text: When the Rossby number is large (either because f is small, such as in the tropics and at lower latitudes; or because L is small, that is, for small-scale motions such as flow in a bathtub; or for large speeds), the effects of planetary rotation are unimportant and can be neglected. When the Rossby number is small, then the effects of planetary rotation are large and the net acceleration is comparably small allowing the use of the geostrophic approximation.

text: When the Rossby number is large (either because f is small, such as in the tropics and at lower latitudes; or because L is small, that is, for small-scale motions such as

text: flow in a bathtub

text: ; or for large speeds), the effects of

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: ary

entity_name: Rotation

text: rotation

text: are unimportant and can be neglected. When the Rossby number is small, then the effects of planetary rotation are large and the net acceleration is comparably small allowing the use of the

entity_name: Geostrophic wind

text: geostrophic approximation

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo Galilei's rigorous experimental method, René Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus of infinitesimals.  With those tools, Augustin-Louis Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium.  Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum).

text: Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries:

entity_name: Galileo Galilei

text: Galileo Galilei

text: 's rigorous

entity_name: Experiment

text: experimental method

entity_name: René Descartes

text: René Descartes

text: 's

entity_name: Cartesian coordinate system

text: coordinates

text: and

entity_name: Analytic geometry

text: analytic geometry

text: , and

entity_name: Isaac Newton

text: Newton

text: 's

entity_name: Newton's laws of motion

text: laws of motion and equilibrium

text: and

entity_name: Calculus

text: calculus of infinitesimals

text: .  With those tools,

entity_name: Augustin-Louis Cauchy

text: Augustin-Louis Cauchy

text: was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium.  Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum).

method: UNH-ecn

text: King Frederick II granted Tycho an estate on the island of Hven and the funding to build Uraniborg, an early research institute, where he built large astronomical instruments and took many careful measurements, and later Stjerneborg, underground, when he discovered that his instruments in Uraniborg were not sufficiently steady. On the island (where he behaved autocratically toward the residents) he founded manufactories, such as a paper mill, to provide material for printing his results. After disagreements with the new Danish king, Christian IV, in 1597, he went into exile, and was invited by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II to Prague, where he became the official imperial astronomer. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou. There, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tycho's astronomical data to develop his three laws of planetary motion.

entity_name: Frederick II of Denmark

text: King Frederick II

text: granted Tycho an estate on the island of

entity_name: Ven (Sweden)

text: Hven

text: and the funding to build

entity_name: Uraniborg

text: Uraniborg

text: , an early

entity_name: Research institute

text: research institute

text: , where he built large astronomical instruments and took many careful measurements, and later

entity_name: Stjerneborg

text: Stjerneborg

text: , underground, when he discovered that his instruments in Uraniborg were not sufficiently steady. On the island (where he behaved autocratically toward the residents) he founded manufactories, such as a

entity_name: Paper mill

text: paper mill

text: , to provide material for printing his results. After disagreements with the new Danish king,

entity_name: Christian IV of Denmark

text: Christian IV

text: , in 1597, he went into exile, and was invited by the

entity_name: Kingdom of Bohemia

text: Bohemian

text: king and

entity_name: Holy Roman Empire

text: Holy Roman

text: Emperor

entity_name: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolph II

text: to Prague, where he became the official imperial astronomer. He built an observatory at

entity_name: Benátky nad Jizerou

text: Benátky nad Jizerou

text: . There, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted by

entity_name: Johannes Kepler

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , who later used Tycho's astronomical data to develop his

entity_name: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: three laws of planetary motion

text: In 1600 AD, Johannes Kepler sought employment with Tycho Brahe, who had some of the most precise astronomical data available.  Using Brahe's precise observations of the planet Mars, Kepler spent the next five years developing his own method for characterizing planetary motion. In 1609, Johannes Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion, explaining how the planets orbit the Sun. In Kepler's final planetary model, he described planetary orbits as following elliptical paths with the Sun at a focal point of the ellipse. Kepler discovered that the square of the orbital period of each planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit, or equivalently, that the ratio of these two values is constant for all planets in the Solar System.<ref group=note>This constant ratio was later shown to be a direct measure of the Sun's active gravitational mass; it has units of distance cubed per time squared, and is known as the standard gravitational parameter:

text: In 1600 AD,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: sought employment with

entity_name: Tycho Brahe

text: Tycho Brahe

text: , who had some of the most precise astronomical data available.  Using Brahe's precise observations of the planet Mars, Kepler spent the next five years developing his own method for characterizing planetary motion. In 1609, Johannes Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion, explaining how the planets orbit the Sun. In Kepler's final planetary model, he described planetary orbits as following

entity_name: Ellipse

text: elliptical

text: paths with the Sun at a focal point of the ellipse. Kepler discovered that the

entity_name: Square (algebra)

text: square

text: of the

entity_name: Orbital period

text: orbital period

text: of each planet is directly

entity_name: Proportionality (mathematics)

text: proportional

text: to the

entity_name: Cube (algebra)

text: cube

text: of the

entity_name: Semi-major and semi-minor axes

text: semi-major axis

text: of its orbit, or equivalently, that the

entity_name: Ratio

text: ratio

text: of these two values is constant for all planets in the

entity_name: Solar System

text: Solar System

text: .<ref group=note>This constant ratio was later shown to be a direct measure of the Sun's active gravitational mass; it has units of distance cubed per time squared, and is known as the

entity_name: Standard gravitational parameter

text: standard gravitational parameter

text: Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), focusing on astronomy and mathematics, used sophisticated geometrical techniques to map the motion of the stars and planets, even predicting the times that Solar eclipses would happen. In addition, he added calculations of the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth, based upon his improvements to the observational instruments used at that time. Another of the most famous of the early physicists was Ptolemy (90–168 CE), one of the leading minds during the time of the Roman Empire. Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world.

entity_name: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus

text: (190–120 BCE), focusing on astronomy and mathematics, used sophisticated geometrical techniques to map the motion of the stars and

text: planet

text: s, even predicting the times that

entity_name: Solar eclipse

text: Solar eclipse

text: s would happen. In addition, he added calculations of the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth, based upon his improvements to the observational instruments used at that time. Another of the most famous of the early physicists was

entity_name: Ptolemy

text: Ptolemy

text: (90–168 CE), one of the leading minds during the time of the

entity_name: Roman Empire

text: Roman Empire

text: . Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the

entity_name: Almagest

text: Almagest

text: (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). The second is the

entity_name: Geography (Ptolemy)

text: Geography

text: , which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the

entity_name: Greco-Roman world

text: Greco-Roman world

text: It is impossible to see the singularity or the actual Big Bang itself, as time and space did not exist inside the singularity and, therefore, there would be no way to transmit any radiation from before the Big Bang to the present day. However, evidence for the existence of an initial singularity, and the Big Bang theory itself, comes in the form of the cosmic microwave background and the continued expansion of the Universe.

text: It is impossible to see the singularity or the actual Big Bang itself, as time and space did not exist inside the singularity and, therefore, there would be no way to transmit any radiation from before the Big Bang to the present day. However, evidence for the existence of an initial singularity, and the Big Bang theory itself, comes in the form of the

entity_name: Cosmic microwave background

text: cosmic microwave background

text: and the continued expansion of the Universe.

text: In the early Joseon period, the Islamic calendar served as a basis for calendar reform owing to its superior accuracy over the existing Chinese-based calendars. A Korean translation of the Huihui Lifa, a text combining Chinese astronomy with Islamic astronomy works of Jamal ad-Din (astronomer), was studied in Korea under the Joseon Dynasty during the time of Sejong in the 15th century. The tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy survived in Korea up until the early 19th century.

