text: The iron-rich core region of the Earth is divided into a  radius solid inner core and a  radius liquid outer core. The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a dynamo. This generates a magnetosphere about the Earth that deflects particles from the solar wind, which prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere from sputtering. As heat from the core is transferred outward toward the mantle, the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid outer core region to freeze, thereby releasing thermal energy and causing the solid inner core to grow. This iron crystallization process has been ongoing for about a billion years. In the modern era, the radius of the inner core is expanding at an average rate of roughly  per year, at the expense of the outer core. Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo is being supplied by this process of inner core formation.

text: The iron-rich core region of the Earth is divided into a  radius solid

entity_name: Inner core

text: inner core

text: and a  radius liquid

entity_name: Outer core

text: outer core

text: . The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a

entity_name: Dynamo

text: dynamo

text: . This generates a

entity_name: Earth's magnetic field

text: magnetosphere

text: about the Earth that deflects particles from the

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: , which prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere from

entity_name: Sputtering

text: sputtering

text: . As heat from the core is transferred outward toward the mantle, the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid outer core region to freeze, thereby releasing thermal energy and causing the solid inner core to grow. This iron crystallization process has been ongoing for about a billion years. In the modern era, the radius of the inner core is expanding at an average rate of roughly  per year, at the expense of the outer core. Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo is being supplied by this process of inner core formation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of sensor?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: dynamo.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: magnetosphere about the Earth that deflects particles from the solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: releasing thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind,

text: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet in its global Go List in 2014 May issue, "An evening at Ultraviolet is a surreal drama... Paul Pairet serves 22 courses, each a theatrical production with music, scents and video."

text: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet in its global Go List in 2014 May issue, "An evening at Ultraviolet is a surreal drama... Paul Pairet serves 22 courses, each a theatrical production with music, scents and video."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: music, scents and video."

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Food & Wine US listed Ultraviolet

text: OneRoof Energy is an American solar energy financing company that provides leasing options for homeowners seeking to have photovoltaic solar panels installed. OneRoof energy is a public company that trades on the TSX Venture Exchange under the symbol ON.

text: OneRoof Energy is an American

entity_name: Solar energy

text: solar energy

text: financing company that provides leasing options for homeowners seeking to have photovoltaic

entity_name: Solar panel

text: solar panel

text: s installed. OneRoof energy is a

entity_name: Public company

text: public company

text: that trades on the

entity_name: TSX Venture Exchange

text: TSX Venture Exchange

text: under the symbol ON.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: photovoltaic solar panels

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: photovoltaic solar panels

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photovoltaic

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: TSX Venture Exchange under the symbol ON.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photovoltaic solar panels

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: photovoltaic solar panels

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: photovoltaic solar panels

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: TSX Venture Exchange under the symbol ON.

text: Daly argues that nature has provided basically two sources of wealth at man's disposal, namely a stock of terrestrial mineral resources and a flow of solar energy. An 'asymmetry' between these two sources of wealth exist in that we may — within some practical limits — extract the mineral stock at a rate of our own choosing (that is, rapidly), whereas the flow of solar energy reaches Earth at a rate beyond human control. Since the Sun will continue to shine on Earth at a fixed rate for billions of years to come, it is the terrestrial mineral stock — and not the Sun — that constitutes the crucial scarcity factor regarding man's economic future.

text: Daly argues that nature has provided basically two sources of wealth at man's disposal, namely a stock of terrestrial

entity_name: Mineral resource classification

text: mineral resources

text: and a flow of

text: solar energy

text: . An 'asymmetry' between these two sources of wealth exist in that we may — within some practical limits — extract the mineral stock at a rate of our own choosing (that is, rapidly), whereas the flow of solar energy reaches Earth at a rate beyond human control. Since the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: will continue to shine on Earth at a fixed rate for billions of years to come, it is the terrestrial mineral stock — and not the Sun — that constitutes the crucial scarcity factor regarding man's economic future.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Sun will continue to shine on Earth at a fixed rate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Sun will continue to shine on Earth at a fixed rate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: extract the mineral stock

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy.

text: The Heliotrope is an environmentally friendly house designed by the German architect Rolf Disch who also designed the Sonnenschiff (Sun Ship). Three such houses exist in Germany, the first experimental version having been built in 1994 as the architect's home in Freiburg im Breisgau, while the other two are used as exhibition buildings for the Hansgrohe company in Offenburg and a dentist's lab in Hilpoltstein in Bavaria. The Heliotrope in Freiburg was the first building in the world to capture more energy than it uses, all of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral. The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible. Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a  dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel, a geothermal heat exchanger, a combined heat and power unit (CHP) and solar-thermal balcony railings to provide heat and warm water. These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to capture anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year. The Heliotrope is also fitted with a grey-water cleansing system and built-in natural waste composting.

text: The Heliotrope is an

entity_name: Environmentally friendly

text: environmentally friendly

text: house designed by the German architect

entity_name: Rolf Disch

text: Rolf Disch

text: who also designed the

entity_name: Sonnenschiff

text: Sonnenschiff (Sun Ship)

text: . Three such houses exist in Germany, the first experimental version having been built in 1994 as the architect's home in

entity_name: Freiburg im Breisgau

text: Freiburg im Breisgau

text: , while the other two are used as exhibition buildings for the

entity_name: Hansgrohe

text: Hansgrohe

text: company in

entity_name: Offenburg

text: Offenburg

text: and a dentist's lab in Hilpoltstein in

entity_name: Bavaria

text: Bavaria

text: . The Heliotrope in

text: Freiburg

text: was the first building in the world to capture more energy than it uses, all of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral. The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible. Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a

entity_name: Solar tracker

text: dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel

text: , a

entity_name: Geothermal heat pump

text: geothermal heat exchanger

text: , a

entity_name: Cogeneration

text: combined heat and power unit (CHP)

text: and

entity_name: Solar thermal energy

text: solar-thermal

text: balcony railings to provide heat and warm water. These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to capture anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year. The Heliotrope is also fitted with a

entity_name: Greywater

text: grey-water cleansing system

text: and built-in natural waste composting.

method: UNH-ecn

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: CO neutral

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warmth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Sonnenschiff

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Sonnenschiff (Sun Ship).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sonnenschiff

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: CO neutral.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO neutral.

text: The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main-sequence star. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the core occupy less volume than the hydrogen atoms that were fused. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre and experience a stronger gravitational force, according to the inverse-square law. This stronger force increases the pressure on the core, which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. It is estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years.

text: The Sun is about halfway through its

entity_name: Main sequence

text: main-sequence

text: stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million

entity_name: Tonne

text: tonne

text: s of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing

entity_name: Neutrino

text: neutrino

text: s and

entity_name: Solar irradiance

text: solar radiation

text: . At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10

text: billion

text: years as a main-sequence star. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the core occupy less volume than the

entity_name: Hydrogen atom

text: hydrogen atom

text: s that were fused. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre and experience a stronger gravitational force, according to the

entity_name: Inverse-square law

text: inverse-square law

text: . This stronger force increases the pressure on the core, which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. It is estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: inverse-square law.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium.

text: Rolf Disch Solar Architecture, creators of the Heliotrope as well as several other visionary green building projects, is based in the solar city Freiburg, Germany.  Led by solar pioneer Rolf Disch, who has been building with the sun for more than 40 years, this architecture office's prolific portfolio also includes such successful projects as the Solar Settlement and the Sun Ship. As winners of the 2002 European Solar Prize and the 2003 Global Energy Award these projects demonstrate the power of solar architecture; harness the sun both passively and actively.  Lying at the base of the Black Forest, in the sunniest city in Germany, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture offers a premium design that exceeds the highest ecological standards while creating profitable opportunities for their investors.

text: Rolf Disch Solar Architecture, creators of the

entity_name: Heliotrope (building)

text: Heliotrope

text: as well as several other visionary green building projects, is based in the solar city

text: Freiburg

entity_name: Germany

text: Germany

text: .  Led by solar pioneer

text: Rolf Disch

text: , who has been building with the sun for more than 40 years, this architecture office's prolific portfolio also includes such successful projects as the

entity_name: Solar Settlement

text: Solar Settlement

text: and the

entity_name: Sun Ship (building)

text: Sun Ship

text: . As winners of the 2002

entity_name: European Solar Prize

text: European Solar Prize

text: and the 2003

text: Global Energy Award

text: these projects demonstrate the power of solar architecture; harness the sun both passively and actively.  Lying at the base of the

entity_name: Black Forest

text: Black Forest

text: , in the sunniest city in Germany, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture offers a premium design that exceeds the highest ecological standards while creating profitable opportunities for their investors.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: creating profitable opportunities for their investors

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Black Forest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harness the sun both passively and actively.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar architecture;

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2003 Global Energy Award

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun

text: In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.

text: In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on

entity_name: Silicon carbide

text: silicon carbide

text: or

entity_name: Aluminium nitride

text: aluminium nitride

text: , or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by

entity_name: Sunlight

text: sunlight

text: and

entity_name: Lighting

text: artificial light

text: . A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the

entity_name: Infrared

text: IR

text: region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some

entity_name: Thermal radiation

text: radiation

text: in the UVC band, whereas the

text: Sun

text: 's radiation at this band is absorbed by the

entity_name: Atmosphere of Earth

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVC

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UV detectors

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: IR wavelengths;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 185- to 260-nanometer range

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVC

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UVC band,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UVC band,

text: The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water. The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal) for disinfecting water using only sunlight and PET plastic bottles. SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. SODIS is already applied in numerous developing countries. Educational pamphlets on the method are available in many languages, each equivalent to the English-language version.

text: The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water. The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal) for

entity_name: Disinfectant

text: disinfecting

text: water using only

text: sunlight

text: and

entity_name: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET

text: plastic bottles. SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized

entity_name: Water treatment

text: water treatment

text: , usually applied at the household level and is recommended by the

entity_name: World Health Organization

text: World Health Organization

text: as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. SODIS is already applied in numerous

entity_name: Developing country

text: developing countries

text: . Educational pamphlets on the method are available in many languages, each equivalent to the English-language version.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: kill pathogens in water

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: kill pathogens

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: UV light and increased temperature

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight can also kill pathogens

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water.

text: One of the major causes for the decreased performance of cells is overheating. The efficiency of a solar cell declines by about 0.5% for every 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature. This means that a 100 degree increase in surface temperature could decrease the efficiency of a solar cell by about half. Self-cooling solar cells are one solution to this problem. Rather than using energy to cool the surface, pyramid and cone shapes can be formed from silica, and attached to the surface of a solar panel. Doing so allows visible light to reach the solar cells, but reflects infrared rays (which carry heat).

text: One of the major causes for the decreased performance of cells is overheating. The efficiency of a solar cell declines by about 0.5% for every 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature. This means that a 100 degree increase in surface temperature could decrease the efficiency of a solar cell by about half. Self-cooling solar cells are one solution to this problem. Rather than using energy to cool the surface, pyramid and cone shapes can be formed from

entity_name: Silicon dioxide

text: silica

text: , and attached to the surface of a solar panel. Doing so allows visible light to reach the

entity_name: Solar cell

text: solar cell

text: s, but reflects

text: infrared

text: rays (which carry heat).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared rays

text: A shift in thinking is needed in 2030 when almost all of your energy comes from non-dispatchable sources – how much wind or solar power is available depends on the weather conditions, and instead of turning on and off available sources becomes one of either storing or transmission of those sources to when they can be used or to where they can be used. Some excess available energy can be diverted to hydrogen production for use in ships and airplanes, a relatively long term energy storage, in a world where almost all of our energy comes from wind, water, and solar (WWS). Hydrogen is not an energy source, but is a storage medium. A cost analysis will need to be made between long distance transmission and excess capacity. The sun is always shining somewhere, and the wind is always blowing somewhere on the Earth, but is it cost effective to bring solar power from Australia to New York?

text: A shift in thinking is needed in 2030 when almost all of your energy comes from non-dispatchable sources – how much wind or solar power is available depends on the weather conditions, and instead of turning on and off available sources becomes one of either storing or transmission of those sources to when they can be used or to where they can be used. Some excess available energy can be diverted to hydrogen production for use in ships and airplanes, a relatively long term energy storage, in a world where almost all of our energy comes from wind, water, and solar (WWS). Hydrogen is not an energy source, but is a storage medium. A cost analysis will need to be made between long distance transmission and excess capacity. The sun is always shining somewhere, and the wind is always blowing somewhere on the Earth, but is it cost effective to bring solar power from Australia to New York?

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The sun is always shining somewhere,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A cost analysis will need to be made between long distance transmission and excess capacity.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: is it cost effective to bring solar power from Australia to New York?

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: long distance transmission and excess capacity.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Australia to New York?

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Australia

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: is it cost effective to bring solar power from Australia to New York?

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: long distance transmission and excess capacity.

text: The Flyby spacecraft is about 3.2 meters (10.5 ft) long, 1.7 meters (5.6 ft) wide and 2.3 meters (7.5 ft) high. It includes two solar panels, a debris shield, and several science instruments for imaging, infrared spectroscopy, and optical navigation to its destination near the comet. The spacecraft also carried two cameras, the High Resolution Imager (HRI), and the Medium Resolution Imager (MRI). The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible-light camera with a filter wheel, and an imaging infrared spectrometer called the "Spectral Imaging Module" or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres. It has been optimized for observing the comet's nucleus. The MRI is the backup device, and was used primarily for navigation during the final 10-day approach. It also has a filter wheel, with a slightly different set of filters.

text: The Flyby spacecraft is about 3.2 meters (10.5 ft) long, 1.7 meters (5.6 ft) wide and 2.3 meters (7.5 ft) high. It includes two solar panels, a debris shield, and several science instruments for

entity_name: Speckle imaging

text: imaging

entity_name: Infrared spectroscopy

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: , and optical navigation to its destination near the comet. The spacecraft also carried two cameras, the

text: High Resolution Imager

text: (HRI), and the Medium Resolution Imager (MRI). The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible-light camera with a filter wheel, and an imaging

text: infrared

text: spectrometer

text: called the "Spectral Imaging Module" or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres. It has been optimized for observing the comet's nucleus. The MRI is the backup device, and was used primarily for navigation during the final 10-day approach. It also has a filter wheel, with a slightly different set of filters.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar panels

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: aerosols

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 4.8 micrometres

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar panels,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectroscopy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observing the comet's nucleus.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Flyby spacecraft

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: visible-light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: a slightly different set of filters.

text: Although the Sun will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. Solar Probe Plus, planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury.

text: Although the

text: Sun

text: will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most

text: space weather

text: , which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective.

text: Solar Probe Plus

text: , planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun generates most space weather

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared and ultraviolet radiations

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiations

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiations

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun generates most space weather,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared and ultraviolet radiations

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface.

text: Solar energy obtained from the Nano flakes can help benefit in a couple of ways. One reason solar energy is not used today is because the high cost of the materials but Nano flakes can potentially help lower the cost. Also since more solar energy can theoretically be obtained from Nano flakes, their use can potentially will keep the earth's environment cleaner by reducing the need for fossil fuels.

text: Solar energy obtained from the Nano flakes can help benefit in a couple of ways. One reason solar energy is not used today is because the high cost of the materials but Nano flakes can potentially help lower the cost. Also since more solar energy can theoretically be obtained from Nano flakes, their use can potentially will keep the earth's environment cleaner by reducing the need for fossil fuels.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: keep the earth's environment cleaner

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of this passage?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reducing the need for fossil fuels.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Nano flakes can potentially help lower the cost.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Nano flakes

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: fossil fuels.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Nano flakes

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: fossil fuels.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: fossil fuels.

text: Rapper Shyne recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

text: Rapper

text: Shyne

text: recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: “Solar Energy”.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ketura Sun

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: “Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 2011,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: “Solar Energy”.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ketura Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: “Solar Energy”.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: “Solar Energy”.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ketura Sun

text: The song features a Motown sound-style "telegraph key" rhythm, which gave it the feeling of a pop song. This and the "baby, baby" refrain gave the song a throwaway quality that fit in with Achtung Babys mission of deconstructing U2's image. Paradoxically, the arrangement also featured U2's 1980s "repeato-riff" guitar style and the rest of the lyric was a serious love song that dealt with themes of anxiety and despair.  Bono has described "Ultraviolet" as "an epic U2 song [but] the key of it left my voice in a conversational place and allowed a different kind of lyric writing."  Producer Eno wrote that a combination of opposites within each song was a signature characteristic of Achtung Baby and that as part of that, "Ultraviolet" had a "helicopterish melancholy".  In Achtung Babys album package, "Ultraviolet" is presented next to a photograph of a crumbling Berlin building that has a Trabant parked in front of it.

text: The song features a

text: Motown sound

text: -style "telegraph key" rhythm, which gave it the feeling of a pop song. This and the "baby, baby" refrain gave the song a throwaway quality that fit in with Achtung Babys mission of deconstructing U2's image. Paradoxically, the arrangement also featured U2's 1980s "repeato-riff" guitar style and the rest of the lyric was a serious love song that dealt with themes of anxiety and despair.  Bono has described "Ultraviolet" as "an epic U2 song [but] the key of it left my voice in a conversational place and allowed a different kind of lyric writing."  Producer Eno wrote that a combination of opposites within each song was a signature characteristic of Achtung Baby and that as part of that, "Ultraviolet" had a "helicopterish melancholy".  In Achtung Babys album package, "Ultraviolet" is presented next to a photograph of a crumbling

text: Berlin

text: building that has a

text: Trabant

text: parked in front of it.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: a combination of opposites

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "Ultraviolet"

text: Gliese 667 Cc, in a tight 28-day orbit of a dim red star, must receive 90% of the light that Earth receives, but most of its incoming light is in the infrared, so a higher percentage of this incoming energy should be absorbed by the planet. The planet is expected to absorb about the same amount of energy from its star that Earth absorbs from the Sun, which would allow surface temperatures similar to Earth and perhaps liquid water.

text: Gliese 667 Cc, in a tight 28-day orbit of a dim red star, must receive 90% of the light that Earth receives, but most of its incoming light is in the infrared, so a higher percentage of this incoming energy should be absorbed by the planet. The planet is expected to absorb about the same amount of energy from its star that Earth absorbs from the Sun, which would allow surface temperatures similar to Earth and perhaps liquid water.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: allow surface temperatures similar to Earth and perhaps liquid water

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: would allow surface temperatures similar to Earth and perhaps liquid water.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: most of its incoming light is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: most of its incoming light is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared,

text: Plans envisioned a follow-on to MABTEX as a much more sophisticated aerobot named MGA, for "Mars Geoscience Aerobot". Design concepts for MGA envisioned a superpressure balloon system very much like that of MABTEX, but much larger. MGA would carry a payload ten times larger than that of MABTEX, and would remain aloft for up to three months, circling Mars more than 25 times and covering over . The payload would include sophisticated equipment, such as an ultrahigh resolution stereo imager, along with oblique imaging capabilities; a radar sounder to search for subsurface water; an infrared spectroscopy system to search for important minerals; a magnetometer; and weather and atmospheric instruments. MABTEX might be followed in turn by a small solar-powered blimp named MASEPA, for "Mars Solar Electric Propelled Aerobot".

text: Plans envisioned a follow-on to MABTEX as a much more sophisticated aerobot named MGA, for "Mars Geoscience Aerobot". Design concepts for MGA envisioned a superpressure balloon system very much like that of MABTEX, but much larger. MGA would carry a payload ten times larger than that of MABTEX, and would remain aloft for up to three months, circling Mars more than 25 times and covering over . The payload would include sophisticated equipment, such as an ultrahigh resolution stereo imager, along with oblique imaging capabilities; a

text: radar

text: sounder to search for

text: subsurface water

text: ; an

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: system to search for important minerals; a magnetometer; and weather and atmospheric instruments. MABTEX might be followed in turn by a small solar-powered blimp named MASEPA, for "Mars Solar Electric Propelled Aerobot".

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar-powered blimp

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: weather and atmospheric instruments.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared spectroscopy system to search for important minerals;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: MASEPA,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared spectroscopy system to search for important minerals;

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "Mars Geoscience Aerobot".

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Mars

text: Infrared astronomy has also been used to assess the composition of solid materials in the interstellar medium, including silicates, kerogen-like carbon-rich solids, and ices. This is because unlike visible light, which is scattered or absorbed by solid particles, the IR radiation can pass through the microscopic interstellar particles, but in the process there are absorptions at certain wavelengths that are characteristic of the composition of the grains. As above with radio astronomy, there are certain limitations, e.g. N is difficult to detect by either IR or radio astronomy.

text: Infrared astronomy has also been used to assess the composition of solid materials in the interstellar medium, including

text: silicate

text: s,

text: kerogen

text: -like carbon-rich solids, and

text: ice

text: s. This is because unlike visible light, which is scattered or absorbed by solid particles, the IR radiation can pass through the microscopic interstellar particles, but in the process there are absorptions at certain wavelengths that are characteristic of the composition of the grains. As above with radio astronomy, there are certain limitations, e.g. N is difficult to detect by either IR or radio astronomy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: N

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared astronomy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: IR radiation can pass through the microscopic interstellar particles,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: absorptions at certain wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared astronomy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: visible light,

text: The components of the weather cycles responsible for the deterioration of most materials are non-ionizing radiation, atmospheric temperature and moisture in its various forms. This, combined with the effects of wind and atmospheric gases and pollutants. Although the ultraviolet (UV) portion of solar radiation is mainly responsible for initiating weathering effects, the visible and near-infrared portions can also contribute to the weathering processes. Colored materials are susceptible to visible radiation, and near-infrared radiation can accelerate chemical reactions by raising the material temperature. The other factors act synergistically with solar radiation to significantly influence the weathering processes. All weather factors, including the quality and quantity of sunlight, vary with geographic location, time of day and year, and climatalogical conditions. In order to fully understand and predict the effect of weather on materials, data is required on each factor that may contribute to degradation.

text: The components of the weather cycles responsible for the deterioration of most materials are

text: non-ionizing radiation

text: atmospheric temperature

text: and moisture in its various forms. This, combined with the effects of wind and atmospheric gases and

text: pollutant

text: s. Although the

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) portion of

text: solar radiation

text: is mainly responsible for initiating weathering effects, the visible and near-infrared portions can also contribute to the weathering processes. Colored materials are susceptible to

text: visible radiation

text: , and

text: near-infrared radiation

text: can accelerate

text: chemical reaction

text: s by raising the material temperature. The other factors act synergistically with solar radiation to significantly influence the weathering processes. All weather factors, including the quality and quantity of

text: sunlight

text: , vary with geographic location, time of day and year, and climatalogical conditions. In order to fully understand and predict the effect of weather on materials, data is required on each factor that may contribute to degradation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: significant influence the weathering processes

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: initiating weathering effects,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible and near-infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet (UV) portion of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: near-infrared radiation can accelerate chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet (UV) portion of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet (UV) portion of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (UV)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet (UV)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: non-ionizing radiation,

text: Crystyl Mo wrote for Time Out Shanghai in Ultraviolet’s opening month (May 2012), “Ultraviolet is radical and it was very much worth the wait… The food is central to the night, never just a prop; each meticulously crafted bite is so delectable, we’re left craving more after nearly every course.”

text: Crystyl Mo wrote for Time Out Shanghai in Ultraviolet’s opening month (May 2012), “Ultraviolet is radical and it was very much worth the wait… The food is central to the night, never just a prop; each meticulously crafted bite is so delectable, we’re left craving more after nearly every course.”

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The food is central to the night, never just a prop;

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet’s

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet’s

text: where p is the momentum, E is the energy (of the photon or flux), and c is the speed of light. Solar radiation pressure can be related to the irradiance (solar constant) value of 1361 W/m at 1 AU (Earth-Sun distance), as revised in 2011:

text: where p is the momentum, E is the energy (of the photon or flux), and c is the

text: speed of light

text: . Solar radiation pressure can be related to the irradiance (

text: solar constant

text: ) value of 1361 W/m at 1

text: AU

text: (Earth-Sun distance), as revised in 2011:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar radiation pressure

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the shortest wavelength of light?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter wavelength means the wave has less energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar radiation pressure

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar radiation pressure can be related to the irradiance

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: photon

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: irradiance

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: E is the energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar radiation pressure can be related to the irradiance

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar radiation pressure can be related to the irradiance

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photon or flux), and c is the speed of light.

text: Built originally in 1993 as the private residence and special project of Rolf Disch, the Heliotrope is a one-of-a-kind design.  The Heliotrope in Freiburg was the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral.  The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible.  Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a  dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel, a geothermal heat exchanger, a combined heat and power unit (CHP) and solar-thermal balcony railings to provide heat and warm water.  These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to produce anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The Heliotrope is also fitted with a grey-water cleansing system and built-in natural waste composting.At the same time Freiburg’s Heliotrope was built, Hansgrohe contracted Rolf Disch Solar Architecture to design and build another Heliotrope to be used as a visitor’s center and showroom in Offenburg, Germany.  A third Heliotrope was then contracted and built in Hilpoltstein, Bavaria to be used as a technical dental laboratory.  Disch’s unique design accommodates different utilization from private residences to laboratories, and nevertheless maintains the structure’s positive energy balance.In addition to the original Heliotrope design, Rolf Disch has drawn plans for larger versions of the project to be built as a rotating hotel, which gives every guest a beautiful view, as well as administrative buildings and even an exhibition pavilion for the EXPO 2010 in Shanghai.

text: Built originally in 1993 as the private residence and special project of Rolf Disch, the

text: Heliotrope

text: is a one-of-a-kind design.  The Heliotrope in Freiburg was the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral.  The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible.  Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a

text: dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel

text: , a

text: geothermal heat exchanger

text: , a

text: combined heat and power unit (CHP)

text: and

text: solar-thermal

text: balcony railings to provide heat and warm water.  These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to produce anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The Heliotrope is also fitted with a

text: grey-water cleansing system

text: and built-in natural waste composting.At the same time Freiburg’s Heliotrope was built,

text: Hansgrohe

text: contracted

text: Rolf Disch Solar Architecture

text: to design and build another Heliotrope to be used as a visitor’s center and showroom in

text: Offenburg

text: Germany

text: .  A third Heliotrope was then contracted and built in

text: Hilpoltstein

text: Bavaria

text: to be used as a technical dental laboratory.  Disch’s unique design accommodates different utilization from private residences to laboratories, and nevertheless maintains the structure’s positive energy balance.In addition to the original Heliotrope design, Rolf Disch has drawn plans for larger versions of the project to be built as a rotating hotel, which gives every guest a beautiful view, as well as administrative buildings and even an exhibition pavilion for the

text: EXPO 2010

text: in

text: Shanghai

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: How does the structure physically rotate to track the sun

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: grey-water cleansing

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warmth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: A third Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A third Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: CO neutral. The structure physically rotates to track the sun,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Heliotrope

text: Solar Cities is an innovative  demonstration programme designed to promote solar power, smart meters, energy conservation and new approaches to electricity pricing to provide a sustainable energy future in urban locations throughout Australia. Adelaide, Alice Springs, Blacktown, Central Victoria and Townsville were nominated to be the first Solar Cities of Australia, in the 2007 election campaign the Labor government committed to expanding the programme to include Coburg and Perth. Solar Cities is an innovative program that aims to show how technology, behavior change, and new approaches to energy pricing can combine to provide a sustainable energy future in urban locations throughout Australia" (Alice Solar City Energy Champions 2008, p. 2).

text: Solar Cities is an innovative  demonstration programme designed to promote

text: solar power

text: smart meter

text: s,

text: energy conservation

text: and new approaches to electricity pricing to provide a sustainable energy future in urban locations throughout Australia.

text: Adelaide

text: Alice Springs

text: Blacktown

text: Central Victoria

text: and

text: Townsville

text: were nominated to be the first Solar Cities of Australia, in the 2007 election campaign the

text: Labor government

text: committed to expanding the programme to include

text: Coburg

text: and

text: Perth

text: . Solar Cities is an innovative program that aims to show how technology, behavior change, and new approaches to energy pricing can combine to provide a sustainable energy future in urban locations throughout Australia" (Alice Solar City Energy Champions 2008, p. 2).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Blacktown

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sustainable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: smart meters,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar power,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar Cities

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: 2).

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Perth.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2).

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 2).

text: In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.

text: In modern times, Earth's

text: perihelion

text: occurs around 3 January, and its

text: aphelion

text: around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9% in solar energy reaching Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Can sensors detect wavelengths of energy we cant see

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: aphelion

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 6.9% in solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: water in the Southern Hemisphere.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 6.9% in solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 3 January,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 6.9% in solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

text: When a solar flare occurs on the Sun a blast of intense ultraviolet and x-ray radiation hits the dayside of the Earth after a propagation time of about 8 minutes. This high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states and knocking electrons free in the process of photoionization. The low altitude ionospheric layers (D region and E region) immediately increase in density over the entire dayside. The ionospheric disturbance enhances VLF radio propagation. Scientists on the ground can use this enhancement to detect solar flares; by monitoring the signal strength of a distant VLF transmitter, sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) are recorded and indicate when solar flares have taken place.

text: When a solar flare occurs on the

text: Sun

text: a blast of intense

text: ultraviolet

text: and

text: x-ray

text: radiation hits the dayside of the Earth after a propagation time of about 8 minutes. This high energy

text: radiation

text: is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states and knocking

text: electron

text: s free in the process of

text: photoionization

text: . The low altitude ionospheric layers (

text: D region

text: and

text: E region

text: ) immediately increase in density over the entire dayside. The ionospheric disturbance enhances VLF radio propagation. Scientists on the ground can use this enhancement to detect solar flares; by monitoring the signal strength of a distant VLF transmitter, sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) are recorded and indicate when solar flares have taken place.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: x-ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet and x-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sudden ionospheric disturbances

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet and x-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar flare occurs on the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet and x-ray radiation

text: In the early years of Superman comics, the sun of Krypton was unnamed and was given no effect on Superman's powers, which were attributed first to greater evolution, and then to a combination of innate powers and Earth's lower gravity. Starting in 1960, the fact that Earth's sun was yellow while Krypton's was red became the explanation for Superman's powers, with our sunlight fueling them like the charge of a battery. In the standard Silver Age continuity existing up until Crisis on Infinite Earths, Rao's red sun radiation actively suppressed the superhuman abilities of Kryptonians, as their powers only worked in the radiation of a yellow sun. The post-Crisis version created by John Byrne stated that Kryptonians absorbed solar energy, with the dim output of Rao being just enough to sustain them, and a yellow sun producing enough energy to "supercharge" a Kryptonian metabolism to levels of power not seen in their native environment, though it takes years for Clark Kent to build up enough energy to reach the level of power he displays as Superman. The 2004 graphic novel Superman: Birthright corroborates this, although in recent years, other writers have depicted red-sun radiation matching that of Rao as once again actively shutting down Kryptonian powers, for as long as an individual is exposed to it.

text: In the early years of Superman comics, the sun of Krypton was unnamed and was given no effect on Superman's powers, which were attributed first to greater

text: evolution

text: , and then to a combination of innate powers and Earth's lower gravity. Starting in 1960, the fact that Earth's

text: sun was yellow

text: while Krypton's was red became the explanation for Superman's powers, with our sunlight fueling them like the charge of a battery. In the standard

text: Silver Age

text: continuity existing up until

text: Crisis on Infinite Earths

text: , Rao's red sun radiation actively suppressed the superhuman abilities of

text: Kryptonians

text: , as their powers only worked in the radiation of a yellow sun. The

text: post-Crisis

text: version created by John Byrne stated that Kryptonians absorbed solar energy, with the dim output of Rao being just enough to sustain them, and a yellow sun producing enough energy to "supercharge" a Kryptonian metabolism to levels of power not seen in their native environment, though it takes years for Clark Kent to build up enough energy to reach the level of power he displays as Superman. The 2004 graphic novel

text: Superman: Birthright

text: corroborates this, although in recent years, other writers have depicted red-sun radiation matching that of Rao as once again actively shutting down Kryptonian powers, for as long as an individual is exposed to it.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: our sunlight fueling them like the charge of a battery

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Kryptonians

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: fueling them like the charge of a battery.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Kryptonians absorbed solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Kryptonians absorbed solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: dim output

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun of Krypton

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Krypton

text: An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as "thermal radiation thermometers".

text: An infrared thermometer is a

text: thermometer

text: which infers temperature from a portion of the

text: thermal radiation

text: sometimes called

text: blackbody radiation

text: emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a

text: laser

text: is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its

text: emissivity

text: , the object's temperature can often be determined. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as "thermal radiation thermometers".

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the object's temperature can often be determined.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared thermometer

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the object's temperature can often be determined.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared thermometer

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared thermometer

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared thermometer

text: Other large solar flares also occurred on April 2, 2001 (X20), October 28, 2003 (X17.2 and 10), September 7, 2005 (X17), February 17, 2011 (X2), August 9, 2011 (X6.9), March 7, 2012 (X5.4), July 6, 2012 (X1.1). On July 6, 2012, a solar storm hit just after midnight UK time, when an X1.1 solar flare fired out of the AR1515 sunspot. Another X1.4 solar flare from AR 1520 region of the Sun, second in the week, reached the Earth on July 15, 2012 with a geomagnetic storm of G1–G2 level. A X1.8-class flare was recorded on October 24, 2012. There has been major solar flare activity in early 2013, notably within a 48-hour period starting on May 12, 2013, a total of four X-class solar flares were emitted ranging from an X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2, the latter of which was one of the largest year 2013 flares. Departing sunspot complex AR2035-AR2046 erupted on April 25, 2014 at 0032 UT, producing a strong X1.3-class solar flare and an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the explosion.

text: Other large solar flares also occurred on April 2, 2001 (X20), October 28, 2003 (X17.2 and 10), September 7, 2005 (X17), February 17, 2011 (X2), August 9, 2011 (X6.9), March 7, 2012 (X5.4), July 6, 2012 (X1.1). On July 6, 2012, a solar storm hit just after midnight UK time, when an X1.1 solar flare fired out of the AR1515 sunspot. Another X1.4 solar flare from AR 1520 region of the Sun, second in the week, reached the Earth on July 15, 2012 with a

text: geomagnetic storm

text: of G1–G2 level. A X1.8-class flare was recorded on October 24, 2012. There has been major solar flare activity in early 2013, notably within a 48-hour period starting on May 12, 2013, a total of four X-class solar flares were emitted ranging from an X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2, the latter of which was one of the largest year 2013 flares. Departing sunspot complex AR2035-AR2046 erupted on April 25, 2014 at 0032 UT, producing a strong X1.3-class solar flare and an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the explosion.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: How are solar flares detected?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X1.8

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: geomagnetic storm

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (X20),

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Other large solar flares

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by neutrinos, must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active compost heap, and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's

text: heat

text: via

text: fusion

text: : the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by

text: neutrinos

text: , must travel through many successive layers to the

text: solar photosphere

text: before it escapes into space as

text: sunlight

text: or

text: kinetic energy

text: of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active

text: compost heap

text: , and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sunlight or kinetic energy of particles

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: metabolism of an adult human.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The energy conversion per unit time

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: neutrinos,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: neutrinos,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos,

text: Spectral solar irradiance (SSI) – the spectral distribution of the TSI – has been monitored since 2003 by the SORCE Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM). It has been found that SSI at UV (ultraviolet) wavelength corresponds in a less clear, and probably more complicated fashion, with Earth's climate responses than earlier assumed, fueling broad avenues of new research in “the connection of the Sun and stratosphere, troposphere, biosphere, ocean, and Earth’s climate”.

text: Spectral solar irradiance (SSI) – the spectral distribution of the TSI – has been monitored since 2003 by the

text: SORCE

text: Spectral Irradiance Monitor

text: (SIM). It has been found that SSI at UV (ultraviolet) wavelength corresponds in a less clear, and probably more complicated fashion, with Earth's climate responses than earlier assumed, fueling broad avenues of new research in “the connection of the Sun and stratosphere, troposphere, biosphere, ocean, and Earth’s climate”.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth’s climate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: SSI

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth’s climate”.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Spectral solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Spectral solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Spectral solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: UV (ultraviolet) wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Spectral solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UV (ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Spectral solar irradiance

text: The film grossed $9,064,880 in its opening weekend. Ultraviolet grossed $18,535,812 domestically and $12,534,399 overseas, making for a worldwide gross of $31,070,211. The budget for Ultraviolet was estimated at $30 million.

text: The film grossed $9,064,880 in its opening weekend. Ultraviolet grossed $18,535,812 domestically and $12,534,399 overseas, making for a worldwide gross of $31,070,211. The budget for Ultraviolet was estimated at $30 million.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a worldwide gross of $31,070,211.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: $31,070,211.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet grossed $18,535,812

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet grossed $18,535,812

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) is nearly constant with a variability of not more than about 0.1% of the solar constant, the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with solar flares can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over a time span of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of ionization and dissociation at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of solar activity, it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100% or greater, with periods with period of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. Evidently, that solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during equinox.

text: The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various

text: ionospheric layer

text: s as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) is nearly constant with a variability of not more than about 0.1% of the

text: solar constant

text: , the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with

text: solar flares

text: can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over a time span of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of

text: ionization

text: and

text: dissociation

text: at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of

text: solar activity

text: , it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100% or greater, with periods with period of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. Evidently, that solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during

text: equinox

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Lyman  line

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionospheric layers

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a temperature increase at these heights

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-ray bursts associated with solar flares

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 170 nm

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation

text: German-British astronomer Sir William Herschel is credited with the discovery of infrared in 1800. He made an instrument called a spectrometer to measure the magnitude of radiant power at different wavelengths. This instrument was made from three pieces. The first was a prism to catch the sunlight and direct and disperse the colors down onto a table, the second was a small panel of cardboard with a slit wide enough for only a single color to pass through it and finally, three mercury-in-glass thermometers. Through his experiment Herschel found that red light had the highest degree of temperature change in the light spectrum, however, infrared heating was not commonly used until World War II. During World War II infrared heating became more widely used and recognized. The main applications were in the metal finishing fields, particularly in the curing and drying of paints and lacquers on military equipment. Banks of lamp bulbs were used very successfully but by today's standards, the power intensities were very low. The technique offered much faster drying times than the fuel convection ovens of the time. Production bottlenecks were mitigated and military supplies to the armed forces were maintained. After World War II the adoption of infrared heating techniques continued but on a much slower basis. In the mid 1950s the motor vehicle industry began to show interest in the capabilities of infrared for paint curing and a number of production line infrared tunnels came into use.

text: German-British

text: astronomer

text: Sir William Herschel

text: is credited with the discovery of

text: infrared

text: in 1800. He made an instrument called a

text: spectrometer

text: to measure the magnitude of radiant power at different

text: wavelengths

text: . This instrument was made from three pieces. The first was a prism to catch the sunlight and direct and disperse the colors down onto a table, the second was a small panel of cardboard with a slit wide enough for only a single color to pass through it and finally, three mercury-in-glass

text: thermometers

text: . Through his experiment Herschel found that red light had the highest degree of temperature change in the

text: light spectrum

text: , however, infrared heating was not commonly used until

text: World War II

text: . During World War II infrared heating became more widely used and recognized. The main applications were in the metal finishing fields, particularly in the curing and drying of paints and lacquers on military equipment. Banks of lamp bulbs were used very successfully but by today's standards, the power intensities were very low. The technique offered much faster drying times than the fuel convection ovens of the time. Production bottlenecks were mitigated and military supplies to the armed forces were maintained. After World War II the adoption of infrared heating techniques continued but on a much slower basis. In the mid 1950s the motor vehicle industry began to show interest in the capabilities of infrared for paint curing and a number of production line infrared tunnels came into use.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: military supplies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: red light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared heating was not commonly used until World War II.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: spectrometer to measure the magnitude of radiant power at different wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: The history of X-ray astronomy begins in the 1920s, with interest in short wave communications for the U.S. Navy.  This was soon followed by extensive study of the earth's ionosphere. By 1927, interest in the detection of X-ray and ultraviolet (UV) radiation at high altitudes inspired researchers to launch Goddard's rockets into the upper atmosphere to support theoretical studies and data gathering. The first successful rocket flight equipped with instrumentation able to detect solar ultraviolet radiation occurred in 1946. X-ray solar studies began in 1949. By 1973 a solar instrument package orbited on Skylab providing significant solar data.

text: The history of X-ray astronomy begins in the 1920s, with interest in

text: short wave communications

text: for the

text: U.S. Navy

text: .  This was soon followed by extensive study of the earth's

text: ionosphere

text: . By 1927, interest in the detection of X-ray and ultraviolet (UV) radiation at high altitudes inspired researchers to launch

text: Goddard's rockets

text: into the upper atmosphere to support theoretical studies and data gathering. The first successful rocket flight equipped with instrumentation able to detect

text: solar ultraviolet radiation

text: occurred in 1946.

text: X-ray solar studies

text: began in 1949. By 1973 a solar instrument package orbited on

text: Skylab

text: providing significant solar data.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: significant solar data

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar data.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detect solar ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: short wave communications

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet (UV) radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionosphere.

text: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

text: Radiative cooling

text: is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation.

text: Outgoing

text: energy is an important effect in the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: . In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: (infrared)

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: short-wave

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Radiative cooling

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (visible) energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: (infrared) radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Radiative cooling

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: (infrared)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Radiative cooling

text: He proposed and joined the international project to build the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), a project that included joint efforts from the United States, United Kingdom and the Netherlands, which made the first survey of the infrared sky from space, avoiding all atmospheric interference with observations, starting in 1983. Low served as the chief technologist for the project. After an accident at Jet Propulsion Laboratory destroyed preamplifiers used in the infrared detectors, Low led an effort at Infrared Laboratories to develop improved replacement units to resolve the crisis. IRAS was able to discover in excess of 500,000 infrared sources, including many galaxies, and has discovered shells of debris surrounding stars that show the early stages of planetary formation, with debris similar to that later found as the Kuiper belt that encircles our Solar System beyond the orbit of Neptune. Based on these findings, researchers have concluded that the majority of galactic radiation is emitted in the form of infrared radiation that is generated when light from young stars is absorbed by interstellar dust and then radiated from the dust in the form of heat. In 1984, IRAS found that the galaxy Arp 220, located 300 million light years from Earth, is the closest Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy, emitting 100 times more energy than the Milky Way galaxy, primarily in the infrared spectrum, even though it is faintly visible by telescope using visible light.

text: He proposed and joined the international project to build the

text: Infrared Astronomy Satellite

text: (IRAS), a project that included joint efforts from the United States,

text: United Kingdom

text: and the

text: Netherlands

text: , which made the first survey of the infrared sky from space, avoiding all atmospheric interference with observations, starting in 1983. Low served as the chief technologist for the project. After an accident at

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: destroyed

text: preamplifier

text: s used in the infrared detectors, Low led an effort at Infrared Laboratories to develop improved replacement units to resolve the crisis. IRAS was able to discover in excess of 500,000 infrared sources, including many galaxies, and has discovered shells of debris surrounding stars that show the early stages of

text: planetary formation

text: , with debris similar to that later found as the

text: Kuiper belt

text: that encircles our

text: Solar System

text: beyond the orbit of

text: Neptune

text: . Based on these findings, researchers have concluded that the majority of galactic radiation is emitted in the form of infrared radiation that is generated when light from young stars is absorbed by

text: interstellar dust

text: and then radiated from the dust in the form of heat. In 1984, IRAS found that the galaxy

text: Arp 220

text: , located 300 million light years from Earth, is the closest

text: Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy

text: , emitting 100 times more energy than the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy, primarily in the infrared spectrum, even though it is faintly visible by telescope using visible light.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: emitting 100 times more energy than the Milky Way galaxy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared detectors,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: shells of debris surrounding stars that show the early stages of planetary formation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: atmospheric interference

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–Sun system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fossil fuel, conventional hydroelectric, wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use of Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable elements, while geothermal power taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).

text: Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the

text: Earth

text: Moon

text: system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–

text: Sun

text: system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including

text: fossil fuel

text: conventional hydroelectric

text: wind

text: biofuel

text: wave

text: and

text: solar energy

text: Nuclear energy

text: makes use of Earth's mineral deposits of

text: fissionable

text: elements, while

text: geothermal power

text: taps the Earth's

text: internal heat

text: , which comes from a combination of residual heat from

text: planetary accretion

text: (about 20%) and heat produced through

text: radioactive decay

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Other natural energies exploited

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest energy ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: natural energies exploited by human technology

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Tidal power

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Tidal power

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: fossil fuel,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Tidal power

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Tidal power

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Tidal power

text: Closer to the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum is the ultraviolet. The draft ISO standard on determining solar irradiances (ISO-DIS-21348) describes the ultraviolet as ranging from ~10 nm to ~400 nm. That portion closest to X-rays is often referred to as the "extreme ultraviolet" (EUV or XUV). When an EUV photon is absorbed, photoelectrons and secondary electrons are generated by ionization, much like what happens when X-rays or electron beams are absorbed by matter.

text: Closer to the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum is the

text: ultraviolet

text: . The draft ISO standard on determining solar

text: irradiance

text: s (ISO-DIS-21348) describes the ultraviolet as ranging from ~10 nm to ~400 nm. That portion closest to X-rays is often referred to as the "extreme ultraviolet" (

text: EUV

text: or XUV). When an EUV photon is absorbed,

text: photoelectrons

text: and

text: secondary electrons

text: are generated by

text: ionization

text: , much like what happens when X-rays or electron beams are absorbed by matter.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: irradiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: irradiances

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-rays or electron beams are absorbed by matter.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: <unk>10 nm to <unk>400 nm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: <unk>10 nm to <unk>400 nm.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet.

text: On October 11, the UltraViolet system launched with the Warner Bros release of Horrible Bosses, the first UV title. Flixster re-launched as the first UltraViolet streaming service. Sony subsequently released its first two UV titles in December, The Smurfs and Friends with Benefits. Universal soon followed with the release of its first UV title, Cowboys & Aliens.

text: On October 11, the UltraViolet system launched with the

text: Warner Bros

text: release of

text: Horrible Bosses

text: , the first UV title.

text: Flixster

text: re-launched as the first UltraViolet streaming service.

text: Sony

text: subsequently released its first two UV titles in December,

text: The Smurfs

text: and

text: Friends with Benefits

text: Universal

text: soon followed with the release of its first UV title,

text: Cowboys & Aliens

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Cowboys & Aliens.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UltraViolet

text: In astronomy, luminosity is the amount of electromagnetic energy a body radiates per unit of time. It is most frequently measured in two forms: visual (visible light only) and bolometric (total radiant energy), although luminosities at other wavelengths are increasingly being used as instruments become available to measure them. A bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating.  When not qualified, the term "luminosity" means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the SI units, watts, or in terms of solar luminosities. A star also radiates neutrinos, which carry off some energy (about 2% in the case of our Sun), contributing to the star's total luminosity.  While bolometers do exist, they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star because they are insufficiently sensitive across the electromagnetic spectrum and because most wavelengths do not reach the surface of the Earth.  In practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths and constructing a model of the total spectrum that is most likely to match those measurements.  In some cases, the process of estimation is extreme, with luminosities being calculated when less than 1% of the energy output is observed, for example with a hot Wolf-Rayet star observed only in the infra-red.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , luminosity is the amount of

text: electromagnetic energy

text: a body radiates per unit of time. It is most frequently measured in two forms: visual (visible light only) and bolometric (total radiant energy), although luminosities at other wavelengths are increasingly being used as instruments become available to measure them. A

text: bolometer

text: is the instrument used to measure

text: radiant energy

text: over a wide band by

text: absorption

text: and measurement of heating.  When not qualified, the term "luminosity" means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the

text: SI

text: units,

text: watt

text: s, or in terms of

text: solar luminosities

text: . A star also radiates

text: neutrino

text: s, which carry off some energy (about 2% in the case of our Sun), contributing to the star's total luminosity.  While bolometers do exist, they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star because they are insufficiently sensitive across the electromagnetic spectrum and because most wavelengths do not reach the surface of the Earth.  In practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths and constructing a model of the total spectrum that is most likely to match those measurements.  In some cases, the process of estimation is extreme, with luminosities being calculated when less than 1% of the energy output is observed, for example with a hot

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: observed only in the infra-red.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: contribute to the star's total luminosity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: contributing to the star's total luminosity.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: bolometers

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: hot Wolf-Rayet star

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: luminosities at other wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: neutrinos,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infra-red.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: (visible light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos,

text: Infrared energy is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements. Infrared energy excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared energy range.

text: Infrared energy is emitted or absorbed by

text: molecule

text: s when they change their

text: rotational-vibrational

text: movements. Infrared energy excites

text: vibration

text: al modes in a

text: molecule

text: through a change in the

text: dipole moment

text: , making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry.

