocene

text: Priabonian

text: stage.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: fine shale

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: diverse assemblage of insects

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Priabona

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: shale

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: compression-impression

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Priabona

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: shale

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Sole marks are sedimentary structures found on the bases of certain strata, that indicate small-scale (usually on the order of centimetres) grooves or irregularities.  This usually occurs at the interface of two differing lithologies and/or grain sizes.  They are commonly preserved as casts of these indents on the bottom of the overlying bed (like flute casts).  This is similar to casts and molds in fossil preservation.  Occurring as they do only at the bottom of beds, and their distinctive shapes, they can make useful way up structures and paleocurrent indicators.

text: Sole marks are

text: sedimentary structures

text: found on the bases of certain strata, that indicate small-scale (usually on the order of centimetres) grooves or irregularities.  This usually occurs at the interface of two differing

text: lithologies

text: and/or grain sizes.  They are commonly preserved as casts of these indents on the bottom of the overlying bed (like flute casts).  This is similar to

text: casts and molds

text: in fossil preservation.  Occurring as they do only at the bottom of beds, and their distinctive shapes, they can make useful

text: way up structure

text: s and

text: paleocurrent

text: indicators.

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answer: No

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text: Most fossils preserve only the hard parts of organisms, e.g. shells. The rare cases where soft-bodied fossils are preserved (the remains of soft-bodied organisms and also of the soft parts of organisms for which only hard parts such as shells are usually found) are extremely valuable because they provide information about organisms that are hardly ever fossilized and much more information than is usually available about those for which only the hard parts are usually preserved. Microbial mats help to preserve soft-bodied fossils  by:

text: Most fossils preserve only the hard parts of organisms, e.g. shells. The rare cases where soft-bodied fossils are preserved (the remains of soft-bodied organisms and also of the soft parts of organisms for which only hard parts such as shells are usually found) are extremely valuable because they provide information about organisms that are hardly ever fossilized and much more information than is usually available about those for which only the hard parts are usually preserved. Microbial mats help to preserve soft-bodied fossils  by:

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text: The Creede Formation is a geologic formation in Colorado. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period, particularly many well-preserved fossil plants from Oligocene strata.

text: The Creede Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Colorado

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Paleogene

text: period

text: , particularly many well-preserved fossil plants from

text: Oligocene

text: strata.

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answer: No

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text: The engineering properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the relative quantities of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter.

text: The engineering properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the relative quantities of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter.

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answers: 0.075 mm in diameter

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: A. elongatus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The incomplete specimen of a queen, numbered 2003.2.8CDM032, is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Courtenay and District Museum, Courtenay, British Columbia.  Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin "elongatus"  meaning "prolonged" in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen.  The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size, the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres (0.8 inches). The forewings are almost as large as the specimen, measuring around 18 millimetres (0.7 inches) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied. The holotype is preserved with a partly disarticulated gaster and is missing her head.

text: A. elongatus was described from a

text: single

text: side

text: of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: , Kamloops Group, near

text: Cache Creek

text: , British Columbia. The incomplete specimen of a queen, numbered 2003.2.8CDM032, is currently preserved in the

text: paleontology

text: collections housed at the

text: Courtenay and District Museum

text: Courtenay

text: , British Columbia.  Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "elongatus"  meaning "prolonged" in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen.  The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size, the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres (0.8 inches). The forewings are almost as large as the specimen, measuring around 18 millimetres (0.7 inches) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied. The

text: holotype

text: is preserved with a partly disarticulated

text: gaster

text: and is missing her head.

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: "Nama-type preservation" is an Ediacaran type preservation that presents sandstone castings of fossil creatures in which organisms are preserved in three dimensions, within fine-grained beds that were deposited in single storm or mudflow events: an example is Ausia fenestrata.

text: "Nama-type preservation" is an

text: Ediacaran type preservation

text: that presents sandstone castings of fossil creatures in which organisms are preserved in three dimensions, within fine-grained beds that were deposited in single storm or mudflow events: an example is

text: Ausia fenestrata

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answers: mudflow events

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: F. funerata was found in the Florissant Formation, which has produced seven other species of snakefly, six in Raphidia and one in the Inocelliida genus Fibla. Out of the described snakefly specimens from the Florissant Formation, the F. funerata holotype is the most complete.  Preserved as a compression fossil, the female individual is fossilized in a resting position giving a side view to the body and wings.  Including the ovipositor, F. funerata is  and has a forewing length of .  Of the known snakefly species, F. funerata is closest in appearance to the extinct F. mortua, which is also known from the Florissant Formation.  The two cogeneric species can be separated by several features of the forewing, including a lack of terminal forks in veins along the posterior margin of the wing in F. funerata, and the radial cell bordering the pterostigma narrowing at the base in F. mortua.  F. funerata was originally assigned to the genus Raphidia, but this assignment was made with hesitation by Dr. Engel as the characteristics used to separate living genera, the reproductive structures, are not preserved in most fossils and very rarely in compression fossils.  Engel considered it is possible the Florrisant Formation species are members of one of the two nearctic genera Alena or Agulla. In a 2014 study Vladimir N. Makarkin and S. Bruce Archibald removed the species F. mortua and F. funerata from the genus Raphidia, and transferred them to a new, separate genus which the authors named Florissantoraphidia.

text: F. funerata was found in the

text: Florissant Formation

text: , which has produced seven other species of snakefly, six in Raphidia and one in the

text: Inocelliida

text: genus

text: Fibla

text: . Out of the described snakefly specimens from the Florissant Formation, the F. funerata holotype is the most complete.  Preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: , the female individual is fossilized in a resting position giving a side view to the body and wings.  Including the

text: ovipositor

text: , F. funerata is  and has a forewing length of .  Of the known snakefly species, F. funerata is closest in appearance to the extinct

text: F. mortua

text: , which is also known from the Florissant Formation.  The two

text: cogeneric

text: species can be separated by several features of the forewing, including a lack of terminal forks in veins along the posterior margin of the wing in F. funerata, and the radial cell bordering the pterostigma narrowing at the base in F. mortua.  F. funerata was originally assigned to the genus Raphidia, but this assignment was made with hesitation by Dr. Engel as the characteristics used to separate living genera, the reproductive structures, are not preserved in most fossils and very rarely in compression fossils.  Engel considered it is possible the Florrisant Formation species are members of one of the two

text: nearctic

text: genera

text: Alena

text: or

text: Agulla

text: . In a 2014 study Vladimir N. Makarkin and S. Bruce Archibald removed the species F. mortua and F. funerata from the genus Raphidia, and transferred them to a new, separate genus which the authors named Florissantoraphidia.

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answers: NDQ_006260

answers: no

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Florissant Formation

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Belemnotheutis fossils are sometimes found in remarkable states of preservation, some specimens retaining permineralized soft tissue. The mantle, fins, head, arms, and hooks are well-documented from remains preserved in Lagerstätten. One specimen recovered from Christian Malford, Wiltshire and currently displayed in the Paleontology Department of the Natural History Museum in London is fossilized clasping a fish.

text: Belemnotheutis fossils are sometimes found in remarkable states of preservation, some specimens retaining

text: permineralized

text: soft tissue. The

text: mantle

text: , fins, head,

text: arms

text: , and hooks are well-documented from remains preserved in

text: Lagerstätte

text: n. One specimen recovered from

text: Christian Malford

text: Wiltshire

text: and currently displayed in the Paleontology Department of the

text: Natural History Museum

text: in London is fossilized clasping a fish.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: Lagerstätten

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: soft tissue

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Lagerstätten

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: remarkable states of preservation

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: permineralized

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Belemnotheutis

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Lagerstätten

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Mineral admixtures are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking, and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when the concrete is produced.

text: Mineral admixtures

text: are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are

text: fly ash

text: , a by-product of

text: coal-fired power plants

text: ground granulated blast furnace slag

text: , a byproduct of

text: steelmaking

text: , and

text: silica fume

text: , a byproduct of industrial

text: electric arc furnace

text: s. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when the concrete is produced.

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answers: mineral admixtures

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answers: silica fume

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: byproduct

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: cavity

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: ground granulated blast furnace slag

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: This displaces some cement production

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: byproduct

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: mineral admixtures

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Mineral admixtures

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: ground granulated blast furnace slag

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The 383rd 'Miners' Rifle Division () was a formation of the Red Army, created during the Second World War. The division was officially created on 18 August 1941. It was given the name Shakhterskaya (which in Russian literally means 'miners'), as it was originally composed completely of miners from the Donets Basin, Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine). During the course of the war, its losses were continually replaced, and thus it began to consist not only of miners from Donbass.

text: The 383rd '

text: Miners

text: ' Rifle Division () was a formation of the

text: Red Army

text: , created during the

text: Second World War

text: . The division was officially created on 18 August 1941. It was given the name Shakhterskaya (which in Russian literally means 'miners'), as it was originally composed completely of miners from the

text: Donets Basin

text: Ukrainian SSR

text: (now

text: Ukraine

text: ). During the course of the war, its losses were continually replaced, and thus it began to consist not only of miners from

text: Donbass

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text: For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms usually require chemical fixation to preserve and stabilize their structure.

text: For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms usually require chemical

text: fixation

text: to preserve and stabilize their structure.

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text: Since the genus and first species descriptions, another series of species have been described from fossils found in Russia.  The three species were described from compression fossils preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Since the genus and first species descriptions, another series of species have been described from fossils found in Russia.  The three species were described from compression fossils preserved in

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the

text: Pozharsky District

text: , on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil bearing rocks preserve possibly

text: Priabonian

text: plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the Bembridge Marls and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

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text: Scale miniatures of real production vehicles, designed as kits for children or the enthusiast to construct, can be made of plastic, die-cast metal, resin, and even wood. In plastic model kits, parts are molded in single cast 'trees' with thin connections that can be easily severed for painting and assembly. Parts come molded in a variety of colors, white being the most common in the 1960s and 1970s. Some parts are chrome plated to simulate real bumpers, grilles, wheels, and other pieces that might be chrome on the actual vehicle. Tires are most commonly molded in rubber. Water 'slide-on' decals are usually included along with an instruction brochure.

text: Scale miniatures of real production vehicles, designed as kits for children or the enthusiast to construct, can be made of

text: plastic

text: die-cast metal

text: , resin, and even wood. In plastic model kits, parts are molded in single cast 'trees' with thin connections that can be easily severed for painting and assembly. Parts come molded in a variety of colors, white being the most common in the 1960s and 1970s. Some parts are chrome plated to simulate real bumpers, grilles, wheels, and other pieces that might be chrome on the actual vehicle. Tires are most commonly molded in rubber. Water 'slide-on' decals are usually included along with an instruction brochure.

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text: The quality of a compression method often is measured by the Peak signal-to-noise ratio. It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.

text: The quality of a compression method often is measured by the

text: Peak signal-to-noise ratio

text: . It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.

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text: The Mineral Kingdom displays a comprehensive collection of rocks, minerals and fossils. Part of the exhibition is hands-on. Another part of The Mineral Kingdom is dedicated to the Hvalfjörður Tunnel. The tunnel, opened in 1998, is the only undersea tunnel in Iceland.

text: The Mineral Kingdom displays a comprehensive collection of rocks, minerals and fossils. Part of the exhibition is hands-on. Another part of The Mineral Kingdom is dedicated to the

text: Hvalfjörður Tunnel

text: . The tunnel, opened in 1998, is the only undersea tunnel in Iceland.

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text: Orontium wolfei has been identified from a group of exposures of the Allenby Formation and a group of exposures of the related Klondike Mountain Formation.  The type locality is at the "One mile Creek" exposure of the Allenby Formation near Princeton, British Columbia and additional fossils have been recovered from the Lamont Creek site near Princeton. The Allenby Formation is currently considered to be Early Eocene in age, based on Potassium–argon radiometric dating of plagioclase and biotite crystals.  The second group of fossils have been recovered from three outcrops of the early to early Middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation around Republic, Washington.  Fossils in the Klondike Mountain Formation are found in mudstone and shale layers of the lower part of the formation.  The lakes which produced these fossils are estimated to have been active between 48 and 49 million years ago, with the lava flows in the formation dating between 42 and 50 million years old.  Fossils of O. wolfei found in the Klondike Mountain Formation have been noted, prior to the species description, as belonging to the extinct morphogenus Zingiberopsis in collections and publications.  Zingiberopsis is a form taxon for Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene fossil leaves found in Western North America which are related to the modern Zingiberales, a plant order which includes modern bananas and gingers.   This identification was made by Jack A. Wolfe for specimens in the paleobotanical collection of the Burke Museum, Seattle, Washington.

text: Orontium wolfei has been identified from a group of exposures of the

text: Allenby Formation

text: and a group of exposures of the related

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: .  The

text: type locality

text: is at the "One mile Creek" exposure of the Allenby Formation near

text: Princeton, British Columbia

text: and additional fossils have been recovered from the Lamont Creek site near Princeton. The Allenby Formation is currently considered to be Early Eocene in age, based on

text: Potassium–argon

text: radiometric dating

text: of

text: plagioclase

text: and

text: biotite

text: crystals.  The second group of fossils have been recovered from three outcrops of the early to early Middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation around

text: Republic, Washington

text: .  Fossils in the Klondike Mountain Formation are found in

text: mudstone

text: and

text: shale

text: layers of the lower part of the formation.  The lakes which produced these fossils are estimated to have been active between 48 and 49 million years ago, with the lava flows in the formation dating between 42 and 50 million years old.  Fossils of O. wolfei found in the Klondike Mountain Formation have been noted, prior to the species description, as belonging to the extinct

text: morphogenus

text: Zingiberopsis

text: in collections and publications.  Zingiberopsis is a form taxon for

text: Upper Cretaceous

text: to

text: Oligocene

text: fossil leaves found in Western North America which are related to the modern

text: Zingiberales

text: , a plant order which includes modern bananas and gingers.   This identification was made by

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: for specimens in the paleobotanical collection of the

text: Burke Museum

text: Seattle, Washington

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answers: The lakes which produced these fossils are estimated to have been active between 48 and 49 million years ago, with the lava flows in the formation dating between 42 and 50 million years old

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answers: lakes which produced these fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Generally, the casting materials used for competing processes like metal die casting and injection molding are similar, but not suitable for spin casting.  For example, a typical zinc die-casting alloy such as zamak 3 can be used but will solidify too rapidly from a molten state when cast with centrifugal force. This typically results in incomplete filling of the mold as well as a rough, porous finish, called orange peel. Zamak 2, of a slightly different composition, was originally developed as a gravity-cast alloy with greater finished strength but was found to work well with spin-casting. Its extra copper content encourages the eutectic behaviour and gives a lower freezing point. It has become known as 'Kirksite' and has given rise to a range of dedicated spin-casting alloys, some with additional components such as magnesium, to control the surface finish.

text: Generally, the casting materials used for competing processes like metal

text: die casting

text: and

text: injection molding

text: are similar, but not suitable for spin casting.  For example, a typical zinc die-casting alloy such as

text: zamak 3

text: can be used but will solidify too rapidly from a molten state when cast with centrifugal force. This typically results in incomplete filling of the mold as well as a rough, porous finish, called

text: orange peel

text: . Zamak 2, of a slightly different composition, was originally developed as a gravity-cast alloy with greater finished strength but was found to work well with spin-casting. Its extra copper content encourages the eutectic behaviour and gives a lower freezing point. It has become known as 'Kirksite' and has given rise to a range of dedicated spin-casting alloys, some with additional components such as magnesium, to control the surface finish.