text: In the early

entity_name: Joseon

text: Joseon

text: period, the

entity_name: Islamic calendar

text: Islamic calendar

text: served as a basis for calendar reform owing to its superior accuracy over the existing Chinese-based calendars. A Korean translation of the

entity_name: Huihui Lifa

text: Huihui Lifa

text: , a text combining

entity_name: Chinese astronomy

text: Chinese astronomy

text: with Islamic astronomy works of

entity_name: Jamal ad-Din (astronomer)

text: Jamal ad-Din (astronomer)

text: , was studied in

entity_name: Korea

text: Korea

text: under the

text: Joseon Dynasty

text: during the time of

entity_name: Sejong the Great

text: Sejong

text: in the 15th century. The tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy survived in Korea up until the early 19th century.

text: Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.  This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.

text: Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with

entity_name: Christiaan Huygens

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: ' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled

text: Isaac Newton

entity_name: Edmond Halley

text: Edmund Halley

text: , and perhaps

entity_name: Christopher Wren

text: Christopher Wren

text: and

entity_name: Robert Hooke

text: Robert Hooke

text: to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.  This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.

text: This system dates from the Middle Ages, when the study of the liberal arts took seven years. In the late Middle Ages most students joined their university at an earlier age than is now usual, often when aged only 14 or 15. The basic university education in the liberal arts comprised the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and the Quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music), and typically took seven years of full-time study.

text: This system dates from the Middle Ages, when the study of the liberal arts took seven years. In the late Middle Ages most students joined their university at an earlier age than is now usual, often when aged only 14 or 15. The basic university education in the

entity_name: Liberal arts education

text: liberal arts

text: comprised the

entity_name: Trivium

text: Trivium

text: (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and the

entity_name: Quadrivium

text: Quadrivium

text: (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music), and typically took seven years of full-time study.

text: Science had reached the threshold of explaining the world not geometrically, according to shape, but dynamically, according to force.  It was Isaac Newton who finally crossed that threshold.  He was the first to formulate, in his "laws of motion",  the concept of force.  He demonstrated that Kepler's ellipses were the very orbits the planets would take if they were attracted toward the sun by a force that decreased as the square of the planet's distance from the sun.  And by comparing the moon's motion in its orbit around the earth to the motion of, perhaps, an apple as it falls to the ground, Newton deduced that the forces governing them were quantitatively the same.  "This," writes Weinberg, "was the climactic step in the unification of the celestial and terrestrial in science."

text: Science had reached the threshold of explaining the world not

entity_name: Geometry

text: geometrically

text: , according to shape, but dynamically, according to

entity_name: Force

text: force

text: .  It was

text: Isaac Newton

text: who finally crossed that threshold.  He was the first to formulate, in his "

text: laws of motion

text: ",  the concept of force.  He demonstrated that Kepler's ellipses were the very orbits the planets would take if they were attracted toward the sun by a force that decreased as the square of the planet's distance from the sun.  And by comparing the moon's motion in its orbit around the earth to the motion of, perhaps, an apple as it falls to the ground, Newton deduced that the forces governing them were quantitatively the same.  "This," writes Weinberg, "was the climactic step in the unification of the celestial and terrestrial in science."

text: Galileo's experimental setup to measure the literal flow of time, in order to describe the motion of a ball, preceded Isaac Newton's statement in his Principia:

text: Galileo's experimental setup to measure the literal

entity_name: Two New Sciences

entity_section: The flow of time

text: flow of time

text: , in order to describe the motion of a ball, preceded

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's statement in his

text: Principia

text: The Kepler problem is named after Johannes Kepler, who proposed Kepler's laws of planetary motion (which are part of classical mechanics and solve the problem for the orbits of the planets) and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws (called Kepler's inverse problem).

text: The Kepler problem is named after

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , who proposed

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: (which are part of

entity_name: Classical mechanics

text: classical mechanics

text: and solve the problem for the orbits of the planets) and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws (called Kepler's inverse problem).

text: Astronomy and religion have long been closely intertwined with one another, particularly during the early history of astronomy. Archaeological evidence of many ancient cultures demonstrates that celestial bodies were the subject of worship during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Amulets and stone walls in northern Europe depict arrangements of stars in constellations that match their historical positions, particularly circumpolar constellations. These date back as early as 30,000–40,000 years ago.

text: Astronomy and religion have long been closely intertwined with one another, particularly during the early

entity_name: History of astronomy

text: history of astronomy

text: . Archaeological evidence of many ancient cultures demonstrates that celestial bodies were the subject of worship during the Stone and

entity_name: Bronze Age

text: Bronze Age

text: s. Amulets and stone walls in northern Europe depict arrangements of stars in constellations that match their historical positions, particularly circumpolar constellations. These date back as early as 30,000–40,000 years ago.

text: The Galileo affair—the process by which Galileo came into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy—has often been considered a defining moment in the history of the relationship between religion and science.

text: The

entity_name: Galileo affair

text: Galileo affair

text: —the process by which Galileo came into conflict with the

entity_name: Catholic Church

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: over his support of Copernican astronomy—has often been considered a defining moment in the history of the

entity_name: Relationship between religion and science

text: relationship between religion and science

text: The sphericity of the Earth was established  by Greek astronomy in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.

text: The

entity_name: Spherical Earth

text: sphericity of the Earth

text: was established  by

entity_name: Ancient Greek astronomy

text: Greek astronomy

text: in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by

entity_name: Crates of Mallus

text: Crates of Mallus

text: in

entity_name: Cilicia

text: Cilicia

text: (now

entity_name: Çukurova

text: Çukurova

text: in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.

text: In ancient times, the church supported medical research as an aid to Christian charity. The Church supported the development of modern science and scientific research by founding Europe's first universities in the Middle Ages. Historian Lawrence M. Principe writes that "it is clear from the historical record that the Catholic church has been probably the largest single and longest-term patron of science in history, that many contributors to the Scientific Revolution were themselves Catholic, and that several Catholic institutions and perspectives were key influences upon the rise of modern science." The field of astronomy is a prime example of the Church's commitment to science. J.L. Heilbron in his book The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories writes that "The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial aid and support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment, than any other, and, probably, all other, institutions."

text: In ancient times, the church supported medical research as an aid to Christian charity. The Church supported the development of modern science and scientific research by founding Europe's first universities in the

entity_name: Middle Ages

text: Middle Ages

text: . Historian Lawrence M. Principe writes that "it is clear from the historical record that the Catholic church has been probably the largest single and longest-term patron of science in history, that many contributors to the Scientific Revolution were themselves Catholic, and that several Catholic institutions and perspectives were key influences upon the rise of modern science." The field of astronomy is a prime example of the Church's commitment to science. J.L. Heilbron in his book The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories writes that "The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial aid and support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment, than any other, and, probably, all other, institutions."

method: UNH-qee

text: As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his Second Law of Planetary Motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler's laws.

text: As a

text: planet

text: orbits the

text: Sun

text: , the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since

text: Kepler

text: expounded his

text: Second Law of Planetary Motion

text: . Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun's

text: gravity

text: was the cause of all of Kepler's laws.

text: The University of Oklahoma Library system has its headquarters in Bizzell Memorial Library. The largest research library in Oklahoma, it contains over 4.7 million volumes and is ranked 27th out of 113 research libraries in North America in volumes held. It contains more than 1.6 million photographs, subscriptions to over 31,000 periodicals, over 1.5 million maps, government documents dating back to 1893, and over 50 incunabula. It has eight locations on campus. The primary library is Bizzell Memorial Library, located in the middle of the main campus. Other notable campus libraries include the Architecture Library, the Engineering Library, the Fine Arts Library, the Physics and Astronomy Library, and the Geology Library. The OU library system contains many unique collections such as the History of Science Collections (which houses over 94,000 volumes related to the history of science, including hand-noted works by Galileo Galilei), the Bizzell Bible Collection, and the Western History Collection.