text: Infrared spectroscopy

text: examines absorption and transmission of

text: photon

text: s in the infrared energy range.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy  (2DIR) is a nonlinear infrared spectroscopy technique that has the ability to correlate vibrational modes in condensed-phase systems. This technique provides information beyond linear infrared spectra, by spreading the vibrational information along multiple axes, yielding a frequency correlation spectrum. A frequency correlation spectrum can offer structural information such as vibrational mode coupling, anharmonicities, along with chemical dynamics such as energy transfer rates and molecular dynamics with femtosecond time resolution. 2DIR experiments have only become possible with the development of ultrafast lasers and the ability to generate femtosecond infrared pulses.

text: Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy  (2DIR) is a

text: nonlinear

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: technique that has the ability to correlate

text: vibrational modes

text: in condensed-phase systems. This technique provides information beyond linear infrared spectra, by spreading the vibrational information along multiple axes, yielding a frequency correlation spectrum. A frequency correlation spectrum can offer structural information such as vibrational mode coupling,

text: anharmonicities

text: , along with chemical dynamics such as energy transfer rates and molecular dynamics with femtosecond time resolution. 2DIR experiments have only become possible with the development of

text: ultrafast laser

text: s and the ability to generate femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy transfer rates

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can offer structural information

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy transfer rates

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: linear infrared spectra,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: femtosecond infrared pulses.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Two-dimensional infrared

text: In the 1980s Ormat built and operated one of the world's first power stations to produce electricity from solar energy, located just north of the Dead Sea in Israel.  The plant utilized a technology known as solar pond, a large-scale solar thermal energy collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy.  It was the largest operating solar pond ever built for electricity generation and operated up until 1988. It had an area of 210,000 m² and gave an electrical output of 5 MW.

text: In the 1980s Ormat built and operated one of the world's first power stations to produce electricity from solar energy, located just north of the Dead Sea in Israel.  The plant utilized a technology known as

text: solar pond

text: , a large-scale solar thermal energy collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy.  It was the largest operating solar pond ever built for electricity generation and operated up until 1988. It had an area of 210,000 m² and gave an electrical output of 5 MW.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: produce electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity from solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Dead Sea

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy,

text: Karo Michaelian from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) points out that any model for the origin of life must take into account the fact that life is an irreversible thermodynamic process and, like all irreversible processes, its origin and persistence as a "self-organized" system is due to its dissipation an imposed generalized chemical potential, i.e., the production of entropy. That is, entropy production is not incidental to the process of life, but rather the fundamental reason for its existence. Present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic pigments in water. This heat then catalyzes a host of secondary dissipative processes such as the water cycle, ocean and wind currents, hurricanes, etc. Michaelian argues that if the thermodynamic function of life today is to produce entropy through photon dissipation, then this probably was its function at its very beginnings. It turns out that both RNA and DNA when in water solution are very strong absorbers and extremely rapid dissipaters of UV light within the 230–290 nm wavelength region, which is a part of the Sun's spectrum that could have penetrated the prebiotic atmosphere. The amount of ultraviolet (UV-C) light reaching the Earth's surface within this spectral range in the Archean could have been on the order of 4 W/m, or some 31 orders of magnitude greater than it is today at 260 nm where RNA and DNA absorb most strongly. In fact, not only RNA and DNA, but many fundamental molecules of life (those common to all three domains of life, archea, bacteria, and eucaryote) are also pigments that absorb in the UV-C, and many of these also have a chemical affinity to RNA and DNA. Nucleic acids may thus have acted as acceptor molecules to the UV-C photon excited antenna pigment donor molecules by providing an ultrafast channel for dissipation. Michaelian has shown that there would have existed a non-linear, non-equilibrium thermodynamic imperative to the abiogenic UV-C photochemical synthesis  and proliferation of these pigments over the entire Earth surface if they augmented the solar photon dissipation rate.

text: Karo Michaelian from the

entity_name: National Autonomous University of Mexico

text: National Autonomous University of Mexico

text: (UNAM) points out that any model for the origin of life must take into account the fact that life is an irreversible thermodynamic process and, like all irreversible processes, its origin and persistence as a "self-organized" system is due to its dissipation an imposed generalized chemical potential, i.e., the production of

text: entropy

text: . That is, entropy production is not incidental to the process of life, but rather the fundamental reason for its existence. Present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic

text: pigment

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: present day life augments the entropy production

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic pigments in water

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: UV-C

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic pigments in water

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 260 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic pigments in water

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ultraviolet (UV-C) light reaching the Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: prebiotic atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: prebiotic atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (UV-C)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UV light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: non-linear,

text: If the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of Carbon /yr, and the energy reserve per metric tonne of biomass is between about 1.5E3 – 3E3 Kilowatt hours (5E6 – 10E6 BTU), or 24.8 TW average, then biomass could in principle provide 1.4 times the approximate annual  150E3 Terrawatt hours required for current world energy consumption. For reference, the total solar power on Earth is 174 kTW.  The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm (parts per million), given current living system coverage on Earth. Best in class solar cell efficiency is (20–40)%. Additionally, Earth's internal radioactive energy production, largely the driver for volcanic activity, continental drift, etc.,  is in the same range of power, 20 TW. At some 50% carbon mass content in biomass, annual production, this corresponds to about 6% of atmospheric carbon content in CO2 (for the current 400 ppm).

text: If the total annual

text: primary production

text: of

text: biomass

text: is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of Carbon /yr, and the energy reserve per

text: metric tonne

text: of biomass is between about 1.5E3 – 3E3

text: Kilowatt hour

text: s (5E6 – 10E6 BTU), or 24.8 TW average, then biomass could in principle provide 1.4 times the approximate annual  150E3 Terrawatt hours required for current

text: world energy consumption

text: . For reference, the total solar power on Earth is 174 kTW.  The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm (parts per million), given current living system coverage on Earth. Best in class solar cell efficiency is (20–40)%. Additionally, Earth's internal radioactive energy production, largely the driver for volcanic activity, continental drift, etc.,  is in the same range of power, 20 TW. At some 50% carbon mass content in biomass, annual production, this corresponds to about 6% of atmospheric carbon content in CO2 (for the current 400 ppm).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO2

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 10E6

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO2

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the total solar power on Earth is 174 kTW.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: biomass

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 143 ppm

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1.5E3 – 3E3 Kilowatt hours

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO2

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1.5E3 – 3E3

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO2

text: Zarak subsequently took command of the Decepticons, lying and claiming that he knew where Galvatron was, and that he had been appointed to lead. Zarak then had the Decepticons acquire an Earth satellite, the Solar One, which could harness solar energy, and used it to direct the sun's energy to a small world he had enslaved in a dark nebula off in space, where he was having a massive Transtector constructed for himself. With the Transtector now powered up by the solar energy, Zarak initiated a plan of his own, scheming to blow up Mars and harness the plasma energy released. To stop the Autobots, Zarak boarded his Transtector and travelled to Mars, where combined with it to battle Fortress Maximus, proclaiming that he was no longer Zarak - now, he was Scorponok (renamed MegaZarak in Japan).

text: Zarak subsequently took command of the Decepticons, lying and claiming that he knew where Galvatron was, and that he had been appointed to lead. Zarak then had the Decepticons acquire an Earth satellite, the Solar One, which could harness solar energy, and used it to direct the sun's energy to a small world he had enslaved in a dark nebula off in space, where he was having a massive Transtector constructed for himself. With the Transtector now powered up by the solar energy, Zarak initiated a plan of his own, scheming to blow up Mars and harness the plasma energy released. To stop the Autobots, Zarak boarded his Transtector and travelled to Mars, where combined with it to battle Fortress Maximus, proclaiming that he was no longer Zarak - now, he was Scorponok (renamed MegaZarak in Japan).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harness solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth satellite, the Solar One, which could harness solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: plasma energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar One,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth satellite, the Solar One, which could harness solar energy,

text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed electromagnetic energy (particularly of light) on matter by means of acoustic detection. The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates to 1880 when Alexander Graham Bell showed that thin discs emitted sound when exposed to a beam of sunlight that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The absorbed energy from the light causes local heating and through thermal expansion a pressure wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar spectrum (i.e., the infrared and the ultraviolet) can also produce sounds.

text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed

text: electromagnetic energy

text: (particularly of

text: light

text: ) on

text: matter

text: by means of

text: acoustic

text: detection. The discovery of the

text: photoacoustic effect

text: dates to 1880 when

text: Alexander Graham Bell

text: showed that thin discs emitted

text: sound

text: when exposed to a

text: beam

text: of

text: sunlight

text: that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The

text: absorbed

text: energy

text: from the light causes local

text: heat

text: ing and through

text: thermal expansion

text: a

text: pressure

text: wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar

text: spectrum

text: (i.e., the

text: infrared

text: and the

text: ultraviolet

text: ) can also produce sounds.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can also produce sounds

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can produce sounds

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: causes local heating and through thermal expansion a pressure wave or sound.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Photoacoustic spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sounds.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The absorbed energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: electromagnetic energy

text: The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism. Human hair ranges in color from white to red to blond to brown to black, which is most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening is an adaptation that evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, which also helps balancing folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make. Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

text: The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of

text: pigment

text: s called

text: melanin

text: s. Human skin color can range from

text: darkest brown

text: to

text: lightest peach

text: , or even nearly white or colorless in cases of

text: albinism

text: . Human hair ranges in color from

text: white

text: to

text: red

text: to

text: blond

text: to

text: brown

text: to

text: black

text: , which is most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the

text: skin

text: and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to

text: grey

text: or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening is an adaptation that evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, which also helps balancing

text: folate

text: , which is destroyed by

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: . Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of

text: vitamin D

text: , which requires

text: sunlight

text: to make. Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protects against ultraviolet solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: lightest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: folate

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: vitamin D,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

text: Ubiquitous Energy, Inc. is an American solar energy startup company headquartered in Redwood City, California that designs transparent solar technology to absorb ultraviolet and near infrared light (NIR) (wavelength span of λ= 650– 850 nm) while transmitting visible light through its medium called ClearView Power .  Ubiquitous Energy is a privately funded company founded in 2011 by Miles Barr, Vladimir Bulović, and Richard Lunt.  Current solar power is created in solar plants that take up lots of surface area far away from where the energy is consumed.  It is estimated 15% of the energy is lost during distribution.  Ubiquitous Energy's technology allows large cities to be solar plants themselves by converting the windows on buildings into solar energy generators.  Ubiquitous Energy is implementing its ClearView Power  technology into a wide range of products as an invisible, onboard source of electricity.  Some examples of these implementations include mobile devices, windows, an digital signage.

text: Ubiquitous Energy, Inc. is an American

text: solar energy

text: startup company headquartered in

text: Redwood City, California

text: that designs transparent solar technology to absorb

text: ultraviolet

text: and near

text: infrared light

text: (NIR) (wavelength span of λ= 650– 850 nm) while transmitting

text: visible light

text: through its medium called ClearView Power .  Ubiquitous Energy is a privately funded company founded in 2011 by Miles Barr, Vladimir Bulović, and Richard Lunt.  Current solar power is created in solar plants that take up lots of surface area far away from where the energy is consumed.  It is estimated 15% of the energy is lost during distribution.  Ubiquitous Energy's technology allows large cities to be solar plants themselves by converting the windows on buildings into solar energy generators.  Ubiquitous Energy is implementing its ClearView Power  technology into a wide range of products as an invisible, onboard source of electricity.  Some examples of these implementations include mobile devices, windows, an digital signage.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it is an invisible, onboard source of electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 850 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: consumed.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet and near infrared light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 650– 850 nm)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet and near infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 650– 850 nm)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet and near infrared light

text: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).

text: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of

text: gas

text: es, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet

text: Earth

text: and is retained by

text: Earth's gravity

text: . The atmosphere of Earth protects

text: life on Earth

text: by absorbing

text: ultraviolet

text: solar radiation

text: , warming the surface through heat retention (

text: greenhouse effect

text: ), and reducing

text: temperature

text: extremes between

text: day

text: and

text: night

text: (the

text: diurnal temperature variation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protects life on Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: How does the atmosphere protect life on Earth?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet solar radiation,

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of solar radiation (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year, latitude is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of

text: solar radiation

text: (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year,

text: latitude

text: is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Almost all of the energy available

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: invisible ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

text: Solar energy – radiant light and heat from the sun. It has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

text: Solar energy

text: – radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: . It has been harnessed by humans since

text: ancient times

text: using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: solar thermal electricity

text: and

text: solar architecture

text: , which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What can solar energy technologies do?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar energy – radiant light and heat from the sun.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar energy

text: Several solutions have been proposed to explain the calm weather on Uranus. One proposed explanation for this dearth of cloud features is that Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low internal thermal flux. Why Uranus's heat flux is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun. Uranus, by contrast, radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is  times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. In fact, Uranus's heat flux is only  W/m², which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m². The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System, colder than Neptune.

text: Several solutions have been proposed to explain the calm weather on Uranus. One proposed explanation for this dearth of cloud features is that Uranus's

text: internal heat

text: appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low internal

text: thermal flux

text: . Why Uranus's heat flux is so low is still not understood.

text: Neptune

text: , which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun. Uranus, by contrast, radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the

text: far infrared

text: (i.e.

text: heat

text: ) part of the spectrum is  times the solar energy absorbed in its

text: atmosphere

text: . In fact, Uranus's heat flux is only  W/m², which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m². The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System, colder than

text: Neptune

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 0.075 W/m2

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Uranus

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed in its atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 0.075 W/m2.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Uranus's heat flux is only W/m2,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Neptune,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Several solutions have been proposed to explain the calm weather on Uranus.

text: Nuclear power is sometimes proposed for colonies located on the Moon or on Mars, as the supply of solar energy is too discontinuous in these locations; the Moon has nights of two Earth weeks in duration. Mars has nights, relatively high gravity, and an atmosphere featuring large dust storms to cover and degrade solar panels. Also, Mars' greater distance from the Sun (1.5 astronomical units, AU) translates into E/(1.5 = 2.25) only ½-⅔ the solar energy of Earth orbit. Another method would be transmitting energy wirelessly to the lunar or Martian colonies from solar power satellites (SPSs) as described above; the difficulties of generating power in these locations make the relative advantages of SPSs much greater there than for power beamed to locations on Earth.

text: Nuclear power

text: is sometimes proposed for colonies located on the Moon or on Mars, as the supply of solar energy is too discontinuous in these locations; the Moon has nights of two Earth weeks in duration. Mars has nights, relatively high gravity, and an atmosphere featuring

text: large dust storms

text: to cover and degrade solar panels. Also, Mars' greater distance from the Sun (1.5 astronomical units, AU) translates into E/(1.5 = 2.25) only ½-⅔ the solar energy of Earth orbit. Another method would be transmitting energy wirelessly to the lunar or Martian colonies from solar power satellites (SPSs) as described above; the difficulties of generating power in these locations make the relative advantages of SPSs much greater there than for power beamed to locations on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy is too discontinuous in these locations

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: dust

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest energy ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: dust

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 1<unk>2-2<unk>3 the solar energy of Earth orbit.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Nuclear power is sometimes proposed for colonies located on the Moon or on Mars,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Nuclear power is sometimes proposed for colonies located on the Moon or on Mars,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1<unk>2-2<unk>3

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: dust storms

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: dust storms

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: dust storms to cover and degrade solar panels.

text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy, electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz) to 1000000 nm (300 GHz) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy,

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with longer

text: wavelength

text: s than those of

text: visible light

text: , extending from the nominal

text: red

text: edge of the

text: visible spectrum

text: at 700

text: nanometers

text: frequency

text: THz

text: ) to 1000000 nm (300

text: GHz

text: ) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the

text: thermal radiation

text: emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: see infrared up to at least 1050 nm

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelengths than those of visible light,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high solar reflectance (the ability to reflect the visible, infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun, reducing heat transfer to the surface) and high thermal emittance (the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy). Reflective surfaces are a form of geoengineering.

text: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high

text: solar reflectance

text: (the ability to reflect the visible,

text: infrared

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelengths of the

text: sun

text: , reducing heat transfer to the surface) and high

text: thermal emittance

text: (the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy). Reflective surfaces are a form of

text: geoengineering

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reducing heat transfer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reducing heat transfer to the surface)

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Reflective surfaces

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high solar reflectance

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: reducing heat transfer to the surface)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet wavelengths

text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although DNA is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain molecular bonds to form thymine dimers. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause sunburn to unprotected skin, as a result of photoreactions in collagen and (in the UV-B range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of reactive oxygen species in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although

text: DNA

text: is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain

text: molecular bond

text: s to form

text: thymine dimer

text: s. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause

text: sunburn

text: to unprotected skin, as a result of

text: photoreactions

text: in

text: collagen

text: and (in the

text: UV-B

text: range) also damage in DNA (for example,

text: pyrimidine dimers

text: ). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of

text: reactive oxygen species

text: in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unprotected skin

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UV-B

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can cause sunburn to unprotected skin,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photosynthetic systems in leaves).

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (400 nm)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UV-B

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV and sometimes visible light

text: Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law. So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in astronomical units (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

text: Solar energy

text: in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an

text: inverse-square law

text: . So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: commonly used to power satellites

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: commonly used to power satellites

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: night in free space,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1367/d W/m,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight.

text: Ferris constructed gaseuous simulations of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Titan and analyzed their composition using a combination of photochemistry techniques, including x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. Information gained from these studies could then be directly compared to measurements of their respective planets. The analysis of atmospheric processes on other planets in our solar system not only benefits the ongoing space exploration efforts of NASA, it may also hold insight into the history of our own planet, revealing atmospheric processes that would have been important to the emergence of life on a prebiotic Earth.

text: Ferris constructed gaseuous simulations of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Titan and analyzed their composition using a combination of photochemistry techniques, including

text: x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

text: and

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: . Information gained from these studies could then be directly compared to measurements of their respective planets. The analysis of atmospheric processes on other planets in our solar system not only benefits the ongoing space exploration efforts of NASA, it may also hold insight into the history of our own planet, revealing atmospheric processes that would have been important to the emergence of life on a prebiotic Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: emergence of life on a prebiotic Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be viewed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: emergence of life

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectroscopy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: x-ray photoelectron

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: prebiotic Earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: x-ray photoelectron

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared spectroscopy.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: x-ray photoelectron

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: x-ray photoelectron

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: life

text: Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than Geothermal power and Tidal power, derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.

text: Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than

text: Geothermal power

text: and

text: Tidal power

text: , derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: all renewable energies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: all renewable energies,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar technologies

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: distance from the equator.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar technologies

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Geothermal power and Tidal power,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

text: AATSR has three channels at thermal infrared wavelengths, from which surface temperatures are derived over both sea and land surfaces.  In addition, AATSR has four visible and near-infrared wavelength channels which are used to identify cloudy areas and to measure solar radiation that is scattered and reflected from the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.  These channels provide measurements from which land-cover properties, for example, NDVI, as well as clouds and atmospheric particulate matter (or aerosols) can be studied.

text: AATSR has three channels at thermal infrared wavelengths, from which surface temperatures are derived over both sea and land surfaces.  In addition, AATSR has four visible and near-infrared wavelength channels which are used to identify cloudy areas and to measure

text: solar radiation

text: that is scattered and reflected from the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.  These channels provide measurements from which land-cover properties, for example,

text: NDVI

text: , as well as

text: clouds

text: and atmospheric particulate matter (or

text: aerosol

text: s) can be studied.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: scattered and reflected

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be studied

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: particulate matter

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: scattered and reflected from the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible and near-infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: identify cloudy areas and to measure solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: thermal infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: thermal infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: thermal infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: particulate matter

text: The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of magnetic flux produced by dynamo action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to coronal mass ejections into interplanetary space, or flares, caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather.

text: The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of

text: magnetic flux

text: produced by

text: dynamo

text: action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to

text: coronal mass ejections

text: into interplanetary space, or

text: flares

text: , caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called

text: space weather

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can have a significant impact

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What kind of energy do flares emit?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: space weather.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar eclipses.

text: Thermosiphons are used in some liquid-based solar heating systems to heat a liquid such as water. The water is heated passively by solar energy and relies on heat energy being transferred from the sun to a solar collector. The heat from the collector can be transferred to water in two ways: directly where water circulates through the collector, or indirectly where an anti-freeze solution carries the heat from the collector and transfers it to water in the tank via a heat exchanger. Convection allows for the movement of the heated liquid out of the solar collector to be replaced by colder liquid which is in turn heated. Due to this principle, it is necessary for the water to be stored in a tank above the collector

text: Thermosiphons are used in some liquid-based

text: solar heating

text: systems to heat a liquid such as

text: water

text: . The water is heated

text: passively

text: by

text: solar energy

text: and relies on

text: heat energy

text: being transferred from the sun to a

text: solar collector

text: . The heat from the collector can be transferred to water in two ways: directly where water circulates through the collector, or indirectly where an

text: anti-freeze

text: solution carries the heat from the collector and transfers it to water in the tank via a

text: heat exchanger

text: . Convection allows for the movement of the heated liquid out of the

text: solar collector

text: to be replaced by colder liquid which is in turn heated. Due to this principle, it is necessary for the water to be stored in a tank above the collector

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The water is heated passively

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the difference between visible light and ultraviolet light?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: anti-freeze

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The water is heated passively

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermosiphons

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat energy being transferred from the sun to a solar collector.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Thermosiphons

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: anti-freeze

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: heat energy being transferred from the sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Thermosiphons

text: Superman's powers rely on his cells' ability to absorb and metabolize solar energy from yellow stars like Earth's sun or a blue star. His Kryptonian body is a living "solar battery" that absorbs solar energies and converts them to fuel for vast superhuman abilities that wouldn't otherwise be afforded under Rao, Krypton's red supergiant. His cells also store yellow sun energy so he can use his powers under objects, at night, in dark places, and in space. Thus, Superman is able to breathe in space and does not need to eat, drink or even sleep (although he does them out of habit), so long as he remains under a yellow or blue star.

text: Superman's powers rely on his cells' ability to absorb and metabolize

text: solar energy

text: from yellow

text: star

text: s like Earth's sun or a blue star. His Kryptonian body is a living "solar battery" that absorbs solar energies and converts them to fuel for vast superhuman abilities that wouldn't otherwise be afforded under

text: Rao

text: , Krypton's

text: red supergiant

text: . His cells also store yellow sun energy so he can use his powers under objects, at night, in dark places, and in space. Thus, Superman is able to breathe in space and does not need to eat, drink or even sleep (although he does them out of habit), so long as he remains under a yellow or blue star.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Superman's powers rely on his cells' ability to absorb

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: blue

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Superman

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's sun or a blue star.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Superman's

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy from yellow stars

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "solar battery" that absorbs solar energies

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Rao,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Rao, Krypton's red supergiant.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Superman

text: In representations of the Solar System, it is common to draw the trajectory of Earth from the point of view of the Sun, and the trajectory of the Moon from the point of view of Earth. This could give the impression that the Moon orbits Earth in such a way that sometimes it goes backwards when viewed from the Sun's perspective. Because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth (1 km/s) is small compared to the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun (30 km/s), this never happens. There are no rearward loops in the Moon's solar orbit.

text: In representations of the

text: Solar System

text: , it is common to draw the trajectory of Earth from the point of view of the Sun, and the trajectory of the Moon from the point of view of Earth. This could give the impression that the Moon orbits Earth in such a way that sometimes it goes backwards when viewed from the Sun's perspective. Because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth (1 km/s) is small compared to the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun (30 km/s), this never happens. There are no rearward loops in the Moon's solar orbit.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth (1 km/s is small compared to the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun (30 km/s)

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: what is the first word in the first paragraph?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: trajectory of Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: In representations of the Solar System,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: orbital velocity

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: In representations of the Solar System,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun,

text: Since a collection of gas molecules be moving at a wide range of velocities, there will always be some fast enough to produce a slow leakage of gas into space. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones with the same thermal kinetic energy, and so gases of low molecular weight are lost more rapidly than those of high molecular weight. It is thought that Venus and Mars may have lost much of their water when, after being photo dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet, the hydrogen escaped. Earth's magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the magnetic polar regions due to auroral activity, including a net 2% of its atmospheric oxygen.

text: Since a collection of gas molecules be moving at a wide range of velocities, there will always be some fast enough to produce a slow leakage of gas into space. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones with the same thermal

text: kinetic energy

text: , and so gases of low

text: molecular weight

text: are lost more rapidly than those of high molecular weight. It is thought that

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: may have lost much of their water when, after being

text: photo dissociated

text: into hydrogen and oxygen by solar

text: ultraviolet

text: , the hydrogen escaped.

text: Earth

text: 's

text: magnetic field

text: helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the magnetic polar regions due to auroral activity, including a net 2% of its atmospheric oxygen.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: may have lost much of their water

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's magnetic field helps to prevent this,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photo dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones with the same thermal kinetic energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: oxygen

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: hydrogen.

text: Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter (W/m2). Direct insolation is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar constant minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering. While the solar constant varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content, and other impurities.

text: Insolation

text: is a measure of

text: solar radiation

text: energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average

text: irradiance

text: in watts per square meter (W/m2).

text: Direct insolation

text: is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the

text: solar constant

text: minus the atmospheric losses due to

text: absorption

text: and

text: scattering

text: . While the solar constant varies with the

text: Earth-Sun distance

text: and

text: solar cycle

text: s, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the

text: Solar elevation angle

text: cloud cover

text: moisture

text: content, and other

text: impurities

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Insolation is a measure of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Insolation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Insolation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Insolation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle),

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (W/m2).

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: diffuse insolation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: absorption and scattering.

text: At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called photoionisation. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 electron volts (eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV." Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere).

text: At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called

text: photoionisation

text: . The energy required for this is always larger than about 10

text: electron volt

text: s (eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV." Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy required to ionize water

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 124 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere).

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 124 nm

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet range, the energy of photons

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 124 nm

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 124 nm

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ionizing UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "extreme UV."

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ionizing UV

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ionizing UV

text: Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn. Winds have various aspects, an important one being its velocity; another the density of the gas involved; another its energy content or wind energy.

text: Wind is the flow of

text: gas

text: es on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of

text: air

text: . In

text: outer space

text: solar wind

text: is the movement of

text: gas

text: es or charged particles from the

text: Sun

text: through space, while

text: planetary wind

text: is the

text: outgassing

text: of light

text: chemical element

text: s from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their

text: spatial scale

text: , their

text: speed

text: , the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the

text: Solar System

text: occur on

text: Neptune

text: and

text: Saturn

text: . Winds have various aspects, an important one being its

text: velocity

text: ; another the density of the gas involved; another its energy content or

text: wind energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: movement of gases or charged particles

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Neptune

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: winds on a planet in the Solar System

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wind energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Neptune and Saturn.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Wind

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: total energy stored in the magnetic field;

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: spectroscopic

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: magnetic energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: spectroscopic

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy stored in the magnetic field;

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: starspots

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: superflares.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: chromospheric activity,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: chromospheric activity,

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation. When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: , and

text: lithosphere

text: , and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and

text: ocean circulation

text: . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in

text: radiative equilibrium

text: and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Global temperatures will be stable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: polar regions

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's heat engine,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Received radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: heats equatorial regions more than polar regions.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water,

text: Stars have deep gravity wells, so the energy required for such operations is large. For example, lifting solar material from the surface of the Sun to infinity requires 2.1 × 10 J/kg. This energy could be supplied by the star itself, collected by a Dyson sphere; using only 10% of the Sun's total power output would allow 5.9 × 10 kilograms of matter to be lifted per year (0.0000003% of the Sun's total mass), or 8% of the mass of Earth's moon.

text: Stars have deep

text: gravity well

text: s, so the energy required for such operations is large. For example, lifting solar material from the surface of the

text: Sun

text: to infinity requires 2.1

text: × 10

text: J

text: kg

text: . This energy could be supplied by the star itself, collected by a

text: Dyson sphere

text: ; using only 10% of the Sun's total power output would allow 5.9 × 10 kilograms of matter to be lifted per year (0.0000003% of the Sun's total mass), or 8% of the mass of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: moon

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 8% of the mass of Earth's moon

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 8% of the mass of Earth's moon.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Dyson sphere;

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Dyson sphere;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Stars have deep gravity wells,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar material

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2.1 <unk> 10 J/kg.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Stars have deep gravity wells,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Stars have deep gravity wells,

text: The SolarFest Renewable Energy music festival began in Vermont in 1995. The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth's limited resources, to promote renewable energy, and to support the creation of sustainable communities.Solar Energy is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth.  This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.  In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Today, Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:  Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes, buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest.

text: The SolarFest Renewable Energy

text: music festival

text: began in

text: Vermont

text: in 1995. The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth's limited resources, to promote

text: renewable energy

text: , and to support the creation of sustainable communities.

text: Solar Energy

text: is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth.  This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.  In the 1830s, the British astronomer

text: John Herschel

text: used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to

text: Africa

text: . Today, Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:  Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes, buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This energy can be converted into other forms of energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This energy can be converted into other forms of energy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: communities.Solar Energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: communities.Solar Energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar thermal collector box

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: communities.Solar Energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: (solar radiation)

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun’s

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: communities.Solar Energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: communities.Solar Energy

text: Energy is used up and lost as heat as it moves through ecosystems, and new energy is continually added to the earth in the form of solar radiation. The earth is an open system in regards to energy, it is constantly accepting it in the form of solar radiation. Nutrients and other materials at large however are continuously circulated within and among ecosystems. The primary organism within any food system is capable of utilizing energy to synthesize organic compounds from inorganic precursors, and of storing biochemical energy in the process. The growth of the plant is primary production, this results in the increase of plant biomass to a system. Primary consumers get their energy from primary producers, and thus are able to assimilate the producer’s stored energy. As a generalized trophic level consumers feed on all forms of organisms, and more specifically there are types of consumers by instinct or choice(herbivores, vegetarians, omnivores). Beyond the initial consumer there may be other consumers who derive their energy from consumers preceding them. Primary production provides for all trophic members as it provides energy to primary consumers that in turn provide energy to secondary consumers and so forth. In this way energy is transferred from one form and source to another. The efficiency for consumers to grow is limited by the use of their feed for a metabolic processes and their efficiency of conversion for digested food. The energy that is used for growth is assimilated into new tissue or reproduction and is the net production stored as a result for this process. On average metabolic processes utilize 90% of the gross energy intake, whereas assimilation utilizes 10%. The amount that is assimilated out of all the total energy intake is also the Efficiency of conversion. The collective energy assimilated in one trophic level is the energy available to the succeeding level. There is consecutively less energy available to succeeding trophic levels. Consider a situation where 1000kcalories are available to beef through grain feed and that their net production after consuming feed is 100kcalories, only 100kcalories would be available to the trophic level above, and beyond that 10kcalories for the next.

text: Efficiency of conversion

text: . The collective energy assimilated in one trophic level is the energy available to the succeeding level. There is consecutively less energy available to succeeding trophic levels. Consider a situation where 1000kcalories are available to beef through grain feed and that their net production after consuming feed is 100kcalories, only 100kcalories would be available to the trophic level above, and beyond that 10kcalories for the next.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: continually added to the earth in the form of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Can sensors detect wavelengths of energy we cant see

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it is constantly accepting it

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: assimilation utilizes 10%.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 10%.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 10%.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: assimilation utilizes 10%.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: assimilation utilizes 10%.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: secondary consumers

text: The Earth is a ball in space perpetually intercepting a cylinder of parallel energy rays from the sun. (Think of a tennis ball being held in the wind.) The angle of any earthly site to the solar beam is determined by

text: The

text: Earth

text: is a ball in space perpetually intercepting a

text: cylinder

text: of parallel energy rays from the sun. (Think of a tennis ball being held in the wind.) The angle of any earthly site to the solar beam is determined by

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: intercepting a cylinder

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: how long are the wavelengths?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Earth is a ball in space perpetually intercepting

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The angle of any earthly site to the solar beam

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: parallel energy rays from the sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The angle of any earthly site to the solar beam

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The angle

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: parallel energy rays from the sun.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: parallel energy rays from the sun.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: parallel energy rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: energy rays from the sun.

text: The concept for the so-called Dyson–Harrop satellite begins with a long metal wire loop pointed at the sun. This wire is charged to generate a cylindrical magnetic field that snags the electrons that make up half the solar wind. These electrons get funnelled into a metal spherical receiver to produce a current, which generates the wire's magnetic field – making the system self-sustaining. Any current not needed for the magnetic field powers an infrared laser trained on satellite dishes back on Earth, designed to collect the energy. Earth's air does not absorb infra-red light, so the system would be highly efficient. Back on the satellite, the current has been drained of its electrical energy by the laser – the electrons fall onto a ring-shaped sail, where incoming sunlight can excite them enough to keep the satellite in orbit around the sun.

text: The concept for the so-called Dyson–Harrop satellite begins with a long metal wire loop pointed at the sun. This wire is charged to generate a cylindrical magnetic field that snags the electrons that make up half the solar wind. These electrons get funnelled into a metal spherical receiver to produce a current, which generates the wire's magnetic field – making the system self-sustaining. Any current not needed for the magnetic field powers an infrared laser trained on satellite dishes back on Earth, designed to collect the energy. Earth's air does not absorb infra-red light, so the system would be highly efficient. Back on the satellite, the current has been drained of its electrical energy by the laser – the electrons fall onto a ring-shaped sail, where incoming sunlight can excite them enough to keep the satellite in orbit around the sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: keep the satellite in orbit around the sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: keep the satellite in orbit around the sun.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared laser

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infra-red light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Earth's air does not absorb infra-red light,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: long

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infra-red light,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Earth's air does not absorb infra-red light,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infra-red light,

text: Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space.

text: Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low

text: energy

text: to Space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Outgoing Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Outgoing Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Outgoing Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Outgoing Longwave Radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Outgoing Longwave Radiation

text: The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.

text: The Sun is the Solar System's

text: star

text: and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its

text: core

text: high enough to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: , making it a

text: main-sequence

text: star. This releases an enormous amount of

text: energy

text: , mostly

text: radiated

text: into

text: space

text: as

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: peaking in

text: visible light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: mostly radiated into space

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: hydrogen

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: hydrogen into helium,

text: It is the ratio of output to that of energy input in the form of fuel. It gives the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel is converted into mechanical work. It shows that all chemical energy of fuel is not converted into heat energy.

text: It is the

text: ratio

text: of output to that of energy input in the form of fuel. It gives the efficiency with which the

text: chemical energy

text: of fuel is converted into

text: mechanical work

text: . It shows that all chemical energy of fuel is not converted into

text: heat energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heat energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: mechanical work.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: fuel.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: heat energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: all chemical energy of fuel is not converted into heat energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: fuel.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: fuel.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: heat energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: all chemical energy of fuel is not converted into heat energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: fuel.

text: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy, usually, through photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels that convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy.

text: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct

text: solar energy

text: , usually, through

text: photovoltaic

text: (PV) cells contained in

text: solar panel

text: s that convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly into electric energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electric energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar cars

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar cars

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar cars

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy,

text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700 nm), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1

text: astronomical unit

text: ), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the

text: zenith

text: is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700

text: nm

text: ), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8%

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The total amount of energy received at ground level

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 52 to 55 percent infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm).

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: short-wave ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The total amount of energy

text: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

text: Solar

text: radiation

text: (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the

text: Sun

text: . Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar radiation

text: Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon.  The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.

text: Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon.  The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Energy for the ocean circulation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Energy for the ocean circulation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: energy

text: McPherson began manufacturing spectral test instrumentation in 1952. The company's first spectral test instruments were rocket born spectrometers used outside the earth’s atmosphere to study the vacuum ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum.

text: McPherson began manufacturing spectral test instrumentation in 1952. The company's first spectral test instruments were rocket born

text: spectrometers

text: used outside the

text: earth’s atmosphere

text: to study the

text: vacuum ultraviolet

text: portion of the

text: solar spectrum

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: study the vacuum ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: study the vacuum ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1952.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: vacuum ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

text: The oceans cover almost two-third of the surface of the earth and capture a majority of the solar energy that reaches the earth. Especially in tropical regions, solar energy is absorbed by the ocean and stored as heat. The balance between the incoming solar radiation and the heat loss due to evaporation and convection accounts for a constant temperature of the oceanic surface water. 				As depth increases, the ocean water becomes colder, due to the accumulation of ice-cold water that has melted from the polar regions. Because of its higher density, this cold water flows along the bottom of the ocean from the poles towards the equator, displacing the lower-density water above. These two phenomena provide for a layered oceanic structure in deep, tropical oceans with a reservoir of warm water at the surface and a reservoir of cold water deeper in the ocean. The temperature difference between these layers varies between 22 °C and 25 °C. Until today this vast sustainable energy reservoir remains largely unused.

text: The oceans cover almost two-third of the surface of the earth and capture a majority of the solar energy that reaches the earth. Especially in tropical regions, solar energy is absorbed by the ocean and stored as heat. The balance between the incoming solar radiation and the heat loss due to evaporation and convection accounts for a constant temperature of the oceanic surface water. 				As depth increases, the ocean water becomes colder, due to the accumulation of ice-cold water that has melted from the polar regions. Because of its higher density, this cold water flows along the bottom of the ocean from the poles towards the equator, displacing the lower-density water above. These two phenomena provide for a layered oceanic structure in deep, tropical oceans with a reservoir of warm water at the surface and a reservoir of cold water deeper in the ocean. The temperature difference between these layers varies between 22 °C and 25 °C. Until today this vast sustainable energy reservoir remains largely unused.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy is absorbed by the ocean and stored as heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: polar regions

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy is absorbed by the ocean and stored as heat.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 22 °C and 25 °C.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The oceans cover almost two-third of the surface of the earth

text: The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.

text: The Dead Sea area has become a location for

text: health

text: research

text: and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of

text: pollen

text: s and other

text: allergen

text: s in the

text: atmosphere

text: , the reduced

text: ultraviolet

text: component of

text: solar radiation

text: , and the higher

text: atmospheric pressure

text: at this great depth each may have specific

text: health effect

text: s. For example, persons experiencing reduced

text: respiratory

text: function from

text: disease

text: s such as

text: cystic fibrosis

text: seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reduced ultraviolet component

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: pollens and other allergens

text: Even with fully automated production, limitations on the number of goods produced would arise from the availability of raw materials and energy, as well as ecological damage associated with manufacturing technologies. Advocates of technological abundance often argue for more extensive use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands. Advocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example, asteroid mining is sometimes discussed as a way of greatly reducing scarcity for many useful metals such as nickel. While early asteroid mining might involve manned missions, advocates hope that eventually humanity could have automated mining done by self-replicating machines. If this were done, then the only capital expenditure would be a single self-replicating unit (whether robotic or nanotechnological), after which the number of units could replicate at no further cost, limited only by the available raw materials needed to build more.

text: Even with fully automated production, limitations on the number of goods produced would arise from the availability of raw materials and energy, as well as ecological damage associated with manufacturing technologies. Advocates of technological abundance often argue for more extensive use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands. Advocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example,

text: asteroid mining

text: is sometimes discussed as a way of greatly reducing scarcity for many useful metals such as nickel. While early asteroid mining might involve manned missions, advocates hope that eventually humanity could have

text: automated mining

text: done by self-replicating machines. If this were done, then the only capital expenditure would be a single self-replicating unit (whether robotic or nanotechnological), after which the number of units could replicate at no further cost, limited only by the available raw materials needed to build more.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: thousands.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: energy

text: It has been estimated that Russia's gross potential for solar energy is 2.3 trillion tce. The regions with the best solar radiation potential are the North Caucasus, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea areas, and southern parts of Siberia and the Far East. This potential is largely unused, although the possibilities for off-grid solar energy or hybrid applications in remote areas are huge. However, the construction of a single solar power plant Kislovodskaya SPP (1.5 MW) has been delayed.

text: It has been estimated that Russia's gross potential for solar energy is 2.3 trillion tce. The regions with the best solar radiation potential are the North Caucasus, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea areas, and southern parts of Siberia and the Far East. This potential is largely unused, although the possibilities for off-grid solar energy or hybrid applications in remote areas are huge. However, the construction of a single solar power plant Kislovodskaya SPP (1.5 MW) has been delayed.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Caspian Sea

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: off-grid solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 2.3 trillion tce.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The regions with the best solar radiation potential are the North Caucasus,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2.3 trillion tce.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation potential are the North Caucasus,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: North Caucasus,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2.3 trillion tce.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Russia's gross potential for solar energy

text: Vibrational spectroscopy, or infrared (IR) spectroscopy, allows for the identification of functional groups and, due to its low expense and robustness, is often used in teaching labs and the real-time monitoring of reaction progress in difficult to reach environments (high pressure, high temperature, gas phase, phase boundaries). Molecular vibrations are quantized in an analogous manner to electronic wavefunctions, with integer increases in frequency leading to higher energy states. The difference in energy between vibrational states is nearly constant, often falling in the energy range corresponding to infrared photons, because at normal temperatures molecular vibrations closely resemble harmonic oscillators. It allows for the crude identification of functional groups in organic molecules, but spectra are complicated by vibrational coupling between nearby functional groups in complex molecules. Therefore, its utility in structure determination is usually limited to simple molecules. Further complicating matters is that some vibrations do not induce a change in the molecular dipole moment and will not be observable with standard IR absorption spectroscopy. These can instead be probed through Raman spectroscopy, but this technique requires a more elaborate apparatus and is less commonly performed. However, as Raman spectroscopy relies on light scattering it can be performed on microscopic samples such as the surface of a heterogeneous catalyst, a phase boundary, or on a one microliter (µL) subsample within a larger liquid volume. The applications of vibrational spectroscopy are often used by astronomers to study the composition of molecular gas clouds, extrasolar planetary atmospheres, and planetary surfaces.

text: Vibrational spectroscopy

text: , or infrared (IR) spectroscopy, allows for the identification of

text: functional groups

text: and, due to its low expense and robustness, is often used in teaching labs and the real-time monitoring of reaction progress in difficult to reach environments (high pressure, high temperature, gas phase,

text: phase boundaries

text: Molecular vibrations

text: are quantized in an analogous manner to electronic wavefunctions, with integer increases in frequency leading to higher

text: energy states

text: . The difference in energy between vibrational states is nearly constant, often falling in the energy range corresponding to infrared photons, because at normal temperatures molecular vibrations closely resemble

text: harmonic oscillators

text: . It allows for the crude identification of

text: functional groups

text: in

text: organic molecules

text: , but spectra are complicated by vibrational coupling between nearby functional groups in complex molecules. Therefore, its utility in structure determination is usually limited to simple molecules. Further complicating matters is that some vibrations do not induce a change in the

text: molecular dipole moment

text: and will not be observable with standard IR absorption spectroscopy. These can instead be probed through

text: Raman spectroscopy

text: , but this technique requires a more elaborate apparatus and is less commonly performed. However, as Raman spectroscopy relies on light scattering it can be performed on microscopic samples such as the surface of a

text: heterogeneous catalyst

text: , a

text: phase boundary

text: , or on a one microliter (µL) subsample within a larger liquid volume. The applications of

text: vibrational spectroscopy

text: are often used by astronomers to study the composition of

text: molecular gas clouds

text: extrasolar planetary atmospheres

text: , and

text: planetary surfaces

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: be probed through Raman spectroscopy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: vibrational spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared photons,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Raman spectroscopy,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Raman spectroscopy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Raman spectroscopy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: vibrational spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Vibrational spectroscopy,

text: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the earth/moon and the infrared radiation of the earth/moon. Therefore it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.All influences have to be combined with the temperature range of the electrical parts in the spacecraft. Precisely because we are using commercial off-the-shelf-products, it is indispensable to hold the satellite in an "earth like" environment. Therefore we are using some several insulation techniques like foils, coatings and so on to get the satellite in this marginal temperature range as well as to guarantee a good environment for micro controllers, sensors and the payload.

text: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat. Thus it is the most important base for the thermal budget. Relevant for the TCS is the direct solar radiation, the reflected solar radiation from the earth/moon and the infrared radiation of the earth/moon. Therefore it is very important to know the chronological sequence and the orbital parameters because these parameters will all be considered and processed in our thermal analysis.All influences have to be combined with the temperature range of the electrical parts in the spacecraft. Precisely because we are using commercial off-the-shelf-products, it is indispensable to hold the satellite in an "earth like" environment. Therefore we are using some several insulation techniques like foils, coatings and so on to get the satellite in this marginal temperature range as well as to guarantee a good environment for micro controllers, sensors and the payload.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is infrared?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: converted into heat.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared radiation of the earth/moon.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The energy from the incoming electromagnetic radiation is basically converted into heat.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: incoming electromagnetic radiation

text: All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation, chiefly visible and short-wave (near) infrared, as well as outgoing long wave (far) infrared electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

text: All climate models take account of incoming

text: energy

text: from the sun as short wave

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , chiefly

text: visible

text: and short-wave (near)

text: infrared

text: , as well as outgoing long wave (far)

text: infrared

text: electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a

text: change in temperature

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Any imbalance results in a change in temperature

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: All climate models

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: short wave electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: short wave electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: short-wave (near) infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: short wave electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: short-wave (near) infrared,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: short wave electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: incoming energy from the sun

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of magnetic reconnection, the physical process that drives solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field. Reconnection reconfigures the local magnetic field surrounding the flare site from a higher-energy (non-potential, stressed) state to a lower-energy (potential) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a current sheet, often preceded by or in tandem with a coronal mass ejection. As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed magnetic field lines are swept away from the reconnection site, producing outflows both toward and away from the solar surface, respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to reconnection downflows that perturb the hot, dense plasma that collects above flare arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: , the physical process that drives

text: solar flare

text: s by releasing energy stored in the

text: Sun’s magnetic field

text: Reconnection

text: reconfigures the local

text: magnetic field

text: surrounding the

text: flare

text: site from a higher-energy (non-potential,

text: stressed

text: ) state to a lower-energy (

text: potential

text: ) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a

text: current sheet

text: , often preceded by or in tandem with a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed

text: magnetic field lines

text: are swept away from the

text: reconnection

text: site, producing outflows both toward and away from the

text: solar surface

text: , respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to

text: reconnection

text: downflows that perturb the hot, dense

text: plasma

text: that collects above

text: flare

text: arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: non-potential

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: drives solar flares

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: higher-energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: magnetic field lines

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (non-potential,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: SADs

text: The Sun, in this respect as in many others, is relatively benign: the variation between its maximum and minimum energy output is roughly 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle. There is strong (though not undisputed) evidence that even minor changes in the Sun's luminosity have had significant effects on the Earth's climate well within the historical era: the Little Ice Age of the mid-second millennium, for instance, may have been caused by a relatively long-term decline in the Sun's luminosity. Thus, a star does not have to be a true variable for differences in luminosity to affect habitability. Of known solar analogs, one that closely resembles the Sun is considered to be 18 Scorpii; unfortunately for the prospects of life existing in its proximity, the only significant difference between the two bodies is the amplitude of the solar cycle, which appears to be much greater for 18 Scorpii.

text: The Sun, in this respect as in many others, is relatively benign: the variation between its maximum and minimum energy output is roughly 0.1% over its 11-year

text: solar cycle

text: . There is strong (though not undisputed)

text: evidence

text: that even minor changes in the Sun's luminosity have had significant effects on the Earth's climate well within the historical era: the

text: Little Ice Age

text: of the mid-second millennium, for instance, may have been caused by a relatively long-term decline in the Sun's luminosity. Thus, a star does not have to be a true variable for differences in luminosity to affect habitability. Of known

text: solar analog

text: s, one that closely resembles the Sun is considered to be

text: 18 Scorpii

text: ; unfortunately for the prospects of life existing in its proximity, the only significant difference between the two bodies is the amplitude of the solar cycle, which appears to be much greater for 18 Scorpii.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: even minor changes in the Sun's luminosity have had significant effects on the Earth's climate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: a star

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: significant effects on the Earth's climate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar cycle.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 18 Scorpii.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The Sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 0.1% over its 11-year solar cycle.

text: The cloud cover is such that typical surface light levels are similar to a partly cloudy day on Earth, around 5000–10000 lux. The equivalent visibility is about three kilometers, but this will likely vary with the wind conditions. Little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels on a surface probe. In fact, due to the thick, highly reflective cloud cover, the total solar energy received by the surface of the planet is less than that of the Earth.

text: The cloud cover is such that typical surface light levels are similar to a partly cloudy day on Earth, around 5000–10000

text: lux

text: . The equivalent

text: visibility

text: is about three kilometers, but this will likely vary with the wind conditions. Little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels on a surface probe. In fact, due to the thick, highly reflective cloud cover, the total solar energy received by the surface of the planet is less than that of the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: less than that of the Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: less than that of the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 5000–10000 lux.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 5000–10000 lux.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 5000–10000 lux.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: less than that of the Earth.

text: Infrared light is of lower energy than visible light, hence is emitted by cooler objects. As such, the following can be viewed in the infrared: cool stars (including brown dwarves), nebulae, and redshifted galaxies.

text: Infrared light is of lower energy than visible light, hence is emitted by cooler objects. As such, the following can be viewed in the infrared: cool

text: star

text: s (including

text: brown dwarves

text: nebula

text: e, and

text: redshift

text: ed

text: galaxies

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared light is of lower energy than visible light,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: cool stars