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answers: Kirksite

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answers: gravity-cast

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answers: This typically results in incomplete filling of the mold

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answers: spin-casting

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answers: 'Kirksite'

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answers: Kirksite

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Many commercially available soap molds are made of silicone or various types of plastic, although many soapmaking hobbyists may use cardboard boxes lined with a plastic film. Wooden molds, unlined or lined with silicone sleeves, are also readily available to the general public. Soaps can be made in long bars that are cut into individual portions, or cast into individual molds.

text: Many commercially available soap molds are made of silicone or various types of plastic, although many soapmaking hobbyists may use cardboard boxes lined with a plastic film. Wooden molds, unlined or lined with silicone sleeves, are also readily available to the general public. Soaps can be made in long bars that are cut into individual portions, or cast into individual molds.

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text: The oldest and most important of type in Latin America, the museum includes over 700 sculptures, all replicas of the originals made by die casting or copied from a mold taken from the original. Many are "first castings" of original works in the Berlin State Museums, the British Museum, the Louvre, or L'Accademia, Florence. The museum also maintains a library and an art print collection displaying works by artists trained at the institution.

text: The oldest and most important of type in Latin America, the museum includes over 700 sculptures, all replicas of the originals made by

text: die casting

text: or copied from a

text: mold

text: taken from the original. Many are "first castings" of original works in the

text: Berlin State Museums

text: , the

text: British Museum

text: , the

text: Louvre

text: , or L'

text: Accademia, Florence

text: . The museum also maintains a library and an

text: art print

text: collection displaying works by artists trained at the institution.

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answers: die casting

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: mold

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answers: permineralization

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answers: Many are "first castings"

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answers: die casting

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text: The beds are found in the Hampshire Basin, and are well exposed in the cliffs of Barton, Hordle, and on the Isle of Wight. The cliffs at Barton are the world type locality for the Barton Beds. The beds consist of grey, greenish and brown clays with bands of sand and have long been well known for the abundance and excellent preservation of their fossils. More than 500 species have been recorded, of which, over half are molluscs, including numerous turret shells and lamellibranchs. Sharks teeth are common, and the beds have yielded remains of corals, fishes, mammals, reptiles, and birds. Plant fossils are also abundant. In the 1840s fossils were found in the "crocodile bed" at Hordle cliff, which belonged to an extinct species of alligator, which was subsequently named Diplocynodon hantoniensis, after the county of Hampshire (Hantonia being a Latinization based on the Anglo-Saxon name Hantescire). Above the highly fossiliferous Barton Clay, there is a sandy series with few fossils; these are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Today, the Barton Beds are rather poorly exposed in many sections due to coastal protection works.

text: The beds are found in the

text: Hampshire Basin

text: , and are well exposed in the cliffs of

text: Barton

text: Hordle

text: , and on the

text: Isle of Wight

text: . The cliffs at Barton are the world type locality for the Barton Beds. The beds consist of grey, greenish and brown

text: clay

text: s with bands of

text: sand

text: and have long been well known for the abundance and excellent preservation of their fossils. More than 500 species have been recorded, of which, over half are

text: molluscs

text: , including numerous turret shells and lamellibranchs.

text: Sharks teeth

text: are common, and the beds have yielded remains of

text: coral

text: s,

text: fish

text: es,

text: mammal

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and

text: bird

text: s. Plant fossils are also abundant. In the 1840s fossils were found in the "crocodile bed" at Hordle cliff, which belonged to an extinct species of alligator, which was subsequently named

text: Diplocynodon

text: hantoniensis, after the county of

text: Hampshire

text: (Hantonia being a Latinization based on the Anglo-Saxon name Hantescire). Above the highly

text: fossiliferous

text: Barton Clay, there is a sandy series with few

text: fossil

text: s; these are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Today, the Barton Beds are rather poorly exposed in many sections due to coastal protection works.

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answers: the Hampshire Basin

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answers: sharks teeth

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answers: Beds

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answers: fossil

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answers: molluscs

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answers: excellent preservation

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answers: fossiliferous

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answers: Plant fossils

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answers: unanswerable

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answers: coastal protection works

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: A Geodiversity audit of the site was carried out in 2004, which highlighted the limestone strata and fossils identified. These include Carboniferous Limestone overlain by Triassic Mercia Mudstones and Sandstones with geodes, which were formed by siliceous mineral replacement.

text: A

text: Geodiversity

text: audit of the site was carried out in 2004, which highlighted the limestone strata and fossils identified. These include Carboniferous Limestone overlain by

text: Triassic

text: Mercia Mudstones and Sandstones with geodes, which were formed by siliceous mineral replacement.

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text: Triebold Paleontology Incorporated supplies real and replicated fossil specimens to museums and collectors.  Leases on over 30 private localities rich in Late Cretaceous fossils are held and regularly prospected by TPI paleontologists.  Triebold Paleontology Incorporated provides every fossil-related service in the museums service industry including molding and casting, preparation and restoration, prospecting and collecting, and mounting and remounting fossils and fossil casts.

text: Triebold Paleontology Incorporated supplies real and replicated fossil specimens to museums and collectors.  Leases on over 30 private localities rich in Late Cretaceous fossils are held and regularly prospected by TPI paleontologists.  Triebold Paleontology Incorporated provides every fossil-related service in the museums service industry including molding and casting, preparation and restoration, prospecting and collecting, and mounting and remounting fossils and fossil casts.

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text: Dictyopteridium is an extinct genus of plants belonging to Glossopteridaceae, but the name is used only for compression fossils of elongate multiovulate reproductive structures adnate to Glossopteris leaves. Permineralized remains identical to Dictyopteridium have been referred to the organ genus Homevaleia

text: Dictyopteridium is an extinct

text: genus

text: of plants belonging to

text: Glossopteridaceae

text: , but the name is used only for compression fossils of elongate multiovulate reproductive structures adnate to Glossopteris leaves. Permineralized remains identical to Dictyopteridium have been referred to the organ genus Homevaleia

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text: The term compressed data structure arises in the computer science subfields of algorithms, data structures, and theoretical computer science.  It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller.  The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented.

text: The term compressed data structure arises in the

text: computer science

text: subfields of

text: algorithms

text: data structures

text: , and

text: theoretical computer science

text: .  It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller.  The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented.

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text: A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

text: A foundry is a

text: factory

text: that produces

text: metal

text: casting

text: s. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are

text: aluminium

text: and

text: cast iron

text: . However, other metals, such as

text: bronze

text: brass

text: steel

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: zinc

text: , are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

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answers: The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Melting them into a liquid

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Y. orbiculata was described from a single part and counterpart compression fossil found at the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The type specimens numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-749 and UCCIPR L-18 F-750 for the part and counterpart is currently preserved in the palaeoentomology collections housed at Thompson Rivers University, in Kamloops, British Columbia. Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin "orbiculatus",  meaning "rounded" or "circular", in reference to the shape of the head. The species is discernible from the other two species of Ypresiomyrma by its notably rounded head capsule, and by the shape of the petiole which has a smoothly sloping convex shape with a node in the center. The petiole is similar in appearance to Prionomyrmex janzeni, and the propodeum is round. The queen is estimated to have been approximately . The compound eyes are large and oval shape, but the antennae cannot be described due to poor preservation. The mandibles are large, containing seven to eight teeth. A well-developed stinger is also present.

text: Y. orbiculata was described from a single part and counterpart

text: compression fossil

text: found at the

text: Middle Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: . The

text: type specimens

text: numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-749 and UCCIPR L-18 F-750 for the part and counterpart is currently preserved in the

text: palaeoentomology

text: collections housed at

text: Thompson Rivers University

text: , in

text: Kamloops, British Columbia

text: . Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "orbiculatus",  meaning "rounded" or "circular", in reference to the shape of the head. The species is discernible from the other two species of Ypresiomyrma by its notably rounded head capsule, and by the shape of the

text: petiole

text: which has a smoothly sloping convex shape with a node in the center. The petiole is similar in appearance to

text: Prionomyrmex janzeni

text: , and the propodeum is round. The queen is estimated to have been approximately . The compound eyes are large and oval shape, but the antennae cannot be described due to poor preservation. The mandibles are large, containing seven to eight teeth. A well-developed stinger is also present.

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answers: Fossil Beds

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answers: Y. orbiculata

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answers: compression

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: A well-developed stinger is also present

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: Kamloops Group

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answers: Cache Creek

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: It has been suggested that one type of molecular clock and one approach to interpretation of the fossil record both place the evolutionary origins of eumetazoa in the Ediacaran. However, the earliest eumetazoans may not have left a clear impact on the fossil record and other interpretations of molecular clocks suggest the possibility of an earlier origin. The discoverers of Vernanimalcula describe it as the fossil of a bilateral triploblastic animal that appeared at the end of the Marinoan glaciation prior to the Ediacaran Period, implying an even earlier origin for eumetazoans.

text: It has been suggested that one type of

text: molecular clock

text: and one approach to interpretation of the fossil record both place the evolutionary origins of eumetazoa in the

text: Ediacaran

text: . However, the earliest eumetazoans may not have left a clear impact on the fossil record and other interpretations of molecular clocks suggest the possibility of an earlier origin. The discoverers of

text: Vernanimalcula

text: describe it as the fossil of a

text: bilateral

text: triploblastic

text: animal that appeared at the end of the

text: Marinoan

text: glaciation prior to the

text: Ediacaran

text: Period, implying an even earlier origin for eumetazoans.

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answers: the Ediacaran

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answers: bilateral triploblastic animal

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answers: glaciation

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answers: fossil

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answers: permineralization

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answers: bilateral triploblastic

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answers: glaciation

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answers: eumetazoa

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answers: glaciation

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Afropone oculata was described from two fossils, the holotype specimen number BP/2/28072a/2, identified as a female, and an additional poorly preserved fossil, number BP/2/26631-17. Afropone (?) orapa was based on a single holotype male, specimen BP/2/26628/1, and tentatively placed into the genus based on overall morphology.  The specimens are mostly complete with variation in the quantity of detail, and are preserved as compression fossils in shale. The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a crater lake formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous. The sediment originated as an epiclastic kimberlite and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater. Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments. The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying diamond-bearing rocks at the site.  Radiometric dating of the kimberlite pipe reported in 1977 gave an age in the general range of .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the Turonian age of the late Cretaceous.

text: Afropone oculata was described from two fossils, the

text: holotype

text: specimen number BP/2/28072a/2, identified as a female, and an additional poorly preserved fossil, number BP/2/26631-17. Afropone (?) orapa was based on a single holotype male, specimen BP/2/26628/1, and tentatively placed into the genus based on overall morphology.  The specimens are mostly complete with variation in the quantity of detail, and are preserved as compression fossils in shale. The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a

text: crater lake

text: formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous. The sediment originated as an epiclastic

text: kimberlite

text: and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater. Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments. The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying

text: diamond-bearing rocks at the site

text: Radiometric dating

text: of the kimberlite pipe reported in 1977 gave an age in the general range of .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the

text: Turonian age

text: of the late Cretaceous.

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answers: 0

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for ore extraction from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface gophering for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (strecks). Prospecting or trial pits are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and sandy loam.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for

text: ore extraction

text: from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface

text: gophering

text: for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (

text: streck

text: s).

text: Prospecting or trial pits

text: are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and

text: sandy loam

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answers: subsoil

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: traces of copper minerals

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: nest

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: gallery

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: In some cases they were blind underground headings

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Kargaly

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: created in order to search for traces of copper minerals

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Geologists use both large fossils (called macrofossils) and microscopic fossils (called microfossils) for this process, known as biostratigraphy.  Macrofossils have the advantage of being easy to see in the field, but they are rarer, and microfossils are very commonly used by oil prospectors and other industries interested in mineral resources when accurate knowledge of the age of the rocks being looked at is needed.

text: Geologist

text: s use both large fossils (called

text: macrofossil

text: s) and microscopic fossils (called microfossils) for this process, known as

text: biostratigraphy

text: .  Macrofossils have the advantage of being easy to see in the field, but they are rarer, and microfossils are very commonly used by

text: oil

text: prospectors and other industries interested in

text: mineral

text: resources when accurate knowledge of the age of the rocks being looked at is needed.

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: 1

text: The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with lamellar bone. The replacement process is known as endochondral ossification with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of the woven bone with lamellar bone precedes the substitution of the hyaline cartilage with lamellar bone. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized. At this point, the mineralized matrix is penetrated by channels, each containing a microvessel and numerous osteoblasts. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of  trabecular bone. Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength.

text: The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with

text: lamellar bone

text: . The replacement process is known as

text: endochondral ossification

text: with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of the woven bone with lamellar bone precedes the substitution of the hyaline cartilage with lamellar bone. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized. At this point, the mineralized matrix is penetrated by channels, each containing a

text: microvessel

text: and numerous

text: osteoblast

text: s. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of

text: trabecular bone

text: . Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength.