text: The University of Oklahoma Library system has its headquarters in

text: Bizzell Memorial Library

text: . The largest research library in Oklahoma, it contains over 4.7 million volumes and is ranked 27th out of 113 research libraries in North America in volumes held. It contains more than 1.6 million

text: photographs

text: , subscriptions to over 31,000

text: periodicals

text: , over 1.5 million

text: maps

text: , government documents dating back to 1893, and over 50

text: incunabula

text: . It has eight locations on campus. The primary library is Bizzell Memorial Library, located in the middle of the main campus. Other notable campus libraries include the Architecture Library, the Engineering Library, the Fine Arts Library, the Physics and Astronomy Library, and the Geology Library. The OU library system contains many unique collections such as the History of Science Collections (which houses over 94,000 volumes related to the history of science, including hand-noted works by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: ), the Bizzell Bible Collection, and the Western History Collection.

text: Theories which assert that the universe has a finite life, but that the Big Bang did not happen, have problems with the abundance of helium-4. The observed amount of He is far larger than the amount that should have been created via stars or any other known process. By contrast, the abundance of He in Big Bang models is very insensitive to assumptions about baryon density, changing only a few percent as the baryon density changes by several orders of magnitude. The observed value of He is within the range calculated.

text: Theories which assert that the universe has a finite life, but that the Big Bang did not happen, have problems with the abundance of

text: helium

text: -4. The observed amount of He is far larger than the amount that should have been created via stars or any other known process. By contrast, the abundance of He in Big Bang models is very insensitive to assumptions about baryon density, changing only a few percent as the baryon density changes by several orders of magnitude. The observed value of He is within the range calculated.

text: The early astronomy of ancient Greece was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the Mesopotamian culture. Thus the Babylonians associated Mars with Nergal, their god of war and pestilence, and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war, Ares. During this period, the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks; Hesiod's Works and Days (c. 650 BCE) makes no mention of the planets.

text: The early

text: astronomy of ancient Greece

text: was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the

text: Mesopotamia

text: n culture. Thus the Babylonians associated Mars with

text: Nergal

text: , their god of war and pestilence, and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war,

text: Ares

text: . During this period, the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks;

text: Hesiod

text: 's

text: Works and Days

text: (c. 650 BCE) makes no mention of the planets.