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared light is of lower energy than visible light,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared light is of lower energy than visible light,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: The main disadvantage of Superboy's tactile telekinetic ability is that while his field could withstand physical force, the field is less effective in blocking radiant or conductive energy such as fire and laser fire. This left Superboy slightly more susceptible to energy-based attacks. While less effective against gaseous materials, he could manipulate water with a degree of difficulty and project his tactile telekinesis to create a current he could fire while underwater. He can also use his telekinetic field to deflect lava and prevent himself from being burned. Although Superboy was vulnerable to Kryptonite and magic, he was immune to the effects of a creature called "The Four-Armed Terror" which Superman was highly allergic to. Another advantage of Superboy's telekinesis is that it does not use up his solar energy as fast as Superman's powers. In "The Final Night", the Earth's sun was being eaten by a Sun-Eater which severely weakened Superman but Superboy's power level remained the same and he was able to use his tactile telekinesis at his normal power levels.

text: The main disadvantage of Superboy's tactile telekinetic ability is that while his field could withstand physical force, the field is less effective in blocking radiant or conductive energy such as fire and laser fire. This left Superboy slightly more susceptible to energy-based attacks. While less effective against gaseous materials, he could manipulate water with a degree of difficulty and project his tactile telekinesis to create a current he could fire while underwater. He can also use his telekinetic field to deflect lava and prevent himself from being burned. Although Superboy was vulnerable to Kryptonite and magic, he was immune to the effects of a creature called "The Four-Armed Terror" which Superman was highly allergic to. Another advantage of Superboy's telekinesis is that it does not use up his solar energy as fast as Superman's powers. In "

text: The Final Night

text: ", the Earth's sun was being eaten by a

text: Sun-Eater

text: which severely weakened Superman but Superboy's power level remained the same and he was able to use his tactile telekinesis at his normal power levels.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it does not use up his solar energy as fast

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: conductive energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kryptonite

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Kryptonite

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's sun was being eaten by a Sun-Eater

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: fire and laser fire.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: radiant or conductive energy such as fire and laser fire.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "The Four-Armed Terror"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: it does not use up his solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiant or conductive energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kryptonite

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: radiant or conductive energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: radiant or conductive energy

text: In July 2012, Pseudo Echo recorded and released their version of Suddenly Silently. It was their first new single release in over 20 years. This was followed by another single Fighting the Tide shortly after. 2014 saw them undertake a successful crowd-funding campaign which enabled them to release their 5th full length album Ultraviolet. With a sound reminiscent of their heyday, Ultraviolet captured the evolution of Canham's songwriting and the forward momentum of Pseudo Echo. They toured Ultraviolet extensively across Australia and to New Zealand.

text: In July 2012, Pseudo Echo recorded and released their version of Suddenly Silently. It was their first new single release in over 20 years. This was followed by another single Fighting the Tide shortly after. 2014 saw them undertake a successful crowd-funding campaign which enabled them to release their 5th full length album Ultraviolet. With a sound reminiscent of their heyday, Ultraviolet captured the evolution of Canham's songwriting and the forward momentum of Pseudo Echo. They toured Ultraviolet extensively across Australia and to New Zealand.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ionizing radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Suddenly Silently.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Suddenly Silently.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Suddenly Silently.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet.

text: In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.

text: In modern times, Earth's

text: perihelion

text: occurs around January 3, and the

text: aphelion

text: around July 4 (for other eras, see

text: precession

text: and

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: ). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the changing Earth–Sun distance result in?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: perihelion

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 6.9% in total solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: perihelion occurs around January 3,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 6.9% in total solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: January 3, and the aphelion around July 4

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 6.9% in total solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

text: 1366 Technologies is a company based in Bedford, Massachusetts that has developed a technique to produce silicon wafers by casting them in their ultimate shape directly in a mold, rather than the prevailing standard method in which wafers are cut from a large ingot. The company's management predicts that the new approach will be able to produce wafers at half the cost of current methods.  The company's name is a reference to the solar constant, representing the watts of solar energy that hits each square meter of the surface of the earth.

text: 1366 Technologies is a company based in

text: Bedford, Massachusetts

text: that has developed a technique to produce

text: silicon

text: wafers

text: by

text: casting

text: them in their ultimate shape directly in a mold, rather than the prevailing standard method in which wafers are cut from a large ingot. The company's management predicts that the new approach will be able to produce wafers at half the cost of current methods.  The company's name is a reference to the

text: solar constant

text: , representing the watts of

text: solar energy

text: that hits each square meter of the surface of the earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: hits each square meter of the surface of the earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 1366 Technologies

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: hits each square meter of the surface of the earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar constant,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar constant,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar constant, representing the watts of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar constant,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar constant, representing the watts of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar constant, representing the watts of solar energy

text: Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

text: Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient

text: visible light

text: to see.

text: Night vision devices

text: operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: increasing in-the-dark visibility

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy from the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top temperature, and ozone distribution.

text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared

text: radiant energy

text: and visible

text: reflected solar energy

text: from the Earth's surface and

text: atmosphere

text: . The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles,

text: surface

text: and cloud top temperature, and

text: ozone

text: distribution.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth's surface and atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth's surface and atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: senses infrared radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

text: According to John Ikerd entropy is a key factor that must be considered when questioning the suitability of capitalism as a vehicle for sustainability. This is because, even though, negative outcomes of capitalism on the environment have been recorded since the 1960's and onward's no real development has thus far solved the problem of applying a form of capitalism that is sustainable. Ikerd suggests that this is because central to the existence of capitalism is the transformation of energy into money. According to him this is directly subjected to first law of thermodynamics which suggests that all materials are "simply concentrated forms of energy, as in Einstein’s famous E=MC2." It thus follows that all "work" is based on the transformation of energy by humans from material things. He argues that, according to the second law of thermodynamics "each time energy is used and reused, some of its usefulness is lost".  He also notes that "Pollution is not only wasted energy but is negative energy, in that pollution requires energy to mitigate its negative impacts of the environment." It thus follows that with this in mind, using the Earth as a closed system can only lead to entropy, as seen in Mars and other dead planets. The only energy the Earth has available is that found outside of its system: the Sun. "Sustainability ultimately depends upon the use of solar energy to offset the inevitable effects of entropy."

text: According to John Ikerd

text: entropy

text: is a key factor that must be considered when questioning the suitability of capitalism as a vehicle for sustainability. This is because, even though, negative outcomes of capitalism on the environment have been recorded since the 1960's and onward's no real development has thus far solved the problem of applying a form of capitalism that is sustainable. Ikerd suggests that this is because central to the existence of capitalism is the transformation of energy into money. According to him this is directly subjected to

text: first law of thermodynamics

text: which suggests that all materials are "simply concentrated forms of energy, as in Einstein’s famous E=MC2." It thus follows that all "work" is based on the transformation of energy by humans from material things. He argues that, according to the

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: "each time energy is used and reused, some of its usefulness is lost".  He also notes that "Pollution is not only wasted energy but is negative energy, in that pollution requires energy to mitigate its negative impacts of the environment." It thus follows that with this in mind, using the Earth as a closed system can only lead to entropy, as seen in Mars and other dead planets. The only energy the Earth has available is that found outside of its system: the Sun. "Sustainability ultimately depends upon the use of solar energy to offset the inevitable effects of entropy."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to offset the inevitable effects of entropy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to offset the inevitable effects of entropy."

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: According to John Ikerd

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy, as in Einstein’s famous E=MC2."

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: pollution

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: John Ikerd

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: energy, as in Einstein’s famous E=MC2."

text: Examples of nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy are anidolic lighting or solar pipes.

text: Examples of nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy are

text: anidolic lighting

text: or

text: solar pipes

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: anidolic lighting or solar pipes.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Examples of nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: anidolic lighting or solar pipes.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Examples of nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: anidolic

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: anidolic lighting or solar pipes.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Examples of nonimaging illumination optics using solar energy

text: The main drawback of thermal storage walls is their heat loss to the outside. Double glass (glass or any of the plastics) is necessary for reducing heat loss in most climates. In mild climates, single glass is acceptable. A selective surface (high-absorbing/low-emitting surface) applied to the exterior surface of the thermal storage wall improves performance by reducing the amount of infrared energy radiated back through the glass; typically, it achieves a similar improvement in performance without the need for daily installation and removal of insulating panels. A selective surface consists of a sheet of metal foil glued to the outside surface of the wall. It absorbs almost all the radiation in the visible portion of the solar spectrum and emits very little in the infrared range. High absorbency turns the light into heat at the wall's surface, and low emittance prevents the heat from radiating back towards the glass.

text: The main drawback of thermal storage walls is their heat loss to the outside. Double glass (glass or any of the plastics) is necessary for reducing heat loss in most climates. In mild climates, single glass is acceptable. A selective surface (high-absorbing/low-emitting surface) applied to the exterior surface of the thermal storage wall improves performance by reducing the amount of infrared energy radiated back through the glass; typically, it achieves a similar improvement in performance without the need for daily installation and removal of insulating panels. A selective surface consists of a sheet of metal foil glued to the outside surface of the wall. It absorbs almost all the radiation in the visible portion of the solar spectrum and emits very little in the infrared range. High absorbency turns the light into heat at the wall's surface, and low emittance prevents the heat from radiating back towards the glass.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: selective surface

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible portion of the solar spectrum

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: selective surface

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: emits very little in the infrared range.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (high-absorbing/low-emitting surface)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heat loss to the outside. Double glass

text: The dry and cloudless climate together with the low latitude and high altitude gives the region some of the highest insolations on Earth; at Sairecabur it amounts to 98% of the solar constant. The coincidence between the southern hemisphere summer solstice on 21 December and the perihelion, the point of lowest Earth-Sun distance, on 3 January contribute to the high insolation. Ultraviolet radiation is also high in the area, with values  reported for ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A respectively.

text: The dry and cloudless climate together with the low latitude and high altitude gives the region some of the highest

text: insolation

text: s on Earth; at Sairecabur it amounts to 98% of the

text: solar constant

text: . The coincidence between the southern hemisphere

text: summer solstice

text: on 21 December and the

text: perihelion

text: , the point of lowest Earth-Sun distance, on 3 January contribute to the high insolation.

text: Ultraviolet radiation

text: is also high in the area, with values  reported for

text: ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A

text: respectively.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it amounts to 98% of the solar constant

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 98% of the solar constant.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 98% of the solar constant.

text: Pre-Crisis, yellow stars were said to emit "ultra solar rays" which enabled Kryptonians' superpowers; penetrating the Earth itself, said rays also enabled Kryptonians to stay super-powered at night. Post-Crisis, it is the overall high intensity of yellow solar radiation, versus the far weaker red solar radiation of Krypton's sun, that is shown as causing Kryptonians' superpowers. The more yellow sun rays Superman absorbs the stronger he gets; in some instances he has been shown to enter the sun in order to increase his powers to their highest potentials, as seen in 1998's DC One Million storyline. Superman can also absorb solar energies of other class stars such as white stars and also when he absorbed the solar energies of a blue star that increased his abilities to a higher degree and gave him additional abilities. The light of dwarf stars, pulsars, and quasars also grants Superman different abilities. However, he cannot gain enhanced abilities from the energy of red stars; various reasons have been given for this. When Superman visited Olympus, where he and Apollo got into a fight, Apollo struck Superman with a sun beam, making Superman stronger and feeling like he "drank a bucket of adrenaline."

text: Pre-Crisis, yellow stars were said to emit "ultra solar rays" which enabled Kryptonians' superpowers; penetrating the Earth itself, said rays also enabled Kryptonians to stay super-powered at night. Post-Crisis, it is the overall high intensity of yellow solar radiation, versus the far weaker red solar radiation of Krypton's sun, that is shown as causing Kryptonians' superpowers. The more yellow sun rays Superman absorbs the stronger he gets; in some instances he has been shown to enter the sun in order to increase his powers to their highest potentials, as seen in 1998's

text: DC One Million

text: storyline. Superman can also absorb solar energies of other class stars such as white stars and also when he absorbed the solar energies of a blue star that increased his abilities to a higher degree and gave him additional abilities. The light of

text: dwarf star

text: s,

text: pulsar

text: s, and

text: quasar

text: s also grants Superman different abilities. However, he cannot gain enhanced abilities from the energy of red stars; various reasons have been given for this. When Superman visited Olympus, where he and Apollo got into a fight, Apollo struck Superman with a sun beam, making Superman stronger and feeling like he "drank a bucket of adrenaline."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The more yellow sun rays Superman absorbs the stronger he gets

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Kryptonians

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: penetrating the Earth itself,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: sun beam,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: red stars;

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Apollo struck Superman with a sun beam,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: red solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: yellow stars were said to emit "ultra solar rays"

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "ultra solar rays"

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: yellow stars were said to emit "ultra solar rays"

text: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is an absorption spectroscopic technique that has been used for analyzing the fundamental molecular structure of geological sample in recent decades.  Like other infrared spectroscopy, the molecules in the sample are excited to a higher energy state due to the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation emitted from the IR source in the instrument, which results in vibrations of molecular bonds.  The intrinsic physicochemical property of each particular molecule determines its corresponding IR absorbance peak, and therefore can provide characteristic fingerprints of functional groups (e.g. C-H, O-H, C=O, etc.). Most of the applications of FTIR on geology focus on the range of mid-infrared range of light, which is approximately 4000 to 400 cm.

text: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is an

text: absorption spectroscopic technique

text: that has been used for analyzing the fundamental molecular structure of geological sample in recent decades.  Like other

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: , the molecules in the sample are excited to a higher energy state due to the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation emitted from the IR source in the instrument, which results in

text: vibrations of molecular bonds

text: .  The intrinsic physicochemical property of each particular molecule determines its corresponding IR absorbance peak, and therefore can provide characteristic fingerprints of functional groups (e.g. C-H, O-H, C=O, etc.). Most of the applications of FTIR on geology focus on the range of mid-infrared range of light, which is approximately 4000 to 400 cm.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can provide characteristic fingerprints

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: IR radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: C-H

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: vibrations of molecular bonds.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: characteristic fingerprints

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 4000 to 400 cm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared (IR) radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: In 2013 and 2014, Ultraviolet was ranked the eighth best restaurant in Asia by Asia’s 50 Best Restaurants list; in 2013 the 60th  and in 2014 the 58th best restaurant in the world. In 2015, Ultraviolet has been ranked No. 3 in Asia's 50 Best Restaurants, and No. 24 in The World's 50 Best Restaurants.

text: In 2013 and 2014, Ultraviolet was ranked the eighth best restaurant in Asia by Asia’s 50 Best Restaurants list; in 2013 the 60th  and in 2014 the 58th

text: best restaurant in the world

text: . In 2015, Ultraviolet has been ranked No. 3 in Asia's 50 Best Restaurants, and No. 24 in

text: The World's 50 Best Restaurants

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: No. 3

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 58th best restaurant in the world.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 58th best restaurant in the world.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 58th best restaurant in the world.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 24

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: Thermal upconversion mechanism has also been proposed. This mechanism is based on the absorption of photons with low energies in the upconverter, which heats up and re-emits photons with higher energies. To make this process possible, the density of optical states of the upconverter has to be carefully engineered to provide frequency- and angularly-selective emission characteristics. For example, a planar thermal upconverting platform can have a front surface that absorbs low-energy photons incident within a narrow angular range, and a back surface that efficiently emits only high-energy photons. These surface properties can be realized through designs of photonic crystal, and theories and experiments have been demonstrated on thermophotovoltaics and radiation cooling.  Under best criterion, energy conversion efficiency from solar radiation to electricity by introducing up-converter can go up to 73% using AM1.5D spectrum and 76% considering sun as a black body source at 6000K for a single junction cell.

text: Thermal upconversion mechanism has also been proposed. This mechanism is based on the absorption of photons with low energies in the upconverter, which heats up and re-emits photons with higher energies. To make this process possible, the density of optical states of the upconverter has to be carefully engineered to provide frequency- and angularly-selective emission characteristics. For example, a planar thermal upconverting platform can have a front surface that absorbs low-energy photons incident within a narrow angular range, and a back surface that efficiently emits only high-energy photons. These surface properties can be realized through designs of photonic crystal, and theories and experiments have been demonstrated on thermophotovoltaics and radiation cooling.  Under best criterion, energy conversion efficiency from solar radiation to electricity by introducing up-converter can go up to 73% using AM1.5D spectrum and 76% considering sun as a

text: black body

text: source at 6000K for a single junction cell.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: AM1.5D

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermal upconversion mechanism

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photons with low energies

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: photons with low energies

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons with low energies

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: low-energy photons

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: photons with low energies

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photons with low energies

text: In the field of energetics, an energy carrier corresponds only to an energy form (not an energy system) of energy input required by the various sectors of society to perform their functions. Energy carriers (EC) are produced by the energy sector using primary energy sources (PES). The distinction between "Energy Carriers" and "Primary Energy Sources" is extremely important since these two labels refer to energy forms of different quality so that they cannot be aggregated: 1 megajoule (MJ) of EC is not the same as 1 MJ of PES. Sunlight is a main form of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. Solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. Note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth (fossil fuels). Natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms (mineral fuel).

text: In the field of

text: energetics

text: , an energy carrier corresponds only to an energy form (not an energy system) of energy input required by the various sectors of society to perform their functions. Energy carriers (EC) are produced by the energy sector using

text: primary energy

text: sources (PES). The distinction between "Energy Carriers" and "Primary Energy Sources" is extremely important since these two labels refer to energy forms of different quality so that they cannot be aggregated: 1

text: megajoule

text: (MJ) of EC is not the same as 1 MJ of PES.

text: Sunlight

text: is a main form of primary energy, which can be

text: transformed

text: into plants and

text: then into coal, oil and gas

text: Solar power

text: and

text: wind power

text: are other derivatives of sunlight. Note that although

text: coal

text: oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth (

text: fossil fuel

text: s).

text: Natural uranium

text: is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms (mineral fuel).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Sunlight is a main form of primary energy,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Sunlight is a main form of primary energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1 megajoule

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sunlight

text: As astronomer Phil Plait has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

text: As astronomer

text: Phil Plait

text: has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: as much energy as the sun puts out in a week

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2 x 10 Joules....

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun puts out in a week."

text: The Vision is described as being "...every inch a human being—except that all of his bodily organs are constructed of synthetic materials." The Solar Jewel on the Vision's forehead absorbs ambient solar energy to provide the needed power for him to function, and he is also capable of discharging this energy as optic beams; with this, he can fire beams of infrared and microwave radiation. In extreme cases he can discharge this same power through the Solar Jewel itself which amplifies its destructive effects considerably, albeit at the cost of losing most of his resources. By interfacing with an unknown dimension to which he can shunt and from which he can accrue mass, thus becoming either intangible or extraordinarily massive, the Vision can change his density, which at its lowest allows flight and a ghostly, phasing intangibility, and at its heaviest, a density ten times greater than that of depleted uranium, which gives him superhuman strength, immovability, and a diamond-hard near invulnerability. On one occasion, the Vision uses this extreme density to render unconscious the villain Count Nefaria; at other times, he thrusts an intangible hand into them and then partially re-materializes it, a process he describes as "physical disruption." This effect typically causes great pain and results in incapacitation, as when used against the Earth-712 version of the hero Hyperion. Being an artificial life-form/android of sorts, the Vision has superhuman senses, superhuman stamina, reflexes, speed, agility, strength (even without being at high density), superhuman analytical capabilities, and the ability to process information and make calculations with superhuman speed and accuracy. The Vision was trained in hand-to-hand combat by Captain America, is an expert in the combat use of his superhuman powers, and is a highly skilled tactician and strategist. The Vision is an expert on his own construction and repair.

text: The Vision is described as being "...every inch a human being—except that all of his bodily organs are constructed of synthetic materials." The Solar Jewel on the Vision's forehead absorbs ambient

text: solar energy

text: to provide the needed power for him to function, and he is also capable of discharging this energy as optic beams; with this, he can fire beams of

text: infrared

text: and

text: microwave radiation

text: . In extreme cases he can discharge this same power through the Solar Jewel itself which amplifies its destructive effects considerably, albeit at the cost of losing most of his resources. By interfacing with an unknown dimension to which he can shunt and from which he can accrue mass, thus becoming either intangible or extraordinarily massive, the Vision can change his

text: density

text: , which at its lowest allows flight and a ghostly, phasing intangibility, and at its heaviest, a density ten times greater than that of

text: depleted uranium

text: , which gives him superhuman strength, immovability, and a diamond-hard near invulnerability. On one occasion, the Vision uses this extreme density to render unconscious the villain

text: Count Nefaria

text: ; at other times, he thrusts an intangible hand into them and then partially re-materializes it, a process he describes as "physical disruption." This effect typically causes great pain and results in incapacitation, as when used against the

text: version of the hero

text: Hyperion

text: . Being an artificial life-form/android of sorts, the Vision has superhuman senses, superhuman stamina, reflexes, speed, agility, strength (even without being at high density), superhuman analytical capabilities, and the ability to process information and make calculations with superhuman speed and accuracy. The Vision was trained in hand-to-hand combat by

text: Captain America

text: , is an expert in the combat use of his superhuman powers, and is a highly skilled tactician and strategist. The Vision is an expert on his own construction and repair.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to provide the needed power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Solar Jewel

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: power for him to function,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: superhuman senses,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Vision uses this extreme density to render unconscious the villain Count Nefaria;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: human being—except

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: superhuman analytical capabilities,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: density

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared and microwave radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. Mining and refining the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient.

text: Mining

text: and

text: refining

text: the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary

text: exploration

text: in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy cost

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a space colony?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth's

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy cost

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Earth.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Earth,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lower energy cost than from Earth.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Earth,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Earth.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth,

text: The bandgap determines the wavelength at which LEDs can emit light and the wavelength at which photovoltaics operate most efficiently. Wide-bandgap devices therefore are useful at shorter wavelengths than other semiconductor devices. The bandgap for GaAs of 1.4 eV, for example, corresponds to a wavelength of approximately 890 nm, which is invisible infrared light (the equivalent wavelength for light energy can be determined by dividing the constant 1240 nm-eV by the energy in eV, so 1240 nm-eV/1.4 eV=886 nm). Therefore, GaAs photovoltaics are not ideal for converting shorter-wavelength visible light into electricity. Silicon at 1.1 eV (1100 nm) is even worse. For solar-energy conversion using a single junction photovoltaic cell, the ideal bandgap has been variously estimated from around 1.0 eV up to around 1.5 eV (depending on various assumptions) because that low wavelength threshold covers nearly the entire solar spectrum that reaches the Earth's surface, but a lower-bandgap single-junction cell wastes a large portion of that power by inefficiently converting the shorter-wavelength parts of the solar spectrum. Because of this, a major area in solar energy research is developing multi-junction solar cells that collect separate parts of the spectrum with more efficiency, and wide bandgap photovoltaics are a key component for collecting the part of the spectrum beyond the infrared.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: that low wavelength threshold covers nearly the entire solar spectrum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 890 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: covers nearly the entire solar spectrum that reaches the Earth's surface,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: invisible infrared light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: invisible infrared light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 890 nm, which is invisible infrared light

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Wide-bandgap devices therefore are useful at shorter wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 890 nm,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 890 nm, which is invisible infrared light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 890 nm, which is invisible infrared light

text: Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool water, or for space heating. The heat can also be used for industrial applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment. In many climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy.Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.

text: Solar heating

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: clouds and gases

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The highest power of radiation comes from visible light.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: electromagnetic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation.

text: Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g. the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.

text: Heat

text: is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by

text: thermal conduction

text: or

text: thermal convection

text: , thermal radiation can propagate through a

text: vacuum

text: . Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g. the

text: solar corona

text: ). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation with thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared radiation with thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar corona).

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat

text: Built in 1994 as the private residence and special project of Rolf Disch in Freiburg, the Heliotrope is claimed by its designer to be the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, being reliant on entirely renewable power, and being emissions free and CO neutral. The structure rotates to track the sun, which allows it to use a large amount of natural sunlight and warmth during the day.  Several different energy generation technologies are used in the building, including a  dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel, a geothermal heat exchanger, a combined heat and power unit (CHP) and solar-thermal balcony railing to provide heat and warm water.  These in combination with the large amounts of insulation allow the Heliotrope to produce between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The building is also fitted with a grey-water cleansing system and built-in waste composting.

text: Built in 1994 as the private residence and special project of

text: Rolf Disch

text: in

text: Freiburg

text: , the

text: Heliotrope

text: is claimed by its designer to be the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, being reliant on entirely renewable power, and being emissions free and CO neutral. The structure rotates to track the sun, which allows it to use a large amount of natural sunlight and warmth during the day.  Several different energy generation technologies are used in the building, including a

text: dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel

text: , a

text: geothermal heat exchanger

text: , a

text: combined heat and power unit (CHP)

text: and

text: solar-thermal

text: balcony railing to provide heat and warm water.  These in combination with the large amounts of insulation allow the Heliotrope to produce between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The building is also fitted with a

text: grey-water cleansing system

text: and built-in waste composting.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: natural sunlight and warmth during the day

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warmth during the day.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: more energy than it uses,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: CO neutral.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: CO neutral.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO neutral.

text: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.

text: The Sun is the

text: star

text: at the center of the

text: Solar System

text: . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot

text: plasma

text: , with internal

text: convective

text: motion that generates a

text: magnetic field

text: via a

text: dynamo process

text: . It is by far the most important source of

text: energy

text: for

text: life

text: on

text: Earth

text: . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and

text: its mass

text: is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of

text: hydrogen

text: (~73%); the rest is mostly

text: helium

text: (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including

text: oxygen

text: carbon

text: neon

text: , and

text: iron

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: most important source of energy for life on Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the sun produce?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: hot plasma,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.About

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: oxygen,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: hydrogen (<unk>73%); the rest is mostly helium

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: oxygen,

text: On Earth, the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface, absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun, and convective heat fluxes from the surface. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy, some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect.

text: On Earth, the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of

text: infrared

text: thermal radiation from the underlying surface, absorption of shorter wavelength

text: radiant energy

text: from the sun, and

text: convective

text: heat fluxes from the surface. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy, some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the atmosphere is warmed

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: shorter wavelength

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the atmosphere is warmed

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter wavelength radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: shorter wavelength radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Greenhouse gases

text: NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes space weather. Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (astronauts and satellites out in space and even the other planets). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

text: NASA’s

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes

text: space weather

text: . Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (

text: astronaut

text: s and

text: satellite

text: s out in space and even the other

text: planet

text: s). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: better predict and better forecast space weather events

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does SDO study?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar Dynamics Observatory

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Space weather

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission was launched in 2010

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: satellites

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Dynamics Observatory

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar activity and how it causes space weather.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (astronauts

text: Abbot began his astrophysics research focusing on solar radiation before proceeding to chart cyclic patterns found in solar variations. With this research he hoped to track solar constant in order to make weather pattern predictions. He believed that the sun was a variable star which effected the weather on Earth, which was criticized by many contemporaries. In 1953, he discovered a connection between solar variations and planetary climate. This discovery allowed general climate patterns to be predicted 50 years in advance. He did field work at the Smithsonian Institution Shelter, which was built during his tenure as director at SAO, Lick Observatory, and Mount Wilson Observatory. At Lick, he worked with W.W. Campbell. To fight critics, Abbot would utilize balloons with pyrheliometers installed on them for measurements. He was the first scientist in America to do so, with the balloons reaching upwards of 25 kilometers. One balloon returned data that allowed Abbot to determine the solar constant at the highest point of the Earth's atmosphere. Later in his research career, he turned his focus on solar energy use.

text: Abbot began his

text: astrophysics

text: research focusing on solar radiation before proceeding to chart cyclic patterns found in

text: solar variation

text: s. With this research he hoped to track

text: solar constant

text: in order to make weather pattern predictions. He believed that the sun was a

text: variable star

text: which effected the weather on Earth, which was criticized by many contemporaries. In 1953, he discovered a connection between solar variations and planetary climate. This discovery allowed general climate patterns to be predicted 50 years in advance. He did field work at the

text: Smithsonian Institution Shelter

text: , which was built during his tenure as director at SAO,

text: Lick Observatory

text: , and

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: . At Lick, he worked with

text: W.W. Campbell

text: . To fight critics, Abbot would utilize

text: balloons

text: with

text: pyrheliometer

text: s installed on them for measurements. He was the first scientist in America to do so, with the balloons reaching upwards of 25 kilometers. One balloon returned data that allowed Abbot to determine the solar constant at the highest point of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . Later in his research career, he turned his focus on

text: solar energy

text: use.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: effected the weather

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: effected the weather

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: pyrheliometers

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: pyrheliometers

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: pyrheliometers

text: Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how biological organisms can develop from disorder. Ilya Prigogine developed methods for the thermodynamic treatment of such systems. He called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes that exchange energy between the system and its environment, and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. It may be said that they live in symbiosis with their environment. Energy transformations in biology are dependent primarily on photosynthesis.  The total energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants from the solar radiation is about 2 x 10 joules of energy per year. Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants is about 4% of the total sunlight energy that reaches Earth. The energy transformations in biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents are exceptions; they oxidize sulfur, obtaining their energy via chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis.

text: Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

text: has been applied for explaining how biological organisms can develop from disorder.

text: Ilya Prigogine

text: developed methods for the thermodynamic treatment of such systems. He called these systems

text: dissipative systems

text: , because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes that exchange energy between the system and its environment, and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. It may be said that they live in symbiosis with their environment. Energy transformations in biology are dependent primarily on

text: photosynthesis

text: .  The total energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants from the solar radiation is about 2 x 10 joules of energy per year. Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants is about 4% of the total

text: sunlight

text: energy that reaches Earth. The energy transformations in biological communities surrounding

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s are exceptions; they oxidize

text: sulfur

text: , obtaining their energy via

text: chemosynthesis

text: rather than photosynthesis.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sulfur

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants is about 4%

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: photosynthesis.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photosynthesis.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2 x 10 joules

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sulfur,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 4%

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sulfur,

text: Energy Saving Trust (EST) is a British organization devoted to promoting energy efficiency, energy conservation, and the sustainable use of energy, thereby reducing carbon dioxide emissions and helping to prevent man-made climate change. It was founded in the United Kingdom as a government-sponsored initiative in 1992, following the global Earth Summit.

text: Energy Saving Trust (EST) is a British organization devoted to promoting

text: energy efficiency

text: energy conservation

text: , and the

text: sustainable use of energy

text: , thereby reducing

entity_name: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions

text: carbon dioxide emissions

text: and helping to prevent man-made

text: climate change

text: . It was founded in the

text: United Kingdom

text: as a government-sponsored initiative in 1992, following the global

text: Earth Summit

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reducing carbon dioxide emissions and helping to prevent man-made climate change.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: reducing carbon dioxide emissions and helping to prevent man-made climate change.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: man-made climate change.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: reducing carbon dioxide emissions and helping to prevent man-made climate change.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: carbon dioxide emissions and helping to prevent man-made climate change.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

text: The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts (TW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150-300 watts/m², or 3.5-7.0 kWh/m² per day.

text: The Earth receives 174,000

text: terawatt

text: s (TW) of incoming solar radiation (

text: insolation

text: ) at the upper

text: atmosphere

text: . Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The

text: spectrum

text: of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the

text: visible

text: and

text: near-infrared

text: ranges with a small part in the

text: near-ultraviolet

text: . Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150-300 watts/m², or 3.5-7.0

text: kWh

text: /m² per day.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible and near-infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: a small part in the near-ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: near-ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: near-ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: near-ultraviolet.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: incoming solar radiation

text: Torresol Energy is a company dedicated to developing renewable and alternative energies, focusing on concentrated solar energy. Its goal is the technological development, construction, operation and maintenance of concentrated solar power plants.

text: Torresol Energy is a company dedicated to developing renewable and alternative energies, focusing on concentrated solar energy. Its goal is the technological development, construction, operation and maintenance of concentrated

text: solar power plants

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable and alternative energies,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: concentrated solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: concentrated solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: renewable and alternative energies,

text: Two main mechanisms of acceleration are possible: diffusive shock acceleration (DSA, sometimes referred as first-order Fermi acceleration) or shock-drift mechanism. SEPs can be accelerated to energies of several tens of MeV within 5-10 solar radii (5% of the Sun–Earth distance) and can reach Earth in a few hours. This makes prediction and warning of SEP events quite challenging.

text: Two main mechanisms of acceleration are possible: diffusive shock acceleration (DSA, sometimes referred as first-order

text: Fermi acceleration

text: ) or shock-drift mechanism. SEPs can be accelerated to energies of several tens of MeV within 5-10 solar radii (5% of the Sun–Earth distance) and can reach Earth in a few hours. This makes prediction and warning of SEP events quite challenging.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: MeV

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: (5% of the Sun–Earth distance)

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Two main mechanisms of acceleration are possible: diffusive shock acceleration

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radii

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: prediction and warning

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 5-10 solar radii

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: SEPs

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: diffusive shock acceleration

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 5-10 solar radii

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Two main mechanisms of acceleration are possible: diffusive shock acceleration

text: Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet radiation has a number of applications. The following table gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum

text: Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite

text: fluorescence

text: in materials, ultraviolet radiation has a number of applications. The following table gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: fluorescence

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: wavelength bands

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

text: Energy for the journey is produced by two large solar panel arrays, generating approximately 200 kW of power while at the distance of Earth from the Sun, and less as the journey progresses and the Sun is farther away as the ship nears Mars.

text: Energy for the journey is produced by two large

text: solar panel arrays

text: , generating approximately 200 kW of

text: power

text: while at the distance of Earth from the Sun, and less as the journey progresses and the Sun is farther away as the ship nears Mars.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy for the journey

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: generating approximately 200 kW of power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Energy for the journey is produced by two large solar panel arrays,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 200 kW of power while at the distance of Earth from the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: farther away

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 200 kW of power while at the distance of Earth from the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 200 kW of power while at the distance of Earth from the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Mars.

text: Rolling Stone noted that "Ultraviolet" was one of the album's songs that hearkened more to the group's past than their new sound, saying that Edge's "soaring peals on [it] are instantly recognizable". Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that compared to much of the album's grim depictions of personal relations, "Ultraviolet" depicts love as a haven. In contrast, U2 write John Jobling sees "Ultraviolet" as continuing the album's theme of "two people tearing each other apart", despite its "spectral pop" arrangement.

text: Rolling Stone

text: noted that "Ultraviolet" was one of the album's songs that hearkened more to the group's past than their new sound, saying that Edge's "soaring peals on [it] are instantly recognizable".

text: Jon Pareles

text: of

text: The New York Times

text: wrote that compared to much of the album's grim depictions of personal relations, "Ultraviolet" depicts love as a haven. In contrast, U2 write John Jobling sees "Ultraviolet" as continuing the album's theme of "two people tearing each other apart", despite its "spectral pop" arrangement.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: spectral

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: love as a haven.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: "spectral

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "Ultraviolet"

text: Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years. During this period, sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level. When sunspot activity increases, the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications. The highest-reflecting layer, the F2 layer, which is approximately 200 miles (320 km) above earth, receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun, causing ionisation of the gases within this layer. During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum, the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun. When solar activity is sufficiently high, the MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) rises, hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 – 50 MHz VHF spectrum. Since the MUF progressively increases, F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths. A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band, and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band. The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF.

text: Solar activity has a

text: cycle

text: of approximately 11 years. During this period, sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level. When

text: sunspot

text: activity increases, the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications. The highest-reflecting layer, the F2 layer, which is approximately 200 miles (320 km) above earth, receives

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the

text: sun

text: , causing

text: ionisation

text: of the gases within this layer. During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum, the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the

text: sun

text: . When solar activity is sufficiently high, the MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) rises, hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 – 50 MHz VHF spectrum. Since the MUF progressively increases, F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths. A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz

text: CB

text: band, and the amateur 28 MHz

text: 10 meters

text: band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the

text: 6 Meter

text: amateur band. The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: high frequency short-wave communications

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the highest-reflecting layer?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Es

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: enable high frequency short-wave communications.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet radiation from the sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: short-wave

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (Maximum Usable Frequency)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation from the sun,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionisation

text: The large amount of CO in the atmosphere together with water vapour and sulfur dioxide create a strong greenhouse effect, trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740 K (467 °C), hotter than any other planet in the Solar System, even that of Mercury despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25% of the solar energy (per unit area) Mercury does. The average temperature on the surface is above the melting points of lead (600 K, 327 °C), tin (505 K, 232 °C), and zinc (693 K, 420 °C). The thick troposphere also makes the difference in temperature between the day and night side small, even though the slow retrograde rotation of the planet causes a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days. The surface of Venus spends 58.3 days of darkness before the sun rises again behind the clouds.

text: The large amount of CO in the atmosphere together with water vapour and

text: sulfur dioxide

text: create a strong

text: greenhouse effect

text: , trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740 K (467 °C), hotter than any other planet in the

text: Solar System

text: , even that of

text: Mercury

text: despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25% of the solar energy (per unit area) Mercury does. The average temperature on the surface is above the melting points of

text: lead

text: (600 K, 327 °C),

text: tin

text: (505 K, 232 °C), and

text: zinc

text: (693 K, 420 °C). The thick troposphere also makes the difference in temperature between the day and night side small, even though the slow

text: retrograde

text: rotation of the planet causes a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days. The surface of Venus spends 58.3 days of darkness before the sun rises again behind the clouds.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of solar energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Mercury

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water vapour

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 25% of the solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 25% of the solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Venus

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

text: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth's atmosphere.  Specifically, SAGE has been used to study the Earth's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere.  The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.  Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation.  This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit. Physically, the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations.  SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and other trace gases.

text: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) is a series of

text: remote sensing

text: satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth's

text: atmosphere

text: .  Specifically, SAGE has been used to study the Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: and

text: aerosols

text: at the

text: troposphere

text: through the

text: stratosphere

text: .  The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.  Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without

text: atmospheric

text: attenuation

text: .  This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit. Physically, the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via

text: algorithms

text: to determine chemical

text: concentrations

text: .  SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and other trace gases.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to determine chemical concentrations

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: determine chemical concentrations.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet/visible energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet/visible

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunrises and sunsets

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet/visible energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet/visible energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet/visible energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

text: Solar insolation is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation. The absorption factor of a PV cell is deﬁned as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. At high noon on a cloudless day at the equator, the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m², on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can track the sun through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face solar noon (approximately due south in the Northern Hemisphere or due north in the Southern Hemisphere). The tilt angle, from horizontal, can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to the tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the a photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, recent work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectral albedo can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system  and the type of solar cell material. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 4 kWh/m²/day in northern climes to 6.5 kWh/m²/day in the sunniest regions. A photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m²/day. A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m²/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km². 90,600 km², or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined.

text: Solar insolation

text: is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected

text: radiation

text: . The absorption factor of a PV cell is deﬁned as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. At high noon on a cloudless day at the equator, the power of the sun is about 1

text: kW

text: /m², on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can

text: track the sun

text: through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face

text: solar noon

text: (approximately due south in the Northern Hemisphere or due north in the Southern Hemisphere). The tilt angle, from horizontal, can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to the tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the a photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, recent work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectral

text: albedo

text: can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system  and the type of solar cell material. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 4 kWh/m²/day in northern climes to 6.5 kWh/m²/day in the sunniest regions. A photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m²/day. A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the

text: Sahara

text: desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m²/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km². 90,600 km², or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m2,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar insolation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar insolation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar insolation is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m2,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The optimization of the a photovoltaic system

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sahara desert,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: better solar angle

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar flux,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Northern Hemisphere or due north in the Southern Hemisphere).

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 3.5–5 kWh per day,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 3.5–5 kWh per day,

text: The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight. The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in an actual greenhouse is that incident solar radiation in the visible, long-wavelength ultraviolet and short-wavelength infrared range of the spectrum passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "greenhouse gases" including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects Earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling because no significant amount of air escapes from Earth.

text: The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to

text: greenhouse

text: s which become warmer in sunlight. The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in an actual greenhouse is that incident

text: solar radiation

text: in the visible, long-wavelength

text: ultraviolet

text: and short-wavelength

text: infrared

text: range of the spectrum passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via

text: radiative transfer

text: . As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via

text: convection

text: , so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "

text: greenhouse gases

text: " including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects Earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling because no significant amount of air escapes from Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: long-wavelength

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: re-emit the energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: long-wavelength ultraviolet and short-wavelength infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: short-wavelength infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: long-wavelength ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: long-wavelength ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer.

text: The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm, but the boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources. However, particularly intense near-IR light (e.g., from IR lasers, IR LED sources, or from bright daylight with the visible light removed by colored gels) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light. Intense light sources providing wavelengths as long as 1050 nm can be seen as a dull red glow, causing some difficulty in near-IR illumination of scenes in the dark (usually this practical problem is solved by indirect illumination). Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR, and if all visible light leaks from around an IR-filter are blocked, and the eye is given a moment to adjust to the extremely dim image coming through a visually opaque IR-passing photographic filter, it is possible to see the Wood effect that consists of IR-glowing foliage.

text: The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm, but the boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources. However, particularly intense near-IR light (e.g., from IR

text: laser

text: s, IR LED sources, or from bright daylight with the visible light removed by colored gels) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light. Intense light sources providing wavelengths as long as 1050 nm can be seen as a dull red glow, causing some difficulty in near-IR illumination of scenes in the dark (usually this practical problem is solved by indirect illumination). Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR, and if all visible light leaks from around an IR-filter are blocked, and the eye is given a moment to adjust to the extremely dim image coming through a visually opaque IR-passing photographic filter, it is possible to see the

text: Wood effect

text: that consists of IR-glowing foliage.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 700 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 700 nm and 800 nm,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: The transfers are so low-energy that they make travel to almost any point in the Solar System possible.  On the downside, these transfers are very slow, and thus only useful for unmanned probes. Nevertheless, they have already been used to transfer spacecraft to the Earth–Sun  point, a useful point for studying the Sun that was employed in a number of recent missions, including the Genesis mission, the first to return solar wind samples to Earth. The network is also relevant to understanding Solar System dynamics; Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 followed such a trajectory on its collision path with Jupiter. In a more recent example, the Chinese spacecraft Chang'e 2 used the ITN to travel from lunar orbit to the Earth-Sun L2 point, then on to fly by the asteroid 4179 Toutatis.

text: The transfers are so low-energy that they make travel to almost any point in the Solar System possible.  On the downside, these transfers are very slow, and thus only useful for unmanned probes. Nevertheless, they have already been used to transfer spacecraft to the Earth–Sun  point, a useful point for studying the Sun that was employed in a number of recent missions, including the

text: Genesis mission

text: , the first to return

text: solar wind

text: samples to Earth. The network is also relevant to understanding Solar System dynamics;

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: followed such a trajectory on its collision path with Jupiter. In a more recent example, the Chinese spacecraft

text: Chang'e 2

text: used the ITN to travel from lunar orbit to the Earth-Sun L2 point, then on to fly by the asteroid

text: 4179 Toutatis

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: return solar wind samples to Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: return solar wind samples to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar wind samples to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unmanned probes.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: low-energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The transfers are so low-energy

text: The centerpiece of this project is the Space Solar Energy Initiative which will collect energy with solar panel satellites and then beam this energy to receiving towers on Earth using "very weak microwave beams."

text: The centerpiece of this project is the

text: Space Solar Energy Initiative

text: which will collect energy with solar panel satellites and then beam this energy to receiving towers on Earth using "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: beam this energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwaves

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: beam this energy to receiving towers

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "very weak microwave beams."

text: The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm (2.5–25 μm) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy. The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.

text: The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite

text: overtone

text: or

text: harmonic

text: vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm (2.5–25 μm) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated

text: rotational-vibrational

text: structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the

text: microwave

text: region, has low energy and may be used for

text: rotational spectroscopy

text: . The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The higher-energy near-IR

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwave

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: near-IR

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: rotational spectroscopy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: far-infrared,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: far-infrared,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The infrared

text: According to Marsden and Ross, "The energy levels of the Sun–Earth  and  points differ from those of the Earth–Moon system by only 50 m/s (as measured by maneuver velocity)."

text: According to Marsden and Ross, "The energy levels of the Sun–Earth  and  points differ from those of the Earth–Moon system by only 50 m/s (as measured by maneuver velocity)."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth–Moon

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: "The energy levels

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 50 m/s

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Sun–Earth

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 50 m/s

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 50 m/s

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun–Earth

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun–Earth

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 50 m/s

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 50 m/s

text: Upsilon Andromedae A is a yellow-white dwarf of spectral type F8V, similar to the Sun, but younger, more massive, and more luminous. According to its entry in the Geneva–Copenhagen survey, the star is around 3.1 billion years old, and has a similar proportion of iron relative to hydrogen to the Sun. At around 1.3 solar masses, it will have a shorter lifetime than the Sun. The amount of ultraviolet radiation received by any planets in the star's habitable zone would be similar to the ultraviolet flux the Earth receives from the Sun.

text: Upsilon Andromedae A is a yellow-white dwarf of

text: spectral type

text: F8V, similar to the Sun, but younger, more massive, and more

text: luminous

text: . According to its entry in the Geneva–Copenhagen survey, the star is around

text: billion years

text: old, and has a similar proportion of

text: iron

text: relative to

text: hydrogen

text: to the Sun. At around 1.3

text: solar mass

text: es, it will have a shorter lifetime than the Sun. The amount of

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation received by any planets in the star's

text: habitable zone

text: would be similar to the ultraviolet

text: flux

text: the Earth receives from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth receives from the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: would have a shorter lifetime

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: F8V

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ultraviolet flux

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet flux the Earth receives from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: F8V,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in

text: sustainable agriculture

text: and to an extent

text: water resources

text: . In 1962

text: Paul Alfred Weiss

text: defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is

text: renewable energy

text: resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: food, fibres, drugs, etc...".