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answers: Bony substitution

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: osteoblasts

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Bony

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answers: mineralized

answer: No

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The compression molding starts, with an allotted amount of plastic or gelatin placed over or inserted into a mold. Afterward the material is heated to a pliable state in and by the mold. Shortly there after the hydraulic press compresses the pliable plastic against the mold, resulting in a perfectly molded piece, retaining the shape of the inside surface of the mold. After the hydraulic press releases, an ejector pin in the bottom of the mold quickly ejects the finished piece out of the mold and then the process is finished. Depending on the type of plunger used in the press, there will or won't be excess material on the mold.

text: The compression molding starts, with an allotted amount of plastic or gelatin placed over or inserted into a mold. Afterward the material is heated to a pliable state in and by the mold. Shortly there after the hydraulic press compresses the pliable plastic against the mold, resulting in a perfectly molded piece, retaining the shape of the inside surface of the mold. After the hydraulic press releases, an ejector pin in the bottom of the mold quickly ejects the finished piece out of the mold and then the process is finished. Depending on the type of plunger used in the press, there will or won't be excess material on the mold.

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answers: a mold

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text: Stigmaria are a type of branching tree root fossil found in Carboniferous rocks. They were the roots of coal forest lycopsid trees such as Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Each trunk tended to have four of those roots. Stigmaria is a form taxon, as the genus and species of the plant bearing the root is not identified.

text: Stigmaria are a type of branching tree root fossil found in

text: Carboniferous

text: rocks. They were the roots of

text: coal forest

text: lycopsid

text: trees such as

text: Sigillaria

text: and

text: Lepidodendron

text: . Each trunk tended to have four of those roots. Stigmaria is a

text: form taxon

text: , as the genus and species of the plant bearing the root is not identified.

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text: Perhaps the oldest of the bunch, paleontology is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil. Micropaleontology is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial microfossils and ancient stromatolites are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include paleoecology and paleobiogeoraphy.

text: Perhaps the oldest of the bunch,

text: paleontology

text: is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil.

text: Micropaleontology

text: is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial

text: microfossils

text: and ancient

text: stromatolite

text: s are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include

text: paleoecology

text: and

text: paleobiogeoraphy

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: dinosaur

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: stromatolites

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: stromatolites

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

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answers: stromatolites

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: dinosaur

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answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: stromatolites

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: microbial

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: stromatolites

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In the field of video compression a video frame is compressed using different algorithms with different advantages and disadvantages, centered mainly around amount of data compression.  These different algorithms for video frames are called picture types or frame types.  The three major picture types used in the different video algorithms are I, P and B.  They are different in the following characteristics:

text: In the field of

text: video compression

text: a

text: video frame

text: is compressed using different

text: algorithm

text: s with different advantages and disadvantages, centered mainly around amount of

text: data compression

text: .  These different algorithms for video frames are called picture types or frame types.  The three major picture types used in the different video algorithms are I, P and B.  They are different in the following characteristics:

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_006252

answers: a video frame

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: picture types

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: frame types

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: advantages and disadvantages

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: Bone marrow

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: I, P and B

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: centered mainly around amount of data compression

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The best localities for exceptionally preserved fossils are in the communities of Bundenbach and Gemünden. The slates were widely quarried in the past, mainly for roofing tiles from small pits, of which over 600 are known. Today, only a single quarry remains open in the main fossiliferous region of Bundenbach. There are also areas of the Hunsrück Slates where fossils are neither well preserved, nor pyritized, indicating that there also existed environments with shallow and fully oxygenated water.

text: The best localities for exceptionally preserved fossils are in the communities of Bundenbach and Gemünden. The slates were widely quarried in the past, mainly for roofing tiles from small pits, of which over 600 are known. Today, only a single quarry remains open in the main fossiliferous region of Bundenbach. There are also areas of the Hunsrück Slates where fossils are neither well preserved, nor pyritized, indicating that there also existed environments with shallow and fully oxygenated water.

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answers: environments with shallow and fully oxygenated water

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: shallow and fully oxygenated water

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: pyritized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: pyritized

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: exceptionally preserved

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: pyritized

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: pyritized

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Bundenbach

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: pyritized

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The northern coast of Kangaroo Island contains important fossil-bearing deposits, dating from the late Lower Cambrian, such as the Emu Bay Shale (late Botomian, 517 million years old). A variety of primordial marine arthropods left their remains in this Burgess shale type preservation, but the larger grain size of the Emu Bay rock means that the quality of preservation is lower.

text: The northern coast of Kangaroo Island contains important fossil-bearing deposits, dating from the late Lower

text: Cambrian

text: , such as the

text: Emu Bay Shale

text: (late

text: Botomian

text: , 517 million years old). A variety of primordial marine arthropods left their remains in this

text: Burgess shale type preservation

text: , but the larger grain size of the Emu Bay rock means that the quality of preservation is lower.

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answers: sedimentary rock

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answers: primordial marine arthropods

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answers: Shale

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answers: remains

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answers: permineralization

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answers: Emu Bay Shale

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: As the sediment is transported, the unstable minerals are abraded or dissolve to leave more stable minerals, such as quartz. Mature sediments, which contain stable minerals, generally have a smaller variety of minerals than immature sediments, which can contain both stable and unstable minerals.  One measure of this maturity is the ZTR index which is a measure of the common resistant minerals found in ultra-weathered sediments: zircon, tourmaline, and rutile.

text: As the sediment is transported, the unstable minerals are abraded or dissolve to leave more stable minerals, such as

text: quartz

text: . Mature sediments, which contain stable minerals, generally have a smaller variety of minerals than immature sediments, which can contain both stable and unstable minerals.  One measure of this maturity is the

text: ZTR index

text: which is a measure of the common resistant minerals found in ultra-weathered sediments:

text: zircon

text: tourmaline

text: , and

text: rutile

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answers: sediments

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answers: zircon

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answers: weathered

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answers: Bone

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answers: unstable minerals are abraded

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answers: It does not say

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answers: Abraded

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answers: weathering

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The Rußkohlenflötz Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Rußkohlenflötz Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

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text: in the scope of distribution. In that same year, the product line was expanded with the inclusion of Orthopeg, Microtex, Gynoglove, and Syntec NEOPRENE specialist surgical gloves, as well as Texident gloves designed for dentists, gloves designed for procedures involving increased risk of infection, ProHand sterile examination gloves, and powder-free vinyl gloves. The decision to purchase the medical gloves production plant in Thailand resulted in the introduction of a new group of products, i.e. dressings that included the following: gauze compresses, non-woven fabric compresses, high-absorbency compresses, adhesive tapes on various types of carriers, dressings for the fastening of cannula, surgical dressings, plaster bandages, stabilising supports, and net bandages.

text: in the scope of distribution. In that same year, the product line was expanded with the inclusion of Orthopeg, Microtex, Gynoglove, and Syntec NEOPRENE specialist surgical gloves, as well as Texident gloves designed for dentists, gloves designed for procedures involving increased risk of infection, ProHand sterile examination gloves, and powder-free vinyl gloves. The decision to purchase the medical gloves production plant in Thailand resulted in the introduction of a new group of products, i.e. dressings that included the following: gauze compresses, non-woven fabric compresses, high-absorbency compresses, adhesive tapes on various types of carriers, dressings for the fastening of cannula, surgical dressings, plaster bandages, stabilising supports, and net bandages.

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text: The original data contains a certain amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. Basic information theory says that there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data. When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely. As an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed ZIP file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing. Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless and would in fact increase the size of the data.

text: The original data contains a certain amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. Basic

text: information theory

text: says that there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data. When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely. As an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed

text: ZIP

text: file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing. Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless and would in fact increase the size of the data.

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answers: Permineralization

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answers: entropy increases

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answers: reducing the size

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answers: The original data contains a certain amount of information

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answers: The original data contains a certain amount of information

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Saadanius is known from a single specimen, the holotype, named "SGS-UM 2009-002", stored in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, at the Paleontology Unit of the Saudi Geological Survey (SGS). Its type locality, or the place it was discovered, was on top of an oolitic ironstone fossil bed of the middle Shumaysi Formation located in the southwest corner of Harrat Al Ujayfa, in western Saudi Arabia, close to Mecca. The specimen was discovered in February 2009 by paleontologist Iyad Zalmout, who had traveled to the region to search for ancient whale and dinosaur fossils.  While looking for dinosaur fossils in an area that, according to the maps he was working from, contained rock layers that dated to the Cretaceous (145–66 mya), Zalmout found the jawbone of a hippo-like creature, called an anthracotheriid (a close relative of whales and hippos), which dated to Eocene or Oligocene.  This indicated that the rock layers were much younger than what was dated on the maps.  The following day, he noticed fossil teeth, which he immediately recognized as those of a primate.  Zalmout emailed a photo of the teeth to paleontologist Philip D. Gingerich, with whom he was working as a postdoctoral fellow. Gingerich, an expert on ancient primates and whales, confirmed that it was indeed a primate.  Due to a tight schedule, Zalmout had to leave the exposed fossil embedded in the rock for the next few days because collecting it would require days of work.  The fossil was soon recovered by a joint expedition involving the SGS and the University of Michigan.

text: Saadanius is known from a single specimen, the

text: holotype

text: , named "SGS-UM 2009-002", stored in

text: Jeddah

text: , Saudi Arabia, at the Paleontology Unit of the

text: Saudi Geological Survey

text: (SGS). Its

text: type locality

text: , or the place it was discovered, was on top of an

text: oolitic

text: ironstone

text: fossil bed of the middle

text: Shumaysi Formation

text: located in the southwest corner of Harrat Al Ujayfa, in western Saudi Arabia, close to Mecca. The specimen was discovered in February 2009 by paleontologist Iyad Zalmout, who had traveled to the region to search for

text: ancient whale

text: and

text: dinosaur

text: fossils.  While looking for dinosaur fossils in an area that, according to the maps he was working from, contained rock layers that dated to the

text: Cretaceous

text: (145–66 mya), Zalmout found the jawbone of a hippo-like creature, called an

text: anthracotheriid

text: (a close relative of whales and hippos), which dated to

text: Eocene

text: or Oligocene.  This indicated that the rock layers were much younger than what was dated on the maps.  The following day, he noticed fossil teeth, which he immediately recognized as those of a primate.  Zalmout emailed a photo of the teeth to paleontologist

text: Philip D. Gingerich

text: , with whom he was working as a postdoctoral fellow. Gingerich, an expert on ancient primates and whales, confirmed that it was indeed a primate.  Due to a tight schedule, Zalmout had to leave the exposed fossil embedded in the rock for the next few days because collecting it would require days of work.  The fossil was soon recovered by a joint expedition involving the SGS and the

text: University of Michigan

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text: Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit: this process is called pseudomorphous replacement. A classic example is tiger's eye quartz, crocidolite asbestos replaced by silica. While quartz typically forms prismatic (elongate, prism-like) crystals, in tiger's eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved.

text: Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit: this process is called

text: pseudomorphous replacement

text: . A classic example is

text: tiger's eye

text: quartz

text: crocidolite

text: asbestos

text: replaced by

text: silica

text: . While quartz typically forms prismatic (elongate, prism-like) crystals, in tiger's eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved.

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answers: This process is called pseudomorphous replacement

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answers: tiger's eye

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answers: pseudomorphous replacement

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answers: replacing other existing minerals

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answers: This process is called pseudomorphous replacement

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answers: quartz

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.

text: Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include

text: cast iron

text: , aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.

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answers: Sand casting

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answers: It gives a much finer surface finish

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answers: It gives a much finer surface finish

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answer: No

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answer: 1

text: Wave Dragon is a floating, slack-moored energy converter of the 'overtopping' type which can be deployed as a single unit, or in arrays of up to 200 units; the output of such an array would have a capacity comparable to traditional fossil-fuel power plants.

text: Wave Dragon is a floating, slack-moored energy converter of the 'overtopping' type which can be deployed as a single unit, or in arrays of up to 200 units; the output of such an array would have a capacity comparable to traditional fossil-fuel power plants.

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text: The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs.

text: The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs.

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text: Resin casting is a method of plastic casting where a mold is filled with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens. It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur hobbyists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production.

text: Resin casting is a method of plastic

text: casting

text: where a

text: mold

text: is filled with a liquid

text: synthetic resin

text: , which then hardens. It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur

text: hobby

text: ists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production.

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text: A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as co-processing), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

text: A cement plant consumes 3 to 6

text: GJ

text: of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as

text: co-processing

text: ), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay,

text: shale

text: , and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

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text: Burrows are also commonly preserved in the fossil record as a type of trace fossil.

text: Burrows are also commonly preserved in the fossil record as a type of

text: trace fossil

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text: Bog Bodies are human remains which have been found in peat bogs in various locations around the world. They have been preserved naturally in varying degrees due to the specific conditions of peat bogs. Despite their natural preservation, these remains are sensitive to deterioration after being removed from their original locations. Freeze-drying is an accepted method of preserving bog bodies in museum collections. Some notable bog body discoveries include the Tollund Man of Denmark, the Elling Woman of Denmark, the Cashel Man of Ireland, the Huldremose Woman of Denmark, the Girl of the Uchter Moor of Germany, the Lindow Man of England, and the Yde Girl of the Netherlands. For a more comprehensive list of examples, see List of bog bodies.

text: Bog Bodies

text: are human remains which have been found in peat bogs in various locations around the world. They have been preserved naturally in varying degrees due to the specific conditions of peat bogs. Despite their natural preservation, these remains are sensitive to deterioration after being removed from their original locations. Freeze-drying is an accepted method of preserving bog bodies in museum collections. Some notable bog body discoveries include the

text: Tollund Man

text: of Denmark, the

text: Elling Woman

text: of Denmark, the

text: Cashel Man

text: of Ireland, the

text: Huldremose Woman

text: of Denmark, the

text: Girl of the Uchter Moor

text: of Germany, the

text: Lindow Man

text: of England, and the

text: Yde Girl

text: of the Netherlands. For a more comprehensive list of examples, see

text: List of bog bodies

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answers: bog

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answers: Freeze-drying

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answers: preserved naturally

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answers: Bog Bodies

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answers: Freeze-drying

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Plaxhaplous was a genus of glyptodont, an extinct relative of the modern armadillo.  It lived in the Pleistocene epoch.   The type species is Plaxhaplous canaliculatus.  Plaxhaplous canaliculatus fossils were found in Argentina, near  Luján in Buenos Aires Province.  Plaxhaplous fossils have also been found in Uruguay.  The name Plaxhaplous means simple, flat surface.

text: Plaxhaplous was a genus of

text: glyptodont

text: , an extinct relative of the modern

text: armadillo

text: .  It lived in the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch.   The

text: type species

text: is Plaxhaplous canaliculatus.  Plaxhaplous canaliculatus fossils were found in Argentina, near

text: Luján

text: in

text: Buenos Aires Province

text: .  Plaxhaplous fossils have also been found in

text: Uruguay

text: .  The name Plaxhaplous means simple, flat surface.