text: |-| 8101 Yasue ||  ||  Kunio Yasue (b. 1951), director of the Science Laboratory at Okayama Seishin University, has studied mathematical physics and quantum field theory. One of his major contributions to astronomy is his work on spontaneous symmetry braking at an early stage of the universe's evolution.|-id=102| 8102 Yoshikazu ||  ||  Yoshikazu Kato (b. 1962) is a Japanese amateur astronomer. He edits an e-mail newsletter on astronomy that is sent every week to over 4500 readers, helping to make popularize astronomical knowledge.|-id=103| 8103 Fermi || 1994 BE || Enrico Fermi, physicist*|-id=104| 8104 Kumamori ||  ||  Teruaki Kumamori (b. 1949), planetarium educator of Sakai City Culture Center, Osaka, is an expert in telescope making and has made Wright-Väisälä, Dall-Kirkham, Schiefspiegler and other optics in addition to mechanical parts for them. He also takes high-resolution digital movies of the planets.|-id=106| 8106 Carpino || 1994 YB || Mario Carpino, Italian astronomer †|-id=108| 8108 Wieland ||  || Christoph Martin Wieland, German poet*|-id=109| 8109 Danielwilliam ||  || Daniel William Hergenrother (b. 2010), a son of the discoverer. |-id=110| 8110 Heath ||  ||  Alan W. Heath (b. 1931) is a British planetary observer. He was director of the British Astronomical Association's Saturn section during 1964-1970 and 1976-1994. He has also served the BAA as assistant director of the Jupiter section and secretary of the Lunar section. He was awarded the BAA's Goodacre Medal in 1986.|-id=111| 8111 Hoepli || 1995 GE || Ulrico Hoepli, Italian publisher, who donated a planetarium to the city of Milan †|-id=112| 8112 Cesi || 1995 JJ || Federico Cesi, founder of the Accademia dei Lincei*|-id=113| 8113 Matsue ||  ||  Named for a city located in the ancient Izumo district in western Japan. A beautiful city rich in culture, history and archeological remains, Matsue has been designated as an International Cultural Center.|-id=114| 8114 Lafcadio ||  || Lafcadio Hearn, author*|-id=115| 8115 Sakabe ||  ||  Named in honor of Sanjirou Sakabe (b. 1923), an amateur astronomer who studied under the late Issei Yamamoto. Sakabe is the founder of the Dynic Astronomical Observatory, which contributes to the spread of astronomy in the surrounding area.|-id=116| 8116 Jeanperrin ||  || Jean Baptiste Perrin, French physicist †|-id=117| 8117 Yuanlongping ||  ||  Named in honor of Longping Yuan (b. 1930), member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, head of the National Hybrid Rice Engineering and Technical Research Center of China. As the founder of the Chinese hybrid rice research effort, he contributes greatly to great production in China and worldwide. He has won many international prizes and is honored as the "Father of Hybrid Rice" by foreign colleagues.|-id=120| 8120 Kobe || 1997 VT ||  Named for the primary port on the Seto Inland Sea since the eighth century and one of Japan's most cosmopolitan cities, where the discoverer lived for five years during his student days. Kobe has made a remarkable recovery from the great earthquake in 1995. Name proposed by the discoverer and citation proposed by I. Hasegawa.|-id=121| 8121 Altdorfer || 2572 P-L || Albrecht Altdorfer, German painter of the Renaissance*|-id=122| 8122 Holbein || 4038 P-L || Hans Holbein the Younger, German artist*|-id=123| 8123 Canaletto || 3138 T-1 || Canaletto, Venetian artist*|-id=124| 8124 Guardi || 4370 T-1 || Francesco Guardi, Italian painter of the Rococo period*|-id=125| 8125 Tyndareus || 5493 T-2 || Tyndareus, mythological Spartan king*|-id=126| 8126 Chanwainam || 1966 BL || Chan Wainam, Chinese educator and charity worker |-id=127| 8127 Beuf || 1967 HA || Francisco Beuf, 19th-century French astronomer, who participated in the organization of the Argentinian Navy School and the La Plata Observatory, of which he was the first director |-id=128| 8128 Nicomachus || 1967 JP || Nicomachus, Greek mathematician*|-id=129| 8129 Michaelbusch ||  || Michael W. Busch (born 1987), a Jansky Fellow at the Department of Earth and Space Sciences of the University of California, Los Angeles. |-id=130| 8130 Seeberg ||  ||  Named for the Seeberg Observatory, situated upon a well-marked hill close to the town of Gotha. In the time of the duke Ernst II von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg (1745-1804) and the astronomer F. X. von Zach, it was an important center for astronomy. The first meeting of European astronomers took place at the Seeberg Observatory in August 1798. This naming honors the 200th anniversary of that conference, as well as the 1998 International Spring Meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft in Gotha, held on the occasion of this anniversary. Name endorsed by P. Brosche.|-id=131| 8131 Scanlon || 1976 SC || Leo Scanlon Amateur Astronomer, co-founder of the Amateur Astronomers Association of Pittsburgh, or AAAP. Member of the Academy of Science and Art of Pittsburgh.*|-id=132| 8132 Vitginzburg ||  || Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, Russian physicist and Nobelist |-id=133| 8133 Takanochoei ||  ||  Takano Choei (1804-1850) was born in Mizusawa, Iwate prefecture. He was a physician and scholar of Dutch studies (Western learning) in the late Edo period.|-id=134| 8134 Minin ||  ||  Kuz'ma Minich Zakhar'ev Sukhorukij (Kuz'ma Minin, d. 1616) was one of the organizers of the second people's volunteer corps in Nizhnij Novgorod during 1611-1612. He displayed great action and personal bravery in the battle with Polish troops near Moscow and is a favorite national hero in Russia.|-id=136| 8136 Landis ||  || 8136 Landis Discovered 1979 June 25 by E. F. Helin and S. J. Bus at Siding Spring. Rob R. Landis (b. 1963) is a NEO Program Officer at NASA Headquarters. Rob's lifelong passion for astronomy has taken him from working part time while in college at Abrams Planetarium, through a widely varied career on NASA missions, including HST, Cassini, Mars Exploration Rovers and the ISS.|-id=137| 8137 Kvíz || 1979 SJ || Zdeněk Kvíz, Czech astronomer †|-id=139| 8139 Paulabell ||  || Paul A. Abell (born 1965), lead scientist for small bodies in the Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate at the NASA Johnson Space Center. |-id=140| 8140 Hardersen ||  || Paul S. Hardersen (born 1965), a professor and observatory director in the Department of Space Studies at the University of North Dakota. |-id=141| 8141 Nikolaev ||  ||  Nikolaev is a city and large industrial and cultural center in southern Ukraine. The Nikolaev Astronomical Observatory was established there in 1821.|-id=142| 8142 Zolotov ||  ||  Named in honor of Andrej Andreevich Zolotov (b. 1937), Russian screenwriter and art and music critic. He is the author of more than 30 documentary films about Russian musicians, composers and conductors. Name suggested by G. Sviridov and supported by the discoverer.|-id=143| 8143 Nezval || 1982 VN || Vítezslav Nezval, 20th-century Czech poet, founder of the Poetism movement and later founder of the surrealist group of Czechoslovakia |-id=144| 8144 Hiragagennai ||  ||  Hiraga Gennai (1728-1779) was born in Takamatsu, Kagawa prefecture. He was a scientist, pharmacologist and playwright in the middle Edo period.|-id=145| 8145 Valujki ||  ||  The small Russian town of Valujki, founded in 1593 as a southern fortress of the Moscow State, is the center of the Valujki district of the Belgorod region. Located at a picturesque place near the confluence of the Valuj and Oskol rivers, it is a town of railwaymen and of workers in the food industry.|-id=146| 8146 Jimbell || 1983 WG || James Francis Bell, American astronomer †|-id=147| 8147 Colemanhawkins ||  || Coleman Hawkins, jazz musician*|-id=148| 8148 Golding ||  || Margarette Oliver Golding (1881–1939) founded the Inner Wheel movement in 1924, one of the largest women’s voluntary service organizations in the world. |-id=149| 8149 Ruff ||  ||  Jan Ruff (b. 1949) is the very capable, warm-spirited and enthusiastic chief of the Office of Public Affairs for Goddard Space Center, NASA. Steve Ruff (b. 1949) is an imaginative, creative and knowledgeable middle-school teacher with a wonderful dry sense of humor.|-id=150| 8150 Kaluga ||  ||  Kaluga, a town in the Russian Federation and the focus of the Kalugian region, is a prominent industrial and cultural center. Founded in 1371, the town is much recorded in the history of Russia. The Tsiolkovsky Museum of Cosmonautics and one of the oldest theaters in Russia are located there.|-id=151| 8151 Andranada ||  ||  Andrej Vladimirovich Shakhov (b. 1954) works in the faculty of diseases of the ear, nose and throat at the Nizhnij Novgorod State Medical Academy. His wife, Natalia Mikhailovna Shakhova (b. 1957) works in the faculty of midwifery and gynecology.|-id=154| 8154 Stahl ||  ||  Named in memory of the German physician and chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734), who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion, which dominated chemical thought for almost a century. Contrary to the view of his friend Friedrich Hoffmann at the University of Halle, who considered living organisms as machines to be explained by the laws of mechanics, Stahl insisted that neither mechanical nor chemical laws alone were sufficient to account for the phenomenon of life. Most likely influenced by his pietism, he insisted that life required a force for which he reserved the Latin word anima, which in turn gave rise to the theory of animism (vitalism).|-id=155| 8155 Battaglini || 1988 QA || Giuseppe Battaglini, Italian mathematician*|-id=156| 8156 Tsukada || 1988 TR ||  Named in honor of Shinsuke Tsukada (b. 1954), director of the Yonago City Planetarium, Tottori Prefecture, and an executive member of the San-in Society of Astronomy, the Tottori Society of Astronomy. Provider of varied and informative planetarium programs for the general public on an on-going basis, he spends his free evenings searching for comets. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=158| 8158 Herder ||  || Johann Gottfried von Herder, German poet, theologian and philosopher*|-id=159| 8159 Fukuoka ||  ||  Named in honor of Takashi Fukuoka (b. 1948), director of the planetarium at Sanbe Shizenkan Open Field Museum, Shimane Prefecture, and president of the San-in Society of Astronomy. A hardworking and painstaking planner of astronomy events and workshops, he is particularly concerned with meeting the needs of those new to astronomy in his local area. His main research is luminosity functions of globular clusters. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=161| 8161 Newman ||  ||  Named in honor of Constance B. Newman (b. 1935), Smithsonian Institution undersecretary whose unwavering devotion to the principles of exemplary management and diversity has enabled the Smithsonian to flourish and the Astrophysical Observatory to thrive.|-id=163| 8163 Ishizaki ||  || Masako Ishizaki, amateur astronomer*|-id=164| 8164 Andreasdoppler ||  || Andreas Doppler, Minor Planet Center Associate and amateur astronomer at the Archenhold Observatory †|-id=165| 8165 Gnädig ||  || Arno Gnädig, German amateur astronomer at the Archenhold Observatory † ‡|-id=166| 8166 Buczynski ||  || Denis Buczynski, British amateur astronomer †|-id=167| 8167 Ishii ||  ||  Named in honor of Takahiro Ishii (b. 1959), Japanese amateur astronomer and active owner of the Kamogawa Observatory, Chiba Prefecture. He is a strong supporter of neighborhood amateurs, and his contribution to popularizing and disseminating celestial photography techniques makes him welcome in gatherings nationwide. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=168| 8168 Rogerbourke ||  || Roger Bourke*|-id=169| 8169 Mirabeau ||  || Mirabeau, French writer, orator and statesman*|-id=171| 8171 Stauffenberg ||  || Claus von Stauffenberg, German aristocrat and Wehrmacht officer, one of the leading figures in the plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler*|-id=175| 8175 Boerhaave ||  || Herman Boerhaave, Dutch physician and anatomist †|-id=181| 8181 Rossini ||  || Gioachino Rossini, Italian composer|-id=182| 8182 Akita || 1992 TX ||  Named in honor of Isao Akita (b. 1948), president of the comet observers network in Japan, "Hoshi no Hiroba", since 1988. He is a well-known amateur astronomer and keen observer and photographer of comets and galaxies. He is especially at home assisting in the efforts of other comet enthusiasts, both within his group and throughout the country. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=184| 8184 Luderic || 1992 WL || Child of astronomer Alain Maury*|-id=187| 8187 Akiramisawa || 1992 XL ||  Botanist Akira Misawa (1942-1994), a professor at Chiba University, conducted research on the effects of light pollution on plants.|-id=188| 8188 Okegaya ||  || Okegaya Marsh, Shizuoka prefecture, Japan |-id=189| 8189 Naruke ||  ||  Giiti Naruke (b. 1949) is the first Japanese to achieve two consecutive wins at the world championship for radio-controlled airplanes, and he is making every endeavor to bring up a future champion.|-id=190| 8190 Bouguer ||  || Pierre Bouguer, French mathematician*|-id=191| 8191 Mersenne ||  || Marin Mersenne, French theologian and mathematician*|-id=192| 8192 Tonucci || 1993 RB || Giuseppe Tonucci, Italian cyclist|-id=193| 8193 Ciaurro || 1993 SF ||  Named in memory of Ilario Ciaurro (1889-1992), an art teacher and ceramist, but most famous as a painter. His favorite subject was Terni, his adopted town, and he loved using etchings, poems and stories to explore its innermost aspects.|-id=194| 8194 Satake ||  ||  Named in honor of Masaaki Satake (b. 1956), a Japanese amateur astronomer and secretary of the Kansai Astronomical Society since 1972. Active in organizing local star parties for amateur astronomers and lay persons alike, he is a part-time journalist rigorous in describing and recording astronomy-related events in his native city of Kyoto. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=197| 8197 Mizunohiroshi || 1993 VX ||  Hiroshi Mizuno (b. 1951), Okayama Seishin University, is a theoretician on the origin of our solar system. He developed a theory about the formation of thick atmospheres of giant planets, such as Jupiter, with intensive studies on the sudden accretion of gas onto the solid core. This mechanism is called the Mizuno process.|-id=199| 8199 Takagitakeo || 1993 XR ||  Takeo Takagi (1909-1982) played an active part in astronomical education as one of the first planetarians in Japan. In 1939 he joined the staff of the Osaka Electric-Science Museum, famous for its 1937 installation of the first planetarium in Japan. After retiring from the museum, he opened a private planetarium.|-id=200| 8200 Souten ||  ||  Named for the Waseda University Astronomy Association, nicknamed Souten. Established in 1959 by Hidetaka Tojo, Souten has produced an astronaut and many astrophotographers and observers. The discoverers of this minor planet were members of Souten.|}