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: renewable energy resources. Common sources of renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: water resources.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: water resources.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: water resources.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: living organisms

text: Most of the world's high energy resources are from the conversion of the sun's rays to other energy forms after being incident upon the planet. Some of that energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable; for example, via solar PV/thermal, wind, hydro- or wave power. The total solar irradiance is measured by satellite to be roughly 1361 watts per square meter (see solar constant), though it fluctuates by about 6.9% during the year due to the Earth's varying distance from the sun. This value, after multiplication by the cross-sectional area intercepted by the Earth, is the total rate of solar energy received by the planet; about half, 89,000 TW, reaches the Earth's surface.

text: Most of the world's high energy resources are from the conversion of the sun's rays to other energy forms after being incident upon the planet. Some of that energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable; for example, via solar PV/thermal, wind, hydro- or wave power. The total solar irradiance is measured by satellite to be roughly 1361 watts per square meter (see

text: solar constant

text: ), though it fluctuates by about 6.9% during the year due to the Earth's varying distance from the sun. This value, after multiplication by the cross-sectional area intercepted by the Earth, is the total rate of

text: solar energy

text: received by the planet; about half, 89,000 TW, reaches the Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Most of the world's high energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: irradiance

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Most of the world's high energy resources

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar PV/thermal, wind, hydro- or wave power.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun's rays

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 1361 watts per square meter

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wave power.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun's rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1361 watts per square meter

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun's rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun's rays

text: New Pedestrianism, in its ideal form, reduces the need for oil and other limited energy sources by reducing consumption and utilizing renewable energy. It is anticipated, especially as the cost of photovoltaic cells drops, that individual homes would be equipped with solar panels and solar water heaters, and that solar parks would harvest energy for the whole community. Reducing energy needs and moving away from oil dependency would presumably address health, social, economic, and environmental problems.

text: New Pedestrianism, in its ideal form, reduces the need for oil and other limited energy sources by reducing consumption and utilizing renewable energy. It is anticipated, especially as the cost of photovoltaic cells drops, that individual homes would be equipped with solar panels and solar water heaters, and that solar parks would harvest energy for the whole community. Reducing energy needs and moving away from oil dependency would presumably address health, social, economic, and environmental problems.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of photovoltaic cells

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harvest energy for the whole community.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: New Pedestrianism,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: oil

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photovoltaic cells

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: oil and other limited energy sources by reducing consumption and utilizing renewable energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: oil

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: New Pedestrianism,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: oil and other limited energy sources by reducing consumption and utilizing renewable energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: oil and other limited energy sources by reducing consumption and utilizing renewable energy.

text: Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) refers to the measurement of kinetic energy spectra of photoelectrons emitted by molecules which have absorbed ultraviolet photons, in order to determine molecular orbital energies in the valence region.

text: Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) refers to the measurement of kinetic energy

text: spectra

text: of

text: photoelectrons

text: emitted by molecules which have absorbed

text: ultraviolet

text: photons, in order to determine

text: molecular orbital

text: energies in the valence region.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: molecular orbital energies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet photons,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: molecular orbital energies

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet photons,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet photons,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet photons,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet photons,

text: Most solar observatories observe optically at visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths, but other solar phenomena can be observed — albeit not from the Earth's surface due to the absorption of the atmosphere:

text: Most solar observatories observe optically at visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths, but other solar phenomena can be observed — albeit not from the Earth's surface due to the

text: absorption

text: of the atmosphere:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar phenomena can be observed

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar phenomena can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV, and near infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible, UV,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UV, and near infrared wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV, and near infrared wavelengths,

text: A notable output of space manufacturing is expected to be solar panels. Expansive solar energy arrays can be constructed and assembled in space. As the structure does not need to support the loads that would be experienced on Earth, huge arrays can be assembled out of proportionately smaller amounts of material. The generated energy can then be used to power manufacturing facilities, habitats, spacecraft, lunar bases, and even beamed down to collectors on the Earth with microwaves.

text: A notable output of space manufacturing is expected to be solar panels. Expansive solar energy arrays can be constructed and assembled in space. As the structure does not need to support the loads that would be experienced on Earth, huge arrays can be assembled out of proportionately smaller amounts of material. The generated energy can then be used to power manufacturing facilities, habitats, spacecraft, lunar bases, and even beamed down to collectors on the Earth with

text: microwave

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: power manufacturing facilities, habitats, spacecraft, lunar bases, and even beamed down to collectors on the Earth with microwaves

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwaves

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: power manufacturing facilities,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: microwaves.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: microwaves.

text: Led by Germany’s solar architecture pioneer Rolf Disch, this architecture firm has built with the sun as its foundation since 1969. Rolf Disch Solar Architecture has implemented the most up-to-date technology to design sustainable buildings from churches and schools, to homes and commercial developments.  With the creation of the PlusEnergy concept, their design has focused more and more specifically on positive energy balanced buildings, which generate more power than the consume through extremely efficient energy use and photovoltaic panel use.  In 1994 they created the Heliotrope, the first building worldwide to create more energy than it uses.  With the application of this PlusEnergy concept, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture further developed the concept into homes that use acute energy efficieny and have roofs made entirely of photovoltaic panels.  59 of these PlusEnergy homes were built as the Solar Settlement between 2002 and 2004, later to be followed by the Sun Ship.  The Sun Ship, finished in 2006, is a retail, commercial/office and residential building with . that also produces more energy than it consumes.  Also the first building of its kind worldwide, the Sun Ship was truly the most extensive example of sustainable and renewable energy building by Rolf Disch Solar Architecture.

text: Led by

text: Germany

text: ’s

text: solar architecture

text: pioneer

text: Rolf Disch

text: , this architecture firm has built with the sun as its foundation since 1969. Rolf Disch Solar Architecture has implemented the most up-to-date technology to design

text: sustainable building

text: s from churches and schools, to homes and commercial developments.  With the creation of the

text: PlusEnergy

text: concept, their design has focused more and more specifically on positive energy balanced buildings, which generate more power than the consume through extremely efficient energy use and photovoltaic panel use.  In 1994 they created the

text: Heliotrope

text: , the first building worldwide to create more energy than it uses.  With the application of this PlusEnergy concept, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture further developed the concept into homes that use acute energy efficieny and have roofs made entirely of photovoltaic panels.  59 of these PlusEnergy homes were built as the

text: Solar Settlement

text: between 2002 and 2004, later to be followed by the

text: Sun Ship

text: .  The

text: Sun Ship

text: , finished in 2006, is a retail, commercial/office and residential building with . that also produces more energy than it consumes.  Also the first building of its kind worldwide, the Sun Ship was truly the most extensive example of sustainable and renewable energy building by Rolf Disch Solar Architecture.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does Rolf Disch Solar Architecture do?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sustainable buildings

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: PlusEnergy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Heliotrope,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: PlusEnergy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun

text: He was employed at Goddard Space Flight Center, where he used infrared spectrometers to measure the atmosphere of planets in the Solar System. He provided NASA's eclipse bulletins since 1978. He is the author of several canonical works on eclipse predictions, such as the Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses: 1986–2035 and Fifty Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses: 1986–2035, both of which are standard references on eclipses. The first eclipse he saw was the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970, which sparked his interest in eclipses, and he has since seen over 20 eclipses. He is co-author with Jean Meeus of Five Millennium Canon of Solar Eclipses, which covers all types of solar eclipses (partial, total, annular, or hybrid) from 2000 BC to AD 3000. He is also a co-author (with Mark Littmann and Ken Willcoxof) of "Totality: Eclipses of the Sun".

text: He was employed at

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: , where he used

text: infrared spectrometer

text: s to measure the atmosphere of planets in the

text: Solar System

text: . He provided

text: NASA

text: 's eclipse bulletins since 1978. He is the author of several canonical works on eclipse predictions, such as the Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses: 1986–2035 and Fifty Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses: 1986–2035, both of which are standard references on eclipses. The first eclipse he saw was the

text: solar eclipse of March 7, 1970

text: , which sparked his interest in eclipses, and he has since seen over 20 eclipses. He is co-author with

text: Jean Meeus

text: of Five Millennium Canon of Solar Eclipses, which covers all types of solar eclipses (partial, total, annular, or hybrid) from 2000 BC to AD 3000. He is also a co-author (with

text: Mark Littmann

text: and

text: Ken Willcoxof

text: ) of "Totality: Eclipses of the Sun".

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to measure the atmosphere of planets

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: measure the atmosphere of planets in the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectrometers

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: measure the atmosphere of planets

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared spectrometers

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: annular, or hybrid) from 2000 BC to AD 3000.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared spectrometers

text: Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. One stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds. Calculations of the loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of Mars, resulting from scavenging of ions by the solar wind, indicate that the dissipation of the magnetic field of Mars caused a near total loss of its atmosphere.

text: Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. One stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds. Calculations of the loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of

text: Mars

text: , resulting from scavenging of ions by the solar wind, indicate that the dissipation of the magnetic field of Mars caused a near total loss of its atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: harmful ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone layer

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping devices.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches:

text: point absorber buoy

text: s,

text: surface attenuator

text: s,

text: oscillating water column

text: s, and

text: overtopping devices

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: creates temperature differentials that result in wind

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a technology type?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: creates temperature differentials that result in wind.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: wind.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: wind.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: waves,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: wind.

text: The energy generation of the Sun is based upon thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. This occurs in the core region of the star using the proton–proton chain reaction process. Because there is no convection in the solar core, the helium concentration builds up in that region without being distributed throughout the star. The temperature at the core of the Sun is too low for nuclear fusion of helium atoms through the triple-alpha process, so these atoms do not contribute to the net energy generation that is needed to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium of the Sun.

text: The energy generation of the

text: Sun

text: is based upon thermonuclear fusion of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: . This occurs in the core region of the star using the

text: proton–proton chain reaction

text: process. Because there is no

text: convection

text: in the

text: solar core

text: , the helium concentration builds up in that region without being distributed throughout the star. The temperature at the core of the Sun is too low for nuclear fusion of helium atoms through the

text: triple-alpha process

text: , so these atoms do not contribute to the net energy generation that is needed to maintain

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: of the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: triple-alpha

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: maintain hydrostatic equilibrium

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: hydrogen into helium.

text: Earth itself is largely protected from the solar wind by its magnetic field, which deflects most of the charged particles; however some of the charged particles are trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt. A smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel, as though on an electromagnetic energy transmission line, to the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere in the auroral zones. The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena such as the aurora and geomagnetic storms. Bright auroras strongly heat the ionosphere, causing its plasma to expand into the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the plasma geosphere and injecting atmospheric matter into the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms result when the pressure of plasmas contained inside the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the geomagnetic field.

text: Earth itself is largely protected from the solar wind by

text: its magnetic field

text: , which deflects most of the charged particles; however some of the charged particles are trapped in the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: . A smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel, as though on an electromagnetic energy transmission line, to the Earth's upper atmosphere and

text: ionosphere

text: in the auroral zones. The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena such as the

text: aurora

text: and

text: geomagnetic storm

text: s. Bright auroras strongly heat the

text: ionosphere

text: , causing its plasma to expand into the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the plasma

text: geosphere

text: and injecting atmospheric matter into the solar wind.

text: Geomagnetic storm

text: s result when the pressure of plasmas contained inside the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the geomagnetic field.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the main idea of this passage?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: electromagnetic energy transmission line,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind

text: Sun–Earth  is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around  will maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler. It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra, so solar radiation is not completely blocked. From this point, the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively closely positioned together in the sky, and hence leave a large field of view without interference – this is especially helpful for infrared astronomy.

text: Sun–Earth  is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around  will maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler. It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's

text: umbra

text: , so solar radiation is not completely blocked. From this point, the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively closely positioned together in the sky, and hence leave a large field of view without interference – this is especially helpful for

text: infrared astronomy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar radiation is not completely blocked

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: leave a large field of view without interference

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared astronomy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared astronomy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Sun–Earth

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun–Earth

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation is not completely blocked.

text: The Sun-Suckers - A nearby sun died out years ago, and a race of beings called the Sun-Suckers began to die from the intense cold. By stealing solar energy from the Earth's sun, the Sun-Suckers were able to stay alive for a little longer. Their number was 1,000 when Kremmen arrived, and their leader was known as Vardak the Elder. The Sun-Suckers are lumps like the Krells, but have four ears according to Kremmen.

text: The Sun-Suckers - A nearby

text: sun

text: died out years ago, and a race of beings called the Sun-Suckers began to die from the intense cold. By stealing solar energy from the Earth's sun, the Sun-Suckers were able to stay alive for a little longer. Their number was 1,000 when Kremmen arrived, and their leader was known as Vardak the Elder. The Sun-Suckers are lumps like the Krells, but have four ears according to Kremmen.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: by stealing solar energy from the Earth's sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: able to stay alive for a little longer.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: stealing solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Vardak the Elder.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun-Suckers

text: The strong electromagnetic pulse (EMP) that results has several components. In the first few tens of nanoseconds, about a tenth of a percent of the weapon yield appears as powerful gamma rays with energies of one to three mega-electron volts (MeV, a unit of energy). The gamma rays penetrate the atmosphere and collide with air molecules, depositing their energy to produce huge quantities of positive ions and recoil electrons (also known as Compton electrons). The impacts create MeV-energy Compton electrons that then accelerate and spiral along the Earth's magnetic field lines. The resulting transient electric fields and currents that arise generate electromagnetic emissions in the radio frequency range of 15 to 250 megahertz (MHz, or one million cycles per second). This high-altitude EMP occurs between 30 and 50 kilometers (18 and 31 miles) above the Earth's surface.The potential as an anti-satellite weapon became apparent in August 1958 during Hardtack Teak. The EMP observed at the Apia Observatory at Samoa was  four times more powerful than any created by solar storms, while in July 1962 the Starfish Prime test damaged electronics in Honolulu and New Zealand (approximately 1,300 kilometers away), fused 300 street lights on Oahu (Hawaii), set off about 100 burglar alarms, and caused the failure of a microwave repeating station on Kauai, which cut off the sturdy telephone system from the other Hawaiian islands. The radius for an effective satellite kill for the various prompt radiations produced by such a nuclear weapon in space was determined to be roughly 80 km. Further testing to this end was carried out, and embodied in a Department of Defense program, Program 437.

text: The strong

text: electromagnetic pulse

text: (EMP) that results has several components. In the first few tens of nanoseconds, about a tenth of a percent of the weapon

text: yield

text: appears as powerful

text: gamma rays

text: with energies of one to three

text: mega-electron volts

text: MeV

text: , a unit of energy). The gamma rays penetrate the atmosphere and collide with

text: air

text: molecules, depositing their energy to produce huge quantities of positive

text: ion

text: s and

text: recoil electrons

text: (also known as

text: Compton electrons

text: ). The impacts create MeV-energy Compton electrons that then accelerate and spiral along the Earth's magnetic field lines. The resulting transient electric fields and currents that arise generate

text: electromagnetic emissions

text: in the

text: radio frequency

text: range of 15 to 250

text: megahertz

text: MHz

text: , or one million cycles per second). This high-altitude EMP occurs between 30 and 50 kilometers (18 and 31 miles) above the Earth's surface.The potential as an

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: became apparent in August 1958 during

text: Hardtack Teak

text: . The EMP observed at the

text: Apia

text: Observatory at

text: Samoa

text: was  four times more powerful than any created by

text: solar storms

text: , while in July 1962 the

text: Starfish Prime

text: test damaged electronics in

text: Honolulu

text: and

text: New Zealand

text: (approximately 1,300 kilometers away), fused 300 street lights on

text: Oahu

text: (Hawaii), set off about 100

text: burglar alarm

text: s, and caused the failure of a

text: microwave

text: repeating station

text: on

text: Kauai

text: , which cut off the sturdy telephone system from the other Hawaiian islands. The radius for an effective satellite kill for the various prompt radiations produced by such a nuclear weapon in space was determined to be roughly 80 km. Further testing to this end was carried out, and embodied in a

text: Department of Defense

text: program,

text: Program 437

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The resulting transient electric fields and currents that arise generate electromagnetic emissions

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: EMP

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar storms,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The EMP

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar storms,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Starfish

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 15 to 250 megahertz

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: anti-satellite

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Teak.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: gamma rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar storms,

text: Extreme ultraviolet radiation (EUV or XUV) or high-energy ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation in the part of the electromagnetic spectrum spanning wavelengths from 124 nm down to 10 nm, and therefore (by the Planck–Einstein equation) having photons with energies from 10 eV up to 124 eV (corresponding to 124 nm to 10 nm respectively). EUV is naturally generated by the solar corona and artificially by plasma and synchrotron light sources.

text: Extreme ultraviolet radiation (EUV or XUV) or high-

text: energy

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation is

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: in the part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: spanning

text: wavelength

text: s from 124 nm down to 10 nm, and therefore (by the

text: Planck–Einstein equation

text: ) having

text: photon

text: s with energies from 10

text: eV

text: up to 124 eV (corresponding to 124

text: nm

text: to 10 nm respectively). EUV is naturally generated by the

text: solar corona

text: and artificially by

text: plasma

text: and

text: synchrotron light

text: sources.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: XUV

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: EUV is naturally generated by the solar corona

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: EUV is naturally generated by the solar corona

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 124 nm down to 10 nm,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 124 nm down to 10 nm,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

text: Recent scientific research has shown that the phenomenon of magnetic reconnection is closely associated with CMEs and solar flares. In magnetohydrodynamic theory, the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together is called "magnetic reconnection". Reconnection releases energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a 'right-hand twist' or a 'left hand twist'. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a 'valve' to release the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs, that would otherwise renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.

text: Recent scientific research has shown that the phenomenon of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: is closely associated with CMEs and

text: solar flares

text: . In

text: magnetohydrodynamic

text: theory, the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together is called "magnetic reconnection". Reconnection releases energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a 'right-hand twist' or a 'left hand twist'. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a 'valve' to release the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs, that would otherwise renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CMEs

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: magnetic reconnection is closely associated with CMEs and solar flares.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: magnetic energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: magnetic reconnection is closely associated with CMEs and solar flares.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar flares.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar flares.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar flares.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: magnetic reconnection is closely associated with CMEs and solar flares.

text: The Solar–Hydrogen energy cycle can be incorporated using organic thin film solar cells and microcrystalline silicon thin film solar cells This cycle can also be incorporated using photoelectrochemical solar cells. These solar have been incorporated since 1972 for hydrogen production and is capable of directly converting sunlight into chemical energy.

text: The Solar–Hydrogen energy cycle can be incorporated using

text: organic thin film solar cell

text: s and

text: microcrystalline silicon

text: thin film solar cell

text: s This cycle can also be incorporated using

text: photoelectrochemical solar cells

text: . These solar have been incorporated since 1972 for hydrogen production and is capable of directly converting sunlight into chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly converting sunlight into chemical energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Hydrogen

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: hydrogen production and is capable of directly converting sunlight into chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: photoelectrochemical solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight into chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photoelectrochemical solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: photoelectrochemical solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar–Hydrogen

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The Solar–Hydrogen

text: Yingli Solar’s PANDA product line was developed through an in-house collaboration between the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) and Amtech Systems, Inc. that aimed to create a new, more efficient solar cell.  PANDA modules use n-doped silicon instead of the industry’s standard p-type silicon, allowing a more efficient conversion of infrared light into electricity, and lower initial degradation rate. As the PANDA product line is claimed by the company to achieve performance ratings of up to 16.5%, it is best suited to commercial or residential applications where maximum energy output is essential due to space constraints.

text: Yingli Solar’s PANDA product line was developed through an in-house collaboration between the

entity_name: Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands

text: Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands

text: (ECN) and

text: Amtech

text: Systems, Inc. that aimed to create a new, more efficient solar cell.  PANDA modules use

text: n-doped

text: silicon instead of the industry’s standard p-type silicon, allowing a more efficient conversion of

text: infrared

text: light into electricity, and lower initial degradation rate. As the PANDA product line is claimed by the company to achieve performance ratings of up to 16.5%, it is best suited to commercial or residential applications where maximum energy output is essential due to space constraints.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: maximum energy output is essential due to space constraints.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared light into electricity, and lower initial degradation rate.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lower initial degradation rate.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: n-doped silicon

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the Vortex engine (AVE) which aims to replace large physical chimneys with a vortex of air created by a shorter, less-expensive structure.Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in space (using an "SPS", that is, a "solar-power satellite" or a "satellite power system") for use on Earth. It has been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing atmosphere and night time in space.

text: A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the

text: Vortex engine

text: (AVE) which aims to replace large physical chimneys with a

text: vortex

text: of air created by a shorter, less-expensive structure.Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting

text: solar power

text: in

text: space

text: (using an "SPS", that is, a "solar-power satellite" or a "satellite power system") for use on

text: Earth

text: . It has been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current

text: solar

text: collection methods in that the means used to collect

text: energy

text: would reside on an

text: orbiting

text: satellite

text: instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing

text: atmosphere

text: and night

text: time

text: in

text: space

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: structure.Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: structure.Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: structure.Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter, less-expensive structure.Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Vortex engine

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: structure.Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the Vortex engine

text: In 2008, Kurzweil said in an expert panel in the National Academy of Engineering that solar power will scale up to produce all the energy needs of Earth's people in 20 years. According to Kurzweil, we only need to capture 1 part in 10,000 of the energy from the Sun that hits Earth's surface to meet all of humanity's energy needs.

text: In 2008, Kurzweil said in an expert panel in the

text: National Academy of Engineering

text: that

text: solar power

text: will scale up to produce all the energy needs of Earth's people in 20 years. According to Kurzweil, we only need to capture 1 part in 10,000 of the energy from the Sun that hits Earth's surface to meet all of humanity's energy needs.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: meet all of humanity's energy needs

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: meet all of humanity's energy needs.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 1 part in 10,000

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 1 part in 10,000

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 10,000

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 10,000

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun

text: Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning.  Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe.

text: Ultraviolet

text: light from the Sun has

text: antiseptic

text: properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes

text: sunburn

text: , and has other biological effects such as the production of

text: vitamin D

text: and

text: sun tanning

text: .  Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: , so that the amount of UV varies greatly with

text: latitude

text: and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in

text: human skin color

text: in different regions of the globe.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can be used to sanitize tools and water.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ozone layer,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: The glass envelope is most commonly a thin tube, often made of fused quartz, borosilicate or Pyrex, which may be straight, or bent into a number of different shapes, including helical, "U" shape, and circular (to surround a camera lens for shadowless photography—'ring flashes'). In some applications, the emission of ultraviolet light is undesired, whether due to production of ozone, damage to laser rods, degradation of plastics, or other detrimental effects. In these cases, a doped fused silica is used. Doping with titanium dioxide can provide different cutoff wavelengths on the ultraviolet side, but the material suffers from solarization; it is often used in medical and sun-ray lamps and some non-laser lamps. A better alternative is a cerium-doped quartz; it does not suffer from solarization and has higher efficiency, as part of the absorbed ultraviolet is reradiated as visible via fluorescence. Its cutoff is at about 380 nm. Conversely, when ultraviolet is called for, a synthetic quartz is used as the envelope; it is the most expensive of the materials, but it is not susceptible to solarization and its cutoff is at 160 nm.

text: The glass envelope is most commonly a thin tube, often made of

text: fused quartz

text: borosilicate

text: or

text: Pyrex

text: , which may be straight, or bent into a number of different shapes, including helical, "U" shape, and circular (to surround a

text: camera lens

text: for shadowless

text: photography

text: ring flash

text: es'). In some applications, the emission of ultraviolet light is undesired, whether due to production of

text: ozone

text: , damage to laser rods, degradation of plastics, or other detrimental effects. In these cases, a doped fused silica is used. Doping with

text: titanium dioxide

text: can provide different cutoff wavelengths on the ultraviolet side, but the material suffers from

text: solarization

text: ; it is often used in medical and sun-ray lamps and some non-laser lamps. A better alternative is a

text: cerium

text: -doped quartz; it does not suffer from solarization and has higher efficiency, as part of the absorbed ultraviolet is reradiated as visible via

text: fluorescence

text: . Its cutoff is at about 380 nm. Conversely, when ultraviolet is called for, a synthetic

text: quartz

text: is used as the envelope; it is the most expensive of the materials, but it is not susceptible to solarization and its cutoff is at 160 nm.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: shadowless photography

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 160 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ozone,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: fluorescence.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: shadowless photography—'ring flashes').

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 380 nm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 160 nm.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ozone,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone,

text: The proton–proton chain occurs around  times each second in the core, converting about 3.7 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2 kg/s. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nuclei) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, for 384.6 yottawatts (), or 9.192 megatons of TNT per second. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W/m,<ref>

text: The

text: proton–proton chain

text: occurs around  times each second in the core, converting about 3.7 protons into

text: alpha particle

text: s (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2 kg/s. Fusing four free

text: proton

text: s (hydrogen nuclei) into a single

text: alpha particle

text: (helium nuclei) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, for 384.6

text: yottawatts

text: (), or 9.192

text: megatons

text: of

text: TNT

text: per second. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W/m,<ref>

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: TNT

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: helium nuclei

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Sun releases energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The proton–proton chain

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: TNT

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The proton–proton chain

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 276.5 W/m,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The proton–proton chain

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The proton–proton chain

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The proton–proton chain

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The proton–proton chain

text: The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar "matter" per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, although protons change into neutrons, the number of total protons-plus-neutrons does not change. In this system, the radiated light itself (as a system) retains the "missing" mass, which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles are destroyed in the process of turning the Sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Instead, the four nucleons in a helium nucleus in the Sun have an average mass that is less than the protons which formed them, and this mass difference (4 million tons/second) is the mass that moves off as sunlight.

text: The energy from the

text: Sun

text: , also called

text: solar energy

text: , is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the

text: Sun

text: , the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar "matter" per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, although protons change into neutrons, the number of total protons-plus-neutrons does not change. In this system, the radiated light itself (as a system) retains the "missing" mass, which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles are destroyed in the process of turning the Sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Instead, the four nucleons in a helium nucleus in the Sun have an average mass that is less than the protons which formed them, and this mass difference (4 million tons/second) is the mass that moves off as sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: is an example of this form of energy conversion

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiated into space,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The energy from the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy,

text: Red Ronin possesses immense strength and speed, is highly durable and can fly at subsonic speed using the atomic propulsion units in its legs. It is armed with a pulsating "rotary discus" shield, with a solar powered "solar blade" laser-blade sword and doubles as an ultraviolet laser Gatling gun device, on its right arm. Red Ronin also has a magnetic field generator in its shoulder epaulets and arm-mounted power blasters capable of firing blasts of concussive force equivalent to 100 tons of TNT.  Additionally, the shield is also capable of firing missiles, which Red Ronin used during its battle against Yetrigar in the Grand Canyon, and can be used as a detachable thrown weapon, containing a homing device that enables it to return to the robot. Red Ronin's left hand also has the ability to convert to an energy cannon that projects energy blasts. In addition, it could release "Magneclamp cables" from its boot units, which were strong enough to hold and support a being as massive as Godzilla.

text: Red Ronin possesses immense strength and speed, is highly durable and can

text: fly

text: at subsonic speed using the atomic propulsion units in its legs. It is armed with a pulsating "rotary discus" shield, with a solar powered "solar blade" laser-blade sword and doubles as an ultraviolet

text: laser

text: Gatling gun

text: device, on its right arm. Red Ronin also has a magnetic field generator in its shoulder epaulets and arm-mounted power blasters capable of firing blasts of concussive force equivalent to 100 tons of

text: TNT

text: .  Additionally, the shield is also capable of firing missiles, which Red Ronin used during its battle against Yetrigar in the

text: Grand Canyon

text: , and can be used as a detachable thrown weapon, containing a homing device that enables it to return to the robot. Red Ronin's left hand also has the ability to convert to an energy cannon that projects energy blasts. In addition, it could release "Magneclamp cables" from its boot units, which were strong enough to hold and support a being as massive as Godzilla.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: "solar blade" laser-blade sword

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be returned to the robot

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar blade

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar powered "solar blade" laser-blade sword

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet laser Gatling gun device,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet laser

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: homing device

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: TNT.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet laser Gatling gun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Red Ronin

text: Radiant energy is one of the mechanisms by which energy can enter or leave an open system. Such a system can be man-made, such as a solar energy collector, or natural, such as the Earth's atmosphere. In geophysics, most atmospheric gases, including the greenhouse gases, allow the Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy to pass through to the Earth's surface, heating the ground and oceans. The absorbed solar energy is partly re-emitted as longer wavelength radiation (chiefly infrared radiation), some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases. Radiant energy is produced in the sun as a result of nuclear fusion.

text: Radiant energy is one of the mechanisms by which energy can enter or leave an

text: open system

text: . Such a system can be man-made, such as a

text: solar energy

text: collector, or natural, such as the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . In

text: geophysics

text: , most atmospheric gases, including the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, allow the Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy to pass through to the Earth's surface, heating the ground and oceans. The absorbed solar energy is partly re-emitted as longer wavelength radiation (chiefly infrared radiation), some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases. Radiant energy is produced in the sun as a result of

text: nuclear fusion

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heating the ground and oceans

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heating the ground and oceans.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation),

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Radiant energy

text: Infrared radiation can pass more freely through regions of cosmic dust that scatter radiation in the visible spectrum.   Observations in infrared allow the study of objects and regions of space which would be obscured by gas and dust in the visible spectrum, such as the molecular clouds where stars are born, the circumstellar disks that give rise to planets, and the cores of active galaxies.

text: Infrared radiation can pass more freely through regions of

text: cosmic dust

text: that scatter radiation in the visible spectrum.   Observations in infrared allow the study of objects and regions of space which would be obscured by gas and dust in the visible spectrum, such as the

text: molecular cloud

text: s where stars are born, the

text: circumstellar disks

text: that give rise to

text: planet

text: s, and the cores of

text: active galaxies

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: give rise to planets

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: give rise to planets,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Observations in infrared allow the study of objects

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared radiation

text: The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere.

text: The

text: solar constant

text: is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one

text: astronomical unit

text: (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is

text: attenuated

text: by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the

text: zenith

text: . Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting

text: ionosphere

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The solar constant is equal to approximately (watts per square meter

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: shorter wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly exposed to sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 50%

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: shorter wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: shorter wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: over 70% of solar ultraviolet,

text: This crater has also been proposed as a future site for a large infrared telescope. The low temperature of the crater floor makes it ideal for infrared observations, and solar cells placed along the rim could provide near-continuous power to the observatory. About 120 kilometers from the crater lies the 5-km tall Malapert Mountain, a peak that is perpetually visible from the Earth, and which could serve as a radio relay station when suitably equipped.

text: This crater has also been proposed as a future site for a large

text: infrared

text: telescope

text: . The low temperature of the crater floor makes it ideal for infrared observations, and

text: solar cell

text: s placed along the rim could provide near-continuous power to the observatory. About 120 kilometers from the crater lies the 5-km tall

text: Malapert Mountain

text: , a peak that is perpetually visible from the

text: Earth

text: , and which could serve as a

text: radio

text: relay station when suitably equipped.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: near-continuous power to the observatory

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: near-continuous power to the observatory.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared telescope.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar cells

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observations,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared telescope.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Malapert Mountain,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared telescope.

text: Exposure to the intense radiation of direct, unfiltered sunlight would lead to local heating, though that would likely be well distributed by the body's conductivity and blood circulation. Other solar radiation, particularly ultraviolet rays, however, may cause severe sunburn.

text: Exposure to the intense

text: radiation

text: of direct, unfiltered

text: sunlight

text: would lead to local heating, though that would likely be well distributed by the body's conductivity and blood circulation. Other solar radiation, particularly

text: ultraviolet

text: rays, however, may cause severe sunburn.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: local heating

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: local heating,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet rays, however, may cause severe sunburn.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heating,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet rays, however, may cause severe sunburn.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet rays,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming

text: meteorites

text: and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of

text: sun activity

text: , including

text: sunspots

text: solar flares

text: solar wind

text: , and massive

text: solar radiation

text: , can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and

text: geomagnetic activity

text: . Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the total irradiation generated by the sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is visible light?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: How long is the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave?

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: act to affect Earth’s climate.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 0.1 percent.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: total irradiation generated by the sun,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: total irradiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: total irradiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: total irradiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunspots, shoots off solar flares,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 0.1 percent.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 0.1 percent.

text: The Extreme Ultraviolet and X-Ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS) detect solar soft X-ray irradiance and solar extreme ultraviolet spectral irradiance in the 5-127 nm range. The X-Ray Sensor (XRS) monitors solar flares that can disrupt communications and degrade navigational accuracy, affecting satellites, astronauts, high latitude airline passengers and power grid performance. The Extreme Ultraviolet Sensor monitors solar variations that directly affect satellite drag/tracking and ionospheric changes, which impact communications and navigation operations. This information is critical to understanding the outer layers of the Earth’s atmosphere.

text: The Extreme Ultraviolet and X-Ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS) detect solar soft X-ray

text: irradiance

text: and solar extreme ultraviolet spectral irradiance in the 5-127 nm range. The X-Ray Sensor (XRS) monitors solar flares that can disrupt communications and degrade navigational accuracy, affecting satellites, astronauts, high latitude airline passengers and

text: power grid

text: performance. The Extreme Ultraviolet Sensor monitors solar variations that directly affect satellite drag/tracking and

text: ionospheric

text: changes, which impact communications and navigation operations. This information is critical to understanding the outer layers of the Earth’s atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly affect satellite drag/tracking

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 5127 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: impact communications and navigation operations.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: X-Ray Irradiance Sensors

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: astronauts,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 5-127 nm

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar soft X-ray irradiance

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 5-127 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet spectral irradiance

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionospheric

text: The Dead Sea area has become a major center for health research and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the very low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example, persons suffering reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.

text: The Dead Sea area has become a major center for

text: health

text: research

text: and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the very low content of

text: pollen

text: s and other

text: allergen

text: s in the

text: atmosphere

text: , the reduced

text: ultraviolet

text: component of

text: solar radiation

text: , and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific

text: health effect

text: s. For example, persons suffering reduced

text: respiratory

text: function from

text: disease

text: s such as

text: cystic fibrosis

text: seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reduced ultraviolet component

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet component of solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: pollens and other allergens

text: The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: The renewable energy from the

text: sun

text: wind

text: wave

text: biomass

text: and

text: geothermal

text: energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of

text: water

text: hydropower

text: tidal power

text: and

text: wave power

text: wind

text: and

text: radiant energy

text: from geothermal heat (used for

text: geothermal power

text: ) and solar energy (used for

text: solar power

text: ) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infinite and cannot be depleted,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The renewable energy

text: Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power from sunlight, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates solar power using solar energy.

text: Assemblies of solar cells are used to make

text: solar module

text: s which generate electrical power from

text: sunlight

text: , as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates

text: solar power

text: using

text: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electrical power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electrical power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Assemblies of solar cells

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Assemblies of solar cells

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight,

text: Using the McMath solar Fourier transform spectrometer at Kitt Peak National Observatory, James W. Brault and Sumner P. Davis observed ArH vibration-rotation infrared lines for the first time. J. W. C. Johns also observed the infrared spectrum.

text: Using the McMath solar Fourier transform spectrometer at

text: Kitt Peak National Observatory

text: , James W. Brault and Sumner P. Davis observed ArH vibration-rotation infrared lines for the first time. J. W. C. Johns also observed the infrared spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ArH

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ArH

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ArH vibration-rotation infrared lines

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared lines

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ArH vibration-rotation infrared lines

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared lines

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ArH

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared lines

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ArH vibration-rotation infrared lines

text: All these consume a lot of oil, coal and nuclear energy and all these resources have a big impact on our planet because of the waste they produce. We have all read about Fukushima in Japan we have all heard about Chernobyl and we all know that even if these things happened years ago they are still troublesome for our environment. In the whole world there are approximately over one billion cars, each of these cars release around 200 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometers that’s around 200,000 tons per kilometer! Who drives their car for just one kilometer you can ease multiplicity that with at least 50 and that’s just the average release of carbon dioxide per day. This is just our cars think of all the industrial facilities and how much toxins they release. We together as humans have to cooperate for the sake of our planet and all the living things to find other energy resources. We have to use solar power, wind power, tidal power and many others we have to put our best minds together and make them more effective. We must adapt these on the geographic locations using solar panels to harvest the energy from the sun in warm countries. Wind power where there is a lot of wind and tidal power near the oceans. We have the capacity to use our oceans as power the earth is 70% water there is plenty of energy for the whole earth. We can use Hydrogen power where the only waste is vaporized water."

text: All these consume a lot of oil, coal and nuclear energy and all these resources have a big impact on our planet because of the waste they produce. We have all read about

text: Fukushima

text: in Japan we have all heard about

text: Chernobyl

text: and we all know that even if these things happened years ago they are still troublesome for our environment. In the whole world there are approximately over one billion cars, each of these cars release around 200 grams of

text: carbon dioxide

text: per kilometers that’s around 200,000 tons per kilometer! Who drives their car for just one kilometer you can ease multiplicity that with at least 50 and that’s just the average release of carbon dioxide per day. This is just our cars think of all the industrial facilities and how much toxins they release. We together as humans have to cooperate for the sake of our planet and all the living things to find other energy resources. We have to use

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: tidal power

text: and many others we have to put our best minds together and make them more effective. We must adapt these on the geographic locations using solar panels to harvest the energy from the sun in warm countries. Wind power where there is a lot of wind and tidal power near the oceans. We have the capacity to use our oceans as power the earth is 70% water there is plenty of energy for the whole earth. We can use Hydrogen power where the only waste is vaporized water."

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy for the whole earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy resource?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar panels to harvest the energy from the sun in warm countries.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar power,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar power,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 200 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometers

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: tidal power

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Hydrogen

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Hydrogen power

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Hydrogen power where the only waste is vaporized water."

text: Photon upconversion is the process of using two low-energy (e.g., infrared) photons to produce one higher energy photon; downconversion is the process of using one high energy photon (e.g.,, ultraviolet) to produce two lower energy photons. Either of these techniques could be used to produce higher efficiency solar cells by allowing solar photons to be more efficiently used. The difficulty, however, is that the conversion efficiency of existing phosphors exhibiting up- or down-conversion is low, and is typically narrow band.

text: Photon upconversion

text: is the process of using two low-energy (e.g., infrared) photons to produce one higher energy photon; downconversion is the process of using one high energy photon (e.g.,, ultraviolet) to produce two lower energy photons. Either of these techniques could be used to produce higher efficiency solar cells by allowing solar photons to be more efficiently used. The difficulty, however, is that the conversion efficiency of existing

text: phosphor

text: s exhibiting up- or down-conversion is low, and is typically narrow band.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to produce higher efficiency solar cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: upconversion

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: downconversion

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: downconversion

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: allowing solar photons to be more efficiently used.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Photon upconversion

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Photon upconversion

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: downconversion

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: downconversion

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Photon upconversion

text: To make observations in the infrared spectrum, the JWST must be kept very cold (under ), otherwise infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Therefore, it uses a large sunshield to block light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Earth–Sun  point keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. Its halo orbit around  avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays. The sunshield is made of polyimide film, has membranes coated with aluminum on one side and silicon on the other.

text: To make observations in the infrared spectrum, the JWST must be kept very cold (under ), otherwise infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Therefore, it uses a large

text: sunshield

text: to block light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Earth–Sun  point keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. Its halo orbit around  avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays. The sunshield is made of

text: polyimide

text: film, has membranes coated with

text: aluminum

text: on one side and

text: silicon

text: on the other.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to block light and heat from the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What kind of energy is infrared?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectrum,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: To make observations in the infrared spectrum,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared spectrum,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared spectrum,

text: In a process termed “solar modulation” the Sun and solar wind alter the intensity and energy spectrum of Galactic cosmic rays that enter the solar system. When the Sun is active, fewer Galactic cosmic rays reach Earth than during times when the Sun is quiet. For this reason, Galactic cosmic rays follow an 11-year cycle like the Sun, but in the opposite direction: High solar activity corresponds to low cosmic rays, and vice versa.

text: In a process termed “solar modulation” the Sun and

text: solar wind

text: alter the intensity and energy spectrum of Galactic cosmic rays that enter the

text: solar system

text: . When the Sun is active, fewer Galactic cosmic rays reach Earth than during times when the Sun is quiet. For this reason, Galactic cosmic rays follow an 11-year cycle like the Sun, but in the opposite direction: High solar activity corresponds to low cosmic rays, and vice versa.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: fewer Galactic cosmic rays reach Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: fewer Galactic cosmic rays reach Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: “solar modulation”

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Galactic cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: fewer Galactic cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: High solar activity corresponds to low cosmic rays,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Galactic cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: low cosmic rays,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Galactic cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Galactic cosmic rays

text: Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

text: Solar energy is radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: Sun

text: that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: solar thermal energy

text: solar architecture

text: molten salt power plant

text: s and

text: artificial photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harnessed

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar heating, photovoltaics,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar energy

text: The Sunspot Number (SSN) is the number of sunspots on the Sun's photosphere in visible light on the side of the Sun visible to an Earth observer. The number and total area of sunspots are related to the brightness of the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray portions of the solar spectrum and to solar activity such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).

text: The

text: Sunspot Number

text: (SSN) is the number of

text: sunspot

text: s on the Sun's photosphere in visible light on the side of the Sun visible to an Earth observer. The number and total area of sunspots are related to the brightness of the Sun in the

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: (EUV) and X-ray portions of the

text: solar spectrum

text: and to solar activity such as

text: solar flare

text: s and

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CMEs).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light on the side of the Sun visible to an Earth observer.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Sunspot Number

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (EUV)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The Sunspot Number

text: Over Earth's equator, the magnetic field lines become almost horizontal, then return to reconnect at high latitudes. However, at high altitudes, the magnetic field is significantly distorted by the solar wind and its solar magnetic field. On the dayside of Earth, the magnetic field is significantly compressed by the solar wind to a distance of approximately . Earth's bow shock is about  thick and located about  from Earth. The magnetopause exists at a distance of several hundred kilometers above Earth's surface. Earth's magnetopause has been compared to a sieve because it allows solar wind particles to enter. Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities occur when large swirls of plasma travel along the edge of the magnetosphere at a different velocity from the magnetosphere, causing the plasma to slip past. This results in magnetic reconnection, and as the magnetic field lines break and reconnect, solar wind particles are able to enter the magnetosphere. On Earth's nightside, the magnetic field extends in the magnetotail, which lengthwise exceeds . Earth's magnetotail is the primary source of the polar aurora. Also, NASA scientists have suggested that Earth's magnetotail might cause "dust storms" on the Moon by creating a potential difference between the day side and the night side.

text: Over Earth's

text: equator

text: , the magnetic field lines become almost horizontal, then return to reconnect at high latitudes. However, at high altitudes, the magnetic field is significantly distorted by the solar wind and its solar magnetic field. On the dayside of Earth, the magnetic field is significantly compressed by the solar wind to a distance of approximately . Earth's bow shock is about  thick and located about  from Earth. The magnetopause exists at a distance of several hundred kilometers above Earth's surface. Earth's magnetopause has been compared to a

text: sieve

text: because it allows solar wind particles to enter.

text: Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities

text: occur when large swirls of plasma travel along the edge of the magnetosphere at a different velocity from the magnetosphere, causing the plasma to slip past. This results in

text: magnetic reconnection

text: , and as the magnetic field lines break and reconnect, solar wind particles are able to enter the magnetosphere. On Earth's nightside, the magnetic field extends in the magnetotail, which lengthwise exceeds . Earth's magnetotail is the primary source of the

text: polar aurora

text: . Also, NASA scientists have suggested that Earth's magnetotail might cause "dust storms" on the Moon by creating a potential difference between the day side and the night side.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetotail is the primary source of the polar aurora

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the primary source of the polar aurora?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind particles

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The magnetopause

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the magnetic field is significantly distorted by the solar wind

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: polar aurora.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: polar aurora.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: magnetotail,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind particles

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth's magnetopause

text: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

text: Non-hydroelectric

text: renewable energy

text: in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Non-hydroelectric

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Russia

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia

text: A spherical shell Dyson sphere in the Solar System with a radius of one astronomical unit, so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per unit solid angle, would have a surface area of approximately , or about 550 million times the surface area of Earth. This would intercept the full 384.6 yottawatts (3.846 × 10 watts) of the Sun's output. Non-shell designs would intercept less, but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for the Solar System at this point of the Sun's evolution. This is approximately 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity in 1998, which was 12 terawatts.

text: A spherical shell Dyson sphere in the Solar System with a radius of one

text: astronomical unit

text: , so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per unit

text: solid angle

text: , would have a surface area of approximately , or about 550 million times the surface area of Earth. This would intercept the full 384.6

text: yotta

text: watt

text: s (3.846 × 10 watts) of the Sun's output. Non-shell designs would intercept less, but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for the Solar System at this point of the Sun's

text: evolution

text: . This is approximately 33

text: trillion

text: times the power consumption of humanity in 1998, which was 12 terawatts.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest energy ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 384.6 yottawatts

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity in 1998,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Non-shell designs would intercept less,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 384.6 yottawatts

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 384.6 yottawatts

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

text: Like all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, infrared is utilized by astronomers to study the universe. Indeed, infrared measurements taken by the 2MASS and WISE astronomical surveys have been particularly effective at unveiling previously undiscovered star clusters. Examples of such embedded star clusters are FSR 1424, FSR 1432, Camargo 394, Camargo 399, Majaess 30, and Majaess 99. Infrared telescopes, which includes most major optical telescopes as well as a few dedicated infrared telescopes, need to be chilled with liquid nitrogen and shielded from warm objects. The reason for this is that objects with temperatures of a few hundred Kelvin emit most of their thermal energy at infrared wavelengths. If infrared detectors were not kept cooled, the radiation from the detector itself would contribute noise that would dwarf the radiation from any celestial source. This is particularly important in the mid-infrared and far-infrared regions of the spectrum.

text: Like all other forms of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , infrared is utilized by astronomers to study the

text: universe

text: . Indeed, infrared measurements taken by the

text: and

text: WISE

text: astronomical surveys have been particularly effective at unveiling previously undiscovered

text: star clusters

text: . Examples of such embedded star clusters are FSR 1424, FSR 1432, Camargo 394, Camargo 399, Majaess 30, and Majaess 99. Infrared telescopes, which includes most major optical telescopes as well as a few dedicated infrared telescopes, need to be chilled with

text: liquid nitrogen

text: and shielded from warm objects. The reason for this is that objects with temperatures of a few hundred

text: Kelvin

text: emit most of their

text: thermal

text: energy at infrared wavelengths. If infrared detectors were not kept cooled, the radiation from the detector itself would contribute noise that would dwarf the radiation from any celestial source. This is particularly important in the mid-infrared and far-infrared regions of the spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: dwarf the radiation from any celestial source.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unveiling previously undiscovered star clusters.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: FSR 1432,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: The primary payload of the flight was the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet/A (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the Solar Spectrum Measurement (SOLSPEC) instrument, the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.

text: The primary payload of the flight was the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two

text: Get Away Special

text: canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet/A (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the Solar Spectrum Measurement (SOLSPEC) instrument, the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: affect the ozone layer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What are the instruments used for?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Spectrum Measurement

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: affect the ozone layer.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet/A

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun's

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet/A

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Millimeter Wave

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet/A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet/A

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone layer.

text: The Radiometric calibration of the instrument is traceable to Synchrotron source standards, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Its stability will be monitored by onboard calibration light sources (light-emitting diodes), which allow distinguishing between potential degradations of the detectors and filters. Additionally, a redundancy strategy contributes to the accuracy and the stability of the measurements. LYRA will benefit from wide bandgap detectors based on diamond: it will be the first space assessment of a pioneering UV detectors program. Diamond sensors make the instruments radiation-hard and solar-blind: their high bandgap energy makes them quasi-insensitive to visible light (see also references in  Marchywka Effect). The SWAP extreme ultraviolet (EUV) imaging telescope will operate next to LYRA on Proba-2. Together, they will establish a high performance solar monitor for operational space weather nowcasting and research. LYRA demonstrates technologies important for future missions such as the ESA Solar Orbiter mission.

text: The

text: Radiometric calibration

text: of the instrument is traceable to

text: Synchrotron

text: source standards,

text: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt

text: (PTB) and

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: (NIST). Its stability will be monitored by onboard calibration light sources (

text: light-emitting diode

text: s), which allow distinguishing between potential degradations of the detectors and filters. Additionally, a redundancy strategy contributes to the accuracy and the stability of the measurements. LYRA will benefit from wide bandgap detectors based on diamond: it will be the first space assessment of a pioneering UV detectors program. Diamond sensors make the instruments radiation-hard and solar-blind: their high bandgap energy makes them quasi-insensitive to visible light (see also references in

text: Marchywka Effect

text: ). The

text: SWAP

text: extreme ultraviolet (EUV) imaging telescope will operate next to LYRA on Proba-2. Together, they will establish a high performance solar monitor for operational space weather nowcasting and research. LYRA demonstrates technologies important for future missions such as the ESA

text: Solar Orbiter

text: mission.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: operational space weather nowcasting and research

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: What is the Marchywka Effect

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: space weather nowcasting and research.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Diamond sensors

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Diamond sensors make the instruments radiation-hard and solar-blind:

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: high bandgap energy makes them quasi-insensitive to visible light

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: visible light

text: The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in a greenhouse is that incident solar radiation (the visible and adjacent portions of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum) passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as the "greenhouse effect". The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "greenhouse gases", including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects the earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling as air does not escape from the earth.

text: The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in a greenhouse is that incident

text: solar radiation

text: (the visible and adjacent portions of the

text: infrared

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: ranges of the spectrum) passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via

text: radiative transfer

text: . As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via

text: convection

text: , so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as the "

text: greenhouse effect

text: ". The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "

text: greenhouse gases

text: ", including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects the earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling as air does not escape from the earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: re-emit the energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: incident solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer-wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: incident solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer.

text: De Jager's current research focuses on predicting solar variation to assess the Sun's impact on future climate. Usually solar activity is defined in terms of the Sun's toroidal magnetic field, the field component parallel to the solar equator. Sunspots are one expression of this component. De Jager introduces the poloidal field of the Sun, which connects its two poles, as a factor of possibly similar importance. He uses proxies for both components and takes 19-year running averages to eliminate all effects that last only one or two solar cycles. Next he plots both components in a diagram, thus creating an experimental phase portrait. The track of the two components went from low to high activity around 1925. Around 2009 the same point has been passed in the opposite direction. Thus solar activity in the 21st century is expected to be lower than it was for most of the 20th century. A reduction in solar activity means less energy input to the Earth, thus counteracting global warming.

text: De Jager's current research focuses on predicting

text: solar variation

text: to assess the Sun's impact on future climate. Usually

text: solar activity

text: is defined in terms of the Sun's toroidal magnetic field, the field component parallel to the solar equator. Sunspots are one expression of this component. De Jager introduces the

text: poloidal

text: field of the Sun, which connects its two poles, as a factor of possibly similar importance. He uses

text: proxies

text: for both components and takes 19-year

text: running average

text: s to eliminate all effects that last only one or two

text: solar cycle

text: s. Next he plots both components in a diagram, thus creating an experimental

text: phase portrait

text: . The track of the two components went from low to high activity around 1925. Around 2009 the same point has been passed in the opposite direction. Thus solar activity in the 21st century is expected to be lower than it was for most of the 20th century. A reduction in solar activity means less energy input to the Earth, thus counteracting

text: global warming

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: counteracting global warming

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: poloidal

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: counteracting global warming.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: less energy input to the Earth, thus counteracting global warming.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar equator.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 30, 1924. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on August 30, 1924. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 30, 1924.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 30, 1924.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: August 30, 1924.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1924.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 30, 1924.

text: Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as 380 to 800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310 to 313 nm.

text: Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as 380 to 800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310 to 313 nm.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can see

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 313 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 380 to 800 nm.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 1050 nm;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 380 to 800 nm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 310 to 313 nm.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310 to 313 nm.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310 to 313 nm.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 9, 1967. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on May 9, 1967. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 9, 1967.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 9, 1967.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1967.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1967.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: As a result of their warming effects when relatively thin, cirrus clouds have been implicated as a potential partial cause of global warming. Scientists have speculated that global warming could cause high thin cloud cover to increase, thereby increasing temperatures and humidity. This, in turn, would increase the cirrus cloud cover, effectively creating a positive feedback circuit. A prediction of this hypothesis is that the cirrus would move higher as the temperatures rose, increasing the volume of air underneath the clouds and the amount of infrared radiation reflected back down to earth. In addition, the hypothesis suggests that the increase in temperature would tend to increase the size of the ice crystals in the cirrus cloud, possibly causing the reflection of solar radiation and the reflection of the Earth's infrared radiation to balance out.

text: As a result of their warming effects when relatively thin, cirrus clouds have been implicated as a potential partial cause of

text: global warming

text: . Scientists have speculated that global warming could cause high thin cloud cover to increase, thereby increasing temperatures and humidity. This, in turn, would increase the cirrus cloud cover, effectively creating a

text: positive feedback

text: circuit. A prediction of this hypothesis is that the cirrus would move higher as the temperatures rose, increasing the volume of air underneath the clouds and the amount of infrared radiation reflected back down to earth. In addition, the hypothesis suggests that the increase in temperature would tend to increase the size of the ice crystals in the cirrus cloud, possibly causing the reflection of solar radiation and the reflection of the Earth's infrared radiation to balance out.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation reflected back down to earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: reflected back down to earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: global warming.

text: UltraViolet was co-founded in February 2012 by Nita Chaudhary and Shaunna Thomas. The name is associated with purple, a color used symbolically in the struggle for women's suffrage in the United States, LGBT social movements, and second-wave feminism. Co-founder Chaudhary adds that "UltraViolet lights are sort of the most powerful rays on the spectrum and they expose things that people don't want to see, and our mission is to expose things people are uncomfortable confronting, especially with respect to sexism."

text: UltraViolet was co-founded in February 2012 by Nita Chaudhary and Shaunna Thomas. The name is associated with purple, a color used symbolically in the struggle for

text: women's suffrage in the United States

text: LGBT social movements

text: , and

text: second-wave feminism

text: . Co-founder Chaudhary adds that "

text: UltraViolet lights

text: are sort of the most powerful rays on the spectrum and they expose things that people don't want to see, and our mission is to expose things people are uncomfortable confronting, especially with respect to

text: sexism

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: expose things that people don't want to see,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "UltraViolet lights

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: "UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: expose things that people don't want to see,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: most powerful rays on the spectrum

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sexism."