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answers: Permineralization

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answers: fossils

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody

text: tissue

text: of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called

text: trace fossil

text: s, examples of which are

text: burrow

text: s,

text: footprint

text: s, etc.

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answers: woody tissue

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answers: Most commonly preserved are the harder parts

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answers: Fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In chapter 10, Sterelny discusses the fossil evidence of Cambrian fauna, and how this provides the basis for Gould's challenge to gradualistic orthodoxy. About 543 million years ago, at the base of the Cambrian, the Ediacaran fauna, characterised by small shelly fossils, fossilised tracks, and burrows, apparently disappeared. From available evidence, diversity of fauna was very limited at the beginning of the Cambrian Period. "By the middle of the Cambrian, about 520 million years ago, animal life was rich and diverse", (p. 116) as demonstrated by the Maotianshan Shales fossils, in Chengjiang, China, which "are as spectacular as the Burgess Shale fauna, and significantly older." (p. 116) "Thus the fossil record seems to show that most of the major animal groups appeared simultaneously. In the 'Cambrian explosion', we find segmented worms, velvet worms, starfish and their allies, molluscs (bivalves, snails, squid and their relatives), sponges, brachiopods and other shelled animals appearing all at once, with their basic organisation, organ systems and sensory mechanisms already operational." (p. 116) "This explosive evolutionary radiation of the Cambrian seems to be unique. Plants seem to have arisen somewhat more gradually ... nor was there a similar radiation when animals invaded the land ... the colonisation of the land saw no new ways of making an animal." (p. 117) Despite adaptations, the basic body plans remain recognisable. One possibility is that the 'Cambrian explosion' is "an illusion generated by the failure of earlier Precambrian fossils to survive to our times," (p. 117) that there is a long history of hidden evolution preceding the appearance of multi-celled animals in the fossil record. "This remains a live option. There are fossil embryos of animals from China dating to about 570 million years ago", (p. 120) and there are many animal lineages for which there is no fossil record, possibly due to being small and soft-bodied, so leaving no detectable traces. Certainly Precambrian animal life is evidenced by the Ediacaran fossils, but the relationship between fauna from these two periods remains unclear. Gould was inclined to support the view that the Ediacaran fauna became wholly extinct prior to the Cambrian, thus were not Cambrian ancestors, "hence their existence does not extend the timeframe of animal evolution into the Precambrian". (p. 120)

text: In chapter 10, Sterelny discusses the fossil evidence of Cambrian fauna, and how this provides the basis for Gould's challenge to gradualistic orthodoxy. About 543 million years ago, at the base of the Cambrian, the

text: Ediacaran

text: fauna, characterised by small shelly fossils, fossilised tracks, and burrows, apparently disappeared. From available evidence, diversity of fauna was very limited at the beginning of the Cambrian Period. "By the middle of the Cambrian, about 520 million years ago, animal life was rich and diverse", (p. 116) as demonstrated by the

text: Maotianshan Shale

text: s fossils, in

text: Chengjiang

text: , China, which "are as spectacular as the Burgess Shale fauna, and significantly older." (p. 116) "Thus the fossil record seems to show that most of the major animal groups appeared simultaneously. In the '

text: Cambrian explosion

text: ', we find segmented worms,

text: velvet worms

text: starfish

text: and their allies,

text: molluscs

text: bivalves

text: snails

text: squid

text: and their relatives),

text: sponges

text: brachiopods

text: and other shelled animals appearing all at once, with their basic organisation, organ systems and sensory mechanisms already operational." (p. 116) "This explosive evolutionary radiation of the Cambrian seems to be unique. Plants seem to have arisen somewhat more gradually ... nor was there a similar radiation when animals invaded the land ... the colonisation of the land saw no new ways of making an animal." (p. 117) Despite adaptations, the basic body plans remain recognisable. One possibility is that the 'Cambrian explosion' is "an illusion generated by the failure of earlier Precambrian fossils to survive to our times," (p. 117) that there is a long history of hidden evolution preceding the appearance of multi-celled animals in the fossil record. "This remains a live option. There are

text: fossil embryos

text: of animals from China dating to about 570 million years ago", (p. 120) and there are many animal lineages for which there is no fossil record, possibly due to being small and soft-bodied, so leaving no detectable traces. Certainly

text: Precambrian

text: animal life is evidenced by the Ediacaran fossils, but the relationship between fauna from these two periods remains unclear. Gould was inclined to support the view that the Ediacaran fauna became wholly extinct prior to the Cambrian, thus were not Cambrian ancestors, "hence their existence does not extend the timeframe of animal evolution into the Precambrian". (p. 120)

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answers: Cambrian

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: embryos

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: fossilised tracks

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

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answers: fossilised tracks

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answers: Maotianshan Shales fossils

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answers: fossilisation

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answers: colonisation

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: molluscs

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answers: Maotianshan Shales

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Syndesus ambericus is known from a single fossil insect which is an inclusion in a transparent chunk of Dominican amber.  The amber was produced by the extinct Hymenaea protera, which formerly grew on Hispaniola, across northern South America and up to southern Mexico.  The fossil was first noted as interesting in 1983 in a private amber collection in the Dominican Republic. It was subsequently reported as an unidentified lucanid in a 1992 paper.  Between the first examination in 1983 and reexamination of the fossil in 1998 the fossil was broken and subsequently repaired.  The holotype amber specimen, number 502873, is currently housed in the Department of Paleobiology in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C..  The holotype fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an amber mine, possibly the Palo Quemado mine, in fossil bearing rocks of the Cordillera Septentrional mountains, northern Dominican Republic.  The amber dates from at least the Burdigalian stage of the Miocene, based on studying the associated fossil foraminifera and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil coccoliths.  This age range due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber and the Miocene the age range is only the youngest that it might be. The fossil was examined by entomologist Robert E. Woodruff of the Florida State Collection of Arthropods.  Woodruff's 2009 type description of the new species was published in the entomology systematics journal Insecta Mundi.  The specific epithet ambericus is in recognition of the amber mining company Amberica, which has helped to bring notable amber fossils to the attention of paleontologists.

text: Syndesus ambericus is known from a single fossil insect which is an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of

text: Dominican amber

text: .  The amber was produced by the extinct

text: Hymenaea protera

text: , which formerly grew on

text: Hispaniola

text: , across northern South America and up to southern Mexico.  The fossil was first noted as interesting in 1983 in a private amber collection in the

text: Dominican Republic

text: . It was subsequently reported as an unidentified lucanid in a 1992 paper.  Between the first examination in 1983 and reexamination of the fossil in 1998 the fossil was broken and subsequently repaired.  The

text: holotype

text: amber specimen, number 502873, is currently housed in the Department of Paleobiology in the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: .  The

text: holotype

text: fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an amber mine, possibly the Palo Quemado mine, in fossil bearing rocks of the

text: Cordillera Septentrional

text: mountains, northern

text: Dominican Republic

text: .  The amber dates from at least the

text: Burdigalian

text: stage of the Miocene, based on studying the associated fossil

text: foraminifera

text: and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil

text: coccoliths

text: .  This age range due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber and the Miocene the age range is only the youngest that it might be. The fossil was examined by entomologist Robert E. Woodruff of the Florida State Collection of Arthropods.  Woodruff's 2009

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the

text: entomology

text: systematics journal Insecta Mundi.  The

text: specific epithet

text: ambericus is in recognition of the amber mining company Amberica, which has helped to bring notable amber fossils to the attention of paleontologists.

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answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: inclusion

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: An inclusion in a transparent chunk of Dominican amber

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: inclusion

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: amber mining

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Several species have been referred to the genus, most of which are now considered as dubious species, or members of different genera, and the genus is now often considered to include only the type species, Ornithocheirus simus. Species have been referred to Ornithocheirus from the mid-Cretaceous period of both Europe and South America, but O. simus is known only from the UK. Because O. simus was originally named based on poorly preserved fossil material, the genus Ornithocheirus has suffered enduring problems of zoological nomenclature.

text: Several species have been referred to the genus, most of which are now considered as dubious species, or members of different genera, and the genus is now often considered to include only the

text: type species

text: , Ornithocheirus simus. Species have been referred to Ornithocheirus from the mid-

text: Cretaceous

text: period of both

text: Europe

text: and

text: South America

text: , but O. simus is known only from the

text: UK

text: . Because O. simus was originally named based on poorly preserved fossil material, the genus Ornithocheirus has suffered enduring problems of

text: zoological nomenclature

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text: In a one-dimensional relaxation test, the material is subjected to a sudden strain that is kept constant over the duration ofthe test, and the stress is measured over time. The initial stress is due to the elastic response of the material. Then, thestress relaxes over time due to the viscous effects in the material. Typically, either a tensile, compressive, bulkcompression, or shear strain is applied. The resulting stress vs. time data can be fitted with a number of equations, calledmodels. Only the notation changes depending of the type of strain applied: tensile-compressive relaxation is denoted

text: In a one-dimensional relaxation test, the material is subjected to a sudden strain that is kept constant over the duration ofthe test, and the stress is measured over time. The initial stress is due to the elastic response of the material. Then, thestress relaxes over time due to the viscous effects in the material. Typically, either a tensile, compressive, bulkcompression, or shear strain is applied. The resulting stress vs. time data can be fitted with a number of equations, calledmodels. Only the notation changes depending of the type of strain applied: tensile-compressive relaxation is denoted

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text: Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) is a technology to capture the large quantities of carbon dioxide () normally released into the atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries, transport the captured/compressed  to a location for permanent storage site, and inject it into deep underground geologic formations to securely store it or convert it into useful materials.

text: Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) is a technology to capture the large quantities of

text: carbon dioxide

text: () normally released into the atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries, transport the captured/compressed  to a location for permanent storage site, and inject it into deep underground geologic formations to securely store it or convert it into useful materials.

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text: The Earth Lab is a gallery that centres around geology, and contains specimens of fossils, minerals and rocks. The "Lab Area" is only open to reserved groups and allows an interactive approach to the gallery, allowing the use of microscopes. It is currently the only gallery in the red-zone without step free access. Earth's Treasury shows specimens of rocks, minerals and gemstones behind glass in a dimly lit gallery. Lasting Impressions is a small gallery containing specimens of rocks, plants and minerals, of which most can be touched.

text: The Earth Lab is a gallery that centres around

text: geology

text: , and contains specimens of

text: fossils

text: minerals

text: and rocks. The "Lab Area" is only open to reserved groups and allows an interactive approach to the gallery, allowing the use of

text: microscope

text: s. It is currently the only gallery in the red-zone without step free access. Earth's Treasury shows specimens of rocks, minerals and gemstones behind glass in a dimly lit gallery. Lasting Impressions is a small gallery containing specimens of rocks, plants and minerals, of which most can be touched.

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text: A note about spelling: when used to describe something which is physically formed again, such as re-casting it in a mold/mould, or a band that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a hyphen), not "reform".

text: A note about

text: spelling

text: : when used to describe something which is physically formed again, such as re-

text: casting

text: it in a

text: mold/mould

text: , or a

text: band

text: that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a

text: hyphen

text: ), not "reform".

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text: Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The type specimen of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of evolution.

text: Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (

text: flight feather

text: s), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The

text: type specimen

text: of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after

text: Charles Darwin

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text: On the Origin of Species

text: . Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of

text: evolution

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text: The Somerville Collection is approximately one third fossil and two thirds mineral specimens and is features some of the finest and rarest examples of minerals from around the world and scientifically significant fossils from Australia.

text: The Somerville Collection is approximately one third fossil and two thirds

text: mineral

text: specimens and is features some of the finest and rarest examples of minerals from around the world and scientifically significant fossils from Australia.

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text: The remains of Hilarcotherium were discovered by José Alfredo Castañeda, who found them in the Malnombre Creek in the Hilarco village located near the town of Purificación, in Tolima. This area, in the valley of the Upper Magdalena River, correspond to the La Victoria Formation, that along the Villavieja Formation makes the Honda Group, dating from the Middle Miocene, made between 13-11.8 million years ago and it has provided a remarkable fossil site known as La Venta, although the lack of key fossil does not allow establish accurately the membership of the Hilarco site to the formation. The remains of Hilarcotherium were collected by dr. María Páramo and Gerardo Vargas, who took them to the Geological Museum José Royo y Gómez of Ingeominas (former name of Colombian Geological Service) in Bogotá for study and preservation. In February 2015 these remains were officially named, although the name Hilarcotherium castanedaii was released earlier and informally in conference abstracts. The genus name is derived from the Hilarco site and the term in Latinized Greek therium, meaning "beast", while the species name castanedaii is in recognition to Castañeda, by finding and reporting the find.

text: The remains of Hilarcotherium were discovered by José Alfredo Castañeda, who found them in the Malnombre Creek in the Hilarco village located near the town of

text: Purificación

text: , in Tolima. This area, in the valley of the Upper

text: Magdalena River

text: , correspond to the La Victoria Formation, that along the Villavieja Formation makes the Honda Group, dating from the Middle Miocene, made between 13-11.8 million years ago and it has provided a remarkable fossil site known as

text: La Venta

text: , although the lack of key fossil does not allow establish accurately the membership of the Hilarco site to the formation. The remains of Hilarcotherium were collected by dr. María Páramo and Gerardo Vargas, who took them to the Geological Museum José Royo y Gómez of

text: Ingeominas

text: (former name of Colombian Geological Service) in

text: Bogotá

text: for study and preservation. In February 2015 these remains were officially named, although the name Hilarcotherium castanedaii was released earlier and informally in conference abstracts. The genus name is derived from the Hilarco site and the term in

text: Latin

text: ized

text: Greek

text: therium, meaning "beast", while the species name castanedaii is in recognition to Castañeda, by finding and reporting the find.