text: 8101 Yasue

text: ||  ||  Kunio Yasue (b. 1951), director of the Science Laboratory at Okayama Seishin University, has studied mathematical physics and quantum field theory. One of his major contributions to astronomy is his work on spontaneous symmetry braking at an early stage of the universe's evolution.|-id=102|

text: 8102 Yoshikazu

text: ||  ||  Yoshikazu Kato (b. 1962) is a Japanese amateur astronomer. He edits an e-mail newsletter on astronomy that is sent every week to over 4500 readers, helping to make popularize astronomical knowledge.|-id=103|

text: 8103 Fermi

text: || 1994 BE ||

text: Enrico Fermi

text: , physicist*|-id=104|

text: 8104 Kumamori

text: ||  ||  Teruaki Kumamori (b. 1949), planetarium educator of Sakai City Culture Center, Osaka, is an expert in telescope making and has made Wright-Väisälä, Dall-Kirkham, Schiefspiegler and other optics in addition to mechanical parts for them. He also takes high-resolution digital movies of the planets.|-id=106|

text: 8106 Carpino

text: || 1994 YB ||

text: Mario Carpino

text: , Italian astronomer †|-id=108|

text: 8108 Wieland

text: Christoph Martin Wieland

text: , German poet*|-id=109|

text: 8109 Danielwilliam

text: ||  || Daniel William Hergenrother (b. 2010), a son of the discoverer. |-id=110|

text: 8110 Heath

text: ||  ||  Alan W. Heath (b. 1931) is a British planetary observer. He was director of the British Astronomical Association's Saturn section during 1964-1970 and 1976-1994. He has also served the BAA as assistant director of the Jupiter section and secretary of the Lunar section. He was awarded the BAA's Goodacre Medal in 1986.|-id=111|

text: 8111 Hoepli

text: || 1995 GE ||

text: Ulrico Hoepli

text: , Italian publisher, who donated a planetarium to the city of Milan †|-id=112|

text: 8112 Cesi

text: || 1995 JJ ||

text: Federico Cesi

text: , founder of the

text: Accademia dei Lincei

text: 8113 Matsue

text: ||  ||  Named for a city located in the ancient Izumo district in western Japan. A beautiful city rich in culture, history and archeological remains, Matsue has been designated as an International Cultural Center.|-id=114|

text: 8114 Lafcadio

text: Lafcadio Hearn

text: , author*|-id=115|

text: 8115 Sakabe

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Sanjirou Sakabe (b. 1923), an amateur astronomer who studied under the late Issei Yamamoto. Sakabe is the founder of the Dynic Astronomical Observatory, which contributes to the spread of astronomy in the surrounding area.|-id=116|

text: 8116 Jeanperrin

text: Jean Baptiste Perrin

text: , French physicist †|-id=117|

text: 8117 Yuanlongping

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Longping Yuan (b. 1930), member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, head of the National Hybrid Rice Engineering and Technical Research Center of China. As the founder of the Chinese hybrid rice research effort, he contributes greatly to great production in China and worldwide. He has won many international prizes and is honored as the "Father of Hybrid Rice" by foreign colleagues.|-id=120|

text: 8120 Kobe

text: || 1997 VT ||  Named for the primary port on the Seto Inland Sea since the eighth century and one of Japan's most cosmopolitan cities, where the discoverer lived for five years during his student days. Kobe has made a remarkable recovery from the great earthquake in 1995. Name proposed by the discoverer and citation proposed by I. Hasegawa.|-id=121|

text: 8121 Altdorfer

text: || 2572 P-L ||

text: Albrecht Altdorfer

text: , German painter of the

text: Renaissance

text: 8122 Holbein

text: || 4038 P-L ||

text: Hans Holbein the Younger

text: , German artist*|-id=123|

text: 8123 Canaletto

text: || 3138 T-1 ||

text: Canaletto

text: , Venetian artist*|-id=124|

text: 8124 Guardi

text: || 4370 T-1 ||

text: Francesco Guardi

text: , Italian painter of the

text: Rococo

text: 8125 Tyndareus

text: || 5493 T-2 ||

text: Tyndareus

text: , mythological Spartan king*|-id=126|

text: 8126 Chanwainam

text: || 1966 BL ||

text: Chan Wainam

text: , Chinese educator and charity worker |-id=127|

text: 8127 Beuf

text: || 1967 HA ||

text: Francisco Beuf

text: , 19th-century French astronomer, who participated in the organization of the

text: Argentinian Navy School

text: and the

text: La Plata Observatory

text: , of which he was the first director |-id=128|

text: 8128 Nicomachus

text: || 1967 JP ||

text: Nicomachus

text: , Greek mathematician*|-id=129|

text: 8129 Michaelbusch

text: ||  || Michael W. Busch (born 1987), a Jansky Fellow at the Department of Earth and Space Sciences of the

text: University of California

text: , Los Angeles. |-id=130|

text: 8130 Seeberg

text: ||  ||  Named for the Seeberg Observatory, situated upon a well-marked hill close to the town of Gotha. In the time of the duke Ernst II von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg (1745-1804) and the astronomer F. X. von Zach, it was an important center for astronomy. The first meeting of European astronomers took place at the Seeberg Observatory in August 1798. This naming honors the 200th anniversary of that conference, as well as the 1998 International Spring Meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft in Gotha, held on the occasion of this anniversary. Name endorsed by P. Brosche.|-id=131|

text: 8131 Scanlon

text: || 1976 SC ||

text: Leo Scanlon

text: Amateur Astronomer, co-founder of the Amateur Astronomers Association of Pittsburgh, or AAAP. Member of the Academy of Science and Art of Pittsburgh.*|-id=132|

text: 8132 Vitginzburg

text: Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg

text: , Russian physicist and Nobelist |-id=133|

text: 8133 Takanochoei

text: ||  ||  Takano Choei (1804-1850) was born in Mizusawa, Iwate prefecture. He was a physician and scholar of Dutch studies (Western learning) in the late Edo period.|-id=134|

text: 8134 Minin

text: ||  ||  Kuz'ma Minich Zakhar'ev Sukhorukij (Kuz'ma Minin, d. 1616) was one of the organizers of the second people's volunteer corps in Nizhnij Novgorod during 1611-1612. He displayed great action and personal bravery in the battle with Polish troops near Moscow and is a favorite national hero in Russia.|-id=136|

text: 8136 Landis

text: ||  || 8136 Landis Discovered 1979 June 25 by E. F. Helin and S. J. Bus at Siding Spring. Rob R. Landis (b. 1963) is a NEO Program Officer at NASA Headquarters. Rob's lifelong passion for astronomy has taken him from working part time while in college at Abrams Planetarium, through a widely varied career on NASA missions, including HST, Cassini, Mars Exploration Rovers and the ISS.|-id=137|

text: 8137 Kvíz

text: || 1979 SJ ||

text: Zdeněk Kvíz

text: , Czech astronomer †|-id=139|

text: 8139 Paulabell

text: ||  || Paul A. Abell (born 1965), lead scientist for small bodies in the Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate at the