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: purple,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UltraViolet

text: Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy. In order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. This business area serves as an interdisciplinary field and serves many areas of solar technology: windows and facades, solar thermal collectors, concentrator systems for photovoltaics and solar power plants as well as photovoltaic module technology.

text: Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy. In order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. This business area serves as an interdisciplinary field and serves many areas of solar technology: windows and facades, solar thermal collectors, concentrator systems for photovoltaics and solar power plants as well as photovoltaic module technology.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: thermal, electrical or chemical energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: incoming radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: thermal, electrical or chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: optical components and systems.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: optical

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy systems convert solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy systems convert solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: incoming radiation,

text: The current solar income of the Earth, or an ecozone or ecoregion or any area, is the amount of solar energy that falls on it as sunlight.  This is thought important in some branches of green economics, as the ultimate measure of renewable energy.

text: The current solar income of the

text: Earth

text: , or an

text: ecozone

text: or

text: ecoregion

text: or any area, is the amount of

text: solar energy

text: that falls on it as sunlight.  This is thought important in some branches of

text: green economics

text: , as the ultimate measure of

text: renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: as the ultimate measure of renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: as the ultimate measure of renewable energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy that falls on it as sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The current solar income of the Earth,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight.

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on July 12, 2094. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on July 12, 2094. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on July 12, 2094.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2094.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2094.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2094.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on July 12, 2094.

text: AIRS measures the infrared brightness coming up from Earth's surface and from the atmosphere. Its scan mirror rotates around an axis along the line of flight and directs infrared energy from the Earth into the instrument. As the spacecraft moves along, this mirror sweeps the ground creating a scan swath that extends roughly 800 kilometers on either side of the ground track. Within the instrument, an advanced, high-resolution spectrometer separates the infrared energy into wavelengths.

text: AIRS measures the

text: infrared

text: brightness coming up from Earth's surface and from the atmosphere. Its scan mirror rotates around an axis along the line of flight and directs infrared energy from the Earth into the instrument. As the spacecraft moves along, this mirror sweeps the ground creating a scan swath that extends roughly 800 kilometers on either side of the

text: ground track

text: . Within the instrument, an advanced, high-resolution

text: spectrometer

text: separates the

text: infrared

text: energy into

text: wavelength

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directs infrared energy from the Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared brightness

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: spectrometer separates the infrared energy into wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: AIRS measures the infrared brightness

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: spectrometer separates the infrared energy into wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on July 19, 1917. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on July 19, 1917. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on July 19, 1917.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1917.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1917.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1917.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on July 19, 1917.

text: "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" is written in a 4/4 time signature. The lyrics of "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" are addressed to a lover, and imply that their relationship is threatened by some sort of personal or spiritual crisis, coupled with a sense of unease over obligations.  Indeed, lead vocalist Bono has called the song "a little disturbed".

text: "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" is written in a 4/4

text: time signature

text: . The lyrics of "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" are addressed to a lover, and imply that their relationship is threatened by some sort of personal or spiritual crisis, coupled with a sense of unease over obligations.  Indeed, lead vocalist

text: Bono

text: has called the song "a little disturbed".

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Light My Way

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 4/4

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 4/4

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 4/4

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "Ultraviolet

text: Lyman continuum photons (abbrev. LyC), shortened to Ly continuum photons or Lyc photon, are the photons emitted from stars at photon energies above the Lyman limit. Hydrogen is ionized by absorbing LyC. Working off of Victor Schumann's discovery of ultraviolet light, from 1906 to 1914, Theodore Lyman observed that atomic hydrogen absorbs light only at specific frequencies (or wavelengths) and the Lyman series is thus named after him. All the wavelengths in the Lyman series are in the ultraviolet band. This quantized absorption behavior occurs only up to an energy limit, known as the ionization energy. In the case of neutral atomic hydrogen, the minimum ionization energy is equal to the Lyman limit, where the photon has enough energy to completely ionize the atom, resulting in a free proton and a free electron. Above this energy (below this wavelength), all wavelengths of light may be absorbed. This forms a continuum in the energy spectrum; the spectrum is continuous rather than composed of many discrete lines, which are seen at lower energies.

text: Lyman continuum photons (abbrev. LyC), shortened to Ly continuum photons or Lyc photon, are the

text: photon

text: s emitted from

text: star

text: s at

text: photon energies

text: above the

text: Lyman limit

text: Hydrogen

text: is

text: ionized

text: by

text: absorbing

text: LyC. Working off of

text: Victor Schumann's

text: discovery of

text: ultraviolet light

text: , from 1906 to 1914,

text: Theodore Lyman

text: observed that

text: atomic hydrogen

text: absorbs light only at specific

text: frequencies

text: (or

text: wavelength

text: s) and the Lyman series is thus named after him. All the wavelengths in the Lyman series are in the ultraviolet band. This quantized absorption behavior occurs only up to an energy limit, known as the

text: ionization energy

text: . In the case of neutral atomic hydrogen, the minimum ionization energy is equal to the Lyman limit, where the photon has enough energy to completely ionize the atom, resulting in a free

text: proton

text: and a free

text: electron

text: . Above this energy (below this wavelength), all wavelengths of light may be absorbed. This forms a continuum in the energy spectrum; the spectrum is continuous rather than composed of many discrete lines, which are seen at lower energies.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Hydrogen is ionized

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Lyman limit

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Hydrogen is ionized by absorbing LyC.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ionization energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lower energies.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Lyman limit,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet band.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Hydrogen

text: Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is  times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus's heat flux is only , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.

text: Uranus's

text: internal heat

text: appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low

text: thermal flux

text: . Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the

text: far infrared

text: (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is  times the solar energy absorbed in its

text: atmosphere

text: . Uranus's heat flux is only , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075

text: W/m

text: . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's

text: tropopause

text: is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 0.075 W/m

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed in its atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: low thermal flux.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Neptune,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: far infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Uranus's

text: Explorers satellites have made many important discoveries on: Earth's magnetosphere and the shape of its gravity field; the solar wind; properties of micrometeoroids raining down on the Earth; ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays from the Solar System and universe beyond; ionospheric physics; Solar plasma; solar energetic particles; and atmospheric physics. These missions have also investigated air density, radio astronomy, geodesy, and gamma ray astronomy. Various space telescopes have made a variety of discoveries, including the first known Earth Trojan asteroid.

text: Explorers satellites have made many important discoveries on: Earth's

text: magnetosphere

text: and the shape of its

text: gravity field

text: ; the

text: solar wind

text: ; properties of

text: micrometeoroids

text: raining down on the Earth; ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays from the Solar System and universe beyond;

text: ionospheric physics

text: Solar plasma

text: solar energetic particles

text: ; and atmospheric physics. These missions have also investigated air density, radio astronomy, geodesy, and

text: gamma ray astronomy

text: . Various space telescopes have made a variety of discoveries, including the first known

text: Earth Trojan asteroid

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: atmospheric physics

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: properties of micrometeoroids raining down on the Earth;

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: X-rays

text: Even solar power, a limitless green energy source, is incredibly inefficient. If fact, getting energy from sunlight to the light bulb in your house is the most inefficient of all mainstream processes, because a solar panel is only about five percent efficient at the primary conversion stage. Cascading five percent efficiency at your electrical socket through a six percent efficient light bulb, you get a process that only yields 0.3 units of useful work out of 100 units of exposed sunlight. The multiplier here is over 300 times! While sunlight is admittedly plentiful and free, land required for larger-scale solar farms is not. The more solar energy the consumer end user comes to rely on translates into more land we need for solar farms and other space. But if we can find ways to reduce our energy appetites—especially the amount of energy we consume that serves no useful purpose such as unnecessary lighting—the Asymmetry Principle provides a framework of how we can meaningfully cut multiples of that energy at the source, regardless of whether that fuel is green or black.

text: Even

text: solar power

text: , a limitless green energy source, is incredibly inefficient. If fact, getting energy from sunlight to the light bulb in your house is the most inefficient of all mainstream processes, because a solar panel is only about five percent efficient at the primary conversion stage. Cascading five percent efficiency at your electrical socket through a six percent efficient light bulb, you get a process that only yields 0.3 units of useful work out of 100 units of exposed sunlight. The multiplier here is over 300 times! While sunlight is admittedly plentiful and free, land required for larger-scale solar farms is not. The more

text: solar energy

text: the consumer end user comes to rely on translates into more land we need for solar farms and other space. But if we can find ways to reduce our energy appetites—especially the amount of energy we consume that serves no useful purpose such as unnecessary lighting—the Asymmetry Principle provides a framework of how we can meaningfully cut multiples of that energy at the source, regardless of whether that fuel is green or black.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: green energy source

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: black

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: translates into more land we need for solar farms and other space.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar power,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar power,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: black.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar power,

text: The solar eclipse of October 25, 2022, is a partial solar eclipse that will be visible from Europe, the Middle East, and Western Asia. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: The solar eclipse of October 25, 2022, is a partial

text: solar eclipse

text: that will be visible from Europe, the Middle East, and Western Asia. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The solar eclipse of October 25, 2022,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The solar eclipse of October 25, 2022,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Europe, the Middle East, and Western Asia.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The solar eclipse of October 25, 2022,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun

text: Energy conservation refers to the reducing of energy consumption through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant service.Driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques. Energy conservation is a part of the concept of sufficiency.

text: Energy conservation refers to the reducing of

text: energy consumption

text: through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs from

text: efficient energy use

text: , which refers to using less energy for a constant service.Driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques. Energy conservation is a part of the concept of

text: sufficiency

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy consumption through using less of an energy service.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Energy conservation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Energy conservation

text: A wideband infrared sensor (1.1 µm and higher) monitors especially the heat radiation of a fire. A special frequency range is 4.3 to 4.4 µm. This is a resonance frequency of CO. During burning of a hydrocarbon (for example, wood or fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas) much heat and CO is released. The hot CO emits much energy at its resonance frequency of 4.3 µm. This causes a peak in the total radiation emission and can be well detected. Moreover, the "cold" CO in the air is taking care that the sunlight and other IR radiation is filtered. This makes the sensor in this frequency "Solar blind", however sensitivity is reduced by sunlight. By observing the flicker frequency of a fire (1 to 20 Hz) the detector is made less sensitive to false alarms caused by heat radiation, for example caused by hot machinery. Multi-Infrared detectors make use of algorithms to suppress the effects of background radiation (blackbody radiation), again sensitivity is reduced by this radiation.

text: A wideband infrared sensor (1.1 µm and higher) monitors especially the heat radiation of a fire. A special frequency range is 4.3 to 4.4 µm. This is a resonance frequency of

text: CO

text: . During burning of a

text: hydrocarbon

text: (for example, wood or fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas) much heat and CO is released. The hot CO emits much energy at its resonance frequency of 4.3 µm. This causes a peak in the total radiation emission and can be well detected. Moreover, the "cold" CO in the air is taking care that the sunlight and other IR radiation is filtered. This makes the sensor in this frequency "Solar blind", however sensitivity is reduced by sunlight. By observing the flicker frequency of a fire (1 to 20 Hz) the detector is made less sensitive to false alarms caused by heat radiation, for example caused by hot machinery. Multi-Infrared detectors make use of algorithms to suppress the effects of background radiation (blackbody radiation), again sensitivity is reduced by this radiation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sensitivity is reduced by sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "Solar blind",

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: monitors especially the heat radiation of a fire.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 4.3 to 4.4 <unk>m.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 4.3 <unk>m.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: IR radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

text: The use of the amphiphilic Z-907 dye in conjunction with the polymer gel electrolyte in DSC achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 6.1%. More importantly, the device was stable under thermal stress and soaking with light. The high conversion efficiency of the cell was sustained after heating for 1,000 h at 80 °C, maintaining 94% of its initial value. Afteraccelerated testing in a solar simulator for 1,000 h of light-soaking at 55 °C (100 mW cm) the efficiency had decreased by less than 5% for cells covered with an ultraviolet absorbing polymer film. These results are well within the limit for that of traditional inorganic silicon solar cells.

text: The use of the amphiphilic Z-907 dye in conjunction with the polymer gel electrolyte in DSC achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 6.1%. More importantly, the device was stable under thermal stress and soaking with light. The high conversion efficiency of the cell was sustained after heating for 1,000 h at 80 °C, maintaining 94% of its initial value. Afteraccelerated testing in a

text: solar simulator

text: for 1,000 h of light-soaking at 55 °C (100 mW cm) the efficiency had decreased by less than 5% for cells covered with an ultraviolet absorbing polymer film. These results are well within the limit for that of traditional inorganic silicon solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 55 °C

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet absorbing polymer film.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet absorbing polymer film.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (100 mW cm) the efficiency had decreased by less than 5%

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Z-907

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet absorbing polymer film.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

text: The sun-controlling feature of the building allows the sun to warm the interior in winter and reduces solar energy in summer. The northern side of the building has clerestory windows that allow indirect sunlight into the building. The southern side of the building has shelves that bounce light into the interior. The building uses photocells and motion sensors for general lighting. Approximately 20% of the building electricity is produced by 10.5 kW photovoltaic arrays consisting of new and recycled solar panels. The building’s long side faces south allowing the solar panels to receive maximum sunlight. The building’s annual energy savings are 57,969 kilowatt hours which avoid 27 tons of carbon emissions per year.

text: The sun-controlling feature of the building allows the sun to warm the interior in winter and reduces solar energy in summer. The northern side of the building has clerestory windows that allow indirect sunlight into the building. The southern side of the building has shelves that bounce light into the interior. The building uses photocells and motion sensors for general lighting. Approximately 20% of the building electricity is produced by 10.5 kW photovoltaic arrays consisting of new and recycled solar panels. The building’s long side faces south allowing the solar panels to receive maximum sunlight. The building’s annual energy savings are 57,969 kilowatt hours which avoid 27 tons of carbon emissions per year.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warm the interior in winter

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the building use for general lighting?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warm the interior in winter

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: photocells and motion sensors

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: motion sensors

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy in summer.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: winter and reduces solar energy in summer.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 27 tons of carbon emissions per year.

text: On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

text: On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: much longer than in sunlight

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible-light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: far lower temperatures

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible-light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: lightning

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a closed system in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the Sun. Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the crust of the Earth at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises Karl Marx for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of historical materialism.

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a

text: closed system

text: in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the

text: Sun

text: . Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the

text: crust of the Earth

text: at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises

text: Karl Marx

text: for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of

text: historical materialism

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: matter

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Earth exchanges energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: matter

text: However, these hypotheses were all refuted by the late 1960s and early 1970s Apollo lunar missions, which introduced a stream of new scientific evidence; specifically concerning the Moon's composition, its age, and its history. These lines of evidence contradict many predictions made by these earlier models. The rocks brought back from the Moon showed a marked decrease in water relative to rocks elsewhere in the Solar System, and also evidence of an ocean of magma early in its history, indicating that its formation must have produced a great deal of energy. Also, oxygen isotopes in lunar rocks showed a marked similarity to those on Earth, suggesting that they formed at a similar location in the solar nebula. The capture model fails to explain the similarity in these isotopes (if the Moon had originated in another part of the Solar System, those isotopes would have been different), while the co-accretion model cannot adequately explain the loss of water (if the Moon formed in a similar fashion to the Earth, the amount of water trapped in its mineral structure would also be roughly similar). Conversely, the fission model, while it can account for the similarity in chemical composition and the lack of iron in the Moon, cannot adequately explain its high orbital inclination and, in particular, the large amount of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system, more than any other planet–satellite pair in the Solar System.

text: However, these hypotheses were all refuted by the late 1960s and early 1970s

text: Apollo

text: lunar missions, which introduced a stream of new scientific evidence; specifically concerning the Moon's composition, its age, and its history. These lines of evidence contradict many predictions made by these earlier models. The rocks brought back from the Moon showed a marked decrease in water relative to rocks elsewhere in the Solar System, and also evidence of an ocean of magma early in its history, indicating that its formation must have produced a great deal of energy. Also, oxygen

text: isotope

text: s in lunar rocks showed a marked similarity to those on Earth, suggesting that they formed at a similar location in the solar nebula. The capture model fails to explain the similarity in these isotopes (if the Moon had originated in another part of the Solar System, those isotopes would have been different), while the co-accretion model cannot adequately explain the loss of water (if the Moon formed in a similar fashion to the Earth, the amount of water trapped in its mineral structure would also be roughly similar). Conversely, the fission model, while it can account for the similarity in chemical composition and the lack of iron in the Moon, cannot adequately explain its high orbital inclination and, in particular, the large amount of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system, more than any other planet–satellite pair in the Solar System.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: large amount of angular momentum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar nebula?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: angular momentum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Apollo lunar missions,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar nebula.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: oxygen isotopes

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: oxygen

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar nebula.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: fission model,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: oxygen isotopes in lunar rocks

text: Former NASA physicist John Mankins's vision of launching thousands of satellites into space, gathering solar energy from the Sun and beaming it down to Earth as microwave energy.  The energy will then be collected by antennas on the ground, which will convert it into electricity.

text: Former NASA physicist John Mankins's vision of launching thousands of satellites into space, gathering solar energy from the Sun and beaming it down to Earth as

text: microwave energy

text: .  The energy will then be collected by antennas on the ground, which will convert it into electricity.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: microwave energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: microwave energy. The energy will then be collected by antennas

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: microwave energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwave energy.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: microwave energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: microwave energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: electricity.

text: Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs may, as they pass through the Sun, interact with solar protons, helium nuclei as well as heavier elements. If a WIMP loses enough energy in such an interaction to fall below the local escape velocity, it would not have enough energy to escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and would remain gravitationally bound. As more and more WIMPs thermalize inside the Sun, they begin to annihilate with each other, forming a variety of particles, including high-energy neutrinos.These neutrinos may then travel to the Earth to be detected in one of the many neutrino telescopes, such as the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan. The number of neutrino events detected per day at these detectors depends on the properties of the WIMP, as well as on the mass of the Higgs boson. Similar experiments are underway to detect neutrinos from WIMP annihilations within the Earth and from within the galactic center.

text: Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs may, as they pass through the Sun, interact with solar protons, helium nuclei as well as heavier elements. If a WIMP loses enough energy in such an interaction to fall below the local

text: escape velocity

text: , it would not have enough energy to escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and would remain gravitationally bound. As more and more WIMPs thermalize inside the Sun, they begin to

text: annihilate

text: with each other, forming a variety of particles, including high-energy

text: neutrino

text: s.These neutrinos may then travel to the Earth to be detected in one of the many neutrino telescopes, such as the

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: detector in Japan. The number of neutrino events detected per day at these detectors depends on the properties of the WIMP, as well as on the mass of the

text: Higgs boson

text: . Similar experiments are underway to detect neutrinos from WIMP annihilations within the Earth and from within the galactic center.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: gravitational pull

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: gravitational pull

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: neutrinos.These

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: neutrino telescopes,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: local escape velocity,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: high-energy neutrinos.These

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: WIMP signal could come from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 9, 1953. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on August 9, 1953. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 9, 1953.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1953.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1953.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1953.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: The major atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation. However, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and other trace gases are opaque to many wavelengths of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming solar energy in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules.

text: The major

text: atmospheric

text: gases (

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: ) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (

text: infrared

text: ) radiation. However,

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: and other trace gases are opaque to many

text: wavelength

text: s of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming

text: solar energy

text: in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by

text: greenhouse gas

text: molecule

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: (infrared) radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The major atmospheric gases

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: many wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (oxygen and nitrogen)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: (infrared) radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: thermal (infrared) radiation.

text: In 1982 he started working on solar energy. His work focused on creating a chemical reaction that enables storing the energy produced by the sun so it can be transported to a user site, and then (after the reverse reaction) be used upon request. With several colleagues, he built the solar tower at the Weizmann Institute that is a center for solar-energy research. In 1993 he became an emeritus professor, but has remained active in research and service, including serving as the president of the Israeli Polymer and Plastics Society in 1993–1995 and editor of the bulletin of the Israeli Chemical Society, Chemistry in Israel. Moshe Levy has also spent time as a visiting scientist in a number of institutions, including Xerox Research Center (Rochester, New York), DuPont Central Research Center (Wilmington, Delaware), the University of Florida at Gainesville, and the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

text: In 1982 he started working on solar energy. His work focused on creating a chemical reaction that enables storing the energy produced by the sun so it can be transported to a user site, and then (after the reverse reaction) be used upon request. With several colleagues, he built the solar tower at the Weizmann Institute that is a center for solar-energy research. In 1993 he became an emeritus professor, but has remained active in research and service, including serving as the president of the Israeli Polymer and Plastics Society in 1993–1995 and editor of the bulletin of the Israeli Chemical Society, Chemistry in Israel. Moshe Levy has also spent time as a visiting scientist in a number of institutions, including Xerox Research Center (Rochester, New York),

text: DuPont Central Research

text: Center (Wilmington, Delaware), the University of Florida at Gainesville, and the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can be transported to a user site, and then (after the reverse reaction) be used upon request

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it can be transported to a user site,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Moshe Levy

text: Kurzweil has said that by 2014, humanity will reach a "tipping point" where the cost-per-watt from solar energy is cheaper than from coal and oil: By capturing only 0.03 percent of the sun's energy that falls on Earth, humanity could meet virtually all of its projected energy needs up to 2030 (thirty trillion watts); this will be capable through with extremely inexpensive, lightweight, and efficient nano-engineered solar panels together with nano-fuel cells to store and distribute the captured energy. Kurzweil believes, by the end of the 2020s, humans will be able to completely replace fossil fuels.

text: Kurzweil has said that by 2014, humanity will reach a "tipping point" where the cost-per-watt from solar energy is cheaper than from coal and oil: By capturing only 0.03 percent of the sun's energy that falls on Earth, humanity could meet virtually all of its projected energy needs up to 2030 (thirty trillion watts); this will be capable through with extremely inexpensive, lightweight, and efficient nano-engineered solar panels together with nano-fuel cells to store and distribute the captured energy. Kurzweil believes, by the end of the 2020s, humans will be able to completely replace fossil fuels.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: meet virtually all of its projected energy needs

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the shortest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: humanity could meet virtually all of its projected energy needs

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: nano-engineered solar panels

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun's energy that falls on Earth,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lightweight, and efficient nano-engineered solar panels

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun's energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun's

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun's energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: coal and oil:

text: All the solar planets more distant from the Sun than Earth are similar to Earth in that, since they experience many rotations per revolution around the Sun, there is only a small difference between the length of the sidereal day and that of the solar day—the ratio of the former to the latter never being less than Earth's ratio of 0.997. But the situation is quite different for Mercury and Venus. Mercury's sidereal day is about two-thirds of its orbital period, so by the prograde formula its solar day lasts for two revolutions around the Sun— three times as long as its sidereal day. Venus rotates retrograde with a sidereal day lasting about 243.0 Earth days, or about 1.08 times its orbital period of 224.7 Earth days; hence by the retrograde formula its solar day is about 116.8 Earth days, and it has about 1.9 solar days per orbital period.

text: All the solar planets more distant from the Sun than Earth are similar to Earth in that, since they experience many rotations per revolution around the Sun, there is only a small difference between the length of the sidereal day and that of the solar day—the ratio of the former to the latter never being less than Earth's ratio of 0.997. But the situation is quite different for

text: Mercury

text: and Venus. Mercury's sidereal day is about two-thirds of its orbital period, so by the prograde formula its solar day lasts for two revolutions around the Sun— three times as long as its sidereal day. Venus rotates retrograde with a sidereal day lasting about 243.0 Earth days, or about 1.08 times its orbital period of 224.7 Earth days; hence by the retrograde formula its solar day is about 116.8 Earth days, and it has about 1.9 solar days per orbital period.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: many rotations per revolution around the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Mercury

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: since they experience many rotations per revolution around the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 0.997.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 0.997.

text: Although the song is ostensibly about love and dependency, like many U2 songs, it also lends itself to religious interpretations. Listeners have heard an allusion to the Book of Job 29:2–3 and its tale of God serving as a lamp upon Job's head walking through the darkness.  Robyn Brothers suggests that ultraviolet light is "a metaphor for a divine force both unseen to the naked eye and ultimately unknowable to the human intellect." Conversely, Steve Stockman, author of Walk On: The Spiritual Journey Of U2, sees "Ultraviolet" as being about Bono's wife Ali Hewson, and "how when he feels like trash, she makes him clean," but says there is good reason to interpret the song as being just as much about God. The song's title supports this view: indigo and violet rarely appear in song lyrics as frequently as other colours, while ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum.

text: Although the song is ostensibly about love and dependency, like many U2 songs, it also lends itself to religious interpretations. Listeners have heard an allusion to the

text: Book of Job

text: and its tale of God serving as a lamp upon Job's head walking through the darkness.  Robyn Brothers suggests that

text: ultraviolet light

text: is "a metaphor for a divine force both unseen to the naked eye and ultimately unknowable to the human intellect." Conversely, Steve Stockman, author of Walk On: The Spiritual Journey Of U2, sees "Ultraviolet" as being about Bono's wife

text: Ali Hewson

text: , and "how when he feels like trash, she makes him clean," but says there is good reason to interpret the song as being just as much about God. The song's title supports this view: indigo and violet rarely appear in song lyrics as frequently as other colours, while ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unknowable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: indigo

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ultraviolet light is "a metaphor for a divine force

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unseen to the naked eye

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: violet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

text: The term "electromagnetic pulse" generally excludes optical (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) and ionizing (such as X-ray and gamma radiation) ranges.  In military terminology, a nuclear warhead detonated hundreds of kilometers above the Earth's surface is known as a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) device. Effects of a HEMP device depend on factors including the altitude of the detonation, energy yield, gamma ray output, interactions with the Earth's magnetic field and electromagnetic shielding of targets.

text: The term "electromagnetic pulse" generally excludes optical (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) and ionizing (such as X-ray and gamma radiation) ranges.  In military terminology, a nuclear warhead detonated hundreds of kilometers above the Earth's surface is known as a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) device. Effects of a HEMP device depend on factors including the altitude of the detonation,

text: energy yield

text: gamma ray

text: output, interactions with the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: and

text: electromagnetic shielding

text: of targets.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic shielding of targets

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic pulse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: (infrared, visible, ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (infrared, visible, ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "electromagnetic pulse"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (infrared, visible, ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: X-ray and gamma radiation)

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (infrared, visible,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "electromagnetic pulse"

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on July 22, 2047. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on July 22, 2047. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on July 22, 2047.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2047.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2047.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2047.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 2047.

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, concentrated solar power and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The International Energy Agency projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

text: Solar energy, radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , has been harnessed by humans since

text: ancient times

text: using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: and

text: solar architecture

text: , which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The

text: International Energy Agency

text: projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of

text: photovoltaic system

text: s and

text: solar thermal collector

text: s to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO emissions

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: active solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO emissions

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar thermal collectors

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO

text: The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the corona. The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) may also be much stronger. Joan Feynman deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity.  Her work resulted from data collected by the Explorer 33 spacecraft.The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of plasma (ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since Michael Faraday's work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts across (or is cut by), rather than along, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the direction of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion. Dynamos make use of this basic process ("the dynamo effect"), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids.The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the sunspots, and its field lines (lines of force) are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane), known as the Parker spiral. The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time.The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as magnetic reconnection. As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the north magnetic pole and south magnetic pole.

text: The Earth is constantly immersed in the

text: solar wind

text: , a rarefied flow of hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the

text: corona

text: . The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During

text: magnetic storms

text: , in particular, flows can be several times faster; the

text: interplanetary magnetic field

text: (IMF) may also be much stronger. Joan Feynman deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity.  Her work resulted from data collected by the

text: Explorer 33

text: spacecraft.The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of

text: plasma

text: (ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since

text: Michael Faraday

text: 's work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts across (or is cut by), rather than along, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the direction of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion.

text: Dynamo

text: s make use of this basic process ("the

text: dynamo effect

text: "), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids.The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the

text: sunspot

text: s, and its

text: field lines (lines of force)

text: are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane), known as the

text: Parker spiral

text: . The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time.The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as

text: magnetic reconnection

text: . As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the

text: north magnetic pole

text: and

text: south magnetic pole

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Waves with shorter wavelengths have more energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 1830)

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1830)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: IMF

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunspots,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Michael Faraday's work around 1830)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun-Earth

text: The exuding energy of the sun brings life and growth, radiating with integrity, courage and steadfastness.

text: The exuding energy of the sun brings life and growth, radiating with integrity, courage and steadfastness.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: brings life and growth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: brings life and growth,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The exuding energy of the sun brings life and growth,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The exuding energy of the sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The exuding energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sun

text: Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law. As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium,  brown dwarfs, planets both in our own and other solar systems, comets and Kuiper belt objects.

text: Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by

text: Planck's law

text: . As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the

text: interstellar medium

text: brown dwarfs

text: planets

text: both in our own and other solar systems,

text: comets

text: and

text: Kuiper belt objects

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiation primarily in the infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: planets both in our own and other solar systems,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: better studied in the infrared.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Planck's law.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared,

text: Significantly, it also carried Verner Suomi's flat-plate radiometer, improved with the help of Robert Parent, that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate. Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

text: Significantly, it also carried

text: Verner Suomi

text: 's flat-plate

text: radiometer

text: , improved with the help of

text: Robert Parent

text: , that took the first

text: Earth radiation budget

text: measurements from

text: space

text: and initiated the era of

text: satellite

text: studies of the

text: climate

text: . Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and

text: atmospheric

text: cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth absorbed more

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: net flux radiosondes,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: radiated solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: radiated solar energy.

text: Devon is later reviewing photographs taken of stars at different periods in time and discovers that the star of the alien world went ultraviolet 40 years in the past. He brings this information to his superiors and the military. They then realise that the radiation of Earth's sun is also changing to this spectrum, heralded by increased solar activity. Further research indicates that the noise/music is being transmitted to cause life on earth to mutate and transform so it can adapt to the new conditions, and that the alien transmission is in a sense a benevolent effort. Once this is realised, the richer governments of the world send up satellites to transmit the noise over the entire world, so that even the poorer countries and more remote areas of the world can transition to this new phase of existence. Human beings are given the choice whether to go ahead with the transformation or not, although anyone who chooses not to undergo the change will have to remain indoors for the rest of their lives because the new sunlight's radiation would otherwise be fatal within hours.

text: Devon is later reviewing photographs taken of stars at different periods in time and discovers that the star of the alien world went ultraviolet 40 years in the past. He brings this information to his superiors and the military. They then realise that the radiation of Earth's sun is also changing to this spectrum, heralded by increased solar activity. Further research indicates that the noise/music is being transmitted to cause life on earth to mutate and transform so it can adapt to the new conditions, and that the alien transmission is in a sense a benevolent effort. Once this is realised, the richer governments of the world send up satellites to transmit the noise over the entire world, so that even the poorer countries and more remote areas of the world can transition to this new phase of existence. Human beings are given the choice whether to go ahead with the transformation or not, although anyone who chooses not to undergo the change will have to remain indoors for the rest of their lives because the new sunlight's radiation would otherwise be fatal within hours.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to cause life on earth to mutate and transform

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the star of the alien world go ultraviolet?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: cause life on earth to mutate and transform

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight's

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: mutate

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight's

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight's

text: In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".

text: In 2011, a report by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting

text: climate change

text: . The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in

text: energy efficiency

text: and imposing costs on

text: greenhouse gas

text: emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: de-carbonizing the global economy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the shortest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: de-carbonizing the global economy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: greenhouse gas

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics,

text: Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy or Vibrational Spectroscopy) involves the interaction of infrared radiation with matter. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and study chemicals. For a given sample which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, the method or technique of infrared spectroscopy uses an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) to produce an infrared spectrum.  A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbance (or transmittance) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis. Typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters (sometimes called wave numbers), with the symbol cm. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in micrometers (formerly called "microns"), symbol μm, which are related to wave numbers in a reciprocal way. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed below.

text: Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy or Vibrational Spectroscopy) involves the interaction of

text: infrared

text: radiation with matter. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on

text: absorption spectroscopy

text: . As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and study

text: chemical

text: s. For a given sample which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, the method or technique of infrared spectroscopy uses an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) to produce an infrared spectrum.  A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light

text: absorbance

text: (or

text: transmittance

text: ) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis. Typical

text: unit

text: s of frequency used in IR spectra are

text: reciprocal centimeters

text: (sometimes called

text: wave number

text: s), with the symbol cm. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in

text: micrometer

text: s (formerly called "microns"), symbol μm, which are related to wave numbers in a

text: reciprocal

text: way. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a

text: Fourier transform infrared

text: (FTIR)

text: spectrometer

text: . Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed

text: below

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be identified

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation with matter.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: identify and study chemicals.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Fourier transform infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared spectroscopy

text: Although the solar corona is a source of extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere spans a range of 100 nm to about 1 mm (1,000,000 nm). This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:

text: Although the solar

text: corona

text: is a source of

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: striking the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: spans a range of 100

text: nm

text: to about 1

text: mm

text: (1,000,000 nm). This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of

text: wavelength

text: s:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source of extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 100 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The spectrum of nearly all solar electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-ray radiation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths:

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 100 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet and X-ray radiation,

text: Sun path refers to the apparent significant seasonal-and-hourly positional changes of the sun (and length of daylight) as the Earth rotates, and orbits around the sun. The relative position of the sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems. Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of solar trackers.

text: Sun path refers to the apparent significant seasonal-and-hourly positional changes of the sun (and length of daylight) as the

text: Earth

text: rotates, and orbits around the

text: sun

text: . The relative position of the sun is a major factor in the

text: heat gain

text: of buildings and in the performance of

text: solar energy

text: systems. Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about

text: solar collector

text: area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of

text: solar tracker

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar trackers.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar trackers.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Sun path

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun path

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun path

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun path

text: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy. There is more solar energy that reaches the surface of the Earth each hour than the amount of energy consumed by the world in a year. The challenges of using the sun's energy – energy which can be obtained either from wind power or from solar power – is that the energy needs to either be (1) stored in physical form of fuel for when it can be used in the future, or (2) transported directly as electricity, through transmission lines. Neither is dispatchable, as there is no control over when the sun will shine or when the wind will blow. There are, however, concentrated solar power plants using thermal storage that can store energy efficiently for up to 24 hours.

text: Solar

text: energy is a source of inexhaustible energy. There is more solar energy that reaches the surface of the Earth each hour than the amount of energy consumed by the world in a year. The challenges of using the

text: sun

text: 's energy – energy which can be obtained either from

text: wind power

text: or from

text: solar power

text: – is that the energy needs to either be (1) stored in physical form of fuel for when it can be used in the future, or (2) transported directly as electricity, through transmission lines. Neither is

text: dispatchable

text: , as there is no control over when the sun will shine or when the wind will blow. There are, however,

text: concentrated solar power

text: plants using thermal storage that can store energy efficiently for up to 24 hours.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: more solar energy that reaches the surface of the Earth each hour than the amount of energy consumed by the world in a year

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source of inexhaustible energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy.

text: For building products, thermal emittance measurements are taken for wavelengths in the infrared. Determining the thermal emittance and solar reflectance of building materials, especially roofing materials, can be very useful for reducing heating and cooling energy costs in buildings. Combined index Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is often used to determine the overall ability to reflect solar heat and release thermal heat. A roofing surface with high solar reflectance and high thermal emittance will reflect solar heat and release absorbed heat readily. High thermal emittance material radiates thermal heat back into the atmosphere more-readily than one with a low thermal emittance.

text: For building products, thermal emittance measurements are taken for wavelengths in the

text: infrared

text: . Determining the thermal emittance and

text: solar reflectance

text: of building materials, especially

entity_name: List of commercially available roofing material

text: roofing

text: materials, can be very useful for reducing heating and cooling

text: energy costs

text: in buildings. Combined index Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is often used to determine the overall ability to reflect solar heat and release thermal heat. A roofing surface with high solar reflectance and high thermal emittance will reflect solar heat and release absorbed heat readily. High thermal emittance material radiates thermal heat back into the atmosphere more-readily than one with a low thermal emittance.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heating and cooling energy costs

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: thermal heat

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reducing heating and cooling energy costs in buildings.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: thermal emittance measurements are taken for wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths in the infrared.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: absorbed heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: absorbed heat readily. High thermal emittance material radiates thermal heat

text: Ultraviolet astronomy is the observation of electromagnetic radiation at ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 10 and 320 nanometres; shorter wavelengths—higher energy photons—are studied by X-ray astronomy and gamma ray astronomy.   Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space.

text: Ultraviolet astronomy is the observation of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: at

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelengths between approximately 10 and 320 nanometres; shorter wavelengths—higher energy photons—are studied by

text: X-ray astronomy

text: and

text: gamma ray astronomy

text: .   Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Light at these wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet astronomy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths—higher energy photons—are

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray astronomy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Light

text: One upconversion technique is to incorporate lanthanide-doped materials (, ,  or a combination), taking advantage of their luminescence to convert infrared radiation to visible light. Upconversion process occurs when two infrared photons are absorbed by rare-earth ions to generate a (high-energy) absorbable photon. As example, the energy transfer upconversion process (ETU), consists in successive transfer processes between excited ions in the near infrared. The upconverter material could be placed below the solar cell to absorb the infrared light that passes through the silicon. Useful ions are most commonly found in the trivalent state.  ions have been the most used.  ions absorb solar radiation around 1.54 µm. Two  ions that have absorbed this radiation can interact with each other through an upconversion process. The excited ion emits light above the Si bandgap that is absorbed by the solar cell and creates an additional electron–hole pair that can generate current. However, the increased efficiency was small. In addition, fluoroindate glasses have low phonon energy and have been proposed as suitable matrix doped with  ions.

text: One upconversion technique is to incorporate

text: lanthanide

text: -doped materials (

text: or a combination), taking advantage of their

text: luminescence

text: to convert

text: infrared radiation

text: to visible light. Upconversion process occurs when two

text: infrared

text: photons are absorbed by

text: rare-earth

text: ion

text: s to generate a (high-energy) absorbable photon. As example, the energy transfer upconversion process (ETU), consists in successive transfer processes between excited ions in the near infrared. The upconverter material could be placed below the solar cell to absorb the infrared light that passes through the silicon. Useful ions are most commonly found in the trivalent state.  ions have been the most used.  ions absorb solar radiation around 1.54 µm. Two  ions that have absorbed this radiation can interact with each other through an upconversion process. The excited ion emits light above the Si bandgap that is absorbed by the solar cell and creates an additional electron–hole pair that can generate current. However, the increased efficiency was small. In addition, fluoroindate glasses have low

text: phonon

text: energy and have been proposed as suitable matrix doped with  ions.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: generate current

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ions absorb solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation to visible light.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared radiation to visible light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: convert infrared radiation to visible light.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: fluoroindate glasses have low phonon energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: fluoroindate glasses have low phonon energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation to visible light.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared radiation to visible light.

text: With most solar water heating systems, the energy output scales linearly with the surface area of the absorbers. Therefore, when comparing figures, take into account the absorber area of the collector because collectors with less absorber area yield less heat, even within the 2 m range. Specifications for many complete solar water heating systems and separate solar collectors can be found at Internet site of the SRCC.

text: With most solar water heating systems, the energy output scales linearly with the surface area of the absorbers. Therefore, when comparing figures, take into account the absorber area of the collector because collectors with less absorber area yield less heat, even within the 2 m range. Specifications for many complete solar water heating systems and separate solar collectors can be found at Internet site of the SRCC.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar water heating systems,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Internet site of the SRCC.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2 m range.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: collectors with less absorber area yield less heat,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: the energy output scales linearly with the surface area of the absorbers.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Internet site of the SRCC.

text: The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth. Other sources include geothermal energy from the Earth's core, and heat from the decay of radioactive compounds. Both long- and short-term variations in solar intensity are known to affect global climate.

text: The

text: Sun

text: is the predominant source of

text: energy

text: input to the Earth. Other sources include

text: geothermal

text: energy from the Earth's core, and heat from the decay of radioactive compounds. Both long- and short-term variations in solar intensity are known to affect global climate.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun is the predominant source of energy input

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: heat from the decay of radioactive compounds.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat from the decay of radioactive compounds.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: heat from the decay of radioactive compounds.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heat from the decay of radioactive compounds.

text: Live green plants absorb solar radiation in the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) spectral region, which they use as a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis. Leaf cells have also evolved to re-emit solar radiation in the near-infrared spectral region (which carries approximately half of the total incoming solar energy), because the photon energy at wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers is not large enough to synthesize organic molecules. A strong absorption at these wavelengths would only result in overheating the plant and possibly damaging the tissues. Hence, live green plants appear relatively dark in the PAR and relatively bright in the near-infrared. By contrast, clouds and snow tend to be rather bright in the red (as well as other visible wavelengths) and quite dark in the near-infrared.The pigment in plant leaves, chlorophyll, strongly absorbs visible light (from 0.4 to 0.7 µm) for use in photosynthesis. The cell structure of the leaves, on the other hand, strongly reflects near-infrared light (from 0.7 to 1.1 µm). The more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light are affected, respectively.Since early instruments of Earth Observation, such as NASA's ERTS and NOAA's AVHRR, acquired data in visible and near-infrared, it was natural to exploit the strong differences in plant reflectance to determine their spatial distribution in these satellite images.

text: Live green plants absorb solar radiation in the

text: photosynthetically active radiation

text: (PAR) spectral region, which they use as a source of energy in the process of

text: photosynthesis

text: . Leaf cells have also evolved to re-emit solar radiation in the near-infrared spectral region (which carries approximately half of the total incoming solar energy), because the photon energy at wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers is not large enough to synthesize organic molecules. A strong absorption at these wavelengths would only result in overheating the plant and possibly damaging the tissues. Hence, live green plants appear relatively dark in the PAR and relatively bright in the near-infrared. By contrast, clouds and snow tend to be rather bright in the red (as well as other visible wavelengths) and quite dark in the near-infrared.The pigment in plant leaves, chlorophyll, strongly absorbs visible light (from 0.4 to 0.7 µm) for use in photosynthesis. The cell structure of the leaves, on the other hand, strongly reflects near-infrared light (from 0.7 to 1.1 µm). The more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light are affected, respectively.Since early instruments of Earth Observation, such as

text: NASA

text: 's ERTS and

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text: 's AVHRR, acquired data in visible and near-infrared, it was natural to exploit the strong differences in plant reflectance to determine their spatial distribution in these satellite images.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: live green plants absorb solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 700 nanometers

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: they use as a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible and near-infrared,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: determine their spatial distribution

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: photosynthetically active radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

text: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few parsecs would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level, lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds. This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst, but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth.

text: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few

text: parsec

text: s would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level, lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds. This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst, but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a short increase in ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: x-rays and gamma rays,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: x-rays and gamma rays,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet radiation at ground level,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: high energy electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: high energy electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: x-rays and gamma rays,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: x-rays and gamma rays,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: high energy electromagnetic radiation

text: Geomagnetic storms that ignite auroras may occur more often during the months around the equinoxes. It is not well understood, but geomagnetic storms may vary with Earth's seasons. Two factors to consider are the tilt of both the solar and Earth’s axis to the ecliptic plane. As the Earth orbits throughout a year, it experiences an interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) from different latitudes of the Sun, which is tilted at 8 degrees. Similarly, the 23 degree tilt of the Earth’s axis about which the geomagnetic pole rotates with a diurnal variation, changes the daily average angle that the geomagnetic field presents to the incident IMF throughout a year. These factors combined can lead to minor cyclical changes in the detailed way that the IMF links to the magnetosphere. In turn, this affects the average probability of opening a door through which energy from the solar wind can reach the Earth's inner magnetosphere and thereby enhance auroras.

text: Geomagnetic storm

text: s that ignite auroras may occur more often during the months around the

text: equinox

text: es. It is not well understood, but geomagnetic storms may vary with Earth's seasons. Two factors to consider are the tilt of both the solar and Earth’s axis to the ecliptic plane. As the Earth orbits throughout a year, it experiences an interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) from different latitudes of the Sun, which is tilted at 8 degrees. Similarly, the 23 degree tilt of the Earth’s axis about which the geomagnetic pole rotates with a diurnal variation, changes the daily average angle that the geomagnetic field presents to the incident IMF throughout a year. These factors combined can lead to minor cyclical changes in the detailed way that the IMF links to the magnetosphere. In turn, this affects the average probability of opening a door through which energy from the solar wind can reach the Earth's inner magnetosphere and thereby enhance auroras.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: enhance auroras

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is aurora?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: enhance auroras.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Geomagnetic storms

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: geomagnetic storms

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: interplanetary magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Geomagnetic storms

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: interplanetary magnetic field

text: The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which wave propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bowshock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belt are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.

text: The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which wave propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bowshock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.

text: Charged particles

text: are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the extent of Earth's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: plasmasphere

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere;

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ions and electrons of the solar wind

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Van Allen radiation belt

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ions and electrons of the solar wind

text: Seafood watch -Self-sufficiency -Seven generation sustainability -Silicon valley -Simple living -Smithsonian Environmental Research Center -Soil conservation -Soil erosion -Soil health -Solar cell -Solar heating -Solar lamp -Solar power -Solar power satellite -Solar savings fraction -Spaceship earth -Straight vegetable oil -Strategic Environmental Assessment -Strategic Sustainable Development -Sustainability -Sustainability accounting -Sustainability Appraisal -Sustainability governance -Sustainability organisations -Sustainability reporting -Sustainable advertising -Sustainable agriculture -Sustainable architecture -Sustainable art -Sustainable building -Sustainable business -Sustainable city -Sustainable community -Sustainable design -Sustainable development -Sustainable distribution -Sustainable food system -Sustainable energy -Sustainable fashion -Sustainable forest management -Sustainable habitat -Sustainable industries -Sustainable landscape architecture -Sustainable lighting -Sustainable living -Sustainable national income -Sustainable packaging -Sustainable procurement -Sustainable product development -Sustainable product development and design -Sustainable regional development -Sustainable resource extraction -Sustainable sanitation -Sustainable technology -Sustainable tourism -Sustainable transport -Sustainable urban drainage systems -Sustainable urban infrastructure -

text: Seafood watch

text: Self-sufficiency

text: Seven generation sustainability

text: Silicon valley

text: Simple living

entity_name: Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

text: Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

text: Soil conservation

text: Soil erosion

text: Soil health

text: Solar cell

text: Solar heating

text: Solar lamp

text: Solar power

text: Solar power satellite

text: Solar savings fraction

text: Spaceship earth

text: Straight vegetable oil

text: Strategic Environmental Assessment

text: Strategic Sustainable Development

text: Sustainability

text: Sustainability accounting

text: Sustainability Appraisal

text: Sustainability governance

text: Sustainability organisations

text: Sustainability reporting

text: Sustainable advertising

text: Sustainable agriculture

text: Sustainable architecture

text: Sustainable art

text: Sustainable building

text: Sustainable business

text: Sustainable city

text: Sustainable community

text: Sustainable design

text: Sustainable development

text: Sustainable distribution

text: Sustainable food system

text: Sustainable energy

text: Sustainable fashion

text: Sustainable forest management

text: Sustainable habitat

text: Sustainable industries

text: Sustainable landscape architecture

text: Sustainable lighting

text: Sustainable living

text: Sustainable national income

text: Sustainable packaging

text: Sustainable procurement

text: Sustainable product development

text: Sustainable product development and design

text: Sustainable regional development

text: Sustainable resource extraction

text: Sustainable sanitation

text: Sustainable technology

text: Sustainable tourism

text: Sustainable transport

text: Sustainable urban drainage systems

text: Sustainable urban infrastructure

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Sustainable energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: -Solar cell

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: -Sustainable lighting

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: -Solar cell

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Seafood watch

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: -Sustainability

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: -Sustainable resource extraction

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: -Spaceship earth

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: -Sustainable national income

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: income

text: For over thirty years, Criswell has been an advocate for obtaining solar power from the moon.  He proposes the large-scale construction of solar collectors on the lunar surface, using local lunar materials.  The solar energy would be converted to microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

text: For over thirty years, Criswell has been an advocate for obtaining

text: solar power

text: from the

text: moon

text: .  He proposes the large-scale construction of solar collectors on the lunar surface, using local lunar materials.  The solar energy would be converted to microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: converted to microwave energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The solar energy would be converted to microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: microwave energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwave energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: microwave energy and transmitted to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: microwave energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: moon.

text: Ultraviolet (UV) detectors work by detecting the UV radiation emitted at the instant of ignition. While capable of detecting fires and explosions within 3–4 milliseconds, a time delay of 2–3 seconds is often included to minimize false alarms which can be triggered by other UV sources such as lightning, arc welding, radiation, and sunlight. UV detectors typically operate with wavelengths shorter than 300 nm.  The solar blind UV wavelength band is also easily blinded by oily contaminants.

text: Ultraviolet

text: (UV) detectors work by detecting the UV radiation emitted at the instant of ignition. While capable of detecting fires and explosions within 3–4 milliseconds, a time delay of 2–3 seconds is often included to minimize false alarms which can be triggered by other UV sources such as

text: lightning

text: arc welding

text: radiation

text: , and

text: sunlight

text: . UV detectors typically operate with

text: wavelength

text: s shorter than 300

text: nm

text: .  The solar blind UV wavelength band is also easily blinded by oily contaminants.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: UV sources such as lightning, arc welding, radiation, and sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet (UV) detectors

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detecting fires and explosions within 3–4 milliseconds,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: UV detectors typically operate with wavelengths shorter than 300 nm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV sources such as lightning, arc welding, radiation, and sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: lightning, arc welding, radiation, and sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar blind UV

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.

text: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower

text: angle

text: (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: is spread over a larger area

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: spread over a larger area,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sunlight is spread over a larger area,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: weaker

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle

text: If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely then sufficient energy must be obtained by a spacecraft to exceed the depth of the gravity potential energy well. Once this has occurred, provided the energy is not lost in any non conservative way, then the vehicle will leave the influence of the Earth. The depth of the potential well depends on the vehicle's position, and the energy depends on the vehicle's speed. If the kinetic energy exceeds the potential energy then escape occurs. At the Earth's surface this occurs at a speed of 11.2 km/s (25,000 mph), but in practice a much higher speed would be needed due to airdrag.

text: If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely then sufficient energy must be obtained by a spacecraft to exceed the depth of the gravity potential energy well. Once this has occurred, provided the energy is not lost in any non conservative way, then the vehicle will leave the influence of the Earth. The depth of the potential well depends on the vehicle's position, and the energy depends on the vehicle's speed. If the kinetic energy exceeds the potential energy then escape occurs. At the Earth's surface this occurs at a speed of 11.2 km/s (25,000 mph), but in practice a much higher speed would be needed due to airdrag.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely then sufficient energy must be obtained

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: If the Earth's gravity is to be overcome entirely then sufficient energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: kinetic energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: (25,000 mph),

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy depends on the vehicle's speed.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: airdrag.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: depth of the gravity potential energy well.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: depth of the gravity potential energy well.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: If the Earth's gravity

text: The energy of Sun comes from the nuclear fusion in its core where a helium atom and an electron neutrino are generated by 4 protons. These neutrinos emitted from this reaction are called solar neutrinos. Photons, created by the nuclear fusion in the center of the Sun, take millions of years to reach the surface; on the other hand, solar neutrinos arrive at the earth in eight minutes due to their lack of interactions with matter. Hence, solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun in "real-time" that takes millions of years for visible light.

text: The energy of Sun comes from the nuclear fusion in its core where a helium atom and an electron neutrino are generated by 4 protons. These neutrinos emitted from this reaction are called solar neutrinos. Photons, created by the nuclear fusion in the center of the Sun, take millions of years to reach the surface; on the other hand, solar neutrinos arrive at the earth in eight minutes due to their lack of interactions with matter. Hence, solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun in "real-time" that takes millions of years for visible light.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observe the inner Sun in "real-time"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Photons,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar neutrinos.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar neutrinos.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar neutrinos.

text: Solar power is a candidate for power for a Martian colony. Solar insolation (the amount of solar radiation that reaches Mars) is about 42% of that on Earth, since Mars is about 52% farther from the Sun and insolation falls off as the square of distance. But the thin atmosphere would allow almost all of that energy to reach the surface as compared to Earth, where the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation. Sunlight on the surface of Mars would be much like a moderately cloudy day on Earth.

text: Solar power

text: is a candidate for power for a Martian colony.

text: Solar insolation

text: (the amount of solar radiation that reaches Mars) is about 42% of that on Earth, since Mars is about 52% farther from the Sun and insolation

text: falls off as the square of distance

text: . But the thin atmosphere would allow almost all of that energy to reach the surface as compared to Earth, where the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation. Sunlight on the surface of Mars would be much like a moderately cloudy day on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 42% of that on Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of this passage?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest energy ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Earth,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: square of distance.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth, where the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation.

text: A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface (solar constant) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies, depending upon weather conditions, location and orientation.

text: A solar thermal collector collects

text: heat

text: by

text: absorbing

text: sunlight

text: . A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: from the

text: infrared

text: (long) to the

text: ultraviolet

text: (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface (

text: solar constant

text: ) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies, depending upon weather conditions, location and orientation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: short

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet (short) wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: capturing solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet (short) wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (short)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet (short) wavelengths.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sunlight.