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answers: Middle Miocene

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answers: The remains of Hilarcotherium

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answers: The remains of Hilarcotherium

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The museum is the home of the famous Cretaceous fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

text: The museum is the home of the famous

text: Cretaceous

text: fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

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text: After burial various factors are at work to endanger the current fossil's preserved state. Chemical alteration would change the mineral composition of the fossil, but generally not its appearance, lithification would distort its appearance, the fossil itself may be fully or partially dissolved leaving only a fossil mold.

text: After burial various factors are at work to endanger the current fossil's preserved state. Chemical alteration would change the mineral composition of the fossil, but generally not its appearance,

text: lithification

text: would distort its appearance, the fossil itself may be fully or partially dissolved leaving only a fossil mold.

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answers: burial

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: fossil mold

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: burial

answers: NDQ_006255

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answers: NDQ_006257

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answers: NDQ_006259

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answers: Chemical alteration

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: In the oxidized zone, ore minerals include native silver and argentite have been replaced by cerargyrite, iodobromite, bromyrite, embolite, iodyrite. In the supergene sulfide enriched zone, ore minerals include pearceite, proustite, tetrahedrite, polybasite, and pyrargyrite.

text: In the oxidized zone, ore minerals include native silver and

text: argentite

text: have been replaced by

text: cerargyrite

text: , iodobromite,

text: bromyrite

text: , embolite,

text: iodyrite

text: . In the supergene sulfide enriched zone, ore minerals include

text: pearceite

text: proustite

text: tetrahedrite

text: polybasite

text: , and

text: pyrargyrite

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answers: 4

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_006252

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: oxidized zone

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: native silver

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: supergene

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: zone

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It must have formed in exceptional circumstances

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: replaced

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: iodobromite

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: iodobromite, bromyrite, embolite, iodyrite

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: pearceite

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen mother cell or meiocyte), after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions.

text: In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid

text: microspore

text: s are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen mother cell or

text: meiocyte

text: ), after

text: meiotic division

text: . After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to

text: cytokinesis

text: , whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the

text: monocots

text: is successive, but there are important exceptions.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: the fossil record

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: pollen grains

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: exine

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: exine

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: The exine

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: There may be a continuum

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossil record

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: successive

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The exine

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: microsporogenesis

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Petrified wood is a fossil in which the organic remains have been replaced by minerals in the slow process of being replaced with stone. This petrification process generally results in a quartz chalcedony mineralization. Special rare conditions must be met in order for the fallen stem to be transformed into fossil wood or petrified wood. In general, the fallen plants get buried in an environment free of oxygen (anaerobic environment), which preserves the original plant structure and general appearance. The other conditions include a regular access to mineral rich water in contact with the tissues, replacing the organic plant structure with inorganic minerals. The end result is petrified wood, a plant, with its original basic structure in place, replaced by stone. Exotic minerals allow the red and green hues that can be seen in rarer specimens.

text: Petrified wood is a fossil in which the organic remains have been replaced by minerals in the slow process of being replaced with stone. This petrification process generally results in a quartz chalcedony mineralization. Special rare conditions must be met in order for the fallen stem to be transformed into fossil wood or petrified wood. In general, the fallen plants get buried in an environment free of oxygen (anaerobic environment), which preserves the original plant structure and general appearance. The other conditions include a regular access to mineral rich water in contact with the tissues, replacing the organic plant structure with inorganic minerals. The end result is petrified wood, a plant, with its original basic structure in place, replaced by stone. Exotic minerals allow the red and green hues that can be seen in rarer specimens.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: anaerobic

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: quartz chalcedony

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: petrification

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: quartz chalcedony

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Special rare conditions

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: Petrified

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: fallen plants

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Petrified

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: The other conditions include a regular access to mineral rich water in contact with the tissues

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Most of the fossils are found as impressions of soft-bodied organisms in the shape of disks, ribbons or fronds. There are also trace fossils that provide evidence that some of these Precambrian organisms were most-likely worm-like creatures that were locomotive. Most of these fossils lack any recognizable heads, mouths or digestive organs, and are thought to have fed via absorptive mechanisms and symbiotic relationships with chemoautotrophs (Chemotroph), photoautotrophs (Phototroph) or osmoautotrophs. The ribbon-like fossils resemble tentacled organisms, and are thought to have fed by capturing prey. The frondose fossils resemble sea pens and other cnidarians. The trace fossils suggest that there were annelid type creatures, and the disk fossils resemble sponges. Despite these similarities, much of the identification is speculation since the fossils do not show very distinct structures. Other fossils do not resemble any known lineages.

text: Most of the fossils are found as impressions of soft-bodied organisms in the shape of disks, ribbons or fronds. There are also trace fossils that provide evidence that some of these Precambrian organisms were most-likely worm-like creatures that were locomotive. Most of these fossils lack any recognizable heads, mouths or digestive organs, and are thought to have fed via absorptive mechanisms and symbiotic relationships with chemoautotrophs (

text: Chemotroph

text: ), photoautotrophs (

text: Phototroph

text: ) or osmoautotrophs. The ribbon-like fossils resemble tentacled organisms, and are thought to have fed by capturing prey. The frondose fossils resemble sea pens and other

text: cnidarians

text: . The

text: trace fossils

text: suggest that there were

text: annelid

text: type creatures, and the disk fossils resemble sponges. Despite these similarities, much of the identification is speculation since the fossils do not show very distinct structures. Other fossils do not resemble any known lineages.

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answers: Precambrian

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answers: heads, mouths or digestive organs

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answers: fossils

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answers: impression

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answers: permineralization

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answers: It does not show very distinct structures.

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answers: impressions of soft-bodied organisms

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answers: annelid type creatures

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answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The oldest near-complete fossil lobopodians date to the Lower Cambrian; some are also known from Ordovician, Silurian and Carboniferous Lagerstätten.  Some bear toughened claws, plates or spines, which are commonly preserved as carbonaceous or mineralized microfossils in Cambrian strata.

text: The oldest near-complete

text: fossil

text: lobopodians date to the

text: Lower Cambrian

text: ; some are also known from Ordovician,

text: Silurian

text: and Carboniferous Lagerstätten.  Some bear toughened claws, plates or spines, which are commonly preserved as

text: carbonaceous

text: or

text: mineralized

text: microfossils in Cambrian strata.

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answers: Cambrian strata

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answers: lobopodians

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answers: mineralized

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answers: lobopodians

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answers: mineralized

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answers: carbonaceous or mineralized

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answers: lobopodians

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answers: fossil lobopodians

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: The Sylvania Sandstone is a geologic formation in Ohio and Michigan. Its type locality is Sylvania, Ohio. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.

text: The Sylvania Sandstone is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Ohio

text: and

text: Michigan

text: . Its type locality is Sylvania, Ohio. It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Devonian

text: period

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answers: Devonian

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answers: Devonian

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answers: sandstone

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answers: fossil

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answers: Sylvania Sandstone

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answers: fossils

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answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It preserves fossils

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.

text: There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.

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text: A scientific name had not yet been given to the new species, the specimen usually being referred to as the Grand Animal fossile des Carrières de Maëstricht or "Great Fossil Animal of the Maastricht quarries". In 1822 William Daniel Conybeare named it Mosasaurus after the Latin name (Mosa) of the Maas (Meuse) River passing along Mount Saint Peter, the second skull being the holotype, MNHNP AC9648. The specific name (epithet) hoffmannii was added by Gideon Mantell in 1829, honouring Hoffmann, on the presumption he was the discoverer of the type specimen. The emendated form hoffmanni often used today, is contrary to the rules of the ICZN that state "the original spelling of a name [...] is to be preserved."

text: A scientific name had not yet been given to the new species, the specimen usually being referred to as the Grand Animal fossile des Carrières de Maëstricht or "Great Fossil Animal of the Maastricht quarries". In 1822

text: William Daniel Conybeare

text: named it Mosasaurus after the Latin name (Mosa) of the Maas (Meuse) River passing along Mount Saint Peter, the second skull being the

text: holotype

text: , MNHNP AC9648. The

text: specific name

text: (epithet) hoffmannii was added by

text: Gideon Mantell

text: in 1829, honouring Hoffmann, on the presumption he was the discoverer of the type specimen. The emendated form hoffmanni often used today, is contrary to the rules of the

text: ICZN

text: that state "the original spelling of a name [...] is to be preserved."

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text: These types of plasters are created with the cooperation of american scientists and militaries. C. Patrick Dann who works on this project promises that these plasters will appear on the market by 2025. At this stage of technological development they definitely cannot totally replace food consumption. However, at some extreme cases, such as battlefield or catastrophe, it can help people to survive for a longer time without proper food or water consumption. C. Patrick Dann also states that these kinds of plasters can be helpful for civilians e.g. miners.

text: These types of plasters are created with the cooperation of american scientists and militaries. C. Patrick Dann who works on this project promises that these plasters will appear on the market by 2025. At this stage of technological development they definitely cannot totally replace food consumption. However, at some extreme cases, such as battlefield or catastrophe, it can help people to survive for a longer time without proper food or water consumption. C. Patrick Dann also states that these kinds of plasters can be helpful for civilians e.g. miners.

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answers: American scientists and militaries

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The plant is known from compression fossils of its flowers, fruits, and pollen.

text: The plant is known from

text: compression fossils

text: of its flowers,

text: fruit

text: s, and

text: pollen

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: compression fossils

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as dendrites, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and moss agates, which look like moss or plant leaves. Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

text: Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as

text: dendrite

text: s, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and

text: moss agate

text: s, which look like moss or plant leaves.

text: Concretion

text: s, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be

text: dinosaur

text: eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

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text: The type specimen, DGM-DNPM 647P was taken from Albian deposits of the Romualdo Member in the Santana Formation. It is a fossil of a complete fish, around 4 centimeters long from snout to the base of the tail. At least two dozen specimens are kept by the American Museum of Natural History as AMNH 20050-20075. Some specimens of Santanichthys were taken from the fossilized stomach contents of other, larger fish such as AMNH 19439 and AMNH 12826.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: , DGM-DNPM 647P was taken from

text: Albian

text: deposits of the Romualdo Member in the Santana Formation. It is a fossil of a complete fish, around 4 centimeters long from snout to the base of the tail. At least two dozen specimens are kept by the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: as AMNH 20050-20075. Some specimens of Santanichthys were taken from the fossilized stomach contents of other, larger fish such as AMNH 19439 and AMNH 12826.

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text: The West Coast Fossil Park is a fossil park near Langebaanweg, Western Cape, South Africa, approximately  north of Cape Town. The fossil sites of Langebaanweg have exceptionally well-preserved remains of fossil fauna that date to circa 5.2 million years ago.  In this period sea levels were higher and many now extinct animals lived in the riverine forests, wooded savanna and along the sea coast near the present day Langebaanweg site. Phosphate mining operations at Langebaanweg uncovered these rich fossil deposits. The fossils include bones of over 200 different animal species. This represents possibly the greatest diversity of five-million-year-old fossils found anywhere in the world. The fossil park was formed after mining operations ceased in 1993. The park is partnered with the Iziko South African Museum.

text: The West Coast Fossil Park is a

text: fossil park

text: near

text: Langebaanweg

text: Western Cape

text: , South Africa, approximately  north of

text: Cape Town

text: . The fossil sites of Langebaanweg have exceptionally well-preserved remains of fossil fauna that date to circa 5.2 million years ago.  In this period sea levels were higher and many now extinct animals lived in the riverine forests, wooded

text: savanna

text: and along the sea coast near the present day Langebaanweg site.

text: Phosphate

text: mining operations at Langebaanweg uncovered these rich fossil deposits. The fossils include bones of over 200 different animal species. This represents possibly the greatest diversity of five-million-year-old fossils found anywhere in the world. The fossil park was formed after mining operations ceased in 1993. The park is partnered with the

text: Iziko South African Museum

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answers: This represents possibly the greatest diversity of five-million-year-old fossils

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answers: The fossils include bones

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answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: However, this type of construction means that, during the bending process, the inner radius compresses and the outer radius stretches as the cable core moves. Initially, this works quite well, because the elasticity of the material is still sufficient, but material fatigue can set in and cause permanent deformations. The cores move and begin to make their own compressing and stretching zones, which can lead to a “corkscrew” shape, and ultimately, core rupture.

text: However, this type of construction means that, during the bending process, the inner radius compresses and the outer radius stretches as the cable core moves. Initially, this works quite well, because the elasticity of the material is still sufficient, but material fatigue can set in and cause permanent deformations. The cores move and begin to make their own compressing and stretching zones, which can lead to a “corkscrew” shape, and ultimately, core rupture.

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text: Polymer cores are not as common as metal cores and are usually only used for moldings that require simple internal surface details. They are usually  thick hollow cross-sections that are molded in two halves and are ultrasonically welded together. Their greatest advantage is that they can be molded in traditional injection molding machines that the company already has instead of investing into new die casting equipment and learning how to use it. Because of this polymer core materials are most adventitious for small production runs that cannot justify the added expense of metal cores. Unfortunately it is not as recyclable as the metal alloys used in cores, because 10% new material must be added with the recycled material.

text: Polymer cores are not as common as metal cores and are usually only used for moldings that require simple internal surface details. They are usually  thick hollow cross-sections that are molded in two halves and are

text: ultrasonically welded

text: together. Their greatest advantage is that they can be molded in traditional injection molding machines that the company already has instead of investing into new die casting equipment and learning how to use it. Because of this polymer core materials are most adventitious for small production runs that cannot justify the added expense of metal cores. Unfortunately it is not as recyclable as the metal alloys used in cores, because 10% new material must be added with the recycled material.