text: NASA

text: Johnson Space Center. |-id=140|

text: 8140 Hardersen

text: ||  || Paul S. Hardersen (born 1965), a professor and observatory director in the Department of Space Studies at the

text: University of North Dakota

text: . |-id=141|

text: 8141 Nikolaev

text: ||  ||  Nikolaev is a city and large industrial and cultural center in southern Ukraine. The Nikolaev Astronomical Observatory was established there in 1821.|-id=142|

text: 8142 Zolotov

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Andrej Andreevich Zolotov (b. 1937), Russian screenwriter and art and music critic. He is the author of more than 30 documentary films about Russian musicians, composers and conductors. Name suggested by G. Sviridov and supported by the discoverer.|-id=143|

text: 8143 Nezval

text: || 1982 VN ||

text: Vítezslav Nezval

text: , 20th-century Czech poet, founder of the

text: Poetism

text: movement and later founder of the

text: surrealist

text: group of Czechoslovakia |-id=144|

text: 8144 Hiragagennai

text: ||  ||  Hiraga Gennai (1728-1779) was born in Takamatsu, Kagawa prefecture. He was a scientist, pharmacologist and playwright in the middle Edo period.|-id=145|

text: 8145 Valujki

text: ||  ||  The small Russian town of Valujki, founded in 1593 as a southern fortress of the Moscow State, is the center of the Valujki district of the Belgorod region. Located at a picturesque place near the confluence of the Valuj and Oskol rivers, it is a town of railwaymen and of workers in the food industry.|-id=146|

text: 8146 Jimbell

text: || 1983 WG ||

text: James Francis Bell

text: , American astronomer †|-id=147|

text: 8147 Colemanhawkins

text: Coleman Hawkins

text: , jazz musician*|-id=148|

text: 8148 Golding

text: Margarette Oliver Golding

text: (1881–1939) founded the Inner Wheel movement in 1924, one of the largest women’s voluntary service organizations in the world. |-id=149|

text: 8149 Ruff

text: ||  ||  Jan Ruff (b. 1949) is the very capable, warm-spirited and enthusiastic chief of the Office of Public Affairs for Goddard Space Center, NASA. Steve Ruff (b. 1949) is an imaginative, creative and knowledgeable middle-school teacher with a wonderful dry sense of humor.|-id=150|

text: 8150 Kaluga

text: ||  ||  Kaluga, a town in the Russian Federation and the focus of the Kalugian region, is a prominent industrial and cultural center. Founded in 1371, the town is much recorded in the history of Russia. The Tsiolkovsky Museum of Cosmonautics and one of the oldest theaters in Russia are located there.|-id=151|

text: 8151 Andranada

text: ||  ||  Andrej Vladimirovich Shakhov (b. 1954) works in the faculty of diseases of the ear, nose and throat at the Nizhnij Novgorod State Medical Academy. His wife, Natalia Mikhailovna Shakhova (b. 1957) works in the faculty of midwifery and gynecology.|-id=154|

text: 8154 Stahl

text: ||  ||  Named in memory of the German physician and chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734), who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion, which dominated chemical thought for almost a century. Contrary to the view of his friend Friedrich Hoffmann at the University of Halle, who considered living organisms as machines to be explained by the laws of mechanics, Stahl insisted that neither mechanical nor chemical laws alone were sufficient to account for the phenomenon of life. Most likely influenced by his pietism, he insisted that life required a force for which he reserved the Latin word anima, which in turn gave rise to the theory of animism (vitalism).|-id=155|

text: 8155 Battaglini

text: || 1988 QA ||

text: Giuseppe Battaglini

text: , Italian mathematician*|-id=156|

text: 8156 Tsukada

text: || 1988 TR ||  Named in honor of Shinsuke Tsukada (b. 1954), director of the Yonago City Planetarium, Tottori Prefecture, and an executive member of the San-in Society of Astronomy, the Tottori Society of Astronomy. Provider of varied and informative planetarium programs for the general public on an on-going basis, he spends his free evenings searching for comets. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=158|

text: 8158 Herder

text: Johann Gottfried von Herder

text: , German poet, theologian and philosopher*|-id=159|

text: 8159 Fukuoka

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Takashi Fukuoka (b. 1948), director of the planetarium at Sanbe Shizenkan Open Field Museum, Shimane Prefecture, and president of the San-in Society of Astronomy. A hardworking and painstaking planner of astronomy events and workshops, he is particularly concerned with meeting the needs of those new to astronomy in his local area. His main research is luminosity functions of globular clusters. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=161|

text: 8161 Newman

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Constance B. Newman (b. 1935), Smithsonian Institution undersecretary whose unwavering devotion to the principles of exemplary management and diversity has enabled the Smithsonian to flourish and the Astrophysical Observatory to thrive.|-id=163|

text: 8163 Ishizaki

text: Masako Ishizaki

text: , amateur astronomer*|-id=164|

text: 8164 Andreasdoppler

text: Andreas Doppler

text: , Minor Planet Center Associate and amateur astronomer at the Archenhold Observatory †|-id=165|

text: 8165 Gnädig

text: Arno Gnädig

text: , German amateur astronomer at the Archenhold Observatory † ‡|-id=166|

text: 8166 Buczynski

text: Denis Buczynski

text: , British amateur astronomer †|-id=167|

text: 8167 Ishii

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Takahiro Ishii (b. 1959), Japanese amateur astronomer and active owner of the Kamogawa Observatory, Chiba Prefecture. He is a strong supporter of neighborhood amateurs, and his contribution to popularizing and disseminating celestial photography techniques makes him welcome in gatherings nationwide. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=168|

text: 8168 Rogerbourke

text: Roger Bourke

text: 8169 Mirabeau

entity_name: Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau

text: Mirabeau

text: , French writer, orator and statesman*|-id=171|

text: 8171 Stauffenberg

text: Claus von Stauffenberg

text: , German aristocrat and Wehrmacht officer, one of the leading figures in the plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler*|-id=175|

text: 8175 Boerhaave

text: Herman Boerhaave

text: , Dutch physician and anatomist †|-id=181|

text: 8181 Rossini

text: Gioachino Rossini

text: , Italian composer|-id=182|

text: 8182 Akita

text: || 1992 TX ||  Named in honor of Isao Akita (b. 1948), president of the comet observers network in Japan, "Hoshi no Hiroba", since 1988. He is a well-known amateur astronomer and keen observer and photographer of comets and galaxies. He is especially at home assisting in the efforts of other comet enthusiasts, both within his group and throughout the country. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=184|

text: 8184 Luderic

text: || 1992 WL || Child of astronomer

text: Alain Maury

text: 8187 Akiramisawa

text: || 1992 XL ||  Botanist Akira Misawa (1942-1994), a professor at Chiba University, conducted research on the effects of light pollution on plants.|-id=188|

text: 8188 Okegaya

text: Okegaya Marsh

text: , Shizuoka prefecture, Japan |-id=189|

text: 8189 Naruke

text: ||  ||  Giiti Naruke (b. 1949) is the first Japanese to achieve two consecutive wins at the world championship for radio-controlled airplanes, and he is making every endeavor to bring up a future champion.|-id=190|

text: 8190 Bouguer

text: Pierre Bouguer

text: , French mathematician*|-id=191|

text: 8191 Mersenne

text: Marin Mersenne

text: , French theologian and mathematician*|-id=192|

text: 8192 Tonucci

text: || 1993 RB ||

text: Giuseppe Tonucci

text: , Italian cyclist|-id=193|

text: 8193 Ciaurro

text: || 1993 SF ||  Named in memory of Ilario Ciaurro (1889-1992), an art teacher and ceramist, but most famous as a painter. His favorite subject was Terni, his adopted town, and he loved using etchings, poems and stories to explore its innermost aspects.|-id=194|

text: 8194 Satake

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Masaaki Satake (b. 1956), a Japanese amateur astronomer and secretary of the Kansai Astronomical Society since 1972. Active in organizing local star parties for amateur astronomers and lay persons alike, he is a part-time journalist rigorous in describing and recording astronomy-related events in his native city of Kyoto. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by Y. Yamada.|-id=197|

text: 8197 Mizunohiroshi

text: || 1993 VX ||  Hiroshi Mizuno (b. 1951), Okayama Seishin University, is a theoretician on the origin of our solar system. He developed a theory about the formation of thick atmospheres of giant planets, such as Jupiter, with intensive studies on the sudden accretion of gas onto the solid core. This mechanism is called the Mizuno process.|-id=199|

text: 8199 Takagitakeo

text: || 1993 XR ||  Takeo Takagi (1909-1982) played an active part in astronomical education as one of the first planetarians in Japan. In 1939 he joined the staff of the Osaka Electric-Science Museum, famous for its 1937 installation of the first planetarium in Japan. After retiring from the museum, he opened a private planetarium.|-id=200|

text: 8200 Souten

text: ||  ||  Named for the Waseda University Astronomy Association, nicknamed Souten. Established in 1959 by Hidetaka Tojo, Souten has produced an astronaut and many astrophotographers and observers. The discoverers of this minor planet were members of Souten.|}

text: In physics, he helped develop Jean Buridan's theory of impetus, which anticipated the work of Galileo and Newton.