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 6, 2019. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on January 6, 2019. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 6, 2019.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2019.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2019.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2019.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 6, 2019.

text: Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see Black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m in vacuum.

text: Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see

text: Black-body radiation

text: ). The

text: Sun

text: emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot

text: star

text: s emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun.

text: Sunlight

text: in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see

text: solar constant

text: ) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m in vacuum.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 10 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Very hot objects emit UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 10 nm.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 10% ultraviolet light,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV radiation

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).

text: Solar energy

text: , radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP),

text: concentrator photovoltaics

text: (CPV),

text: solar architecture

text: and

text: artificial photosynthesis

text: . Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

text: . Active solar technologies encompass

text: solar thermal energy

text: , using

text: solar collectors

text: for heating, and

text: solar power

text: , converting

text: sunlight

text: into

text: electricity

text: either directly using

text: photovoltaics

text: (PV), or indirectly using

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: CPV

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar energy, radiant light and heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: concentrator photovoltaics

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun,

text: Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics. Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.

text: Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives

text: plate tectonics

text: . Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of

text: Earth's total energy budget

text: at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming

text: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: incoming solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Earth's internal heat

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 0.03%

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 0.03%

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth's internal heat

text: Infrared was discovered in 1800 by Sir William Herschel as a form of radiation beyond red light.  These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement. There are four basic laws of IR radiation: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation, Stefan-Boltzmann law, Planck’s law, and Wien’s displacement law. The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometer and bolometers until World War I.  Leopoldo Nobili fabricated the first thermocouple in 1829, which paved the way for Macedonio Melloni to show that a person 10 meters away could be detected with his multielement thermopile.  The bolometer was invented in 1878 by Langley.  It had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away, and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandth of a degree Celsius.

text: Infrared was discovered in 1800 by

text: Sir William Herschel

text: as a form of radiation beyond red light.  These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement. There are four basic laws of IR radiation:

text: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

text: Stefan-Boltzmann law

text: Planck’s law

text: , and

text: Wien’s displacement law

text: . The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometer and

text: bolometer

text: s until World War I.

text: Leopoldo Nobili

text: fabricated the first

text: thermocouple

text: in 1829, which paved the way for

text: Macedonio Melloni

text: to show that a person 10 meters away could be detected with his multielement

text: thermopile

text: .  The bolometer was invented in 1878 by Langley.  It had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away, and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandth of a degree Celsius.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: could be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: thermal measurement.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: red light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: It had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "infrared rays"

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called solar collectors. Solar power is a renewable source of energy. The solar radiant energy reaching the earth's surface is around 1.783*10 KJ or 1.353kJ/s per square meter. Solar power plants, such as the Blythe Solar Power Project, operate mainly on closed power cycles: Rankine cycles (for low temperature ranges) and Brayton cycles (for high temperature ranges). Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. The constraints associated with solar plants are size, space, high capital cost, and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy.

text: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called

text: solar collector

text: s. Solar power is a renewable source of energy. The solar radiant energy reaching the earth's surface is around 1.783*10 KJ or 1.353kJ/s per square meter. Solar power plants, such as the

text: Blythe Solar Power Project

text: , operate mainly on closed power cycles:

text: Rankine cycle

text: s (for low temperature ranges) and

text: Brayton cycle

text: s (for high temperature ranges). Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. The constraints associated with solar plants are size, space, high capital cost, and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar power is a renewable source of energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not an example of a solar collector?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Rankine cycles

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar power is a renewable source of energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar collectors.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar radiation captured by so-called solar collectors.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1.353kJ/s per square meter.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Rankine

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar collectors.

text: Infrared vision is the capability of biological or artificial systems to detect infrared radiation. The terms thermal vision and thermal imaging, are also commonly used in this context since infrared emissions from a body are directly related to their temperature: hotter objects emit more energy in the infrared spectrum than colder ones.

text: Infrared vision is the capability of biological or artificial systems to detect

text: infrared radiation

text: . The terms

text: thermal vision

text: and

text: thermal imaging

text: , are also commonly used in this context since infrared emissions from a body are directly related to their temperature: hotter objects emit more energy in the infrared spectrum than colder ones.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: hotter objects emit more energy in the infrared spectrum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared vision

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detect infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: hotter objects emit more energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: colder ones.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared radiation.

text: The health threat depends on the flux, energy spectrum, and nuclear composition of the radiation. The flux and energy spectrum depend on a variety of factors: short-term solar weather, long-term trends (such as an apparent increase since the 1950s), and position in the Sun's magnetic field. These factors are incompletely understood.The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE) was launched in 2001 in order to collect more data.Estimates are that humans unshielded in interplanetary space would receive annually roughly 400 to 900 mSv (compared to 2.4 mSv on Earth) and that a Mars mission (12 months in flight and 18 months on Mars) might expose shielded astronauts to roughly 500 to 1000 mSv. These doses approach the 1 to 4 Sv career limits advised by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements for low Earth orbit activities.

text: The health threat depends on the flux, energy spectrum, and nuclear composition of the radiation. The flux and energy spectrum depend on a variety of factors: short-term solar weather, long-term trends (such as an apparent increase since the 1950s), and position in the Sun's magnetic field. These factors are incompletely understood.The

text: Mars Radiation Environment Experiment

text: (MARIE) was launched in 2001 in order to collect more data.Estimates are that humans unshielded in interplanetary space would receive annually roughly 400 to 900 mSv (compared to 2.4 mSv on Earth) and that a Mars mission (12 months in flight and 18 months on Mars) might expose shielded astronauts to roughly 500 to 1000 mSv. These doses approach the 1 to 4 Sv career limits advised by the

entity_name: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

text: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

text: for

text: low Earth orbit

text: activities.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 2.4 mSv

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of radiation?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: mSv

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: mSv

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: short-term solar weather,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: understood.The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: humans unshielded

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2.4

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 to 900 mSv

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2.4 mSv on Earth)

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: radiation.

text: To use UltraViolet, consumers need to create a free UltraViolet account, either through a participating UltraViolet service provider, or through the official UltraViolet website. An UltraViolet account is a Digital Rights Locker where licenses for purchased content are stored and managed irrespective of the point of sale. The Ultraviolet account holder is allowed to share their library with 5 other users, which are called members.

text: To use UltraViolet, consumers need to create a free UltraViolet account, either through a participating UltraViolet service provider, or through the official UltraViolet website. An UltraViolet account is a Digital Rights Locker where licenses for purchased content are stored and managed irrespective of the

text: point of sale

text: . The Ultraviolet account holder is allowed to share their library with 5 other users, which are called members.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: To use UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: To use UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UltraViolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: To use UltraViolet,

text: Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to interseasonal, and can involve storage of sensible energy (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or latent energy (i.e. through phase changes of a medium, such between water and slush or ice). Short-term thermal storages can be used for peak-shaving in district heating or electrical distribution systems. Kinds of renewable or alternative energy sources that can be enabled include natural energy (e.g. collected via solar-thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter's cold), waste energy (e.g. from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (e.g. as seasonally from hyropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The Drake Landing Solar Community (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative. borehole thermal energy storage allows the community to get 97% of its year-round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs, which most of the heat collected in summer. Types of storages for sensible energy include insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow lined pits that are insulated on top. Some types of storage are capable of storing heat or cold between opposing seasons (particularly if very large), and some storage applications require inclusion of a heat pump. Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called phase-change materials (PCMs).

text: Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to

text: interseasonal

text: , and can involve storage of

text: sensible energy

text: (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or

text: latent energy

text: (i.e. through phase changes of a medium, such between water and slush or ice). Short-term thermal storages can be used for peak-shaving in district heating or electrical distribution systems. Kinds of renewable or alternative energy sources that can be enabled include natural energy (e.g. collected via solar-thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter's cold), waste energy (e.g. from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (e.g. as seasonally from hyropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The

text: Drake Landing Solar Community

text: (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative.

text: borehole thermal energy storage

text: allows the community to get 97% of its year-round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs, which most of the heat collected in summer. Types of storages for sensible energy include insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow lined pits that are insulated on top. Some types of storage are capable of storing heat or cold

text: between opposing seasons

text: (particularly if very large), and some storage applications require inclusion of a

text: heat pump

text: . Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called

text: phase-change material

text: s (PCMs).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: renewable or alternative energy sources

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: latent

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: collected via solar-thermal collectors,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermal storage technologies

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: natural energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Thermal storage technologies

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: sensible energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ice tanks

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sensible energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Thermal storage technologies

text: In late March, the US Air Force Space Command reported that the solar storms of March 7–10 could have temporarily knocked American military satellites offline. NASA also reported that these powerful flares heated the Earth's upper atmosphere with the biggest dose of infrared radiation since 2005. From March 8 to March 10, the thermosphere absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy. Infrared radiation from carbon dioxide and nitric oxide, the two most efficient coolants in the thermosphere, re-radiated 95% of that total back into space.

text: In late March, the US

text: Air Force Space Command

text: reported that the solar storms of March 7–10 could have temporarily knocked American military satellites offline. NASA also reported that these powerful flares heated the Earth's upper atmosphere with the biggest dose of infrared radiation since 2005. From March 8 to March 10, the

text: thermosphere

text: absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy. Infrared radiation from

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: nitric oxide

text: , the two most efficient coolants in the thermosphere, re-radiated 95% of that total back into space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The thermosphere absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the thermosphere absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Infrared radiation from carbon dioxide and nitric oxide,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: carbon dioxide and nitric oxide,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide and nitric oxide,

text: "Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light.

text: "Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from

text: Latin

text: ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: violet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: "Ultraviolet"

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: "Ultraviolet"

text: The rover headed south from Spirit point after the events of ExoMars, continuing its mission on the edge of Endeavour crater. On Sol 4541 (Nov. 1, 2016), the solar array energy production is 390 watt-hours and on Sol 4548 (Nov. 8, 2016), the solar array energy production is 445 watt-hours. A readout from the EEPROM was returned to Earth, this is used in the test-bed rovers on Earth.

text: The rover headed south from Spirit point after the events of ExoMars, continuing its mission on the edge of Endeavour crater. On Sol 4541 (Nov. 1, 2016), the solar array energy production is 390 watt-hours and on Sol 4548 (Nov. 8, 2016), the solar array energy production is 445 watt-hours. A readout from the EEPROM was returned to Earth, this is used in the test-bed rovers on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: used in the test-bed rovers on Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sol 4548

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: this is used in the test-bed rovers on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A readout from the EEPROM was returned to Earth,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: test-bed rovers on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 390 watt-hours

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ExoMars,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sol 4541

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 390 watt-hours

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth, this is used in the test-bed rovers on Earth.

text: Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves is non-ionizing; its main effect when interacting with tissue is heating. This type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. While the part of the ultraviolet spectrum that penetrates the Earth's atmosphere is non-ionizing, this radiation does far more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be accounted for by heating effects, sunburn being a well-known example. These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.

text: Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of

text: ultraviolet light

text: constitute the ionizing part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light,

text: infrared light

text: microwaves

text: , and radio waves is non-ionizing; its main effect when interacting with tissue is heating. This type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. While the part of the ultraviolet spectrum that penetrates the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is non-ionizing, this radiation does far more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be accounted for by heating effects,

text: sunburn

text: being a well-known example. These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: non-ionizing

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: non-ionizing

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ionize atoms.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heating.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer-wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: non-ionizing;

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: non-ionizing,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

text: Sopogy was a solar thermal technology supplier was founded in 2002 at the Honolulu, Hawaii based clean technology incubator known as Energy Laboratories.  The company began its research on concentrating solar thermal energy to produce solar steam and thermal heat for absorption chillers or industrial process heat.  The company has also developed applications that incorporate its solar collectors to generate electricity and desalination. Sopogy's name origin comes from industry key words "SO" from Solar "PO" from "Power" and "GY" from "Energy and Technology"  The company has its OEM and IPP sales teams along with Research and Development located in Honolulu, HI, and in 2006 expanded its Manufacturing, C&I and Oil and Gas sales teams in its Silicon Valley facility.  The Pacific Business News and Green Tech Media reported that the VC-funded micro-concentrator solar power firm was shutting down operations based on statements from its President David Fernandez, however Hitachi Power Systems acquired Sopogy in a private transaction in 2014.

text: Sopogy was a

text: solar thermal

text: technology supplier was founded in 2002 at the

text: Honolulu, Hawaii

text: based clean technology incubator known as Energy Laboratories.  The company began its research on concentrating

text: solar thermal energy

text: to produce solar

text: steam

text: and thermal heat for

text: absorption chillers

text: or industrial process heat.  The company has also developed applications that incorporate its solar collectors to generate

text: electricity

text: and

text: desalination

text: . Sopogy's name origin comes from industry key words "SO" from Solar "PO" from "Power" and "GY" from "Energy and Technology"  The company has its OEM and IPP sales teams along with Research and Development located in

text: Honolulu, HI

text: , and in 2006 expanded its Manufacturing, C&I and Oil and Gas sales teams in its

text: Silicon Valley

text: facility.  The Pacific Business News and Green Tech Media reported that the VC-funded micro-concentrator solar power firm was shutting down operations based on statements from its President David Fernandez, however Hitachi Power Systems acquired Sopogy in a private transaction in 2014.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to generate electricity and desalination

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: generate electricity and desalination.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: concentrating solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar collectors to generate electricity and desalination.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: concentrating solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Oil and Gas

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Energy Laboratories.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: concentrating solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Energy Laboratories.

text: Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI) is a telescope that observes the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelength range. SUVI will observe and characterize complex, active regions of the Sun, solar flares and the eruptions of solar filaments that may give rise to coronal mass ejections. Depending on the size and the trajectory of solar eruptions, the possible effects to the Earth’s environment, referred to as space weather, include the disruption of power utilities, communication and navigation systems and possible damage to orbiting satellites and the International Space Station. SUVI observations of flares and solar eruptions will provide an early warning of possible impacts to the Earth environment and enable better forecasting of potentially disruptive events.

text: Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI) is a telescope that observes the Sun in the

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: (EUV) wavelength range. SUVI will observe and characterize complex, active regions of the Sun,

text: solar flare

text: s and the eruptions of solar filaments that may give rise to

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s. Depending on the size and the trajectory of solar eruptions, the possible effects to the Earth’s environment, referred to as space weather, include the disruption of power utilities, communication and navigation systems and possible damage to orbiting satellites and the

text: International Space Station

text: . SUVI observations of flares and solar eruptions will provide an early warning of possible impacts to the Earth environment and enable better forecasting of potentially disruptive events.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: disruption of power utilities

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: disruption of power utilities,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar Ultraviolet Imager

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar filaments

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar Ultraviolet Imager

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: extreme ultraviolet (EUV)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (EUV)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: space weather,

text: Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example, it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants. It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Infrared can be used in cooking and heating food as it predominantly heats the opaque, absorbent objects, rather than the air around them.

text: Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example, it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants. It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Infrared can be used in cooking and heating food as it predominantly heats the opaque, absorbent objects, rather than the air around them.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared saunas to heat the occupants.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: The Sun emits energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (thermal energy). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.

text: The Sun emits energy across the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (

text: thermal energy

text: ). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar energy strikes the surface of objects

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is emitted after sunset?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: IR radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar energy strikes the surface of objects.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: IR radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar energy strikes the surface of objects.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Sun emits energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: IR radiation.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: IR

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar energy

text: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.

text: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: primary source of energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the sun do for living organisms?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: blue-green

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: humans

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: primary source of energy for living organisms.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms.

text: The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from ultraviolet to X-ray and influences the frequency of solar flares, coronal mass ejections and other solar eruptive phenomena.

text: The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from

text: ultraviolet

text: to

text: X-ray

text: and influences the frequency of

text: solar flare

text: s,

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s and other solar eruptive phenomena.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: influences the frequency of solar flares

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet to X-ray

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet to X-ray

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet to X-ray

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: short-wavelength solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet to X-ray

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet to X-ray

text: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules (EJ) of energy to the Earth. Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source.

text: The

text: Sun

text: delivers almost 4 million

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) of energy to the Earth. Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: what is the purpose of this passage?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 4 million exajoules

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules

text: Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multi-junction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.

text: Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of

text: frequencies of light

text: , but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically,

text: ultraviolet

text: infrared

text: and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident

text: sunlight

text: energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with

text: monochromatic

text: light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of

text: Boeing

text: , have reported development of

text: multi-junction solar cell

text: s with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light).

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: photovoltaic modules

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelength ranges

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet, infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photovoltaic modules

text: UltraViolet  is a cloud-based digital rights locker for movies and television shows that allows consumers to store proofs-of-purchase of licensed content in an account to enable playback on different devices using multiple applications from several different streaming services. UltraViolet also allows users to share access to their library with up to five additional people. UltraViolet is deployed by the Digital Entertainment Content Ecosystem, an alliance of 85 companies that includes film studios, retailers, consumer electronics manufacturers, cable TV companies, ISPs, network hosting vendors, and other Internet systems and security vendors, with the notable exceptions of Disney, Google, Amazon.com and Apple.

text: UltraViolet  is a

text: cloud-based

text: digital rights

text: locker for movies and television shows that allows consumers to store proofs-of-purchase of licensed content in an account to enable playback on different devices using multiple applications from several different streaming services. UltraViolet also allows users to share access to their library with up to five additional people. UltraViolet is deployed by the

text: Digital Entertainment Content Ecosystem

text: , an alliance of 85 companies that includes

text: film studio

text: s, retailers, consumer electronics manufacturers,

text: cable TV

text: companies,

text: ISPs

text: , network hosting vendors, and other Internet systems and security vendors, with the notable exceptions of

text: Disney

text: Google

text: Amazon.com

text: and

text: Apple

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Digital Entertainment Content Ecosystem,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UltraViolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UltraViolet

text: Hydro-electric, wind and solar power all derive their energy from the Sun. The Sun emits more energy in one second (3.827 × 10 J) than is available in all of the fossil fuels present on earth (3.9 × 10 J), and therefore has the potential to provide all of our current and future global energy requirements. Since the solar source for renewable energy is clean and free, African nations can protect their people, their environment, and their future economic development by using renewable energy sources to this end they have a number of possible options.

text: Hydro-electric, wind and solar power all derive their energy from the Sun. The Sun emits more energy in one second (3.827 × 10 J) than is available in all of the fossil fuels present on earth (3.9 × 10 J), and therefore has the potential to provide all of our current and future global energy requirements. Since the solar source for renewable energy is clean and free, African nations can protect their people, their environment, and their future economic development by using renewable energy sources to this end they have a number of possible options.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: has the potential to provide all of our current and future global energy requirements

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: has the potential to provide all of our current and future global energy requirements.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Hydro-electric, wind and solar power

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Sun emits more energy in one second

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: fossil fuels

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun.

text: For total protection against damage from the sun, the skin needs to be protected from UVA, UVB, and also IRA (infrared-A light). Roughly 35% of solar energy is IRA.

text: For total protection against damage from the sun, the skin needs to be protected from UVA, UVB, and also IRA (

text: infrared

text: -A light). Roughly 35% of solar energy is IRA.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared-A light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVA

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protection against damage

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: IRA

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (infrared-A light).

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: (infrared-A light).

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (infrared-A light).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: (infrared-A light).

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVA, UVB,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: UVA, UVB,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: (infrared-A light).

text: Recently, a company called Sunvention Solar Energy created a device very similar to what NASA came up with in 1976 that can pump 100,000 gallons per day purely off of solar energy and usage of the Stirling cycle costing only US$1,250  This apparatus, much like the others, uses a large solar dish to collect heat from the sun creating a high temperature source and also employs the low temperature water it collects from a nearby stream as its low temperature source allowing for a great range in temperature which in turn allows for more work to be done   The work done in Sunvention’s apparatus is used to pump the water into nearby crop fields allowing for a “low-cost, low-technology pump having particular utility in irrigation systems employed in underdeveloped arid regions of the earth”.

text: Recently, a company called Sunvention Solar Energy created a device very similar to what NASA came up with in 1976 that can pump 100,000 gallons per day purely off of solar energy and usage of the Stirling cycle costing only US$1,250  This apparatus, much like the others, uses a large solar dish to collect heat from the sun creating a high temperature source and also employs the low temperature water it collects from a nearby stream as its low temperature source allowing for a great range in temperature which in turn allows for more work to be done   The work done in Sunvention’s apparatus is used to pump the water into nearby crop fields allowing for a “low-cost, low-technology pump having particular utility in irrigation systems employed in underdeveloped arid regions of the earth”.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: pump 100,000 gallons per day

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: irrigation systems employed in underdeveloped arid regions

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: great range in temperature which in turn allows for more work to be done

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat from the sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Stirling cycle costing only US$1,250

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Stirling cycle costing only US$1,250

text: Lead-based semiconductors, such as lead telluride, lead selenide and lead antimonide are finding applications in photovoltaic (solar energy) cells and infrared detectors.

text: Lead-based

text: semiconductors

text: , such as

text: lead telluride

text: lead selenide

text: and lead antimonide are finding applications in

text: photovoltaic

text: (solar energy) cells and

text: infrared

text: detectors.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: lead

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: photovoltaic

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared detectors.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (solar energy)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared detectors.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared detectors.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Lead-based semiconductors,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: lead telluride, lead selenide and lead antimonide

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared detectors.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Lead-based semiconductors,

text: Other instruments on board the spacecraft are the ground-based meteorological platform data collection and relay, and the space environment monitor. The latter consists of a magnetometer, an X-ray sensor, a high energy proton and alpha detector, and an energetic particles sensor, all used for in-situ surveying of the near-earth space environment.  Satellites numbered 12 and greater also carry a solar x-ray imager (SXI) used for two-dimensional imaging of the Sun.  The GOES 13-15 series also have a sun-pointed extreme ultraviolet sensor.

text: Other instruments on board the spacecraft are the ground-based meteorological platform data collection and relay, and the space environment monitor. The latter consists of a

text: magnetometer

text: , an

text: X-ray

text: sensor, a high energy

text: proton

text: and

text: alpha

text: detector, and an energetic particles sensor, all used for in-situ surveying of the near-earth space environment.  Satellites numbered 12 and greater also carry a solar x-ray imager (SXI) used for two-dimensional imaging of the Sun.  The GOES 13-15 series also have a sun-pointed extreme ultraviolet sensor.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: two-dimensional imaging of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: alpha

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: two-dimensional imaging of the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: X-ray sensor,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-ray sensor,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: X-ray sensor, a high energy proton and alpha detector,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

text: Langley invented the bolometer, an instrument for measuring infrared radiation. The bolometer has enabled scientists to detect a change of temperature of less than 1/100,000 of a degree Celsius. It laid the foundation for the measurements of the amount of solar energy on the Earth. His 1881 paper, The Bolometer and Radiant Energy, became a scientific classic. He made one of the first attempts to measure the surface temperature of the Moon, and his measurement of interference of the infrared radiation by carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere was used by Svante Arrhenius in 1896 to make the first calculation of how climate would change from a future doubling of carbon dioxide levels.

text: Langley invented the

text: bolometer

text: , an instrument for measuring infrared radiation. The bolometer has enabled scientists to detect a change of temperature of less than 1/100,000 of a degree Celsius. It laid the foundation for the measurements of the amount of solar energy on the Earth. His 1881 paper, The Bolometer and Radiant Energy, became a scientific classic. He made one of the first attempts to measure the surface temperature of the Moon, and his measurement of interference of the infrared radiation by carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere was used by

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: in 1896 to make the first calculation of how climate would change from a future doubling of carbon dioxide levels.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the amount of solar energy on the Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: measurements of the amount of solar energy on the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detect a change of temperature

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1/100,000 of a degree Celsius.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

text: Characteristic energy- Conservation of energy- Consol Energy

text: Characteristic energy

text: Conservation of energy

text: Consol Energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: conservation of energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Consol Energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: consol energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: conserves energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Conservation of energy-

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Characteristic energy-

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Consol Energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Characteristic energy-

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Characteristic energy-

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Characteristic energy-

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Consol Energy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Characteristic energy- Conservation of energy- Consol Energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Characteristic energy-

text: Infrared spectroscopy involves measuring the direct absorption of photons with the appropriate energy to excite molecular bond vibrations. The wavelengths of these photons lie in the infrared region of the spectrum, hence the name of the technique.  Raman spectroscopy measures the excitation of bond vibrations by an inelastic scattering process, in which the incident photons are more energetic (usually in the visible, ultraviolet or even X-ray region) and lose (or gain in the case of anti-Stokes Raman scattering) only part of their energy to the sample. The two methods are complementary because some vibrational transitions that are observed in IR spectroscopy are not observed in Raman spectroscopy, and vice versa.  RR spectroscopy is an extension of conventional Raman spectroscopy that can provide increased sensitivity to specific (colored) compounds that are present at low (micro to millimolar) in an otherwise complex mixture of compounds.

text: Infrared spectroscopy

text: involves measuring the direct absorption of

text: photon

text: s with the appropriate energy to excite

text: molecular bond

text: vibrations. The

text: wavelength

text: s of these photons lie in the

text: infrared

text: region of the

text: spectrum

text: , hence the name of the technique.  Raman spectroscopy measures the excitation of bond vibrations by an

text: inelastic scattering

text: process, in which the incident photons are more energetic (usually in the visible, ultraviolet or even X-ray region) and lose (or gain in the case of

text: anti-Stokes Raman scattering

text: ) only part of their energy to the sample. The two methods are complementary because some vibrational transitions that are observed in IR spectroscopy are not observed in Raman spectroscopy, and vice versa.  RR

text: spectroscopy

text: is an extension of conventional Raman spectroscopy that can provide increased sensitivity to specific (colored) compounds that are present at low (micro to millimolar) in an otherwise complex mixture of compounds.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: excite molecular bond vibrations.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared spectroscopy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: measuring the direct absorption of photons

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lose

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (micro to millimolar)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared spectroscopy

text: If a Counter-Earth had an electromagnetic energy signature similar to that of Earth's, it would be able to be detected by astronomers since the signature would extend well beyond the surface of an Earth-like planet. The Sun's "wobbling" motion around its "barycenter" would prevent it from blocking all signs of that energy from Earth, at least for part of the year.  The Sun does not remain stationary—relative to its planets—at the center of the solar system because of the gravitational pull of the most massive planet—Jupiter.

text: If a Counter-Earth had an

text: electromagnetic energy signature

text: similar to that of Earth's, it would be able to be detected by astronomers since the signature would extend well beyond the surface of an Earth-like planet. The Sun's "wobbling" motion around its "

text: barycenter

text: " would prevent it from blocking all signs of that energy from Earth, at least for part of the year.  The Sun does not remain stationary—relative to its planets—at the center of the solar system because of the gravitational pull of the most massive planet—Jupiter.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic energy signature

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: it would be able to be detected by astronomers

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: electromagnetic energy signature similar to that of Earth's,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detected by astronomers

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: electromagnetic energy signature similar to that of Earth's,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Counter-Earth

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: electromagnetic energy signature similar to that of Earth's,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: If a Counter-Earth

text: Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, just beyond visible light. Ultraviolet wavelengths are 100 to 400 nanometres (nm, billionths of a metre) and are divided into three bands: A, B and C. UVA wavelengths are the longest, 315 to 400 nm; UVB are 280 to 315 nm, and UVC wavelengths are the shortest, 100 to 280 nm.

text: Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , just beyond

text: visible light

text: . Ultraviolet

text: wavelength

text: s are 100 to 400

text: nanometres

text: (nm, billionths of a metre) and are divided into three bands: A, B and C. UVA wavelengths are the longest, 315 to 400 nm; UVB are 280 to 315 nm, and UVC wavelengths are the shortest, 100 to 280 nm.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVA

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet wavelengths are 100 to 400 nanometres

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: UVC wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVC

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: (UVR) is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, just beyond visible light.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet radiation

text: Woven fiberglass coated with PTFE (Teflon or silicone) is also a widely used base material. Glass fibers are drawn into continuous filaments, which are then bundled into yarns. The yarns are woven to form a substrate. The fiberglass carries a high ultimate tensile strength, behaves elastically, and does not suffer from significant stress relaxation or creep. The PTFE coating is chemically inert, can withstand temperatures from 100 °F upwards to 450 °F+. It is also immune to radiation and can be cleaned with water. PTFE fiberglass is additionally Energy Star and Cool Roof Rating Council certified. During scientific tests of its solar properties, it was discovered that PTFE fiberglass membranes reflect as much as 73 percent of the sun’s energy while holding just seven percent on its exterior surface. Certain grades of PTFE fiberglass can absorb 14 percent of the sun’s energy while allowing 13 percent of natural daylight and seven percent of re-radiated energy (solar heat) to transmit through.

text: Woven fiberglass coated with PTFE (

text: Teflon

text: or

text: silicone

text: ) is also a widely used base material. Glass fibers are drawn into continuous filaments, which are then bundled into yarns. The yarns are woven to form a substrate. The fiberglass carries a high ultimate tensile strength, behaves elastically, and does not suffer from significant

text: stress relaxation

text: or creep. The PTFE coating is

text: chemically inert

text: , can withstand temperatures from 100 °F upwards to 450 °F+. It is also immune to radiation and can be cleaned with water. PTFE fiberglass is additionally

text: Energy Star

text: and Cool Roof Rating Council certified. During scientific tests of its solar properties, it was discovered that PTFE fiberglass membranes reflect as much as 73 percent of the sun’s energy while holding just seven percent on its exterior surface. Certain grades of PTFE fiberglass can absorb 14 percent of the sun’s energy while allowing 13 percent of natural daylight and seven percent of re-radiated energy (solar heat) to transmit through.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: reflect as much as 73 percent

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 100 °F

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: PTFE fiberglass membranes reflect as much as 73 percent

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 73 percent of the sun’s energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 73 percent of the sun’s energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 73 percent of the sun’s energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (Teflon or silicone)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 73 percent of the sun’s energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: PTFE

text: The hypothesis describes a feedback loop that begins with an increase in the available energy from the sun acting to increase the growth rates of phytoplankton by either a physiological effect (due to elevated temperature) or enhanced photosynthesis (due to increased irradiance).  Certain phytoplankton, such as coccolithophorids, synthesise dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), and their enhanced growth increases the production of this osmolyte.  In turn, this leads to an increase in the concentration of its breakdown product, dimethyl sulfide (DMS), first in seawater, and then in the atmosphere.  DMS is oxidised in the atmosphere to form sulfur dioxide, and this leads to the production of sulfate aerosols.  These aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and increase cloud droplet number, which in turn elevate the liquid water content of clouds and cloud area.  This acts to increase cloud albedo, leading to greater reflection of incident sunlight, and a decrease in the forcing that initiated this chain of events.  The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram.  Note that the feedback loop can operate in the reverse direction, such that a decline in solar energy leads to reduced cloud cover and thus to an increase in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface.

text: The hypothesis describes a feedback loop that begins with an increase in the available

text: energy

text: from the sun acting to increase the growth rates of phytoplankton by either a

text: physiological effect

text: (due to elevated temperature) or enhanced

text: photosynthesis

text: (due to increased

text: irradiance

text: ).  Certain phytoplankton, such as

text: coccolithophorids

text: , synthesise

text: dimethylsulfoniopropionate

text: (DMSP), and their enhanced growth increases the production of this

text: osmolyte

text: .  In turn, this leads to an increase in the concentration of its breakdown product,

text: dimethyl sulfide

text: (DMS), first in seawater, and then in the atmosphere.  DMS is

text: oxidised

text: in the atmosphere to form

text: sulfur dioxide

text: , and this leads to the production of

text: sulfate aerosols

text: .  These aerosols act as

text: cloud condensation nuclei

text: and increase cloud droplet number, which in turn elevate the liquid water content of clouds and cloud area.  This acts to increase

text: cloud albedo

text: , leading to greater

text: reflection

text: of incident

text: sunlight

text: , and a decrease in the forcing that initiated this chain of events.  The figure to the right shows a summarising

text: schematic diagram

text: .  Note that the feedback loop can operate in the reverse direction, such that a decline in solar energy leads to reduced cloud cover and thus to an increase in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: increase the growth rates of phytoplankton

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of photosynthesis?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: DMS

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: increase the growth rates of phytoplankton

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: phytoplankton

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: irradiance).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: dimethylsulfoniopropionate

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: sulfur dioxide,

text: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 °C. The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the infrared range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including carbon dioxide and water vapour, are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let in, but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave. Rather than get hotter and hotter, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere.

text: The surface of the

text: Sun

text: radiates

text: light and heat

text: at approximately 5,500 °C. The

text: Earth

text: is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the

text: infrared

text: range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: water vapour

text: , are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let in, but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave. Rather than get hotter and hotter,

text: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

text: says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiates heat back away from itself

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared range.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

text: The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)

text: The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark

text: molecular cloud

text: s of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect

text: protostar

text: s before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as

text: planet

text: s can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: gas and dust

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detect protostars

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The infrared

text: The spectrum of the Sun's solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5,800 K. The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum. Although the Sun produces gamma rays as a result of the nuclear-fusion process, internal absorption and thermalization convert these super-high-energy photons to lower-energy photons before they reach the Sun's surface and are emitted out into space. As a result, the Sun does not emit gamma rays from this process, but it does emit gamma rays from solar flares. The Sun also emits X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and even radio waves; the only direct signature of the nuclear process is the emission of neutrinos.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of the Sun's solar radiation is close to

text: that of a black body

text: with a temperature of about 5,800

text: K

text: . The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Although the Sun produces

text: gamma ray

text: s as a result of the

text: nuclear-fusion

text: process, internal absorption and thermalization convert these super-high-energy

text: photon

text: s to lower-energy photons before they reach the Sun's surface and are emitted out into space. As a result, the Sun does not emit gamma rays from this process, but it does emit gamma rays from solar flares. The Sun also emits

text: X-rays

text: ultraviolet

text: visible light

text: infrared

text: , and even

text: radio wave

text: s; the only direct signature of the nuclear process is the emission of

text: neutrino

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lower-energy photons

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun's solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma rays

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun's solar radiation

text: The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century.

text: The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to

text: William Herschel

text: , the

text: astronomer

text: , in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the

text: Royal Society of London

text: . Herschel used a

text: prism

text: to

text: refract

text: light from the

text: sun

text: and detected the infrared, beyond the

text: red

text: part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a

text: thermometer

text: . He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detected the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: "Calorific Rays".

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared radiation

text: Thus far, we have focused rather exclusively on the dynamical breakdown of laminar flow into turbulence triggered by a weak magnetic field, but it is also the case that the resulting highly agitated flow can act back on this same magnetic field. Embedded magnetic field lines are stretched by the turbulent flow, and it is possible that systematic field amplification could result. The process by which fluid motions are converted to magnetic field energy is known as a dynamo (Moffatt, 1978); the two best studied examples are the Earth's liquid outer core and the layers close to the surface of the Sun. Dynamo activity in these regions is thought to be responsible for maintaining the terrestrial and solar magnetic fields. In both of these cases thermal convection is likely to be the primary energy source, though in the case of the Sun differential rotation may also play an important role. Whether the MRI is an efficient dynamo process in accretion disks is currently an area of active research (Fromang and Papaloizou, 2007).

text: Thus far, we have focused rather exclusively on the dynamical breakdown of laminar flow into turbulence triggered by a weak magnetic field, but it is also the case that the resulting highly agitated flow can act back on this same magnetic field. Embedded magnetic field lines are stretched by the turbulent flow, and it is possible that systematic field amplification could result. The process by which fluid motions are converted to magnetic field energy is known as a

text: dynamo

text: (Moffatt, 1978); the two best studied examples are the Earth's liquid outer core and the layers close to the surface of the Sun. Dynamo activity in these regions is thought to be responsible for maintaining the terrestrial and solar magnetic fields. In both of these cases thermal

text: convection

text: is likely to be the primary energy source, though in the case of the Sun differential rotation may also play an important role. Whether the MRI is an efficient dynamo process in accretion disks is currently an area of active research (Fromang and Papaloizou, 2007).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: in the case of the Sun differential rotation may also play an important role

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetic fields.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: dynamo

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: thermal convection

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: dynamo

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: weak magnetic field,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: turbulence triggered by a weak magnetic field,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: thermal convection

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: weak magnetic field,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: dynamo

text: Infrared (IR for short) is the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum comprised between 0.78 μm and 1 mm wavelength. It is usually divided into three segments:

text: Infrared

text: (IR for short) is the part of the

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: spectrum comprised between 0.78 μm and 1 mm

text: wavelength

text: . It is usually divided into three segments:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 0.78 <unk>m and 1 mm wavelength.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared

text: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about  per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.

text: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about  per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the

text: tropical

text: (or equatorial),

text: subtropical

text: temperate

text: and

text: polar

text: climates.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about per degree of latitude from the equator

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of sensor?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: subtropical

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The amount of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: increasing latitude.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: tropical (or equatorial),

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: the sunlight

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the

text: solar system

text: , often substituting

text: ultraviolet

text: light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The

text: Murchison meteorite

text: that fell near

text: Murchison, Victoria

text: , Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life.

text: Comet

text: s and other

text: icy outer-solar-system bodies

text: are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as

text: tholin

text: s) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: chemical reactions.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: lightning

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infer an origin of life outside of Earth:

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Miller–Urey

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

text: The Volitan is a proposed design for a boat equipped with solar cell panels, which uses both wind and solar energy. The proposed design is lightweight, with a stiff structure made of carbon fiber and epoxy resin and carbon foam core lamination. It also has an ultraviolet resistant coating.

text: The Volitan is a proposed design for a boat equipped with

text: solar cell

text: panels, which uses both

text: wind

text: and

text: solar energy

text: . The proposed design is lightweight, with a stiff structure made of

text: carbon fiber

text: and

text: epoxy

text: resin and carbon foam core lamination. It also has an

text: ultraviolet resistant coating

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cell panels, which uses both wind and solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar cell panels,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar cell panels, which uses both wind and solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet resistant coating.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar cell panels, which uses both wind and solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar cell panels,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet resistant coating.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet resistant coating.

text: The climate forcing is the difference of radiant energy (sunlight) received by the Earth and the outgoing longwave radiation back to space. The radiative forcing is quantified based on the CO amount in the tropopause, in units of watts per square meter to the Earth's surface. Dependent on the radiative balance of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar insolation and the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols. Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.

text: The

text: climate forcing

text: is the difference of radiant energy (

text: sunlight

text: ) received by the Earth and the outgoing

text: longwave radiation

text: back to space. The radiative forcing is quantified based on the CO amount in the

text: tropopause

text: , in units of watts per square meter to the Earth's surface. Dependent on the

text: radiative balance

text: of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar

text: insolation

text: and the concentrations of

text: greenhouse gases

text: and

text: aerosols

text: . Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth either warms up or cools down

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the difference between radiant energy and longwave radiation?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: longwave

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The climate forcing

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: outgoing longwave radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (sunlight)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The climate forcing is the difference of radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longwave

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: outgoing longwave radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: longwave radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: longwave radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: CO amount in the tropopause,

text: With a focus on solar power use in his designs, Disch continued in 1993 with an initiative to make Sport-Club Freiburg the first solar soccer team in Germany with photovoltaic panels to power their stadium.  Together with Coach Volker Finke, the Dreisam stadium in Freiburg was the first soccer stadium in Germany to install solar power, again to be followed by several club teams in the future.This pattern of pioneering swelled in 1995 when Disch revealed his groundbreaking Heliotrope design, a house that physically rotates with the sun to maximize sunlight and natural heat use.  The Heliotrope was the first building worldwide to have a positive energy balance, meaning it generates more energy than it consumes.  Different types of renewable and sustainable energy concepts in addition to solar power are used in the original Heliotrope, built in Freiburg’s renowned Vauban quarter.  It was the first of three revolving wonders to be built in Germany.  In line with his Heliotrope design, Disch’s PlusEnergy concept was born: create buildings that generate more energy than they use and sell the surplus of clean sustainable energy back into the power grid for profit. The key to the PlusEnergy concept was finding a solution not only for large expensive homes, like the Heliotrope, but rather also for the average sized and priced home.  Thus in 2000 Disch contracted and began the development of a 50 PlusEnergy home housing community, the Solar Settlement.  This PlusEnergy housing community was again revolutionary in that it was the first community in the world, in which every single home had a positive energy balance from which they received an annual profit from energy sales.  With triumph the Solar Settlement drew many believers, tenants and funding which led to yet another successful PlusEnergy project.Directly next to the Solar Settlement Disch built the Sun Ship.  The Sun Ship is the commercial accompaniment to the Solar Settlement and it includes . of commercial and retail space, while housing 9 PlusEnergy penthouses on its roof.  Though the unique style of retail, commercial and residential integration is used throughout Europe, this exceptional structure meets the PlusEnergy standard with a positive energy balance due to its utilization of the most up-to-date building technology.  The ingenuity of these projects has carried Rolf Disch and his architecture firm to the top of Germany’s solar totem poll and have demonstrated the perfect examples of modern sustainable development.

text: With a focus on solar power use in his designs, Disch continued in 1993 with an initiative to make

text: Sport-Club Freiburg

text: the first solar soccer team in Germany with photovoltaic panels to power their stadium.  Together with Coach

text: Volker Finke

text: , the

text: Dreisam stadium

text: in Freiburg was the first soccer stadium in Germany to install solar power, again to be followed by several club teams in the future.This pattern of pioneering swelled in 1995 when Disch revealed his groundbreaking

text: Heliotrope

text: design, a house that physically rotates with the sun to maximize sunlight and natural heat use.  The Heliotrope was the first building worldwide to have a positive energy balance, meaning it generates more energy than it consumes.  Different types of renewable and sustainable energy concepts in addition to solar power are used in the original Heliotrope, built in Freiburg’s renowned

text: Vauban

text: quarter.  It was the first of three revolving wonders to be built in Germany.  In line with his Heliotrope design, Disch’s

text: PlusEnergy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: generates more energy than it consumes

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What can solar panels do?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Waves with shorter wavelengths have more energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: surplus of clean sustainable energy back into the power grid for profit.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: more energy than they use and sell the surplus of clean sustainable energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sun Ship.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight and natural heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun Ship.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar Settlement.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun Ship.

text: His primary interest was the study of stellar spectra. He worked on solar spectroscopy and co-discovered a relationship between the relative intensities of certain spectral lines and the absolute magnitude of a star. He was able to demonstrate that spectra could be used to determine whether a star was a giant or a dwarf. In 1915 he began a study of the companion of Sirius and found that despite a size only slightly larger than the Earth, the surface of the star was brighter per unit area than the Sun and it was about as massive. Such a star later came to be known as a white dwarf.  Along with Theodore Dunham, he discovered the strong presence of carbon dioxide in the infrared spectrum of Venus.

text: His primary interest was the study of

text: stellar spectra

text: . He worked on solar

text: spectroscopy

text: and co-discovered a relationship between the relative intensities of certain

text: spectral line

text: s and the

text: absolute magnitude

text: of a star. He was able to demonstrate that spectra could be used to determine whether a star was a

text: giant

text: or a

text: dwarf

text: . In 1915 he began a study of the companion of

text: Sirius

text: and found that despite a size only slightly larger than the

text: Earth

text: , the surface of the star was brighter per unit area than the

text: Sun

text: and it was about as

text: massive

text: . Such a star later came to be known as a

text: white dwarf

text: .  Along with

text: Theodore Dunham

text: , he discovered the strong presence of

text: carbon dioxide

text: in the

text: infrared

text: spectrum of

text: Venus

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: brighter per unit area than the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: spectral lines and the absolute magnitude of a star.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Venus.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

text: Singer was one of the first scientists to urge the launching of earth satellites for scientific observation during the 1950s. In 1951 or 1952 he proposed the MOUSE ("Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth"), a  satellite that would contain Geiger counters for measuring cosmic rays, photo cells for scanning the Earth, telemetry electronics for sending data back to Earth, a magnetic data storage device, and rudimentary solar energy cells. Although MOUSE never flew, the Baltimore News Post reported in 1957 that had Singer's arguments about the need for satellites been heeded, the U.S. could have beaten Russia by launching the first earth satellite. He also proposed (along with R. C. Wentworth) that satellite measurement of ultraviolet backscatter could be used as a method to measure atmospheric ozone profiles.  This technique was later used on early weather satellites.

text: Singer was one of the first scientists to urge the launching of earth satellites for scientific observation during the 1950s. In 1951 or 1952 he proposed the MOUSE ("Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth"), a  satellite that would contain

text: Geiger counter

text: s for measuring

text: cosmic rays

text: , photo cells for scanning the Earth,

text: telemetry

text: electronics for sending data back to Earth, a magnetic data storage device, and rudimentary

text: solar energy cell

text: s. Although MOUSE never flew, the Baltimore News Post reported in 1957 that had Singer's arguments about the need for satellites been heeded, the U.S. could have beaten Russia by launching the first earth satellite. He also proposed (along with R. C. Wentworth) that satellite measurement of ultraviolet backscatter could be used as a method to measure atmospheric ozone profiles.  This technique was later used on early

text: weather satellite

text: s.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: cosmic ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: rudimentary solar energy cells.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet backscatter

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: measure atmospheric ozone profiles.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: cosmic rays,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

text: The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance (backscattered solar energy) in the near ultraviolet spectrum (160 to 400 nm). The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of “trace” constituents on the ozone layer.

text: The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance (backscattered solar energy) in the near ultraviolet spectrum (160 to 400 nm). The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of “trace” constituents on the ozone layer.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth radiance

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: (backscattered solar energy)

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (160 to 400 nm).