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text: The fossil was first found in the Omkyk Member from Rietoog in southern Namibia, in association with another calcifying fossil, Cloudina.

text: The fossil was first found in the Omkyk Member from Rietoog in southern

text: Namibia

text: , in association with another calcifying fossil,

text: Cloudina

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answer: No

answer: No

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text: Chalk () is a soft, white, porous sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint (a type of chert unique to chalk) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).

text: Chalk () is a soft, white, porous

text: sedimentary

text: carbonate rock

text: , a form of

text: limestone

text: composed of the

text: mineral

text: calcite

text: . Calcite is an ionic salt called

text: calcium carbonate

text: or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute

text: calcite

text: shells (

text: coccoliths

text: ) shed from micro-organisms called

text: coccolithophores

text: Flint

text: (a type of chert unique to chalk) is very common as bands parallel to the

text: bedding

text: or as

text: nodule

text: s embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from

text: sponge spicule

text: s or other

text: siliceous

text: organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger

text: fossil

text: s such as

text: Echinoidea

text: which may be

text: silicified

text: (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).

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answers: Chalk

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answers: compaction

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answers: fossil

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answers: Flint (a type of chert unique to chalk)

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answers: Echinoidea

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answers: silicified

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answers: Echinoidea which may be silicified

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Echinoidea

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answers: It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Thomas A. Greene Memorial Museum, also known as Greene Geological Museum or Greene Museum, is a mineral and fossil museum in Milwaukee, Wisconsin administered by the Department of Geosciences at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.  The current curator is Dr. Stephen Q. Dornbos, a paleontologist and Associate Professor of Geosciences at UWM.

text: Thomas A. Greene Memorial Museum, also known as Greene Geological Museum or Greene Museum, is a

text: mineral

text: and

text: fossil

text: museum in

text: Milwaukee, Wisconsin

text: administered by the Department of Geosciences at the

text: University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

text: .  The current curator is Dr. Stephen Q. Dornbos, a paleontologist and Associate Professor of Geosciences at UWM.

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text: One famous example is the coelacanth, which was thought to have become extinct in the very late Cretaceous – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "Burgess Shale type fauna" are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle Cambrian periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Early Devonian periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The particular way in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

text: One famous example is the

text: coelacanth

text: , which was thought to have become extinct in the very late

text: Cretaceous

text: – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "

text: Burgess Shale type fauna

text: " are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle

text: Cambrian

text: periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the

text: Ordovician

text: Silurian

text: , and Early

text: Devonian

text: periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The

text: particular way

text: in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

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text: Foraminifera can also be used in archaeology in the provenancing of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera.  The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

text: Foraminifera can also be used in

text: archaeology

text: in the

text: provenancing

text: of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as

text: limestone

text: , are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera.  The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

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text: In metalworking, casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into a mold, that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: In

text: metalworking

text: , casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into a

text: mold

text: , that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

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answers: casting

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answers: The solidified part is also known as a casting

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answers: Casting

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The head of this specimen, entirely covered with skin and very well-preserved, was first discovered in 2002. After hearing about the discovery, a polar explorer carried out the expedition with his team to extract the remains from the permafrost. One of the members of the team was the French polar explorer, "Mammoth-Hunter" Bernard Buigues, known for carrying out expeditions to the North Pole, Siberia since the 1990s. It took three excavation trips to gather and put the Yukagir fossil together. Although mammoth fossils are not a rarity, few are as notable as this specimen.

text: The head of this specimen, entirely covered with skin and very well-preserved, was first discovered in 2002. After hearing about the discovery, a polar explorer carried out the expedition with his team to extract the remains from the permafrost. One of the members of the team was the French polar explorer, "Mammoth-Hunter"

text: Bernard Buigues

text: , known for carrying out expeditions to the North Pole, Siberia since the 1990s. It took three excavation trips to gather and put the Yukagir fossil together. Although mammoth fossils are not a rarity, few are as notable as this specimen.

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answers: Yukagir

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answers: the Yukagir fossil

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answers: Mammoth

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answers: to extract the remains from the permafrost

answer: No

answer: No

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text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil Lagerstätten found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in Eocene lake sediments are found elsewhere in British Columbia, including in Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park near Smithers in northern British Columbia, and the McAbee Fossil Beds west of Kamloops, about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil

text: Lagerstätten

text: found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in

text: Eocene

text: lake sediments are found elsewhere in

text: British Columbia

text: , including in

text: Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park

text: near

text: Smithers

text: in northern British Columbia, and the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: west of

text: Kamloops

text: , about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

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answers: lake sediments

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text: Compression fossils are formed most commonly in environments where fine sediment is deposited, such as in river deltas, lagoons, along rivers, and in ponds.  The best rocks in which to find these fossils preserved are clay and shale, although volcanic ash may sometimes preserve plant fossils as well.

text: Compression fossils are formed most commonly in

text: environment

text: s where fine sediment is deposited, such as in

text: river delta

text: s,

text: lagoon

text: s, along

text: river

text: s, and in

text: pond

text: s.  The best rocks in which to find these fossils preserved are

text: clay

text: and

text: shale

text: , although

text: volcanic ash

text: may sometimes preserve plant fossils as well.

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answers: fine sediment

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answers: Bone

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answers: Compression

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answers: Compression

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answers: volcanic ash

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: 1

text: When first described, Protopone was known from a single fossil insect included in a transparent chunk of Sakhalin amber. When the fossil was described it was part of the amber collections housed in the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences.  The amber was recovered from fossil bearing rocks in the Sakhalin region of Eastern Russia.  At the time of description, the amber was estimated to date from the Paleocene.  Further research has revised the amber, which originates from the Lower Due Formation, to be of Middle Eocene age.  The amber fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Gennady Dlussky of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with his 1988 type description for the species was published in  Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal.  In 2012 an additional six species were identified from compression-impression fossils preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Protopone specimens were collected from layers of Lutetian Messel Formation rock in the Messel pit World Heritage Site.  The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and bituminous shale, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable lagerstätten.  The area is a preserved maar lake which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.

text: When first described, Protopone was known from a single fossil insect

text: included

text: in a transparent chunk of Sakhalin amber. When the fossil was described it was part of the amber collections housed in the

text: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: .  The amber was recovered from fossil bearing rocks in the Sakhalin region of Eastern Russia.  At the time of description, the amber was estimated to date from the

text: Paleocene

text: .  Further research has revised the amber, which originates from the Lower Due Formation, to be of Middle Eocene age.  The amber fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Gennady Dlussky of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with his 1988

text: type description

text: for the species was published in  Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal.  In 2012 an additional six species were identified from

text: compression-impression fossils

text: preserved in layers of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Protopone specimens were collected from layers of

text: Lutetian

text: Messel Formation

text: rock in the

text: Messel pit

text: World Heritage Site

text: .  The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and

text: bituminous shale

text: , which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable

text: lagerstätten

text: .  The area is a preserved

text: maar lake

text: which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.

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answers: The area is a preserved maar lake

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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answer: 1

text: The description of this species by paleobotanists Kathleen Pigg, Steven Manchester, and Wesley Wehr was based on the study of thirty-four compression fossil specimens found at the UWBM sites B4131 and A0307, the latter being designated the type locality. The specimens are twelve infructescences with attached involucres containing nuts or nut casts, fourteen involucres, and eight isolated paired or single nuts. The holotype specimen is number "SR 98-01-02 A&B", an infructescence with involucre, and is housed in the Stonerose Interpretive Center in Republic, Washington.   The species epithet johnsonii was coined in honor of Kirk R. Johnson for his continuing work on, and recognition of the importance of, the Republic Flora.

text: The description of this species by

text: paleobotanist

text: s Kathleen Pigg, Steven Manchester, and Wesley Wehr was based on the study of thirty-four

text: compression fossil

text: specimens found at the

entity_name: Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture

text: UWBM

text: sites B4131 and A0307, the latter being designated the

text: type locality

text: . The specimens are twelve

text: infructescence

text: s with attached

text: involucres

text: containing

text: nuts

text: or nut casts, fourteen involucres, and eight isolated paired or single nuts. The

text: holotype

text: specimen is number "SR 98-01-02 A&B", an infructescence with involucre, and is housed in the

text: Stonerose Interpretive Center

text: in

text: Republic, Washington

text: .   The species epithet johnsonii was coined in honor of

text: Kirk R. Johnson

text: for his continuing work on, and recognition of the importance of, the

text: Republic Flora

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answers: The holotype specimen is number "SR 98-01-02 A&B"

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

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text: Dinosaur fossils with Dakota's degree of preservation are extremely rare because many different factors must come together to allow it to occur. The carcass first must escape scavengers as well as degradation by the elements. The soft tissue must then be mineralized before it decomposes. Finally, as with all fossils, the mineralized body must escape destruction by geological forces over millions of years.

text: Dinosaur fossils with Dakota's degree of preservation are extremely rare because many different factors must come together to allow it to occur. The carcass first must escape

text: scavenger

text: s as well as degradation by the elements. The soft tissue must then be mineralized before it

text: decomposes

text: . Finally, as with all fossils, the mineralized body must escape destruction by geological forces over millions of years.

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answers: dinosaur fossils

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answers: mineralized body

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: mineralized

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answers: fossil

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answers: Mineralized

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answers: Extremely rare

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answers: mineralized

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answers: decomposition

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answers: all fossils

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answers: Mineralized body must escape destruction

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Undulopsychopsis alexi is known only from one fossil, the part and counterpart holotype, specimen number CYNB044, which is housed in the collections of the Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark Chaoyang, Liaoning, China.  The specimen is preserved as a compression fossil in silty yellow to grayish mudstone, dating from the Lower Barremian to Upper Aptian in age, which was recovered from outcrops of the Yixian Formation.  Undulopsychopsis was first studied by the paleoentomologists Yuanyuan Peng and Dong Ren from the Capital Normal University in Beijing with Xiaodong Wang from Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark and Vladimir N. Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Their 2011 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal ZooKeys.  The genus name Undulopsychopsis was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus Psychopsis and the Late Latin word undula meaning "small wave" which is in reference to the distinctly wavy nature of the wing margins.  The specific epithet alexi is in honor of the distinguished Russian paleoentomologist Alexandr Pavlovich Rasnitsyn.

text: Undulopsychopsis alexi is known only from one fossil, the

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number CYNB044, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark

text: Chaoyang, Liaoning

text: , China.  The specimen is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in silty yellow to grayish

text: mudstone

text: , dating from the

text: Lower Barremian

text: to Upper

text: Aptian

text: in age, which was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Yixian Formation

text: .  Undulopsychopsis was first studied by the paleoentomologists Yuanyuan Peng and Dong Ren from the

text: Capital Normal University

text: in

text: Beijing

text: with Xiaodong Wang from Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark and Vladimir N. Makarkin of the

text: Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

text: .  Their 2011

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the online journal

text: ZooKeys

text: .  The genus name Undulopsychopsis was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus

text: Psychopsis

text: and the

text: Late Latin

text: word undula meaning "small wave" which is in reference to the distinctly wavy nature of the wing margins.  The

text: specific epithet

text: alexi is in honor of the distinguished Russian paleoentomologist

text: Alexandr Pavlovich Rasnitsyn

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answers: mudstone

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answers: mudstone

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answers: compression

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: The specimen is preserved as a compression fossil

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answers: compression fossil

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answers: compression

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answers: unanswerable

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answers: Yixian Formation

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface ( 5 to 8 internal castings).

text: When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface ( 5 to 8 internal castings).

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: sand mold

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: leading edges

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: Sand mold

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: mold

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: casting

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: hand molding

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: The value of the draft angle

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: sand mold

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Deinodryinus areolatus is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen number PIN No. 964/60, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, in Moscow.  The specimen is composed of a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of amber.  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being Baltic amber dispersed in the sea, a more specific type location than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus areolatus was first studied by the Russian paleoentomologist Nadezdha Ponomarenko in 1975, with a redescription by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the University of Tuscia.  Ponomarenko's 1975 type description of the new genus and species was published in the Russian journal Paleontologicheskiy Zhurnal, with the species placed by her into a new genus Electrodryinus.  Electrodryinus  was subsequently synonymized with Deinodryinus in a 1984 paper by Massimo Olmi, resulting in the current binomial Deinodryinus areolatus.  D. areolatus was the first of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record.  Deinodryinus velteni is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while Deinodryinus? aptianus is known only from a Mongolian compression fossil in marl.

text: Deinodryinus areolatus is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number PIN No. 964/60, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak

text: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: , in

text: Moscow

text: .  The specimen is composed of a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of

text: amber

text: .  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being

text: Baltic amber

text: dispersed in the sea, a more specific

text: type location

text: than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus areolatus was first studied by the Russian paleoentomologist Nadezdha Ponomarenko in 1975, with a redescription by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the

text: University of Tuscia

text: .  Ponomarenko's 1975

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the Russian journal

text: Paleontologicheskiy Zhurnal

text: , with the species placed by her into a new genus Electrodryinus.  Electrodryinus  was subsequently

text: synonymized

text: with Deinodryinus in a 1984 paper by Massimo Olmi, resulting in the current binomial Deinodryinus areolatus.  D. areolatus was the first of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record.

text: Deinodryinus velteni

text: is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while

text: Deinodryinus? aptianus

text: is known only from a Mongolian

text: compression fossil

text: in

text: marl

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answers: NDQ_006256

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answers: NDQ_006257

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answers: inclusion

answers: NDQ_006259

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answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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answer: 1

text: The type specimens of C. pauli were collected from the Jiufotang Formation, dating from the early Albian and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in Liaoning, China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the holotype; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the paratype LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: s of C. pauli were collected from the

text: Jiufotang Formation

text: , dating from the early

text: Albian

text: and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in

text: Liaoning

text: , China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the

text: holotype

text: ; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the

text: paratype

text: LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged.