text: In

text: physics

text: , he helped develop

text: Jean Buridan

text: 's

text: theory of impetus

text: , which anticipated the work of

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Newton

text: Galileo writes that "all external impediments removed, a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will maintain itself in that state in which it has been; if placed in movement towards the west (for example), it will maintain itself in that movement." This notion which is termed "circular inertia" or "horizontal circular inertia" by historians of science, is a precursor to, but distinct from, Newton's notion of rectilinear inertia.  For Galileo, a motion is "horizontal" if it does not carry the moving body towards or away from the centre of the earth, and for him, "a ship, for instance, having once received some impetus through the tranquil sea, would move continually around our globe without ever stopping."

text: Galileo writes that "all external impediments removed, a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will maintain itself in that state in which it has been; if placed in movement towards the west (for example), it will maintain itself in that movement." This notion which is termed "circular inertia" or "horizontal circular inertia" by historians of science, is a precursor to, but distinct from, Newton's notion of rectilinear inertia.  For Galileo, a motion is "

text: horizontal

text: " if it does not carry the moving body towards or away from the centre of the earth, and for him, "a ship, for instance, having once received some impetus through the tranquil sea, would move continually around our globe without ever stopping."

text: This pet of Newton's was also mentioned in Thomas Carlyle's book The French Revolution: A History, employed in discussing the deathbed of Louis XV. Carlyle writes "To the eye of History many things, in that sick room of Louis, are now visible, which to the courtiers there present were invisible. For indeed it as been well said, 'in every object there is inexhaustible meaning; the eye sees in it what the eye brings means of seeing.' To Newton and to Newton's dog Diamond, what a different pair of Universes; while the painting on the optical retina of both was, most likely, the same!"

text: This pet of Newton's was also mentioned in

text: Thomas Carlyle

text: 's book

text: The French Revolution: A History

text: , employed in discussing the deathbed of

text: Louis XV

text: . Carlyle writes "To the eye of History many things, in that sick room of Louis, are now visible, which to the

text: courtiers

text: there present were invisible. For indeed it as been well said, 'in every object there is inexhaustible meaning; the eye sees in it what the eye brings means of seeing.' To Newton and to Newton's dog Diamond, what a different pair of Universes; while the painting on the optical retina of both was, most likely, the same!"

text: Greek astronomy is astronomy written in the Greek language in classical antiquity. Greek astronomy is understood to include the ancient Greek, Hellenistic, Greco-Roman, and Late Antiquity eras. It is not limited geographically to Greece or to ethnic Greeks, as the Greek language had become the language of scholarship throughout the Hellenistic world following the conquests of Alexander. This phase of Greek astronomy is also known as Hellenistic astronomy, while the pre-Hellenistic phase is known as Classical Greek astronomy. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, much of the Greek and non-Greek astronomers working in the Greek tradition studied at the Musaeum and the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt.The development of astronomy by the Greek and Hellenistic astronomers is considered by historians to be a major phase in the history of astronomy. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.  Most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy, as are the names of all planets and moons and all stars in the Bayer designation.  It was influenced by Babylonian and, to a lesser extent, Egyptian astronomy; in turn, it influenced Indian, Arabic-Islamic and Western European astronomy.

text: Greek astronomy is

text: astronomy

text: written in the

text: Greek language

text: in

text: classical antiquity

text: . Greek astronomy is understood to include the

text: ancient Greek

text: Hellenistic

text: Greco-Roman

text: , and

text: Late Antiquity

text: eras. It is not limited

text: geographic

text: ally to

text: Greece

text: or to ethnic

text: Greeks

text: , as the Greek language had become the language of scholarship throughout the

text: Hellenistic world

text: following the conquests of

text: Alexander

text: . This phase of Greek astronomy is also known as Hellenistic astronomy, while the pre-Hellenistic phase is known as Classical Greek astronomy. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, much of the Greek and non-Greek

text: astronomers

text: working in the Greek tradition studied at the

text: Musaeum

text: and the

text: Library of Alexandria

text: in

text: Ptolemaic Egypt

text: .The development of astronomy by the Greek and Hellenistic astronomers is considered by historians to be a major phase in the

text: history of astronomy

text: . Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.  Most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy, as are the names of all planets and moons and all stars in the

text: Bayer designation

text: .  It was influenced by

text: Babylonian

text: and, to a lesser extent,

text: Egyptian astronomy

text: ; in turn, it influenced

text: Indian

text: Arabic-Islamic

text: and

text: Western Europe

text: an astronomy.

text: Although Isaac Newton based his physics on absolute time and space, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of Galileo Galilei. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory and electrodynamics, during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a "light medium" or Luminiferous ether was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of James Clerk Maxwell. According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to the aether.

text: Although

text: Isaac Newton

text: based his physics on

text: absolute time and space

text: , he also adhered to the

text: principle of relativity

text: of

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory and electrodynamics, during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a "light medium" or

text: Luminiferous ether

text: was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: . According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to the aether.

text: During the Middle Ages, astronomy was mostly stagnant in medieval Europe, at least until the 13th century. However, astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century. In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group,  was discovered by the Persian astronomer Azophi and first described in his Book of Fixed Stars. The SN 1006 supernova, the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and the Chinese astronomers in 1006. Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include Al-Battani, Thebit, Azophi, Albumasar, Biruni, Arzachel, Al-Birjandi, and the astronomers of the Maragheh and Samarkand observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars. It is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may have housed an astronomical observatory. Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in pre-colonial Middle Ages sub-Saharan Africa but modern discoveries show otherwise.

text: During the Middle Ages, astronomy was mostly stagnant in

text: medieval

text: Europe, at least until the 13th century. However,

text: astronomy flourished in the Islamic world

text: and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical

text: observatories

text: in the

text: Muslim world

text: by the early 9th century. In 964, the

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: , the largest

text: galaxy

text: in the

text: Local Group

text: ,  was discovered by the Persian astronomer

text: Azophi

text: and first described in his

text: Book of Fixed Stars

text: . The

text: SN 1006

text: supernova

text: , the brightest

text: apparent magnitude

text: stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: and the

text: Chinese astronomers

text: in 1006. Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include

text: Al-Battani

text: Thebit

text: Azophi

text: Albumasar

text: Biruni

text: Arzachel

text: Al-Birjandi

text: , and the astronomers of the

text: Maragheh

text: and

text: Samarkand

text: observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many

text: Arabic names now used for individual stars

text: . It is also believed that the ruins at

text: Great Zimbabwe

text: and

text: Timbuktu

text: may have housed an astronomical observatory. Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in pre-colonial Middle Ages

text: sub-Saharan Africa

text: but modern discoveries show otherwise.