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (160 to 400 nm).

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet spectrum (160 to 400 nm).

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

text: In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.

text: In 1666,

text: Isaac Newton

text: observed the Sun's light using a

text: prism

text: , and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800,

text: William Herschel

text: discovered

text: infrared

text: radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun;

text: Joseph von Fraunhofer

text: recorded more than 600

text: absorption lines

text: in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as

text: Fraunhofer lines

text: . In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle.

text: Lord Kelvin

text: suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and

text: Hermann von Helmholtz

text: then proposed a

text: gravitational contraction

text: mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890

text: Joseph Lockyer

text: , who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a significant puzzle

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiating an internal store of heat.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 600 absorption lines

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Fraunhofer lines.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared radiation

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: , and

text: near-infrared

text: radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at

text: wavelengths that are much longer

text: than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth receives energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.

text: Both Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), have heavily funded solar research programs. The NREL solar program has a budget of around $75 million and develops research projects in the areas of photovoltaic (PV) technology, solar thermal energy, and solar radiation. The budget for Sandia’s solar division is unknown, however it accounts for a significant percentage of the laboratory’s $2.4 billion budget.

text: Both

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: and the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL), have heavily funded solar research programs. The NREL solar program has a budget of around $75 million and develops research projects in the areas of

text: photovoltaic

text: (PV) technology, solar thermal energy, and solar radiation. The budget for Sandia’s solar division is unknown, however it accounts for a significant percentage of the laboratory’s $2.4 billion budget.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: NREL

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar research programs.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: $75 million

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: $75 million

text: Data of a USDA study indicate that, in 2002, about 0.6% of non-solar energy use in the United States was accounted for by production of meat-producing livestock and poultry.  This estimate included embodied energy used in production, such as energy used in manufacture and transport of fertilizer for feed production.  (Non-solar energy is specified, because solar energy is used in such processes as photosynthesis and hay-drying.)

text: Data of a USDA study indicate that, in 2002, about 0.6% of non-solar energy use in the United States was accounted for by production of meat-producing livestock and poultry.  This estimate included embodied energy used in production, such as energy used in manufacture and transport of fertilizer for feed production.  (Non-solar energy is specified, because solar energy is used in such processes as photosynthesis and hay-drying.)

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy is used in such processes as photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet A

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: used in such processes as photosynthesis and hay-drying.)

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 0.6%

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: meat-producing livestock and poultry.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 0.6% of non-solar energy use in the United States

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: fertilizer

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 0.6% of non-solar energy use in the United States

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 0.6% of non-solar energy use in the United States

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: poultry.

text: The intensity of solar thermal energy from solar radiation at the surface of the earth is about , of area normal to the direction of the sun, under clear-sky conditions.  When solar energy is unconcentrated, the maximum collector temperature is about .  This is useful for space heating and heating water.  For higher temperature applications, such as cooking, or supplying a heat engine or turbine-electrical generator, this energy must be concentrated.

text: The intensity of

text: solar thermal energy

text: from

text: solar radiation

text: at the surface of the

text: earth

text: is about , of area

text: normal

text: to the direction of the

text: sun

text: , under clear-sky conditions.  When solar energy is unconcentrated, the maximum collector temperature is about .  This is useful for space heating and heating water.  For higher temperature applications, such as

text: cooking

text: , or supplying a

text: heat engine

text: or

text: turbine

text: electrical generator

text: , this energy must be concentrated.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heating water

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: useful for space heating and heating water.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The intensity of solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun, under clear-sky conditions.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The intensity of solar thermal energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The intensity of solar thermal energy

text: The Sun's output of energetic extreme ultraviolet photons is primarily what heats the Earth's upper atmosphere and creates the ionosphere. Solar EUV radiation output undergoes constant changes, both moment to moment and over the Sun's 11-year solar cycle, and these changes are important to understand because they have a significant impact on atmospheric heating, satellite drag, and communications system degradation, including disruption of the Global Positioning System.

text: The Sun's output of energetic extreme ultraviolet photons is primarily what heats the

text: Earth

text: 's upper atmosphere and creates the

text: ionosphere

text: . Solar EUV radiation output undergoes constant changes, both moment to moment and over the Sun's 11-year

text: solar cycle

text: , and these changes are important to understand because they have a significant impact on

text: atmospheric heating

text: satellite drag

text: , and communications system degradation, including disruption of the

text: Global Positioning System

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heats the Earth's upper atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heats the Earth's upper atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Global Positioning System.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: extreme ultraviolet photons

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionosphere.

text: Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

text: Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the

text: equator

text: have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of

text: photovoltaics

text: that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for

text: solar panels

text: to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day.

text: Cloud cover

text: can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of sensor?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: clouds

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar panels to absorb.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: clouds block incoming light from the sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: clouds block incoming light from the sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: clouds block incoming light from the sun

text: The flux of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field, and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ~94 AU from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the termination shock, from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the heliopause acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.

text: The

text: flux

text: of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the

text: solar wind

text: , the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ~94

text: AU

text: from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the

text: termination shock

text: , from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the

text: heliopause

text: acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: flux of incoming cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1 GeV

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The flux of incoming cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The flux of incoming cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The flux of incoming cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lower energies

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1 GeV)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: heliopause acts as a barrier to cosmic rays,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: cosmic rays

text: Condé Nast Traveller UK edition selected Ultraviolet in its Gold Standard Restaurants 2013, saying “Ultraviolet is China's most immersive foodie experience… Truly extraordinary.”

text: Condé Nast Traveller

text: UK edition selected Ultraviolet in its Gold Standard Restaurants 2013, saying “Ultraviolet is China's most immersive foodie experience… Truly extraordinary.”

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Condé Nast Traveller UK edition selected Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet in its Gold Standard Restaurants 2013,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Ultraviolet in its Gold Standard Restaurants 2013,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: Since 1978, solar irradiance has been measured by satellites. These measurements indicate that the Sun's radiative output has not increased during that time, so the warming during the past 40 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth.

text: Since 1978,

text: solar irradiance

text: has been measured by

text: satellite

text: s. These measurements indicate that the Sun's radiative output has not increased during that time, so the warming during the past 40 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warming

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warming

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar irradiance has been measured by satellites.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar irradiance has been measured by satellites.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: increase in solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: increase in solar energy

text: Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1%  by volume) and Venus have much less. The  surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

text: Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the

text: Sun

text: 's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the

text: Earth's crust

text: by mass as part of oxide compounds such as

text: silicon dioxide

text: and is the most abundant element by mass in the

text: Earth's crust

text: . It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the

text: Solar System

text: in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere:

text: Mars

text: (with 0.1%  by volume) and

text: Venus

text: have much less. The  surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Oxygen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Oxygen

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Oxygen

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide.

text: Neubauer’s expertise and enthusiasm helped stimulate and support a series of key studies in the 1970s including a local climate adapted building code in "A Strategy for Energy Conservation" (1974), plans for a daylit naturally heated, cooled and ventilated state office building that would have used only 12% of the energy of a conventional office building design (1976), "The Davis Energy Conservation Report" (1977), and a final paper on the potential to reduce energy use dramatically simply by placing windows wisely. As noted in discussions about his award as the Passive Solar Pioneer in 1981 from the American Solar Energy Society, Neubauer provided the voice of authority that helped convince the city council, builders, and citizens that a climatically adapted building code made sense. The team who wrote the Davis Energy Conservation Report, Neubauer, Cramer, Hammond and Hunt, were also given an award by First Lady Rosalynn Carter in 1981. Neubauer's solar research and contributions also were applied to plant research. He helped develop, refine and improve a sun tracking greenhouse for experiments. This phytotron increased solar gain and improved solar control for experimental purposes.

text: Neubauer’s expertise and enthusiasm helped stimulate and support a series of key studies in the 1970s including a local climate adapted building code in "A Strategy for Energy Conservation" (1974), plans for a daylit naturally heated, cooled and ventilated state office building that would have used only 12% of the energy of a conventional office building design (1976), "The Davis Energy Conservation Report" (1977), and a final paper on the potential to reduce energy use dramatically simply by placing windows wisely. As noted in discussions about his award as the Passive Solar Pioneer in 1981 from the

text: American Solar Energy Society

text: , Neubauer provided the voice of authority that helped convince the city council, builders, and citizens that a climatically adapted building code made sense. The team who wrote the Davis Energy Conservation Report, Neubauer, Cramer, Hammond and Hunt, were also given an award by First Lady

text: Rosalynn Carter

text: in 1981. Neubauer's solar research and contributions also were applied to plant research. He helped develop, refine and improve a sun tracking greenhouse for experiments. This phytotron increased solar gain and improved solar control for experimental purposes.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar research and contributions also were applied to plant research

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of energy?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be tracked

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Neubauer

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: plant research.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: sun tracking greenhouse

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Passive Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: sun tracking greenhouse

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 12%

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar gain and improved solar control for experimental purposes.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Neubauer’s

text: Physical changes resulting from exposure to the environment are initiated by chemical bond breaking reactions caused by the absorbed light, either through direct or indirect processes. Chemical bond breaking is a prerequisite to any chemical reaction, and chemical reactions are a prerequisite to observable or measurable physical changes. Other weather factors mainly promote weathering through their influence on the secondary reactions which follow the breaking of bonds. Degradation of most materials exposed to outdoor conditions is caused mainly by UV degradation – the ultraviolet portion of solar energy, with the shortest wavelengths often having the greatest effect. Therefore, variations in both the quantity and quality of ultraviolet in both the direct solar beam and diffuse sky radiation are important factors in the design and evaluation of weathering tests.

text: Physical changes resulting from exposure to the environment are initiated by

text: chemical bond

text: breaking reactions caused by the

text: absorbed light

text: , either through direct or indirect processes. Chemical bond breaking is a prerequisite to any chemical reaction, and chemical reactions are a prerequisite to observable or measurable physical changes. Other weather factors mainly promote weathering through their influence on the secondary reactions which follow the breaking of bonds. Degradation of most materials exposed to outdoor conditions is caused mainly by

text: UV degradation

text: – the ultraviolet portion of

text: solar energy

text: , with the shortest

text: wavelength

text: s often having the greatest effect. Therefore, variations in both the quantity and quality of ultraviolet in both the

text: direct solar beam

text: and

text: diffuse sky radiation

text: are important factors in the design and evaluation of weathering tests.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Degradation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: direct solar beam

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Degradation of most materials exposed to outdoor conditions

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: UV degradation – the ultraviolet portion of solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: measurable physical changes.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shortest wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV degradation – the ultraviolet portion of solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: shortest wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet portion of solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: light,

text: In April 2009, PG&E's Next100 blog reported that PG&E was asking the California Public Utilities Commission to approve a project by the company Solaren to deliver 200 megawatts of power to California from space. This method of obtaining electricity from the sun eliminates (mostly) the darkness of night experienced from solar sites on the surface of the earth. According to PG&E spokesman Jonathan Marshall, energy purchase costs are expected to be similar to other renewable energy contracts.

text: In April 2009, PG&E's Next100 blog reported that PG&E was asking the California Public Utilities Commission to approve a project by the company

text: Solaren

text: to deliver 200 megawatts of power to California from space. This method of obtaining electricity from the sun eliminates (mostly) the darkness of night experienced from solar sites on the surface of the earth. According to PG&E spokesman Jonathan Marshall, energy purchase costs are expected to be similar to other renewable energy contracts.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity from the sun eliminates (mostly) the darkness of night

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar sites

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar sites on the surface of the earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2009,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar sites

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2009,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: darkness of night

text: Ultraviolet (UV) is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm (30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although lacking the energy to ionize atoms, long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.

text: Ultraviolet (UV) is an

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with a

text: wavelength

text: from 10 nm (30

text: PHz

text: ) to 400 nm (750

text: THz

text: ), shorter than that of

text: visible light

text: but longer than

text: X-ray

text: s. UV radiation is present in

text: sunlight

text: . It is also produced by

text: electric arc

text: s and specialized lights such as

text: mercury-vapor lamp

text: s,

text: tanning lamp

text: s, and

text: black light

text: s. Although lacking the

text: energy

text: to

entity_name: Ionization energies of the elements (data page)

text: ionize atoms

text: , long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation can cause

text: chemical reaction

text: s and causes many substances to glow or

text: fluoresce

text: . Consequently, biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: UV radiation is present in sunlight

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: UV radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ionize atoms,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: lacking the energy to ionize atoms,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 10 nm (30 PHz) to 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: X-rays.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: Nanofluid-based direct solar collectors are solar thermal collectors where nanoparticles in a liquid medium can scatter and absorb solar radiation.  They have recently received interest to efficiently distribute solar energy. Nanofluid-based solar collector have the potential to harness solar radiant energy more efficiently compared to conventional solar collectors.Nanofluids have recently found relevance in applications requiring quick and effective heat transfer such as industrial applications, cooling of microchips, microscopic fluidic applications, etc. Moreover, in contrast to conventional heat transfer (for solar thermal applications) like water, ethylene glycol, and molten salts, nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy; instead, they absorb and scatter significantly the solar irradiance passing through them.Typical solar collectors use a black-surface absorber to collect the sun's heat energy which is then transferred to a fluid running in tubes embedded within. Various limitations have been discovered with these configuration and alternative concepts have been addressed. Among these, the use of nanoparticles suspended in a liquid is the subject of research.  Nanoparticle materials including aluminium, copper, carbon nanotubes and carbon-nanohorns have been added to different base fluids and characterized in terms of their performance for improving heat transfer efficiency.

text: Nanofluid-based direct solar collectors are

text: solar thermal collector

text: s where

text: nanoparticle

text: s in a liquid medium can scatter and

text: absorb

text: solar radiation

text: .  They have recently received interest to efficiently distribute

text: solar energy

text: Nanofluid

text: -based solar collector have the potential to harness solar radiant energy more efficiently compared to conventional

text: solar collectors

text: .Nanofluids have recently found relevance in applications requiring quick and effective heat transfer such as industrial applications, cooling of microchips, microscopic fluidic applications, etc. Moreover, in contrast to conventional heat transfer (for solar thermal applications) like water, ethylene glycol, and molten salts, nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy; instead, they absorb and scatter significantly the solar irradiance passing through them.Typical solar collectors use a black-surface absorber to collect the sun's heat energy which is then transferred to a

text: fluid

text: running in tubes embedded within. Various limitations have been discovered with these configuration and alternative concepts have been addressed. Among these, the use of nanoparticles suspended in a liquid is the subject of research.  Nanoparticle materials including

text: aluminium

text: copper

text: carbon nanotube

text: s and carbon-nanohorns have been added to different base fluids and characterized in terms of their performance for improving heat transfer efficiency.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: efficiently distribute solar energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of nanoparticles?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: efficiently distribute solar energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy;

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiant energy;

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy;

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: carbon nanotubes

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy;

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: nanofluids are not transparent to solar radiant energy;

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: more energy in one hour than the world used in one year

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: more energy in one hour than the world used in one year.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: more energy in one hour

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 3,850,000 exajoules

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 3,850,000 exajoules

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The total solar energy

text: Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses.   For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer.  In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.

text: Higher-energy radiation, including

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: (present in

text: sunlight

text: ), x-rays, and

text: gamma radiation

text: , generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses.   For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer.  In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight,

text: melanoma

text: is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: carcinogenic

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Higher-energy radiation,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight),

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Higher-energy radiation,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Higher-energy radiation,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Higher-energy radiation,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight),

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Higher-energy radiation,

text: Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo of 0.29.

text: Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface

text: albedo

text: , leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo of 0.29.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: input to the Earth's energy budget.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: <unk>340 W/m2 of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: <unk>340 W/m2 of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: <unk>77 W/m2

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 23 W/m2 is reflected by the surface albedo,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: <unk>77 W/m2

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: <unk>340 W/m2 of solar radiation

text: Glaser was editor of The Lunar Surface Layer (1964), Thermal Imaging Techniques (1964), Solar Power Satellites — The Emerging Energy Option (1993), Solar Power Satellites — A Space Energy System for Earth, 2nd ed. (1998), and Solar Power Systems in Space.

text: Glaser was editor of The Lunar Surface Layer (1964), Thermal Imaging Techniques (1964), Solar Power Satellites — The Emerging Energy Option (1993), Solar Power Satellites — A Space Energy System for Earth, 2nd ed. (1998), and Solar Power Systems in Space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar Power Satellites

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Power Satellites

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar Power Satellites

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar Power Satellites

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermal Imaging Techniques

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Thermal Imaging

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Thermal Imaging Techniques

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar Power Satellites — The Emerging Energy Option

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Solar Power Satellites — The Emerging Energy Option

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Thermal Imaging Techniques

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar Power Satellites — The Emerging Energy Option

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth,

text: The above prediction, that all forms of energy interact gravitationally, has been subject to experimental tests. The first observation testing this prediction was made in 1919. During a solar eclipse, Arthur Eddington observed that the light from stars passing close to the Sun was bent. The effect is due to the gravitational attraction of light by the Sun. The observation confirmed that the energy carried by light indeed is equivalent to a gravitational mass. Another seminal experiment, the Pound–Rebka experiment, was performed in 1960. In this test a beam of light was emitted from the top of a tower and detected at the bottom. The frequency of the light detected was higher than the light emitted. This result confirms that the energy of photons increases when they fall in the gravitational field of the Earth. The energy, and therefore the gravitational mass, of photons is proportional to their frequency as stated by the Planck's relation.

text: The above prediction, that all forms of energy interact gravitationally, has been subject to experimental tests. The first observation testing this prediction was made in 1919. During a

text: solar eclipse

text: Arthur Eddington

text: observed that the light from stars passing close to the Sun was bent. The effect is due to the gravitational attraction of light by the Sun. The observation confirmed that the energy carried by light indeed is equivalent to a gravitational mass. Another seminal experiment, the

text: Pound–Rebka experiment

text: , was performed in 1960. In this test a beam of light was emitted from the top of a tower and detected at the bottom. The frequency of the light detected was higher than the light emitted. This result confirms that the energy of photons increases when they fall in the gravitational field of the Earth. The energy, and therefore the gravitational mass, of photons is proportional to their frequency as stated by the

text: Planck's relation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy of photons increases when they fall

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: increases when they fall in the gravitational field of the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Pound–Rebka experiment,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Pound–Rebka experiment,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: frequency

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar eclipse,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: light

text: Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William Herschel, who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth's climate.

text: Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir

text: William Herschel

text: , who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth's

text: climate

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's climate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's climate.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: red light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: thermometer.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: red light,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: red light,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared radiation

text: Researchers at Idaho National Laboratory, along with partners at Lightwave Power Inc. in Cambridge, MA and Patrick Pinhero of the University of Missouri, have devised an inexpensive way to produce plastic sheets containing billions of nanoantennas that collect heat energy generated by the sun and other sources, which garnered two 2007 Nano50 awards. The company ceased operations in 2010. While methods to convert the energy into usable electricity still need to be developed, the sheets could one day be manufactured as lightweight "skins" that power everything from hybrid cars to computers and iPods with higher efficiency than traditional solar cells. The nanoantennas target mid-infrared rays, which the Earth continuously radiates as heat after absorbing energy from the sun during the day; also double-sided nanoantenna sheets can harvest energy from different parts of the Sun's spectrum. In contrast, traditional solar cells can only use visible light, rendering them idle after dark.

text: Researchers at

text: Idaho National Laboratory

text: , along with partners at Lightwave Power Inc. in

text: Cambridge, MA

text: and Patrick Pinhero of the

text: University of Missouri

text: , have devised an inexpensive way to produce plastic sheets containing billions of

text: nanoantenna

text: s that collect heat energy generated by the sun and other sources, which garnered two 2007 Nano50 awards. The company ceased operations in 2010. While methods to convert the energy into usable electricity still need to be developed, the sheets could one day be manufactured as lightweight "skins" that power everything from

text: hybrid car

text: s to

text: computer

text: s and

text: iPod

text: s with higher efficiency than traditional solar cells. The nanoantennas target mid-infrared rays, which the Earth continuously radiates as heat after absorbing energy from the sun during the day; also double-sided nanoantenna sheets can harvest energy from different parts of the Sun's spectrum. In contrast, traditional solar cells can only use visible light, rendering them idle after dark.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: continuously radiates as heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth continuously radiates as heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: nanoantennas

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the Earth continuously radiates as heat

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: mid-infrared rays,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: mid-infrared rays,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: mid-infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: visible light,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: mid-infrared rays,

text: Machines converting energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce heat as a by-product.

text: Machines

text: converting energy

text: contained in

text: fuels

text: to

text: mechanical work

text: or

text: electric energy

text: produce heat as a by-product.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heat as a by-product.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heat

text: A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at this time, but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles. They are raced in competitions such as the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge. These events are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of Energy keen to promote the development of alternative energy technology such as solar cells and electric vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students engineering and technological skills as well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda.

text: A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at this time, but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles. They are raced in competitions such as the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge. These events are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of Energy keen to promote the development of

text: alternative energy

text: technology such as solar cells and electric vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students engineering and technological skills as well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar panels on the car

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Can solar panels be used to power a car?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet i

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: alternative energy technology

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: A solar car

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A solar car

text: Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.

text: Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the natural greenhouse effect?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: supplemental heating

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (sunlight)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: absorbed.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: (sunlight)

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: greenhouse gas molecules

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: greenhouse gas

text: The ability to tune the bandgap makes quantum dots desirable for solar cells. Single junction implementations using lead sulfide (PbS) CQDs have bandgaps that can be tuned into the far infrared, frequencies that are typically difficult to achieve with traditional solar cells. Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared, most in the near infrared region. A quantum dot solar cell makes infrared energy as accessible as any other.

text: The ability to tune the bandgap makes quantum dots desirable for solar cells. Single junction implementations using

text: lead sulfide

text: (PbS) CQDs have bandgaps that can be tuned into the far infrared, frequencies that are typically difficult to achieve with traditional solar cells. Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared, most in the near infrared region. A quantum dot solar cell makes infrared energy as accessible as any other.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: lead

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: lead sulfide

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: lead sulfide

text: In order for a solar map to be made, two main types of data must be collected. Those two types of data include Meteorological Data and Topographical Data. The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy. Such measurements of this type of data include the measurements of the position of the sun, overall atmospheric conditions, latitude, and shading. Topographical data on the other hand, is used in illustrating the amount of area exposed to a certain degree of radiation from the sun or in calculations that present how much area of a physical object is experiencing direct contact with the sun's rays. In some cases, Financial Data may also be collected to be presented on a solar map. When this happens, that means that the solar map would appear online for a certain city. The reasons why financial data is collected and presented on these solar maps is to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens.

text: In order for a solar map to be made, two main types of data must be collected. Those two types of data include Meteorological Data and Topographical Data. The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy. Such measurements of this type of data include the measurements of the position of the sun, overall atmospheric conditions, latitude, and shading. Topographical data on the other hand, is used in illustrating the amount of area exposed to a certain degree of radiation from the sun or in calculations that present how much area of a physical object is experiencing direct contact with the sun's rays. In some cases, Financial Data may also be collected to be presented on a solar map. When this happens, that means that the solar map would appear online for a certain city. The reasons why financial data is collected and presented on these solar maps is to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Can sensors detect wavelengths of energy we cant see

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: How long is a wavelength?

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Solar Energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Financial Data

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar Energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: direct contact with the sun's rays.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation from the sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Topographical Data.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar Energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar Energy.

text: The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) is a NASA mission which has been observing the Sun since 2010.  Launched on February 11, 2010, the observatory is part of the Living With a Star (LWS) program. The goal of the LWS program is to develop the scientific understanding necessary to effectively address those aspects of the connected Sun–Earth system directly affecting life and society. The goal of the SDO is to understand the influence of the Sun on the Earth and near-Earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously. SDO has been investigating how the Sun's magnetic field is generated and structured, how this stored magnetic energy is converted and released into the heliosphere and geospace in the form of solar wind, energetic particles, and variations in the solar irradiance.

text: The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) is a

text: NASA

text: mission which has been observing the

text: Sun

text: since 2010.  Launched on February 11, 2010, the observatory is part of the

text: Living With a Star

text: (LWS) program. The goal of the LWS program is to develop the scientific understanding necessary to effectively address those aspects of the connected

text: Sun

text: Earth

text: system directly affecting life and society. The goal of the SDO is to understand the influence of the Sun on the Earth and near-Earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously. SDO has been investigating how the

text: Sun's magnetic field

text: is generated and structured, how this stored magnetic energy is converted and released into the

text: heliosphere

text: and

text: geospace

text: in the form of

text: solar wind

text: , energetic particles, and variations in the

text: solar irradiance

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly affecting life and society

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the goal of the LWS program

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: directly affecting life and society.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: magnetic energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: observing the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: many wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Dynamics Observatory

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: many wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heliosphere

text: The value of the rotational constant B is much smaller than the vibrational one ν, such that a much smaller amount of energy is required to rotate the molecule; for a typical molecule, this lies within the microwave region. However, the vibrational energy of HCl molecule places its absorptions within the infrared region, allowing a spectrum showing the rovibrational transitions of this molecule to be easily collected using an infrared spectrometer with a gas cell. The latter can even be made of quartz as the HCl absorption lies in a window of transparency for this material.

text: The value of the rotational constant B is much smaller than the vibrational one ν, such that a much smaller amount of energy is required to rotate the molecule; for a typical molecule, this lies within the microwave region. However, the vibrational energy of HCl molecule places its absorptions within the infrared region, allowing a spectrum showing the rovibrational transitions of this molecule to be easily collected using an

text: infrared spectrometer

text: with a gas cell. The latter can even be made of quartz as the HCl absorption lies in a window of transparency for this material.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: microwave

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: HCl

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a much smaller amount of energy is required to rotate the molecule;

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared spectrometer

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared spectrometer with a gas cell.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: a much smaller amount of energy is required to rotate the molecule;

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: microwave region.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: B

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: microwave region.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: HCl

text: The earth receives one billion dollars of solar energy from the Sun every second when the rate is $0.02 per kilowatt-hour. The earth receives only one two-billionth of the total energy output by the Sun, which is about 500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 horsepower. The Sun generates this energy through thermonuclear reactions roughly equal to 10,000 hydrogen bombs going off every second and has been doing so for the last 4 billion years. Dr. Hans Bethe, in 1938, was the first to determine this fact. Every second, the sun converts 564 million tons of hydrogen into 560 million tons of helium with the remaining 4 million tons being converted into energy in the form of light, heat and radiation.

text: The earth receives one billion dollars of

text: solar energy

text: from the Sun every second when the rate is $0.02 per kilowatt-hour. The earth receives only one two-billionth of the total energy output by the Sun, which is about 500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

text: horsepower

text: . The Sun generates this energy through

text: thermonuclear reaction

text: s roughly equal to 10,000

text: hydrogen bombs

text: going off every second and has been doing so for the last 4 billion years.

text: Dr. Hans Bethe

text: , in 1938, was the first to determine this fact. Every second, the sun converts 564 million tons of hydrogen into 560 million tons of helium with the remaining 4 million tons being converted into energy in the form of

text: light

text: heat

text: and

text: radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The earth receives one billion dollars of solar energy from the Sun every second

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The earth receives one billion dollars of solar energy from the Sun every second

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: light,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light, heat and radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The earth receives one billion dollars of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: $0.02 per kilowatt-hour.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: $0.02 per kilowatt-hour.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: light, heat and radiation.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium

text: Currently in Croatia there's a total of 204 Wind turbines which generate  total of 207.1 MW or electric energy, but with new turbines coming on-line all the time, it is expected that by the beginning of 2014 total installed power will reach 320 MW, and with some additional 960 wind turbines under construction in Croatia or about to join the national energy grid Croatia could generate in excess of 1 GW of electric energy from Wind alone by the end 2015.   As of early 2013 Croatia generates around 15.8% renewable energy, Government hopes Croatia could generate around 20% renewable energy from wind and solar by 2020 and has adopted new strategy to achieve that target.  By the end of 2014 renewable energy in Croatia is expected to generate around 527MW from Wind and Solar alone or around 20% of all energy consumption from renewable energy source, reaching EU 2020 target for renewable energy and exceed that by a wide margin by 2020. At present rate of growth and planned investments over next 5-7 year period, energy generated from Wind and solar should easily reach 40% of total energy consumption in Croatia with 50% highly probable, achieving targets set by Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland and Austria.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: 20% of all energy consumption from renewable energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 15.8% renewable energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: electric energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 204 Wind turbines

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 320 MW,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: 204 Wind turbines

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Wind turbines

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 204 Wind turbines which generate total of 207.1 MW

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 15.8% renewable energy,

text: The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to  (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of steps called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.

text: The

text: core

text: of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to  (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million

text: kelvin

text: s (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of

text: SOHO

text: mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by

text: nuclear fusion

text: in the core region through a series of steps called the

text: p–p (proton–proton) chain

text: ; this process converts

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: . Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the

text: CNO cycle

text: , though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy is produced by nuclear fusion in the core region

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy is produced by nuclear fusion

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: p–p (proton–proton) chain;

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: nuclear fusion

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: p–p (proton–proton) chain;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: p–p (proton–proton) chain;

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: hydrogen into helium.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The core of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The core of the Sun

text: The two current ecological approaches for predicting the potential habitability use 19 or 20 environmental factors, with emphasis on water availability, temperature, presence of nutrients, an energy source, and protection from solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

text: The two current ecological approaches for predicting the potential habitability use 19 or 20 environmental factors, with emphasis on water availability, temperature, presence of nutrients, an energy source, and protection from solar ultraviolet and

text: galactic cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protection from solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: protection from solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

text: Two ultraviolet spectrometers were involved in this experiment, one to measure UV absorption, the other to sense UV emissions. The occultation spectrometer scanned Mercury's edge as it passed in front of the Sun, and detected whether solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed at certain wavelengths, which would indicate the presence of gas particles, and therefore an atmosphere. The airglow spectrometer detected extreme ultraviolet radiation emanating from atoms of gaseous hydrogen, helium, carbon, oxygen, neon, and argon. Unlike the occultation spectrometer, it did not require backlighting from the Sun, and could move along with the rotatable scan platform on the spacecraft. The experiment's most important goal was to ascertain whether Mercury had an atmosphere, but would also gather data at Earth and Venus and study the interstellar background radiation.

text: Two ultraviolet

text: spectrometers

text: were involved in this experiment, one to measure UV absorption, the other to sense UV emissions. The occultation spectrometer scanned Mercury's edge as it passed in front of the Sun, and detected whether solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed at certain wavelengths, which would indicate the presence of gas particles, and therefore an atmosphere. The

text: airglow

text: spectrometer detected extreme ultraviolet radiation emanating from atoms of gaseous hydrogen, helium, carbon, oxygen, neon, and argon. Unlike the occultation spectrometer, it did not require backlighting from the Sun, and could move along with the rotatable scan platform on the spacecraft. The experiment's most important goal was to ascertain whether Mercury had an atmosphere, but would also gather data at Earth and Venus and study the interstellar background radiation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ascertain whether Mercury had an atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: argon

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: indicate the presence of gas particles, and therefore an atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed at certain wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detected whether solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed at certain wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed at certain wavelengths,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: neon, and argon.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet radiation

text: Without the infrared atmospheric window, the Earth would become much too warm to support life, and possibly so warm that it would lose its water, as Venus did early in solar system history. Thus, the existence of an atmospheric window is critical to Earth remaining a habitable planet.

text: Without the infrared atmospheric window, the Earth would become much too warm to support life, and possibly so warm that it would lose its water, as

text: Venus

text: did early in

text: solar system

text: history. Thus, the existence of an atmospheric window is critical to Earth remaining a

text: habitable planet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth remaining a habitable planet.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared atmospheric window,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Without the infrared atmospheric window,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Without the infrared atmospheric window,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Venus

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: water,

text: Heat energy is not received from the Sun. Rather, radiant energy is received and this results in change in energy level of receiving bodies in Earth's domain. Different materials have different properties for transmitting back received energy in the form of heat energy at different rates.

text: Heat energy

text: is not received from the Sun. Rather,

text: radiant energy

text: is received and this results in change in

text: energy level

text: of receiving bodies in Earth's domain. Different materials have different properties for transmitting back received energy in the form of heat energy at different rates.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: change in energy level of receiving bodies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of this information?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: change in energy level of receiving bodies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Heat energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Heat energy is not received from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Heat energy is not received from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: heat energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Heat energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Heat energy is not received from the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Heat energy is not received from the Sun.

text: Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat. Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface could become warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.

text: Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as

text: heat

text: . Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this

text: energy balance

text: is shifted, Earth's surface could become warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorbs some of it

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's surface temperature

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: heat.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: heat.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: heat.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: heat.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy

text: Ultraviolet (UV), X-ray and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation are ionizing, since photons at these frequencies contain sufficient energy to dislodge an electron from a neutral gas atom or molecule upon absorption. In this process the light electron obtains a high velocity so that the temperature of the created electronic gas is much higher (of the order of thousand K) than the one of ions and neutrals. The reverse process to ionization is recombination, in which a free electron is "captured" by a positive ion. Recombination occurs spontaneously, and causes the emission of a photon carrying away the energy produced upon recombination. As gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process prevails, since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The balance between these two processes determines the quantity of ionization present.

text: Ultraviolet

text: (UV),

text: X-ray

text: and shorter

text: wavelength

text: s of

text: solar radiation

text: are ionizing, since

text: photon

text: s at these frequencies contain sufficient energy to dislodge an

text: electron

text: from a neutral gas

text: atom

text: or

text: molecule

text: upon absorption. In this process the light electron obtains a high velocity so that the

text: temperature

text: of the created electronic gas is much higher (of the order of thousand K) than the one of ions and neutrals. The reverse process to

text: ionization

text: is

text: recombination

text: , in which a free electron is "captured" by a positive ion. Recombination occurs spontaneously, and causes the emission of a photon carrying away the energy produced upon recombination. As gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process prevails, since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The balance between these two processes determines the quantity of ionization present.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ionizing

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: UV

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ionizing,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ionizing,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: (UV), X-ray and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ionizing,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: X-ray and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Ultraviolet

text: The high cost of solar energy stems from the difficulty of converting the solar energy into electricity for use, and less than 1 percent of the world's electricity comes from the sun because of this process. Nano flakes can potentially help with the economic issues of solar energy by lowering the cost due to an easier process and a better outcome of energy. Nano flake technology can potentially make it easier to convert solar energy into electricity estimated at twice the amount that today's solar cells can harvest. This new technology can also potentially lower the cost of solar energy because it allows for a reduction in expensive semiconducting silicon. Energy loss is also potentially reduced with a shorter distance of the solar energy transportation across smaller Nano flakes.

text: The high cost of solar energy stems from the difficulty of converting the solar energy into electricity for use, and less than 1 percent of the world's electricity comes from the sun because of this process. Nano flakes can potentially help with the economic issues of solar energy by lowering the cost due to an easier process and a better outcome of energy. Nano flake technology can potentially make it easier to convert solar energy into electricity estimated at twice the amount that today's

text: solar cell

text: s can harvest. This new technology can also potentially lower the cost of solar energy because it allows for a reduction in expensive semiconducting

text: silicon

text: . Energy loss is also potentially reduced with a shorter distance of the solar energy transportation across smaller Nano flakes.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: less than 1 percent of the world's electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: less than 1 percent of the world's electricity comes from the sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Nano flakes

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The high cost of solar energy

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Energy loss is also potentially reduced with a shorter distance

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: less than 1 percent of the world's electricity comes from the sun

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The high cost of solar energy

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 2, 1956. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on December 2, 1956. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 2, 1956.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 2, 1956.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1956.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1956.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the vibrational modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy yields similar, but complementary, information.

text: It relies on

text: inelastic scattering

text: , or

text: Raman scattering

text: , of

text: monochromatic

text: light, usually from a

text: laser

text: in the

text: visible

text: near infrared

text: , or

text: near ultraviolet

text: range. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations,

text: phonon

text: s or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the vibrational modes in the system.

text: Infrared spectroscopy

text: yields similar, but complementary, information.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: gives information about the vibrational modes in the system.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: monochromatic light,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: complementary, information.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: down.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet range.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 11, 1975. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on May 11, 1975. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 11, 1975.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1975.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1975.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1975.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: The existence of a continuous stream of particles flowing outward from the Sun was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare. This is a sudden outburst of energy from the Sun's atmosphere. On the following day, a geomagnetic storm was observed and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection. George FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun and was reaching the Earth after several days.

text: The existence of a continuous stream of particles flowing outward from the Sun was first suggested by British astronomer

text: Richard C. Carrington

text: . In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a

text: solar flare

text: . This is a sudden outburst of energy from the Sun's atmosphere. On the following day, a

text: geomagnetic storm

text: was observed and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection.

text: George FitzGerald

text: later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the

text: Sun

text: and was reaching the Earth after several days.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: matter was being regularly accelerated away

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: matter was being regularly accelerated away

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: a solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: particles

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar flare.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar flare.

text: (Super Quasar voiced by Keone Young, Aurora Six voiced by Meredith Salenger, Johnny Sunspot voiced by Tom Kenny)A fictional superhero team with three members: Super Quasar, the leader of the Sun Riders who performs Solar Helmet Hot Shot, an attack which he shoots a consecrated beam of solar energy from his helmet's visors. Aurora Six is the ravishing female of the group that uses the Sun Gun, a weapon that shoots sun beams that stuns her enemies in a main attack called Sun Gun Dazzle Stun. And Johnny Sunspot is the kid sidekick genius (who builds all of the team's weapons) that wields special gloves that create dark energy orbs in an attack called Black Hole Blackout (later Black Hole Barrage in his second appearance). When they join hands, the Sun Riders perform Super Solar Strike, a destructive team attack that's similar to a solar flare. The Sun Riders are known to ride on their Sun Cycles, and their own robot is called the Nebutron, an orblike Super Robot that is heavily armed. They have their television series, of which Chiro is an avid fan. However, they wanted to stop pretending, and in exchange for real power, joined the Skeleton King in the promise of destroying Chiro and the Monkey Team. They later return in Season 2, in the episode "The Sun Riders Return", apparently reformed and with a more powerful Nebutron ship - which they later sacrifice for the good of others. Aurora Six appeared as an aspect of the Dreamlands in a later episode, "In the Grip of Evil", and in the last scene of "Soul of Evil." The Sun Riders ware last seen on screen as three the allies that will aid the Hyperforce in the last battle against the resurrected Skeleton King and his army of the undead.

text: (Super Quasar voiced by

text: Keone Young

text: , Aurora Six voiced by

text: Meredith Salenger

text: , Johnny Sunspot voiced by

text: Tom Kenny

text: )A fictional superhero team with three members: Super Quasar, the leader of the Sun Riders who performs Solar Helmet Hot Shot, an attack which he shoots a consecrated beam of

text: solar energy

text: from his helmet's visors. Aurora Six is the ravishing female of the group that uses the Sun Gun, a weapon that shoots sun beams that stuns her enemies in a main attack called Sun Gun Dazzle Stun. And Johnny Sunspot is the kid sidekick genius (who builds all of the team's weapons) that wields special gloves that create

text: dark energy

text: orbs

text: in an attack called Black Hole Blackout (later Black Hole Barrage in his second appearance). When they join hands, the Sun Riders perform Super Solar Strike, a destructive team attack that's similar to a

text: solar flare

text: . The Sun Riders are known to ride on their Sun Cycles, and their own robot is called the Nebutron, an orblike Super Robot that is heavily armed. They have their television series, of which Chiro is an avid fan. However, they wanted to stop pretending, and in exchange for real power, joined the Skeleton King in the promise of destroying Chiro and the Monkey Team. They later return in Season 2, in the episode "The Sun Riders Return", apparently reformed and with a more powerful Nebutron ship - which they later sacrifice for the good of others. Aurora Six appeared as an aspect of the

text: Dreamlands

text: in a later episode, "In the Grip of Evil", and in the last scene of "Soul of Evil." The Sun Riders ware last seen on screen as three the allies that will aid the Hyperforce in the last battle against the resurrected Skeleton King and his army of the

text: undead

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: stuns her enemies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What does the Sun Gun Dazzle Stun use?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Black Hole Blackout

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: stuns her enemies

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Sun Gun,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Sun Gun,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Nebutron,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun Gun,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Hyperforce

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sun Cycles,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Nebutron,

text: The term nantenna (nano-antenna) is sometimes used to refer to either an optical rectenna, or an optical antenna by itself. Currently, Idaho National Laboratories has designed an optical antenna to absorb wavelengths in the range of 3–15 μm. These wavelengths correspond to photon energies of . Based on antenna theory, an optical antenna can absorb any wavelength of light efficiently provided that the size of the antenna is optimized for that specific wavelength. Ideally, antennas would be used to absorb light at wavelengths between  because these wavelengths have higher energy than far-infrared (longer wavelengths) and make up about 85% of the solar radiation spectrum<ref name="Berland">Berland, B. “Photovoltaic Technologies Beyond the Horizon: Optical Rectenna Solar Cell.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 13 Apr. 2009

text: The term nantenna (nano-antenna) is sometimes used to refer to either an optical rectenna, or an optical antenna by itself. Currently, Idaho National Laboratories has designed an optical antenna to absorb wavelengths in the range of 3–15 μm. These wavelengths correspond to photon energies of . Based on antenna theory, an optical antenna can absorb any wavelength of light efficiently provided that the size of the antenna is optimized for that specific wavelength. Ideally, antennas would be used to absorb light at wavelengths between  because these wavelengths have higher energy than far-infrared (longer wavelengths) and make up about 85% of the solar radiation spectrum<ref name="Berland">Berland, B. “Photovoltaic Technologies Beyond the Horizon: Optical Rectenna Solar Cell.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 13 Apr. 2009

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: make up about 85%

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: nantenna

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: photon

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelengths

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: make up about 85% of the solar radiation spectrum

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: photon

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (longer wavelengths)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: far-infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: far-infrared

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on April 17, 1996. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on April 17, 1996. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1996.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1996.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1996.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on April 17, 1996.

text: The amount of ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm reaching the Earth varies by as much as 400% over the solar cycle due to variations in the protective ozone layer. In the stratosphere, ozone is continuously regenerated by the splitting of O molecules by ultraviolet light. During a solar minimum, the decrease in ultraviolet light received from the Sun leads to a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to reach the Earth's surface.

text: The amount of ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm reaching the Earth varies by as much as 400% over the solar cycle due to variations in the protective

text: ozone layer

text: . In the stratosphere,

text: ozone

text: is

text: continuously regenerated

text: by the

text: splitting

text: of

text: O

text: molecules by ultraviolet light. During a solar minimum, the decrease in ultraviolet light received from the Sun leads to a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to reach the Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 300 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: variations in the protective ozone layer.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The amount of ultraviolet UVB light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet UVB

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet light.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 300 nm

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: UVB

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone is continuously regenerated by the splitting of O molecules

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on June 21, 2058. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on June 21, 2058. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on June 21, 2058.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2058.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2058.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2058.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on June 21, 2058.

text: In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long-term changes in Earth's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global warming, together with solar radiation.

text: In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long-term changes in Earth's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into

text: global warming

text: , together with

text: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: long-term changes in Earth's climate.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: atmospheric infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: atmospheric infrared radiation

text: Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical. A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis. The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system. Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth's surface (i.e., roads, vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.

text: Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or

text: photochemical

text: . A variety of fuels can be produced by

text: artificial photosynthesis

text: . The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as

text: methanol

text: ) from reduction of

text: carbon dioxide

text: is challenging; a feasible alternative is

text: hydrogen

text: production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system. Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth's surface (i.e., roads, vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the purpose of solar chemical processes?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: photochemical

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar chemical processes use solar energy

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: plants.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar chemical processes use solar energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: oxygen.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: oxygen.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar chemical processes use solar energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

text: He was board member at Space Energy AG between 2009 and 2012, this company goal is to develop space solar power: creating solar power satellites and trying to get that energy to Earth. This USA-based company also sells surface solar farms and has offices in China, Canada, Switzerland and UAE.

text: He was board member at Space Energy AG between 2009 and 2012, this company goal is to develop

text: space solar power

text: : creating solar power satellites and trying to get that energy to Earth. This USA-based company also sells surface

text: solar farm

text: s and has offices in China, Canada, Switzerland and UAE.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: creating solar power satellites and trying to get that energy to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Space Energy AG

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: space solar power:

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2012,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy to Earth.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Space Energy AG between 2009 and 2012,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Space Energy AG

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth.

text: The ideal quantum efficiency graph has a square shape, where the QE value is fairly constant across the entire spectrum of wavelengths measured. However, the QE for most solar cells is reduced because of the effects of recombination, where charge carriers are not able to move into an external circuit. The same mechanisms that affect the collection probability also affect the QE. For example, modifying the front surface can affect carriers generated near the surface. And because high-energy (blue) light is absorbed very close to the surface, considerable recombination at the front surface will affect the "blue" portion of the QE. Similarly, lower energy (green) light is absorbed in the bulk of a solar cell, and a low diffusion length will affect the collection probability from the solar cell bulk, reducing the QE in the green portion of the spectrum. Generally, solar cells on the market today do not produce much electricity from ultraviolet and infrared light (<400 nm and >1100 nm wavelengths, respectively); these wavelengths of light are either filtered out or are absorbed by the cell, thus heating the cell. That heat is wasted energy, and could damage the cell.

text: The ideal quantum efficiency graph has a

text: square shape

text: , where the QE value is fairly constant across the entire spectrum of wavelengths measured. However, the QE for most solar cells is reduced because of the effects of recombination, where charge carriers are not able to move into an external circuit. The same mechanisms that affect the collection probability also affect the QE. For example, modifying the front surface can affect carriers generated near the surface. And because high-energy (blue) light is absorbed very close to the surface, considerable recombination at the front surface will affect the "blue" portion of the QE. Similarly, lower energy (green) light is absorbed in the bulk of a solar cell, and a low diffusion length will affect the collection probability from the solar cell bulk, reducing the QE in the green portion of the spectrum. Generally, solar cells on the market today do not produce much electricity from

text: ultraviolet

text: and

text: infrared

text: light (<400 nm and >1100 nm wavelengths, respectively); these wavelengths of light are either filtered out or are absorbed by the cell, thus heating the cell. That heat is wasted energy, and could damage the cell.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: could damage the cell

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: higher energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 400 nm

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet and infrared light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: (blue)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heating the cell. That heat is wasted energy, and could damage the cell.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: (green)

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet and infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (green)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet and infrared light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet and infrared light

text: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy. The direct user of sunlight is the solar cell or photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into electrical energy without the incorporation of a mechanical device. This technology is simpler than the fossil-fuel-driven systems of producing electrical energy. A solar cell is formed by a light-sensitive p-n junction semiconductor, which when exposed to sunlight is excited to conduction by the photons in light. When light, in the form of photons, hits the cell and strikes an atom, photo-ionisation creates electron-hole pairs. The electrostatic field causes separation of these pairs, establishing an electromotive force in the process. The electric field sends the electron to the p-type material, and the hole to the n-type material. If an external current path is provided, electrical energy will be available to do work. The electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field creates the voltage. With both current and voltage the silicon cell has power. The greater the amount of light falling on the cell's surface, the greater is the probability of photons releasing electrons, and hence more electric energy is produced.

text: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy. The direct user of sunlight is the solar cell or

text: photovoltaic cell

text: , which converts sunlight directly into electrical energy without the incorporation of a mechanical device. This technology is simpler than the fossil-fuel-driven systems of producing electrical energy. A solar cell is formed by a light-sensitive p-n junction semiconductor, which when exposed to sunlight is excited to conduction by the photons in light. When light, in the form of photons, hits the cell and strikes an atom,

text: photo-ionisation

text: creates electron-hole pairs. The electrostatic field causes separation of these pairs, establishing an electromotive force in the process. The electric field sends the electron to the p-type material, and the hole to the n-type material. If an external current path is provided, electrical energy will be available to do work. The electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field creates the voltage. With both current and voltage the silicon cell has power. The greater the amount of light falling on the cell's surface, the greater is the probability of photons releasing electrons, and hence more electric energy is produced.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: to produce electrical energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: photons

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: more electric energy is produced.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The sun's rays

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: The sun's rays

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The sun's rays

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 15, 1982. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on December 15, 1982. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 15, 1982.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 15, 1982.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1982.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1982.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: Infrared light makes up the invisible section of the electromagnetic spectrum. This light, also classified as heat, transmits signals between the transmitter and receiver of the remote system. Telecommand systems usually include a physical remote, which contains four key parts: buttons, integrated circuit, button contacts, and a light-emitting diode. When the buttons on a remote are pressed they touch and close their corresponding contacts below them within the remote. This completes the necessary circuit on the circuit board along with a change in electrical resistance, which is detected by the integrated circuit. Based on the change in electrical resistance, the integrated circuit distinguishes which button was pushed and sends a corresponding binary code to the light-emitting diode (LED) usually located at the front of the remote. To transfer the information from the remote to the receiver, the LED turns the electrical signals into an invisible beam of infrared light that corresponds with the binary code and sends this light to the receiver. The receiver then detects the light signal via a photodiode and it is transformed into an electrical signal for the command and is sent to the receiver’s integrated circuit/microprocessor to process and complete the command. The strength of the transmitting LED can vary and determines the required positioning accuracy of the remote in relevance to the receiver. Infrared remotes have a maximum range of approximately 30 feet and require the remote control or transmitter and receiver to be within a line of sight.

text: Infrared

text: light makes up the invisible section of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This light, also classified as heat, transmits signals between the transmitter and receiver of the remote system. Telecommand systems usually include a physical remote, which contains four key parts: buttons,

text: integrated circuit

text: , button contacts, and a

text: light-emitting diode

text: . When the buttons on a remote are pressed they touch and close their corresponding contacts below them within the remote. This completes the necessary circuit on the circuit board along with a change in

text: electrical resistance

text: , which is detected by the integrated circuit. Based on the change in electrical resistance, the integrated circuit distinguishes which button was pushed and sends a corresponding

text: binary code

text: to the light-emitting diode (LED) usually located at the front of the remote. To transfer the information from the remote to the receiver, the LED turns the electrical signals into an invisible beam of infrared light that corresponds with the binary code and sends this light to the receiver. The receiver then detects the light signal via a

text: photodiode

text: and it is transformed into an electrical signal for the command and is sent to the receiver’s integrated circuit/

text: microprocessor

text: to process and complete the command. The strength of the transmitting LED can vary and determines the required positioning accuracy of the remote in relevance to the receiver. Infrared remotes have a maximum range of approximately 30 feet and require the remote control or transmitter and receiver to be within a

text: line of sight

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: How long is the wavelength of an infrared light?