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text: Kamoyapithecus is known exclusively by its teeth and jaws. The type specimen, KNM-LS 7, was a right maxillary jaw fragment found during the expedition in 1948. Through this fossil as well as more recent fragments of mandibles and teeth, it has been found that Kamoyapithecus had very large and robust anterior teeth. The incisors are found to be compressed on the sides, but expanded from top to bottom.

text: Kamoyapithecus is known exclusively by its

text: teeth

text: and

text: jaw

text: s. The type specimen, KNM-LS 7, was a right

text: maxilla

text: ry jaw fragment found during the expedition in 1948. Through this fossil as well as more recent fragments of

text: mandible

text: s and teeth, it has been found that Kamoyapithecus had very large and robust anterior teeth. The

text: incisor

text: s are found to be compressed on the sides, but expanded from top to bottom.

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text: A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal casting mold. Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to thickness of the casting.  When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents directional solidification from occurring naturally, a chill can be strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of chills: internal and external chills.

text: A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a

text: metal casting

text: mold

text: . Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to thickness of the casting.  When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents

text: directional solidification

text: from occurring naturally, a chill can be strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of chills: internal and external chills.

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text: The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix", from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened Animal Kingdom in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum's website. Several of the fossil's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from plastic to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald's Corporation.

text: The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix", from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened

text: Animal Kingdom

text: in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum's website. Several of the fossil's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from

text: plastic

text: to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to

text: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: in

text: Florida

text: to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald's Corporation.

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answers: Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's

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text: Casting achieves a specific form by pouring molten metal into a mold and allowing it to cool, with no mechanical force. Forms of casting include:

text: Casting achieves a specific form by pouring molten metal into a mold and allowing it to cool, with no mechanical force. Forms of casting include:

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text: The museum has two floors in which it displays fossils, gemstones, meteorites, minerals,  and mining artifacts. The museum acts as the Colorado state repository for mineral heritage.

text: The museum has two floors in which it displays

text: fossil

text: s,

text: gemstone

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text: artifacts. The museum acts as the Colorado state repository for mineral heritage.

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text: Pseudomorphs are also common in paleontology. Fossils are often formed by pseudomorphic replacement of the remains by mineral matter. Examples include petrified wood and pyritized gastropod shells.

text: Pseudomorphs are also common in

text: paleontology

text: Fossil

text: s are often formed by pseudomorphic replacement of the remains by mineral matter. Examples include petrified wood and

text: pyritized

text: gastropod

text: shells.

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answer: 1

text: is a concept on one's bodily tendency in sensitivity, temperament, movement and personality. The concept was established by , who was the founder and a teacher of  in Japan. Noguchi said that man's tendency of sensitivity can be divided into five categories, each of which is divided into two types, one of which is active (odd-numbered types) whereas the other of which is passive (even-numbered types). In addition, there are two anomalous types. Thus, 12 types of taiheki in total have been defined. Among them, odd-numbered types have a tendency to release of compressed energy in an active way, whereas even-numbered types are passive and require others' attention to release compressed energy. The 12 types are like pure colors in color, and they are usually mixed up with each other in one person (this is called complex taiheki).

text: is a concept on one's bodily tendency in sensitivity, temperament, movement and

text: personality

text: . The concept was established by , who was the founder and a teacher of  in Japan. Noguchi said that man's tendency of sensitivity can be divided into five categories, each of which is divided into two types, one of which is active (odd-numbered types) whereas the other of which is passive (even-numbered types). In addition, there are two anomalous types. Thus, 12 types of taiheki in total have been defined. Among them, odd-numbered types have a tendency to release of compressed energy in an active way, whereas even-numbered types are passive and require others' attention to release compressed energy. The 12 types are like pure colors in color, and they are usually mixed up with each other in one person (this is called complex taiheki).

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answers: Japan

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answers: two anomalous types

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answers: Anomaly

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answers: Bone

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answers: Permineralization

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answers: Anomaly

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: Anomaly

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: man's

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: Noguchi

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: The idea that the body and clothes of a deceased individual would be preserved at the time of disinternment was seen as a sign of sanctity in Anglo-Saxon England, as it had also been in Gaul. Bede recorded that during the disinternments of both St Æthelthryth and St Cuthbert, their bodies were found to have been miraculously preserved and undecayed. In the nineteenth century, a medical examination of St Cuthbert's remains found that there was still some evidence of fleshly preservation, thus lending credence to the Anglo-Saxon claim that his body was preserved following its original burial. Such preservation may have resulted from the particular conditions of the soil into which he had been placed, or it may have been that the body had been deliberately embalmed; the latter concept was known in Anglo-Saxon England, for instance appearing in a reference by Bede.

text: The idea that the body and clothes of a deceased individual would be preserved at the time of disinternment was seen as a sign of sanctity in Anglo-Saxon England, as it had also been in Gaul. Bede recorded that during the disinternments of both St Æthelthryth and St Cuthbert, their bodies were found to have been miraculously preserved and undecayed. In the nineteenth century, a medical examination of St Cuthbert's remains found that there was still some evidence of fleshly preservation, thus lending credence to the Anglo-Saxon claim that his body was preserved following its original burial. Such preservation may have resulted from the particular conditions of the soil into which he had been placed, or it may have been that the body had been deliberately

text: embalmed

text: ; the latter concept was known in Anglo-Saxon England, for instance appearing in a reference by Bede.

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: soil

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: fleshly preservation

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: embalmed

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: embalmed

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It may have been that the body had been deliberately embalmed

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: embalming

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: disinternment

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: It had also been in Gaul

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: particular conditions of the soil

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The following article lists the available programs for fixing a specific type of archive that has been corrupted (for example by downloading via the internet). Although some file archivers also have the function to repair certain types of archives, it is not always clear which type of archive can be repaired with it. This list intents to clear this up, and also mention dedicated repair programs (that may not be able to decompress or compress the file type they can repair).

text: The following article lists the available programs for fixing a specific type of archive that has been corrupted (for example by downloading via the internet). Although some

text: file archivers

text: also have the function to repair certain types of archives, it is not always clear which type of archive can be repaired with it. This list intents to clear this up, and also mention dedicated repair programs (that may not be able to decompress or compress the file type they can repair).

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answers: fossilized

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: decompression

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: archive

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It is not always clear which type of archive can be repaired with it

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: decomposition

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: downloading via the internet

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: decompress or compress the file type they can repair

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: -Rock Types: Sandy slate with coral fossils.

text: -Rock Types: Sandy slate with coral fossils.

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answers: It must have formed in exceptional circumstances.

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answers: Coral fossils

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answers: fossils

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The earliest reptile eggshells probably had leathery membranes instead of hard shells. Eggs like this decay so quickly that fossilization is very unlikely. Therefore the fossil record is too incomplete for scientists to determine what kinds of eggshell most fossil reptile groups had. A 5.9 cm by 3.79 cm fossil from the Lower Permian was described in 1939 by Alfred Romer and Lewellyn Price as the oldest hard-shelled fossil egg. However, in a 1979 paper Karl Hirsch disputed Romer and Price's claim, since the fossil in question didn't show evidence for a calcite shell. Hirsch found enough phosphorus in the object's outer layer to propose that the fossil was actually an egg with a leathery shell. If the contentious fossil really is a reptile egg, it's the oldest known.

text: The earliest reptile eggshells probably had leathery membranes instead of hard shells. Eggs like this decay so quickly that fossilization is very unlikely. Therefore the fossil record is too incomplete for scientists to determine what kinds of eggshell most fossil reptile groups had. A 5.9 cm by 3.79 cm fossil from the

text: Lower Permian

text: was described in 1939 by

text: Alfred Romer

text: and

text: Lewellyn Price

text: as the oldest hard-shelled fossil egg. However, in a 1979 paper Karl Hirsch disputed Romer and Price's claim, since the fossil in question didn't show evidence for a

text: calcite

text: shell. Hirsch found enough

text: phosphorus

text: in the object's outer layer to propose that the fossil was actually an egg with a leathery shell. If the contentious fossil really is a reptile egg, it's the oldest known.

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answers: Lower Permian

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answers: fossilization is very unlikely

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answers: Fossil record is too incomplete

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossilization

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or

text: traces

text: of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing

text: rock

text: formations and

text: sedimentary

text: layers (

text: strata

text: ) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the

text: Holocene

text: Epoch to the oldest from the

text: Archaean

text: Eon, up to 3.4

text: billion

text: years old.

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answers: rock formations

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answers: A preserved specimen is called a fossil

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answers: sedimentary

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answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Three types of molds used are the flash plunger-type, straight plunger-type, and the "landed" plunger-type molds.  The flash type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic and produces a horizontal flash (excess material protruding from the mold).  The straight plunger-type mold allows for some inaccuracy in the charge of plastic and produces a vertical flash.  The landed plunger type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic, and no flash is produced. Further details are explained in Ref 3.

text: Three types of molds used are the flash plunger-type, straight plunger-type, and the "landed" plunger-type molds.  The flash type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic and produces a horizontal flash (excess material protruding from the mold).  The straight plunger-type mold allows for some inaccuracy in the charge of plastic and produces a vertical flash.  The landed plunger type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic, and no flash is produced. Further details are explained in Ref 3.

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answers: fossilized

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answers: landed

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answers: landed

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answers: bone

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answers: Permineralization

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answers: The straight plunger-type mold

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answers: landed

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answers: molds

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answers: The straight plunger-type mold

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: molds

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Of the type specimen, most parts of the skull have become detached so that its shape is difficult to determine, but it was generally short and broad. Eleven teeth have been preserved scattered throughout the matrix, that are recurved with a broader base and have a length of three millimetres. The authors identified lower jaws with a preserved length of fifteen millimetres. The cervical vertebrae are short and broad. Six dorsal vertebrae have been preserved, nine ribs and six belly ribs at the left side. The tail has a preserved length of five centimetres, but part of this is accounted for by a section that might have been added to enhance the value of the fossil. The tail vertebrae at the base, the authenticity of which is certain, are short.

text: Of the type specimen, most parts of the skull have become detached so that its shape is difficult to determine, but it was generally short and broad. Eleven teeth have been preserved scattered throughout the matrix, that are recurved with a broader base and have a length of three millimetres. The authors identified lower jaws with a preserved length of fifteen millimetres. The cervical vertebrae are short and broad. Six dorsal vertebrae have been preserved, nine ribs and six belly ribs at the left side. The tail has a preserved length of five centimetres, but part of this is accounted for by a section that might have been added to enhance the value of the fossil. The tail vertebrae at the base, the authenticity of which is certain, are short.

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text: Oregon remained partially covered by the sea into the Cenozoic. Contemporary marine life included fig and turret-shelled snails. During the Tertiary, Oregon trees like Alniphyllum, ash, beech, cinnamon, Gargura, hemlock, hickory, hornbeam, oak, persimmon, pine, redwood, and sycamore grew in Oregon. Alders were also present. The most common local trees were the redwoods and sycamores. The Tertiary petrified wood of Oregon is sometimes partially opalized. Oregon's sea levels fluctuated rapidly during the Eocene to Oligocene interval.  Mollusks were diverse in Oregon during the Eocene, with at least 25 species known from the Fern Ridge Dam area. From the Eocene to the Oligocene, the Sunset Highway area was covered in seawater. During this interval it was inhabited by invertebrates like crinoids, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods, and scaphopods. Local Eocene sharks left their teeth behind in the Rocky Point Quarry to the west of the Nehalem River. Crocodiles lived in Oregon from 60 to 45 million years ago.  The local flora from this interval also left behind remains that would later fossilize. As the Cenozoic proceeded, the climate of Oregon became cooler and drier. Local marine life took on a more modern aspect. These were inhabited by creatures like bear dogs, camels, cats, deer, gomphotheres, and horses. Local mountain building added the Cascade and Coast ranges to the local topography. Oligocene crinoids were preserved near Vernonia. During the early Oligocene, Oregon's terrestrial environments were home to Cinnamomum, cycads, palms, the primitive sycamore Platanophyllum angustilobus, and walnuts. The plant fossil sites to the east of Clarno's Ferry are one of the few places in the world where the fruits, leaves, and wood, of prehistoric plants were preserved in a single location. Late Oligocene fossil salamanders were preserved near north Goshen. During the Oligocene and Miocene, volcanic eruption-emitted clouds of ash buried many animals. During the Pleistocene, mountains developed icy caps. A variety of environments filled the flatter areas of the state. Among these were arid plains, forests, and savannahs. Volcanic eruptions occurred sporadically in the Cascade Mountains throughout the rest of the Cenozoic.  During the Pleistocene, relatives of modern elephants left behind teeth and fragmentary skeletal remains in the Spencer Creek area and other parts of the Willamette Valley.

text: Oregon remained partially covered by the sea into the

text: Cenozoic

text: . Contemporary marine life included

text: fig

text: and turret-shelled snails. During the Tertiary, Oregon trees like

text: Alniphyllum

text: , ash, beech, cinnamon,

text: Gargura

text: , hemlock, hickory, hornbeam, oak, persimmon, pine, redwood, and sycamore grew in Oregon. Alders were also present. The most common local trees were the redwoods and sycamores. The

text: Tertiary

text: petrified wood

text: of Oregon is sometimes partially

text: opalized

text: . Oregon's

text: sea level

text: s fluctuated rapidly during the

text: Eocene

text: to

text: Oligocene

text: interval.

text: Mollusks

text: were diverse in Oregon during the Eocene, with at least 25 species known from the

text: Fern Ridge Dam

text: area. From the Eocene to the Oligocene, the

text: Sunset Highway

text: area was covered in seawater. During this interval it was inhabited by invertebrates like

text: crinoids

text: crustaceans

text: echinoderms

text: gastropods

text: , and

text: scaphopods

text: . Local Eocene sharks left their teeth behind in the Rocky Point Quarry to the west of the

text: Nehalem River

text: Crocodile

text: s lived in Oregon from 60 to 45 million years ago.  The local flora from this interval also left behind remains that would later fossilize. As the Cenozoic proceeded, the climate of Oregon became cooler and drier. Local marine life took on a more modern aspect. These were inhabited by creatures like

text: bear dog

text: s, camels, cats, deer,

text: gomphotheres

text: , and horses. Local mountain building added the

text: Cascade

text: and

text: Coast

text: ranges to the local topography. Oligocene crinoids were preserved near

text: Vernonia

text: . During the early Oligocene, Oregon's terrestrial environments were home to

text: Cinnamomum

text: cycads

text: palms

text: , the primitive sycamore

text: Platanophyllum angustilobus

text: , and walnuts. The plant fossil sites to the east of

text: Clarno's Ferry

text: are one of the few places in the world where the fruits, leaves, and wood, of prehistoric plants were preserved in a single location. Late Oligocene fossil

text: salamanders

text: were preserved near north

text: Goshen

text: . During the Oligocene and

text: Miocene

text: volcanic eruption

text: -emitted clouds of

text: ash

text: buried many animals. During the Pleistocene, mountains developed icy caps. A variety of environments filled the flatter areas of the state. Among these were arid plains, forests, and savannahs. Volcanic eruptions occurred sporadically in the Cascade Mountains throughout the rest of the Cenozoic.  During the

text: Pleistocene

text: relatives of modern elephants

text: left behind teeth and fragmentary skeletal remains in the

text: Spencer Creek

text: area and other parts of the

text: Willamette Valley

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text: Compression is useful because it helps reduce resource usage, such as data storage space or transmission capacity. Because compressed data must be decompressed to use, this extra processing imposes computational or other costs through decompression; this situation is far from being a free lunch. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off.

text: Compression is useful because it helps reduce resource usage, such as data storage space or transmission capacity. Because compressed data must be decompressed to use, this extra processing imposes computational or other costs through decompression; this situation is far from being a free lunch. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off.