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Infrared light makes up the invisible section of the electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: photodiode

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Infrared light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 30 feet

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Infrared light

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Infrared light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Infrared light makes up the invisible section of the electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Infrared light makes up the invisible section of the electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Infrared light

text: Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

text: Earth

text: 's surface and the clouds

text: absorb

text: visible and invisible radiation from the

text: sun

text: and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to

text: atmosphere

text: . Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and

text: water

text: vapor, but also

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: nitrous oxide

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: , and

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: , absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the

text: greenhouse effect

text: keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: absorb visible and invisible radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide,

text: The ESA Cluster mission has enabled to find the first direct evidence of cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves, explaining why Earth's magnetic environment is so hot. A Nature Physics paper reveals. The Earth's internal magnetic field creates a giant protective bubble called the magnetosphere, necessary for life to develop. This magnetic bubble helps deflecting more than 99% of the incoming solar wind expelled by the Sun. Due to this interaction, the magnetosphere has a bullet-like shape (see left panel of Figure 1). At its border, the magnetopause, the matter, called plasma, is 50 times hotter inside the Earth's magnetic environment than just outside; a problem that has puzzled scientists since the beginning of the space age. Why is Earth's environment so hot? How plasma gets heated in a medium where no particles collides? One of the few physical processes enabling solar wind plasma to enter the magnetosphere is called the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. This instability is ubiquitous in space and on Earth. Such K-H waves have been detected in various media including the surface of oceans, in clouds (see bottom right panel of Image 1), in the solar corona (see top right panel) or in the atmosphere of giant planets. Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) waves can form at Earth's magnetopause, mainly due to the velocity difference between the plasma flowing outside at higher speed than inside the magnetosphere. Back in 2004, the multi-spacecraft Cluster mission revealed that these waves can roll-up, turning into giant vortices of about 36,000 km size, i.e. about 6 times the Earth's radius (Hasegawa et al., 2004). A new article, published in Nature Physics this month, presents a detailed study of small-scale (ion-scale) wave packets captured by Cluster within such a macroscopic (fluid-scale) Kelvin-Helmholtz vortex. This study reveals for the first time that these wave packets in the eye of the vortex are magnetosonic waves with sufficient energy to account for the observed level of ion heating. In other words, these waves can heat the cooler ions of magnetosheath origin; magnetosheath is the boundary layer located just outside the magnetopause. These observations may be evidence for cross-scale energy transport in space plasmas. It may have universal consequences in understanding the energy transport from fluid to ion scales, and can play a role in a variety of plasma systems with a velocity shear.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetosphere, necessary for life to develop

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Why is Earth's magnetic environment so hot?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The Earth's internal magnetic field creates a giant protective bubble called the magnetosphere, necessary for life to develop.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected in the magnetosphere?

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: ESA Cluster mission has enabled to find the first direct evidence of cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz instability

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: life to develop.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Kelvin–Helmholtz

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves,

text: Much of the low luminosity of a red dwarf falls in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with lower energy than the visible light in which the Sun peaks. As a result, photosynthesis on a red dwarf planet would require additional photons to achieve excitation potentials comparable to those needed in Earth photosynthesis for electron transfers, due to the lower average energy level of near-infrared photons compared to visible. Having to adapt to a far wider spectrum to gain the maximum amount of energy, foliage on a habitable red dwarf planet would probably appear black if viewed in visible light.

text: Much of the low luminosity of a red dwarf falls in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with lower energy than the visible light in which the Sun peaks. As a result,

text: photosynthesis

text: on a red dwarf planet would require additional photons to achieve excitation potentials comparable to those needed in Earth photosynthesis for electron transfers, due to the lower average energy level of near-infrared photons compared to visible. Having to adapt to a far wider spectrum to gain the maximum amount of energy, foliage on a habitable red dwarf planet would probably appear black if viewed in visible light.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: might appear black

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: photosynthesis for electron transfers,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: foliage on a habitable red dwarf planet would probably appear black

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: Solar power in Chile has the potential of producing all of the electricity used in Chile. Northern Chile has the highest solar incidence in the world. In October 2015 Chile's Ministry of Energy announced its "Roadmap to 2050: A Sustainable and Inclusive Strategy", which plans for 19% of the country's electricity to be from solar energy, 23% wind power and 29% hydroelectric power.

text: Solar power in Chile has the potential of producing all of the electricity used in

text: Chile

text: . Northern Chile has the highest solar incidence in the world. In October 2015 Chile's Ministry of Energy announced its "Roadmap to 2050: A Sustainable and Inclusive Strategy", which plans for 19% of the country's electricity to be from solar energy, 23%

text: wind power

text: and 29%

text: hydroelectric power

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: producing all of the electricity used in Chile

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Northern Chile

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: producing all of the electricity used in Chile.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar power

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar power

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: solar incidence in the world.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar power

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar incidence in the world.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar power in Chile

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar power in Chile

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar power in Chile

text: But the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth's surface does vary. The effect of sun angle on climate results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter.  For example, at latitudes of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25% as a result of Earth's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent ice ages (see: Milankovitch cycles).

text: But the

text: seasonal

text: and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth's surface does vary. The

text: effect of sun angle on climate

text: results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter.  For example, at

text: latitude

text: s of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25% as a result of Earth's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent

text: ice age

text: s (see:

text: Milankovitch cycles

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the coming and going of recent ice ages

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The effect of sun angle on climate

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

text: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough gravitational potential energy to power its luminosity by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale.)

text: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by

text: gravitational contraction

text: . In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both

text: Hermann von Helmholtz

text: and

text: Lord Kelvin

text: , who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough

text: gravitational potential energy

text: to power its

text: luminosity

text: by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the

text: Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: far less than the age of the Earth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: meteors

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: years—far less than the age of the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: gravitational potential energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: meteors

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gravitational contraction.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun's energy,

text: After Ultraman appeared, he would fight the threat until it was defeated, and he would then fly away to revert to his host. (This was shown, twice, by Ultraman firing a ring of energy from his hands that would fly to a safe location, and then energy from it would materialize Hayata even as Ultraman himself faded away at the same time.) Ultraman's victory was never assured, however, as Ultraman's powers and, indeed, his very life force, came from rapidly depleted solar energy, which was heavily reduced by Earth's filtering atmosphere.

text: After Ultraman appeared, he would fight the threat until it was defeated, and he would then fly away to revert to his host. (This was shown, twice, by Ultraman firing a ring of energy from his hands that would fly to a safe location, and then energy from it would materialize Hayata even as Ultraman himself faded away at the same time.) Ultraman's victory was never assured, however, as Ultraman's powers and, indeed, his very life force, came from rapidly depleted solar energy, which was heavily reduced by Earth's filtering atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: depleted

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: heavily reduced by Earth's filtering atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: rapidly depleted solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: rapidly depleted solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: rapidly depleted solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Ultraman

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar energy,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar energy,

text: The interaction between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field has a number of consequences. In brief, these are the formation of the terrestrial Magnetosphere, the provision of energy and matter to the [magnetosphere], and the powering of large-scale electric currents and the closely related phenomenon of the aurora. Near-Earth space physical processes are of interest for economic reasons and for what we can learn about our environment and the cosmos. These processes are connected along the magnetic field to the Earth's ionosphere, where they lead to the aurora, heating, modification of composition, and large-scale plasma motions. All of these ionospheric processes are interesting in their own right. In addition, there is an increasing understanding of the correspondence between inospheric processes and processes going  on further out in near-Earth space. In this way, observations of the ionospheric processes can be used to in turn remote sense dynamics in near-Earth space.

text: The interaction between the

text: solar wind

text: and the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: has a number of consequences. In brief, these are the formation of the terrestrial

text: Magnetosphere

text: , the provision of energy and matter to the [magnetosphere], and the powering of large-scale electric currents and the closely related phenomenon of the

text: aurora

text: . Near-Earth

text: space physical

text: processes are of interest for

text: economic reasons

text: and for what we can learn about our environment and the cosmos. These processes are connected along the magnetic field to the Earth's

text: ionosphere

text: , where they lead to the aurora, heating, modification of composition, and large-scale

text: plasma

text: motions. All of these

text: ionospheric

text: processes are interesting in their own right. In addition, there is an increasing understanding of the correspondence between

text: inospheric

text: processes and processes going  on further out in near-Earth space. In this way, observations of the

text: ionospheric

text: processes can be used to in turn remote sense dynamics in near-Earth space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: powering of large-scale electric currents

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What can we learn about our environment and the cosmos

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the provision of energy and matter

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: remote sense dynamics in near-Earth space.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: remote sense dynamics in near-Earth space.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The interaction between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field

text: In modern calculations the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to reference frames.  In such systems the origin in the center of mass of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire solar system can be selected; see center-of-mass frame. Right Ascension and Declination are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations.  This leads to such terms as "heliocentric velocity" and "heliocentric angular momentum". In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of mechanical energy because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller body (either artificial or natural) may gain heliocentric velocity due to gravity assist – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or scientific model. From the point of view of General Relativity, inertial reference frames do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision.

text: In modern calculations the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to

text: reference frames

text: .  In such systems the origin in the

entity_section: Barycenter in astrophysics and astronomy

text: center of mass

text: of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire solar system can be selected; see

text: center-of-mass frame

text: Right Ascension

text: and

text: Declination

text: are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations.  This leads to such terms as "heliocentric

text: velocity

text: " and "heliocentric

text: angular momentum

text: ". In this heliocentric picture, any

text: planet

text: of the Solar System can be used as a source of

text: mechanical energy

text: because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller

text: body

text: (either

text: artificial

text: or

text: natural

text: ) may gain heliocentric velocity due to

text: gravity assist

text: – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or scientific

text: model

text: . From the point of view of

text: General Relativity

text: inertial reference frame

text: s do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of mechanical energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is the difference between heliocentric velocity and heliocentric momentum?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: may gain heliocentric velocity

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: mechanical energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: inertial reference frames do not exist at all,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: mechanical energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: gravity assist

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "heliocentric velocity" and "heliocentric angular momentum".

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: inertial reference frames

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth–Moon system,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: inertial reference frames do not exist at all,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: inertial reference frames do not exist at all,

text: The land of the Earth interacts with and influences climate heavily since the surface of the land heats up and cools down faster than air or water. Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land use all have varying effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth. Vegetation has a relatively low albedo meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy. Forests have an albedo of 10-15% while grasslands have an albedo of 15-20%. In comparison, sandy deserts have an albedo of 25-40%. Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.

text: The land of the Earth interacts with and influences

text: climate

text: heavily since the surface of the land heats up and cools down faster than air or water.

text: Latitude

text: elevation

text: topography

text: reflectivity

text: , and

text: land use

text: all have varying effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much

text: solar radiation

text: reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and

text: precipitation

text: on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes

text: condensation

text: and

text: precipitation

text: . Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary

text: albedo

text: and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth.

text: Vegetation

text: has a relatively low albedo meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy.

text: Forests

text: have an albedo of 10-15% while

text: grasslands

text: have an albedo of 15-20%. In comparison, sandy

text: deserts

text: have an albedo of 25-40%. Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create

text: urban heat islands

text: that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Vegetation has a relatively low albedo

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Which of the following is not a type of land cover?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: humans

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: vegetated surfaces are good absorbers

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: planetary albedo

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: less solar radiation than low latitudes.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: planetary albedo

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: planetary albedo

text: Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food.  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.

text: Living organisms require

text: available energy

text: to stay alive, such as the

text: energy humans get from food

text: .  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from

text: energy resource

text: s such as

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: nuclear fuel

text: , or

text: renewable energy

text: . The processes of Earth's

text: climate

text: and

text: ecosystem

text: are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the

text: geothermal energy

text: contained within the earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a renewable energy source?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Living organisms require available energy to stay alive,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: food.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Living organisms require available energy to stay alive,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Living organisms require available energy

text: Enhanced physical strength far above that of a human and even most super-humans, making him "more powerful than a locomotive," is one of Superman's signature powers and has often been described as chief among his other abilities. Depictions of the upper limit of how much weight he can lift have ranged from being able to do the work of several laborers in half the time, crush diamonds in his grasp, lift objects hundreds of times his own weight including any sized vehicle over his head, bend steel with his bare hands, lifting mountains, and all the way up to in the Silver Age and Modern Age where he is seen moving entire planets. This makes him one of the strongest beings in the DC Universe. After being saturated with yellow solar energy in All-Star Superman, his strength was tested, and demonstrated to be sufficient to support over 200 quintillion tons (or 2x10 tons in scientific notation, i.e., two hundred billion billion tons); he held this much with one hand and he even said he feels like he can pick up more, enough to pull Earth away from the sun. As of The New 52 reboot, his strength now exceeds 5.972 sextillion metric tons, and he managed to do it in the absence of a sun for five consecutive days with only a few drops of sweat, leaving Superman asking for more, although this has been done before by the New Earth/Infinite Crisis Superman, when he moved the Earth away from the Sun against Starbreaker's force. On this occasion, he did have the assistance of the Green Lantern, however, it should be noted that Green Lantern only made a chain out of willpower and connected it to Earth, with Superman alone providing the actual pulling strength. Explanations include being adapted to the heavier gravity of Krypton, and his muscles using the power of the solar energy which fuels all his abilities. While in direct yellow sunlight, his strength can be augmented to incalculable and limitless levels. He has strength necessary to shatter entire worlds. Superman's stamina has also been shown as limitless while he remains in yellow sunlight. DC Comics is not known to have coined a similar reference to Marvel Comics's reference, “Class 100 strength,” to Marvel characters whose super-humanoid strength levels are so high that they can lift (press) 100 tons or more for extended periods. It is possible that Superman's powers have no upper bound as long as there are stars or star like objects. He has also lifted the embodiment of Spectre known to be of infinite mass with the aid of Wonder Woman and Green Lantern, and he held a black hole with his bare hands without any outside help. He even lifted the Book of Infinite Pages. When powered with the Cosmic Armor, Superman was able to effortlessly lift up Limbo with his index finger, and his hand was already larger than Limbo itself, which surrounds the Speed Force, the Bleed and the various Earths of the DC Multiverse. Unhealthy exposure to yellow or blue solar radiation can increase Superman's overall strength. However, despite his limitless strength under the radiation of a yellow or blue star, Superman has sometimes been overpowered and has even been beaten to death as his present strength is dependent on his intake of solar energy, although there are exceptions, even when he is fully powered.

text: Enhanced physical strength far above that of a human and even most super-humans, making him "more powerful than a

text: locomotive

text: ," is one of Superman's signature powers and has often been described as chief among his other abilities. Depictions of the upper limit of how much weight he can lift have ranged from being able to do the work of several laborers in half the time, crush diamonds in his grasp, lift objects hundreds of times his own weight including any sized vehicle over his head, bend steel with his bare hands, lifting mountains, and all the way up to in the

text: Silver Age

text: and

text: Modern Age

text: where he is seen moving entire planets. This makes him one of the strongest beings in the DC Universe. After being saturated with yellow solar energy in

text: All-Star Superman

text: , his strength was tested, and demonstrated to be sufficient to support over 200 quintillion tons (or 2x10 tons in

text: scientific notation

text: , i.e., two hundred billion billion tons); he held this much with one hand and he even said he feels like he can pick up more, enough to pull Earth away from the sun. As of

text: The New 52

text: reboot, his strength now exceeds 5.972 sextillion metric tons, and he managed to do it in the absence of a sun for five consecutive days with only a few drops of sweat, leaving Superman asking for more, although this has been done before by the New Earth/Infinite Crisis Superman, when he moved the Earth away from the Sun against Starbreaker's force. On this occasion, he did have the assistance of the Green Lantern, however, it should be noted that Green Lantern only made a chain out of willpower and connected it to Earth, with Superman alone providing the actual pulling strength. Explanations include being adapted to the heavier gravity of

text: Krypton

text: , and his muscles using the power of the solar energy which fuels all his abilities. While in direct yellow sunlight, his strength can be augmented to incalculable and limitless levels. He has strength necessary to shatter entire worlds. Superman's stamina has also been shown as limitless while he remains in yellow sunlight. DC Comics is not known to have coined a similar reference to

text: Marvel Comics

text: 's reference, “Class 100 strength,” to Marvel characters whose super-humanoid strength levels are so high that they can lift (press) 100 tons or more for extended periods. It is possible that Superman's powers have no upper bound as long as there are stars or star like objects. He has also lifted the embodiment of

text: Spectre

text: known to be of infinite mass with the aid of Wonder Woman and Green Lantern, and he held a black hole with his bare hands without any outside help. He even lifted the Book of Infinite Pages. When powered with the Cosmic Armor, Superman was able to effortlessly lift up Limbo with his index finger, and his hand was already larger than

text: Limbo

text: itself, which surrounds the Speed Force, the Bleed and the various Earths of the DC Multiverse. Unhealthy exposure to yellow or blue solar radiation can increase Superman's overall strength. However, despite his limitless strength under the radiation of a yellow or blue star, Superman has sometimes been overpowered and has even been beaten to death as his present strength is dependent on his intake of solar energy, although there are exceptions, even when he is fully powered.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: fuels all his abilities

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: yellow solar energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: yellow sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: yellow

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Superman

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: fuels all his abilities.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: DC Comics

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar energy which fuels all his abilities. While in direct yellow sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Green Lantern,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Green Lantern,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: yellow solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Superman

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: DC Comics

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: direct yellow sunlight,

text: materials (organic photovoltaics, OPVs) that allow visible light to pass through its technology but selectively absorb the light from the invisible part of the spectrum, near infrared (NIR) and ultraviolet (UV) light.  They call this technology ClearView power .  ClearView Power  is an invisible film less than 1/100th of a millimeter thick that can be put onto any surface and generate energy without with out affecting the material beneath it.  Specifically they are trying to capture all of the photons of ultraviolet and infrared light while allowing the photons of visible light to pass through. Once energy is created from the OPVs, it is able to be harvested through dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) containing electrodes as electron emitters and iodide/tri-iodide redox electrolyte as an entire transport layer.

text: materials (organic

text: photovoltaics

text: , OPVs) that allow visible light to pass through its technology but selectively absorb the light from the invisible part of the spectrum, near infrared (NIR) and ultraviolet (UV) light.  They call this technology ClearView power .  ClearView Power  is an invisible film less than 1/100th of a millimeter thick that can be put onto any surface and generate energy without with out affecting the material beneath it.  Specifically they are trying to capture all of the

text: photon

text: s of ultraviolet and infrared light while allowing the photons of visible light to pass through. Once energy is created from the OPVs, it is able to be harvested through dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) containing electrodes as electron emitters and iodide/tri-iodide redox electrolyte as an entire transport layer.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: near infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: generate energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: near infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: visible light

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet (UV) light.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: near infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared

text: In 1959, Gold expanded on his previous prediction of a collisionless shock wave, arguing that solar flares would eject material into magnetic clouds to produce a shock front that would result in geomagnetic storms. He also coined the term "magnetosphere" in his paper "Motions in the Magnetosphere of the Earth" to describe "the region above the ionosphere in which the magnetic field of the Earth has a dominant control over the motions of gas and fast charged particles ... [which was] known to extend out to a distance of the order of 10 Earth radii". In 1960, Gold collaborated again with Fred Hoyle to show that magnetic energy fueled solar flares and that flares were triggered when opposite magnetic loops interact and release their stored energy.

text: In 1959, Gold expanded on his previous prediction of a collisionless shock wave, arguing that

text: solar flare

text: s would eject material into magnetic clouds to produce a shock front that would result in geomagnetic storms. He also coined the term "

text: magnetosphere

text: " in his paper "Motions in the Magnetosphere of the Earth" to describe "the region above the ionosphere in which the magnetic field of the Earth has a dominant control over the motions of gas and fast charged particles ... [which was] known to extend out to a distance of the order of 10 Earth radii". In 1960, Gold collaborated again with Fred Hoyle to show that magnetic energy fueled solar flares and that flares were triggered when opposite magnetic loops interact and release their stored energy.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetic energy

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: magnetic energy fueled solar flares

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: magnetic energy fueled solar flares

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: magnetic energy fueled solar flares

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 10 Earth radii".

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: collisionless shock wave,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: collisionless shock wave,

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionosphere

text: Built originally in 1994 as the private residence and special project of Rolf Disch, the Heliotrope is a one-of-a-kind design.  The Heliotrope in Freiburg was the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral.  The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible from the sun.  Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a  dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel, a geothermal heat exchanger, a combined heat and power unit (CHP) and solar-thermal balcony railing to provide heat and warm water.  These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to produce anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The Heliotrope is also fitted with a grey-water cleansing system and built-in natural waste composting.After the success of Freiburg’s Heliotrope, Hansgrohe contracted Rolf Disch Solar Architecture to design and built another Heliotrope to be used as a visitor’s center and showroom in Offenburg, Germany.  A third Heliotrope was then contracted and built in Hilpoltstein, Bavaria to be used as a technical dental laboratory. Disch’s unique design accommodates different utilization from private residences to laboratories, all the while maintaining the structure’s positive energy balance.In addition to the original Heliotrope design, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture has drawn plans for larger versions of the project to be built as rotating hotels, which give every guest a beautiful view, as well as administrative buildings and even an exhibition pavilion for the EXPO 2010 in Shanghai.

text: Built originally in 1994 as the private residence and special project of Rolf Disch, the

text: Heliotrope

text: is a one-of-a-kind design.  The Heliotrope in Freiburg was the first building in the world to create more energy than it uses, of which is entirely renewable, emissions free and CO neutral.  The structure physically rotates to track the sun, which allows it to harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth possible from the sun.  Several different energy generation modules are used in the building including a

text: dual-axis solar photovoltaic tracking panel

text: , a

text: geothermal heat exchanger

text: , a

text: combined heat and power unit (CHP)

text: and

text: solar-thermal

text: balcony railing to provide heat and warm water.  These innovations in combination with the superior insulation of the residence allow the Heliotrope to produce anywhere between four and six times its energy usage depending on the time of year.  The Heliotrope is also fitted with a

text: grey-water cleansing system

text: and built-in natural waste composting.After the success of Freiburg’s Heliotrope,

text: Hansgrohe

text: contracted Rolf Disch Solar Architecture to design and built another Heliotrope to be used as a visitor’s center and showroom in

text: Offenburg

text: Germany

text: .  A third Heliotrope was then contracted and built in

text: Hilpoltstein

text: Bavaria

text: to be used as a technical dental laboratory. Disch’s unique design accommodates different utilization from private residences to laboratories, all the while maintaining the structure’s positive energy balance.In addition to the original Heliotrope design, Rolf Disch Solar Architecture has drawn plans for larger versions of the project to be built as rotating hotels, which give every guest a beautiful view, as well as administrative buildings and even an exhibition pavilion for the

text: EXPO 2010

text: in

text: Shanghai

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: harness the maximum natural sunlight and warmth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: How does the structure physically rotate to track the sun?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: grey-water cleansing

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: warmth

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Rolf Disch Solar Architecture

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: sunlight and warmth possible from the sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A third Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Heliotrope

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Rolf Disch Solar Architecture

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Heliotrope

text: Following the defeat of Norman Osborn and his Dark Avengers, Noh-Varr locates a secret A.I.M. base. The Avengers take out the base and arrest Monica Rappaccini and the rest of the A.I.M. scientists that escaped following Osborn's defeat. After the battle, Noh-Varr checks in with the Supreme Intelligence of the Kree Empire who informs him of the coming Phoenix force and orders him to intercept and contain it at all cost... even if it means eliminating his Avenger teammates. In space, after the Avengers fail to stop the Phoenix, Noh-Varr analyzes the reason for their failure and discovers that Thor's hammer can injure and absorb the Phoenix's essence. Thor (equipped with Beast's device to contain the Phoenix) is able to force it away from Earth. Before the team can celebrate, Noh-Varr declares that he will take the collected energy back to the Kree. While the Avengers wake up in their spaceship heading to a sun and try to escape death, Noh-Varr takes the Phoenix energy to the Supreme Intelligence; however, after the Intelligence declares that the energy will not be used to save Earth, Noh-Varr turns against it and escapes with the energy. The Avengers meet him, take the energy, and declare him an enemy of the team telling him never to return to Earth. Noh-Varr is left in Hala running for his life from the Kree.

text: Following the defeat of Norman Osborn and his

text: Dark Avengers

text: Noh-Varr

text: locates a secret A.I.M. base. The Avengers take out the base and arrest

text: Monica Rappaccini

text: and the rest of the A.I.M. scientists that escaped following Osborn's defeat. After the battle, Noh-Varr checks in with the

text: Supreme Intelligence

text: of the

text: Kree Empire

text: who informs him of the coming Phoenix force and orders him to intercept and contain it at all cost... even if it means eliminating his Avenger teammates. In space, after the Avengers fail to stop the Phoenix, Noh-Varr analyzes the reason for their failure and discovers that Thor's

text: hammer

text: can injure and absorb the Phoenix's essence. Thor (equipped with Beast's device to contain the Phoenix) is able to force it away from Earth. Before the team can celebrate, Noh-Varr declares that he will take the collected energy back to the Kree. While the Avengers wake up in their spaceship heading to a sun and try to escape death, Noh-Varr takes the Phoenix energy to the Supreme Intelligence; however, after the Intelligence declares that the energy will not be used to save Earth, Noh-Varr turns against it and escapes with the energy. The Avengers meet him, take the energy, and declare him an enemy of the team telling him never to return to Earth. Noh-Varr is left in Hala running for his life from the Kree.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the lowest energy ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: save Earth,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Phoenix

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Phoenix

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Noh-Varr

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Phoenix force

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Phoenix

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Phoenix

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Phoenix

text: Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors, such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride, used for light detection and solar cells. HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared light and can be used as an infrared detector, motion detector, or switch in remote control devices.

text: Cadmium is a component of some compound

text: semiconductor

text: s, such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and

text: cadmium telluride

text: , used for light detection and

text: solar cell

text: s.

text: HgCdTe

text: is sensitive to

text: infrared

text: light and can be used as an infrared detector, motion detector, or switch in remote control devices.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: used for light detection and solar cells

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: cadmium

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Cadmium

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared light

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: motion detector,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: light detection and solar cells.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Cadmium

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Cadmium

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared light

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Cadmium

text: In 1988 the use of an Earth-based laser to power an electric thruster for space propulsion was proposed by Grant Logan, with technical details worked out in 1989. He proposed using diamond solar cells operating at 600 degrees to convert ultraviolet laser light.

text: In 1988 the use of an Earth-based laser to power an electric thruster for space propulsion was proposed by Grant Logan, with technical details worked out in 1989. He proposed using diamond solar cells operating at 600 degrees to convert

text: ultraviolet

text: laser light.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: power an Earth-based laser

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet light

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Earth-based laser to power an electric thruster for space propulsion

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 600 degrees

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 600 degrees

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ultraviolet laser light.

text: When the Superman character was revised by John Byrne shortly after Crisis on Infinite Earths, it was decided to place restrictions on his abilities. This was designed to make it easier for writers to come up with suitable challenges for the hero, and to eliminate or reduce those powers that had become too sensational or unbelievable for modern audiences. Emphasis was placed on yellow sun energy as a source for the character's powers. Superman's origin story was altered so that his powers developed gradually as his body absorbed yellow sunlight, and stories such as the Final Night series depicted the character gradually losing his powers when deprived of the sun's energy. When Superman's reserves of solar energy were depleted, as in Infinite Crisis or the Death of Superman story arcs, he required an extended period of time under a yellow sun, or some type of artificial solar enhancement in order to recharge.

text: When the Superman character was revised by John Byrne shortly after Crisis on Infinite Earths, it was decided to place restrictions on his abilities. This was designed to make it easier for writers to come up with suitable challenges for the hero, and to eliminate or reduce those powers that had become too sensational or unbelievable for modern audiences. Emphasis was placed on yellow sun energy as a source for the character's powers. Superman's origin story was altered so that his powers developed gradually as his body absorbed yellow sunlight, and stories such as the Final Night series depicted the character gradually losing his powers when deprived of the sun's energy. When Superman's reserves of solar energy were depleted, as in Infinite Crisis or the Death of Superman story arcs, he required an extended period of time under a yellow sun, or some type of artificial solar enhancement in order to recharge.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: source for the character's powers

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: yellow

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Superman

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source for the character's powers.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: yellow sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: yellow sun

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: yellow sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: yellow sun energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: yellow sunlight,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: yellow sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: yellow sun energy

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: yellow sunlight,

text: During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the antenna array and transmitted in an upward direction. At an altitude between  (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the HF signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 µW/cm², tens of thousands of times less than the Sun's natural electromagnetic radiation reaching the earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity of the Sun's natural ultraviolet (UV) energy which creates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced, however, can be observed with the sensitive scientific instruments installed at the HAARP Station, and these observations can provide information about the dynamics of plasmas and insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial interactions.

text: During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the

text: antenna array

text: and transmitted in an upward direction. At an altitude between  (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the

text: HF

text: signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 µW/cm², tens of thousands of times less than the Sun's natural electromagnetic radiation reaching the earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity of the Sun's natural

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) energy which creates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced, however, can be observed with the sensitive scientific instruments installed at the HAARP Station, and these observations can provide information about the dynamics of

text: plasmas

text: and insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial interactions.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be observed

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: the Sun's

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: HAARP Station,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: ultraviolet (UV)

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial interactions.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 3 <unk>W/cm2,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: (UV)

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ionospheric research,

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on March 11, 2062. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on March 11, 2062. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on March 11, 2062.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2062.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2062.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2062.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on March 11, 2062.

text: With contemporary space industry's economic activity and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development. Commercialization of space includes satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio; investments estimated to be $50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power in space for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing and refracting atmosphere and nighttime in space.

text: With contemporary

text: space industry

text: 's economic activity and the related

text: private spaceflight

text: , with the

text: manufacturing industries

text: , that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.

text: Commercialization of space

text: includes

text: satellite navigation system

text: s,

text: satellite television

text: and

text: satellite radio

text: ; investments estimated to be

text: 50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated

text: space-based solar power

text: for collecting

text: solar power

text: in

text: space

text: for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an

text: orbit

text: ing

text: satellite

text: instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a

text: diffusing

text: and

text: refracting

text: atmosphere

text: and nighttime in space.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Space-based solar power

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a benefit of space-based solar power?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: use on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: space-based solar power for collecting solar power in space for use on Earth.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: radiant energy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio;

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer collection period

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Earth's orbit or beyond,

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: refracting

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: refracting

text: On the third day of the mission, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was deployed from Discovery's payload bay 350 statute miles above Earth to study human effects on the planet's atmosphere and its shielding ozone layer. The UARS mission objectives were to provide an increased understanding of the energy input into the upper atmosphere, global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere, dynamics of the upper atmosphere, the coupling among these processes, and the coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere. This provided data for a coordinated study of the structure, chemistry, energy balance, and physical action of the Earth's middle atmosphere - thatslice of air between 10 and 60 miles above the Earth.  The UARS was the first major flight element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a multi-year global research program that would use ground-based, airborne, and space-based instruments to study the Earth as a complete environmental system. UARS had ten sensing and measuring devices: Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES); Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS); Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS); Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE); High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI); Wind Imaging Interferometer (WlNDII); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE); Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) and Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM II). UARS's initial 18-month mission was extended several times – it was finally retired after 14 years of service.

text: On the third day of the mission, the

text: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

text: (UARS) was deployed from Discovery's payload bay 350 statute miles above Earth to study human effects on the planet's atmosphere and its shielding ozone layer. The UARS mission objectives were to provide an increased understanding of the energy input into the upper atmosphere, global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere, dynamics of the upper atmosphere, the coupling among these processes, and the coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere. This provided data for a coordinated study of the structure, chemistry, energy balance, and physical action of the Earth's middle atmosphere - thatslice of air between 10 and 60 miles above the Earth.  The UARS was the first major flight element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a multi-year global research program that would use ground-based, airborne, and space-based instruments to study the Earth as a complete environmental system. UARS had ten sensing and measuring devices: Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES); Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS);

text: Microwave Limb Sounder

text: (MLS); Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE); High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI); Wind Imaging Interferometer (WlNDII); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE); Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) and Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM II). UARS's initial 18-month mission was extended several times – it was finally retired after 14 years of service.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy input into the upper atmosphere

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What kind of energy do the sensors detect?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be studied

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone layer

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy input into the upper atmosphere,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Microwave Limb Sounder

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: energy input into the upper atmosphere,

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Solar Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone layer.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 2, 1910. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on November 2, 1910. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 2, 1910.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 2, 1910.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1910.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1910.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 2, 1910.

text: Solar output also varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term modulations. Solar intensity variations possibly as a result of the Wolf, Spörer and Maunder Minimum are considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age, and some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of the Sun's energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs from the very slow change that is happening within the Sun as it ages and evolves. Research indicates that solar variability has had effects including the Maunder minimum from 1645 to 1715 A.D., part of the Little Ice Age from 1550 to 1850 A.D. that was marked by relative cooling and greater glacier extent than the centuries before and afterward. Some studies point toward solar radiation increases from cyclical sunspot activity affecting global warming, and climate may be influenced by the sum of all effects (solar variation, anthropogenic radiative forcings, etc.).

text: Solar output also

text: varies

text: on shorter time scales, including the 11-year

text: solar cycle

text: and longer-term

text: modulation

text: s. Solar intensity variations possibly as a result of the Wolf,

text: Spörer

text: and

text: Maunder Minimum

text: are considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age, and some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of the Sun's energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs from the very slow change that is happening within the Sun as it ages and evolves. Research indicates that solar variability has had effects including the

text: Maunder minimum

text: from 1645 to 1715

text: A.D.

text: , part of the Little Ice Age from 1550 to 1850 A.D. that was marked by relative cooling and greater glacier extent than the centuries before and afterward. Some studies point toward solar radiation increases from cyclical sunspot activity affecting global warming, and climate may be influenced by the sum of all effects (solar variation, anthropogenic

text: radiative forcing

text: s, etc.).

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar radiation increases from cyclical sunspot activity affecting global warming

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunspot

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: affecting global warming,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Solar output also varies on shorter time scales,

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: warming observed from 1900 to 1950.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Solar output also varies on shorter time scales,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: sunspot

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 11-year solar cycle

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Solar output also varies on shorter time scales,

text: To make observations in the near and mid infrared spectrum, the JWST must be kept very cold (under ), otherwise infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Therefore, it uses a large sunshield to block light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Earth–Sun  point keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. Its halo orbit around  avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays.  The sunshield is made of the polyimide film Kapton, which is stable at very low temperatures.

text: To make observations in the near and mid infrared spectrum, the JWST must be kept very cold (under ), otherwise infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Therefore, it uses a large

text: sunshield

text: to block light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Earth–Sun  point keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. Its halo orbit around  avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays.  The sunshield is made of the

text: polyimide

text: film Kapton, which is stable at very low temperatures.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: would overwhelm its instruments

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light and heat from the Sun,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: To make observations in the near and mid infrared spectrum,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: infrared spectrum,

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: light and heat

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: infrared spectrum,

text: In 2015, the Muslim Rashtriya Manch published a book title "Yoga and Islam" on universal appeal and acceptance of Yoga. The Manch expressed its views that 'Yoga' does not have anything to do with religion, further stating that "Namaaz is one sort of Yoga asana". The move was supported by the Union Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) but Hindu groups expressed reservations.

text: In 2015, the Muslim Rashtriya Manch published a book title "Yoga and Islam" on universal appeal and acceptance of Yoga. The Manch expressed its views that 'Yoga' does not have anything to do with religion, further stating that "Namaaz is one sort of Yoga asana". The move was supported by the Union

text: Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy

text: (AYUSH) but Hindu groups expressed reservations.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: unani

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: universal appeal and acceptance of Yoga.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Yoga.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Homoeopathy

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Yoga.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: "Yoga and Islam" on universal appeal and acceptance of Yoga.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Hindu groups expressed reservations.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Yoga.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Yoga.

text: As of 2011, Soondh has a total number of 245 houses and population of 1140 of which 583 include are males while 557 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. The literacy rate of Soondh is 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 121 which is 10.61% of total population of Soondh, and child sex ratio is approximately 779 as compared to Punjab state average of 846.

text: As of 2011, Soondh has a total number of 245 houses and population of 1140 of which 583 include are males while 557 are females according to the report published by

text: Census India in 2011

text: . The

text: literacy rate

text: of Soondh is 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 121 which is 10.61% of total population of Soondh, and

text: child sex ratio

text: is approximately 779 as compared to Punjab state average of 846.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source of heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: near the Sun

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The literacy rate of Soondh is 77.33%

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Soondh

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: 77.33% higher than the state average of 75.84%.

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 14, 2029. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on January 14, 2029. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 14, 2029.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2029.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2029.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2029.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse will occur on January 14, 2029.

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: - Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source of heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: - Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: a longer wavelength means the wave has more energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: - Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: - Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: - Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Men Basketball Team

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Men Basketball Team

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 20, 1906. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on August 20, 1906. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on August 20, 1906.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 1906.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 1906.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1906.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: Earth's magnetosphere and the Sun's magnetic field are constantly pressed against one another on the dayside of Earth. Approximately every eight minutes, these fields briefly merge, forming a temporary "portal" between the Earth and the Sun through which high-energy particles such as solar wind can flow. The portal takes the shape of a magnetic cylinder about the width of Earth. Current observations place the portal at up to 4 times the size of Earth.

text: Earth's magnetosphere and the

text: Sun's magnetic field

text: are constantly pressed against one another on the

text: dayside

text: of Earth. Approximately every eight minutes, these fields briefly merge, forming a temporary "portal" between the Earth and the Sun through which high-energy particles such as

text: solar wind

text: can flow. The portal takes the shape of a magnetic cylinder about the width of Earth. Current observations place the portal at up to 4 times the size of Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: high-energy particles such as solar wind

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices are true

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: solar wind can flow.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: up to 4 times the size of Earth.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: high-energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Earth's magnetosphere

text: The Cedar Hill Longhorns compete in the following sports:

text: The Cedar Hill Longhorns compete in the following sports:

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: light

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: ultraviolet b

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: following

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The Cedar Hill Longhorns

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: following

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Cedar Hill Longhorns

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: The Cedar Hill Longhorns

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The Cedar Hill Longhorns compete in the following

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: following

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: following

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The Cedar Hill Longhorns

text: In 2011 she starred as Detective Constable Hazel Savage in Appropriate Adult.

text: In 2011 she starred as Detective Constable Hazel Savage in

text: Appropriate Adult

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Hazel Savage

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Adult.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Hazel Savage in Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Adult.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Detective Constable Hazel Savage in Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Appropriate Adult.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Hazel Savage in Appropriate Adult.

text: de:Kedrowyru:Кедровый

text: de:Kedrowy

text: ru:Кедровый

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a source of heat

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: shorter wavelength means the wave has less energy

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: water

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: de:Kedrowyru:<unk>едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: de:Kedrowyru:<unk>едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: <unk>едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: de:Kedrowyru:<unk>едров<unk>

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: едров<unk>

text: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's 1925 experimental Universal typeface.

text: The Bauhaus

text: typeface

text: design is based on

text: Herbert Bayer

text: 's 1925 experimental Universal typeface.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Herbert Bayer's

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The Bauhaus typeface design is based on Herbert Bayer's

text: The recipe is a fusion of various cold beverages, including the coffee frap (similar to iced coffee) and the frappe (blended ice cream, syrup, and milk), with the Italian cappuccino.

text: The recipe is a fusion of various cold beverages, including the coffee frap (similar to

text: iced coffee

text: ) and the frappe (blended ice cream, syrup, and milk), with the

text: Italian

text: cappuccino

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The recipe is a fusion of various cold beverages,

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: cold beverages,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Italian cappuccino.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: milk), with the Italian cappuccino.

text: Norrköping Central Station () is a railway station located at Norrköping in  Norrköping Municipality, Sweden. It is located on the Southern Main Line, which runs from Katrineholm to Malmö.

text: Norrköping Central Station () is a

text: railway station

text: located at

text: Norrköping

text: in

text: Norrköping Municipality

text: Sweden

text: . It is located on the

text: Southern Main Line

text: , which runs from

text: Katrineholm

text: to

text: Malmö

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Norrköping Central Station

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Norrköping Central Station

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Southern Main Line,

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Norrköping Central Station

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Southern Main Line, which runs from Katrineholm to Malmö.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Norrköping Central Station

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Katrineholm to Malmö.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sweden.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sweden.

text: There is a saying in Telugu. Brahmam Gari lanti Guruvu Ledu. Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The meaning of this saying is that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and no student like Siddayya.

text: There is a saying in Telugu. Brahmam Gari lanti Guruvu Ledu. Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The meaning of this saying is that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and no student like Siddayya.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Brahmam

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Guruvu Ledu.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Brahmam Gari lanti Guruvu Ledu.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The

text: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002 with the demise of Dreamarena.

text: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002 with the demise of Dreamarena.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: 2002

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Dreamarena.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 2002 with the demise of Dreamarena.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002

text: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation emitted by objects at temperatures often encountered on Earth. Thermal radiation refers not only to the radiation itself, but also the process by which the surface of an object radiates its thermal energy in the form black body radiation. Infrared or red radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater is an example of thermal radiation, as is the heat emitted by an operating incandescent light bulb. Thermal radiation is generated when energy from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation.

text: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation emitted by objects at temperatures often encountered on Earth. Thermal radiation refers not only to the radiation itself, but also the process by which the surface of an object radiates its

text: thermal energy

text: in the form black body radiation. Infrared or red radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater is an example of thermal radiation, as is the heat emitted by an operating incandescent light bulb. Thermal radiation is generated when energy from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: electromagnetic radiation.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation

text: Gavric died March 13, 2010 of complications from Parkinson's disease.

text: Gavric died March 13, 2010 of complications from Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: longer wavelength

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Gavric

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Gavric died March 13, 2010

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: 2010

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Parkinson's disease.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Parkinson's disease.

text: Laboratory experiments follow complicated trajectories as the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun. Since the fixed SME background fields are coupled with the particle fields, periodic variations associated with these motions would be one of the signatures of Lorentz violation.

text: Laboratory experiments follow complicated trajectories as the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun. Since the fixed

text: SME

text: background fields are coupled with the particle fields, periodic variations associated with these motions would be one of the signatures of Lorentz violation.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: revolves around the Sun

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun.

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: Lorentz violation.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: Lorentz violation.

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: Lorentz violation.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: Sun.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: Sun.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on October 12, 1996. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on October 12, 1996. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: totally or partly obscuring the image

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: What is a solar eclipse?

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be seen

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: a viewer

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on October 12, 1996.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: image of the Sun

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: A partial solar eclipse occurred on October 12, 1996.

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: October 12, 1996.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: 1996.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: A partial solar eclipse

text: Van der Ryn has reported he has noticed, while driving around the United States, that many builders seem to pay no attention to one of the cheapest ways to save on energy bills: positioning the house on its site to maximize passive solar heat.

text: Van der Ryn has reported he has noticed, while driving around the United States, that many builders seem to pay no attention to one of the cheapest ways to save on energy bills: positioning the house on its site to maximize

text: passive solar

text: heat.

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: energy bills

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: can be detected

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: air pollutants

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: gamma

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: no

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_005980

answers: cheapest ways to save on energy bills:

answers: NDQ_005981

answers: passive solar heat.

answers: NDQ_005982

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_005983

answers: driving around the United States,

answers: NDQ_005984

answers: cheapest ways to save on energy bills:

answers: NDQ_005985

answers: passive solar heat.

answers: NDQ_005986

answers: solar heat.

answers: NDQ_005988

answers: passive solar heat.

answers: NDQ_005989

answers: heat.