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answers: data storage space

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answers: other costs

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answers: decompression

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answers: space–time

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answers: This situation is far from being a free lunch

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answers: decompression

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answers: decompression

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

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text: Theropod paleopathology is the study of injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs. In 2001, Ralph E. Molnar published a survey of pathologies in theropod dinosaur bone that uncovered pathological features in 21 genera from 10 theropod families. Pathologies have been seen on most theropod body parts, with the most common sites of preserved injury and disease being the ribs and tail vertebrae. The least common sites of preserved pathology are the weight-bearing bones like the tibia, femur and sacrum. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries, but infections and congenital deformities have also been documented. Pathologies are less frequently documented in small theropods, although this may simply be because the larger bones of correspondingly larger animals would be more likely to fossilize in the first place.

text: Theropod paleopathology is the study of

text: injury

text: and

text: disease

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs

text: . In 2001,

text: Ralph E. Molnar

text: published a survey of

text: pathologies

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaur bone that uncovered pathological features in 21

text: genera

text: from 10 theropod

text: families

text: . Pathologies have been seen on most theropod body parts, with the most common sites of preserved injury and disease being the

text: ribs

text: and

text: tail vertebrae

text: . The least common sites of preserved pathology are the weight-bearing bones like the

text: tibia

text: femur

text: and

text: sacrum

text: . Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries, but

text: infections

text: and

text: congenital deformities

text: have also been documented. Pathologies are less frequently documented in small theropods, although this may simply be because the larger bones of correspondingly larger animals would be more likely to fossilize in the first place.

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text: Carbonate mineralization involves the formation of coal balls. Coal balls are the fossilizations of many different plants and their tissues.  They often occur in the presence of seawater or acidic peat. Coal balls are calcareous permineralizations of peat by calcium and magnesium carbonates. Often spherical in shape and ranging from a few grams to several hundred kilograms in mass, coal balls are formed when water containing carbonate permeates the cells of an organism.  This type of fossilization yields information about plant life in the Upper Carboniferous Period (325 to 280 million years ago).

text: Carbonate mineralization involves the formation of coal balls.

text: Coal ball

text: s are the fossilizations of many different plants and their tissues.  They often occur in the presence of seawater or acidic peat. Coal balls are calcareous permineralizations of peat by

text: calcium

text: and

text: magnesium

text: carbonates. Often spherical in shape and ranging from a few grams to several hundred kilograms in mass, coal balls are formed when water containing carbonate permeates the cells of an organism.  This type of fossilization yields information about plant life in the Upper

text: Carboniferous

text: Period (325 to 280 million years ago).

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: seawater or acidic peat

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: coal balls

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: permineralizations

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: ball

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permeates the cells of an organism

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: The presence of seawater or acidic peat

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: Carbonate mineralization

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Coal balls

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: carbonate permeates the cells of an organism

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: Yes

answer: 1

text: Epigenetic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations will be found in progress in the same rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in felsic rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, etc. Kaolinization is the decomposition of the feldspars, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz and other clay minerals); it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinization is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is typical of peridotites, but occurs in most of the mafic rocks. In uralitization, secondary hornblende replaces augite; chloritization is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases, diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

text: Epigenetic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations will be found in progress in the same rock.

text: Silicification

text: , the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in

text: felsic

text: rocks, such as

text: rhyolite

text: , but is also found in serpentine, etc.

text: Kaolinization

text: is the decomposition of the

text: feldspar

text: s, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into

text: kaolin

text: (along with quartz and other

text: clay minerals

text: ); it is best shown by

text: granite

text: s and

text: syenite

text: s.

text: Serpentinization

text: is the alteration of

text: olivine

text: to

text: serpentine

text: (with

text: magnetite

text: ); it is typical of

text: peridotite

text: s, but occurs in most of the

text: mafic

text: rocks. In

text: uralitization

text: , secondary

text: hornblende

text: replaces

text: augite

text: chloritization

text: is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to

text: chlorite

text: , and is seen in many diabases,

text: diorite

text: s and

text: greenstones

text: Epidotization

text: occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development of

text: epidote

text: from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_006252

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: mafic rocks

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: epidote

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: epidote

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: epigenetic

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: Serpentinization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Serpentinization

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: Kaolinization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: epidote

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: Silicification

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: rhyolite

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Different compression levels are used for each type of material being distributed. The reason for this is that some material compresses much better than others. Movies and MP3 files are already compressed with near maximum capacity. Repacking them would just create larger files and increase decompression time. Ripped movies are still packaged due to the large file size, but compression is disallowed and the RAR format is used only as a container. Because of this, modern playback software can easily play a release directly from the packaged files, and even stream it as the release is downloaded (if the network is fast enough).

text: Different compression levels are used for each type of material being distributed. The reason for this is that some material compresses much better than others. Movies and

text: files are already compressed with near maximum capacity. Repacking them would just create larger files and increase decompression time. Ripped movies are still packaged due to the large file size, but compression is disallowed and the RAR format is used only as a container. Because of this, modern playback software can easily play a release directly from the packaged files, and even stream it as the release is downloaded (if the network is fast enough).

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answers: fossilized

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: Ripped movies

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: decompression

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: Bone

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: It would just create larger files

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: decompression

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: fossilizing

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: fossils of bacteria and jellyfish

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: decompression time

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 0

text: Theropods exhibit a wide range of diets, from insectivores to herbivores and carnivores. Strict carnivory has always been considered the ancestral diet for theropods as a group, and a wider variety of diets was historically considered a characteristic exclusive to the avian theropods (birds). However, discoveries in the late 20th and early 21st centuries showed that a variety of diets existed even in more basal lineages. All early finds of theropod fossils showed them to be primarily carnivorous. Fossilized specimens of early theropods known to scientists in the 19th and early 20th centuries all possessed sharp teeth with serrated edges for cutting flesh, and some specimens even showed direct evidence of predatory behavior. For example, a Compsognathus longipes fossil was found with a lizard in its stomach, and a Velociraptor mongoliensis specimen was found locked in combat with a Protoceratops andrewsi (a type of ornithischian dinosaur).

text: Theropods exhibit a wide range of diets, from insectivores to herbivores and carnivores. Strict carnivory has always been considered the ancestral diet for theropods as a group, and a wider variety of diets was historically considered a characteristic exclusive to the avian theropods (birds). However, discoveries in the late 20th and early 21st centuries showed that a variety of diets existed even in more basal lineages. All early finds of theropod fossils showed them to be primarily

text: carnivorous

text: . Fossilized specimens of early theropods known to scientists in the 19th and early 20th centuries all possessed sharp teeth with serrated edges for cutting flesh, and some specimens even showed direct evidence of predatory behavior. For example, a

text: Compsognathus longipes

text: fossil was found with a

text: lizard

text: in its stomach, and a

text: Velociraptor mongoliensis

text: specimen was found locked in combat with a

text: Protoceratops andrewsi

text: (a type of

text: ornithischian

text: dinosaur).

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answers: NDQ_006252

answers: dinosaurs

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: a lizard in its stomach

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: fossilized

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: Velociraptor mongoliensis

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossilization

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: herbivores

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: fossils

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Sometimes, for smaller fossils, a stiff brush may simply be used to dust off and clean the fossil. For larger fossils, a chisel can be used to remove large bits of dirt, however, you run the risk of damaging the fossil.Running water can cause some types of fossils to either dislodge from the rock, or even crumble and break apart, for they are very fragile. Dental tools are sometimes used to remove small amounts of rock from the fossil.

text: Sometimes, for smaller fossils, a stiff brush may simply be used to dust off and clean the fossil. For larger fossils, a chisel can be used to remove large bits of dirt, however, you run the risk of damaging the fossil.Running water can cause some types of fossils to either dislodge from the rock, or even crumble and break apart, for they are very fragile. Dental tools are sometimes used to remove small amounts of rock from the fossil.

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answers: rock

answers: NDQ_006253

answers: crumble and break apart

answers: NDQ_006254

answers: dislodge

answers: NDQ_006255

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006256

answers: permineralization

answers: NDQ_006257

answers: They are very fragile

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: fossil

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: dislodge from the rock

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: fossils

answers: NDQ_006261

answers: a chisel can be used

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: Neoephemera antiqua is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "UWBM76324". It is a single, mostly complete naiad of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The fossil specimen is from the University of Washington site number UWBM A0307B which works sediments from the Tom thumb tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation. Outcrops of the formation are found in and around Republic.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections housed in the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, part of the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington, USA.  N. antiqua was first studied by Nina D. Sinitchenkova of the Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with her 1999 type description being published in the Russian text Palaeontological Journal.  The specific epithet antiqua was coined from the Latin "antiquus", meaning old.

text: Neoephemera antiqua is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , number "UWBM76324". It is a single, mostly complete

text: naiad

text: of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The fossil specimen is from the

text: University of Washington

text: site number UWBM A0307B which works sediments from the Tom thumb tuff member of the

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: . Outcrops of the formation are found in and around Republic.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections housed in the

text: Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture

text: , part of the

text: University of Washington

text: in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: , USA.  N. antiqua was first studied by

text: Nina D. Sinitchenkova

text: of the

text: Paleontological Institute

text: of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: , with her 1999

text: type description

text: being published in the Russian text Palaeontological Journal.  The

text: specific epithet

text: antiqua was coined from the

text: Latin

text: "antiquus", meaning old.

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answers: fine grained shale

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answers: shale

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answers: compression

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answers: holotype

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answers: It is a single, mostly complete naiad

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text: The genus is known from a single male specimen, the holotype, currently deposited in the collections of the Kelowna Centennial Museum in Kelowna, British Columbia, as number "NH.998.015.002".  The type specimen is well preserved in early Early Eocene Hat Creek amber from deposits between Cache Creek and Lillooet, British Columbia, that are part of the greater Okanagan Highlands paleoenvironment. The fossil was first studied by Bruce Archibald of Simon Fraser University and Vladimir Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Archibald and Makarkin published their type description in the journal The Canadian Entomologist volume 136 published in 2004. The genus name is a combination of the Greek mikros meaning "small" and Berotha, a genus in the family Berothidae.  The species name is in honor of Terry McCullough, a supporter of paleontological research at the type locality. "Mac" is used in the species epithet to conform to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recommendations regarding names from personal names.

text: The genus is known from a single male specimen, the

text: holotype

text: , currently deposited in the collections of the Kelowna Centennial Museum in

text: Kelowna

text: British Columbia

text: , as number "NH.998.015.002".  The type specimen is well preserved in early

text: Early Eocene

text: Hat Creek amber

text: from deposits between

text: Cache Creek

text: and

text: Lillooet, British Columbia

text: , that are part of the greater

text: Okanagan Highlands

text: paleoenvironment. The fossil was first studied by Bruce Archibald of

text: Simon Fraser University

text: and

text: Vladimir Makarkin

text: of the

text: Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

text: .  Archibald and Makarkin published their

text: type description

text: in the journal

text: The Canadian Entomologist

text: volume 136 published in 2004. The genus name is a combination of the

text: Greek

text: mikros meaning "small" and

text: Berotha

text: , a genus in the family Berothidae.  The species name is in honor of Terry McCullough, a supporter of paleontological research at the type locality. "Mac" is used in the species epithet to conform to the

text: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: recommendations regarding names from personal names.

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answers: The type specimen is well preserved in early Early Eocene Hat Creek amber from deposits between Cache Creek and Lillooet

answers: NDQ_006258

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006259

answers: amber

answers: NDQ_006260

answers: berothidae

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answers: amber

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: Yes

answer: No

answer: No

answer: 1

text: The species is known only from three fossils, the holotype and an additional fossil not designated a type specimen. The holotype, number "No. 2003", is a single male specimen consisting of part and counterpart fossils, originally part of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder collection as specimens "No. 13,709" and "No. 11,388". The additional specimen, "No.8444", is a female; all three fossils are currently residing in  Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology paleoentomology collections.  A. exhumatum was first studied by Theodore Cockerell, who published the type description in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 1906. The derivation and meaning of the specific epithet exhumatum ("dug up") was not specified by Cockerell in the type description.

text: The species is known only from three fossils, the holotype and an additional fossil not designated a

text: type specimen

text: . The holotype, number "No. 2003", is a single male specimen consisting of

text: part and counterpart

text: fossils, originally part of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: collection as specimens "No. 13,709" and "No. 11,388". The additional specimen, "No.8444", is a female; all three fossils are currently residing in

text: Harvard University

text: 's

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: paleoentomology

text: collections.  A. exhumatum was first studied by

text: Theodore Cockerell

text: , who published the

text: type description

text: in the

text: Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: , 1906. The derivation and meaning of the

text: specific epithet

text: exhumatum ("dug up") was not specified by Cockerell in the type description.

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text: Data compression methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

text: Data compression

text: methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

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