text: "The Countdown Reflection" is the 24th and final episode of the fifth season of The Big Bang Theory. It first aired on CBS on May 10, 2012. It is the 111th episode overall. In the episode, featuring astronaut Mike Massimino, Howard and Bernadette get married before Howard goes to space. "The Countdown Reflection" received 13.72 million views in the U.S. and garnered mostly positive reviews.

text: "The Countdown Reflection" is the 24th and final episode of the

text: fifth season

text: of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: . It first aired on

text: CBS

text: on May 10, 2012. It is the 111th episode overall. In the episode, featuring astronaut

text: Mike Massimino

text: , Howard and Bernadette get married before Howard goes to space. "The Countdown Reflection" received 13.72 million views in the U.S. and garnered mostly positive reviews.

text: The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble's law (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis. More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution, and the distribution of large-scale cosmic structures, These are sometimes called the "four pillars" of the Big Bang theory.

text: The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to

text: Hubble's law

text: (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: and the relative abundances of light elements produced by

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

text: . More recent evidence includes observations of

text: galaxy formation and evolution

text: , and the distribution of

text: large-scale cosmic structures

text: , These are sometimes called the "four pillars" of the Big Bang theory.

text: Though the presence of a sentient cloud of gas may seem unlikely, the story is grounded in hard science. The detection of the cloud is described using physics equations, all of which are included in the book. Hoyle brought his experience and knowledge as the Director of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, a Fellow of the Royal Society into the book.  Hoyle was also responsible for the term "Big Bang", though Hoyle himself did not subscribe to the Big Bang theory in favour of his own Steady State Theory.

text: Though the presence of a sentient cloud of gas may seem unlikely, the story is grounded in hard science. The detection of the cloud is described using physics equations, all of which are included in the book. Hoyle brought his experience and knowledge as the Director of the

text: Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge

text: , a Fellow of the

text: Royal Society

text: into the book.  Hoyle was also responsible for the term "

text: Big Bang

text: ", though Hoyle himself did not subscribe to the Big Bang theory in favour of his own

text: Steady State Theory

text: In 1809 Woodhouse published a textbook covering planar trigonometry and spherical trigonometry and the next year a historical treatise on the calculus of variations and isoperimetrical problems. He next produced an astronomy; of which the first book (usually bound in two volumes), on practical and descriptive astronomy, was issued in 1812, and the second book, containing an account of the treatment of physical astronomy by Pierre-Simon Laplace and other continental writers, was issued in 1818.

text: In 1809 Woodhouse published a

text: textbook

text: covering

text: planar trigonometry

text: and

text: spherical trigonometry

text: and the next year a historical treatise on the

text: calculus of variations

text: and

text: isoperimetrical problems

text: . He next produced an

text: astronomy

text: ; of which the first book (usually bound in two volumes), on practical and descriptive astronomy, was issued in 1812, and the second book, containing an account of the treatment of physical astronomy by

text: Pierre-Simon Laplace

text: and other continental writers, was issued in 1818.

text: Superiors in Rome found out, but bowed to the same family ties that had bound Calasanz. Cherubini became visitor general for the Piarists. The Piarists became entangled in church politics, and partially because they were associated with Galileo, were opposed by the Jesuits, who were more orthodox in astronomy. (Galileo’s views also involved atomism, and were thought to be heretical regarding transubstantiation.) The support for Cherubini was broad enough that, in 1643, he was made superior general of the Order and the elderly Calasanz was pushed aside. Upon this appointment, Calasanz publicly documented Cherubini’s long pattern of child molestation, a pattern that he had known about for years. Even this did not block Cherubini’s appointment, but other members of the Order were indignant about it, although they may have objected to Cherubini’s more overt shortcomings. With such dissension, the Holy See took the easy course of suppressing the Order. In 1646, it was deprived of its privileges by Pope Innocent X.

text: Superiors in Rome found out, but bowed to the same family ties that had bound Calasanz. Cherubini became

text: visitor general

text: for the Piarists. The Piarists became entangled in church politics, and partially because they were associated with Galileo, were opposed by the

text: Jesuits

text: , who were more orthodox in

text: astronomy

text: . (Galileo’s views also involved

text: atomism

text: , and were thought to be heretical regarding

text: transubstantiation

text: .) The support for Cherubini was broad enough that, in 1643, he was made superior general of the Order and the elderly Calasanz was pushed aside. Upon this appointment, Calasanz publicly documented Cherubini’s long pattern of child molestation, a pattern that he had known about for years. Even this did not block Cherubini’s appointment, but other members of the Order were indignant about it, although they may have objected to Cherubini’s more overt shortcomings. With such dissension, the

text: Holy See

text: took the easy course of suppressing the Order. In 1646, it was deprived of its privileges by

text: Pope Innocent X

text: He went on to work at Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey, where, with Robert Woodrow Wilson, he worked on ultra-sensitive cryogenic microwave receivers, intended for radio astronomy observations.  In 1964, on building their most sensitive antenna/receiver system, the pair encountered radio noise which they could not explain. It was far less energetic than the radiation given off by the Milky Way, and it was isotropic, so they assumed their instrument was subject to interference by terrestrial sources.  They tried, and then rejected, the hypothesis that the radio noise emanated from New York City.  An examination of the microwave horn antenna showed it was full of bat and dove droppings (which Penzias described as "white dielectric material").  After the pair removed the dung buildup, and the pigeons were shot (each physicist says the other ordered the deed), the noise remained.  Having rejected all sources of interference, Penzias contacted Robert Dicke, who suggested it might be the background radiation predicted by some cosmological theories. The pair agreed with Dicke to publish side-by-side letters in the Astrophysical Journal, with Penzias and Wilson describing their observations and Dicke suggesting the interpretation as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), the radio remnant of the Big Bang. This allowed astronomers to confirm the Big Bang, and to correct many of their previous assumptions about it.

text: He went on to work at

text: Bell Labs

text: in

text: Holmdel, New Jersey

text: , where, with

text: Robert Woodrow Wilson

text: , he worked on ultra-sensitive cryogenic

text: microwave

text: receivers, intended for radio astronomy observations.  In 1964, on building their most sensitive

text: antenna/receiver system

text: , the pair encountered radio noise which they could not explain. It was far less energetic than the radiation given off by the

text: Milky Way

text: , and it was

text: isotropic

text: , so they assumed their instrument was subject to interference by terrestrial sources.  They tried, and then rejected, the hypothesis that the radio noise emanated from New York City.  An examination of the microwave

text: horn antenna

text: showed it was full of bat and dove droppings (which Penzias described as "white

text: dielectric

text: material").  After the pair removed the dung buildup, and the pigeons were shot (each physicist says the other ordered the deed), the noise remained.  Having rejected all sources of interference, Penzias contacted

text: Robert Dicke

text: , who suggested it might be the background radiation predicted by some cosmological theories. The pair agreed with Dicke to publish side-by-side letters in the Astrophysical Journal, with Penzias and Wilson describing their observations and Dicke suggesting the interpretation as the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: (CMB), the radio remnant of the

text: Big Bang

text: . This allowed astronomers to confirm the Big Bang, and to correct many of their previous assumptions about it.

text: The Big Bounce is a hypothetical cosmological model of the formation of the known universe. It was originally suggested as a property of the cyclic model or oscillatory universe interpretation of the Big Bang where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe; however, it is also a consequence of applying loop quantum gravity techniques to Big Bang cosmology and thus need not be cyclic.

text: The Big Bounce is a hypothetical

text: cosmological model

text: of the formation of the known

text: universe

text: . It was originally suggested as a property of the

text: cyclic model

text: or oscillatory universe interpretation of the

text: Big Bang

text: where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe; however, it is also a consequence of applying

text: loop quantum gravity

text: techniques to Big Bang cosmology and thus need not be cyclic.

text: The temple of Ra was said to have been, to a special degree, a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of all the Egyptians. Heliopolis flourished as a seat of learning during the Greek period; the schools of philosophy and astronomy are claimed to have been frequented by Orpheus, Homer,  Pythagoras, Plato, Solon, and other Greek philosophers. Ichonuphys was lecturing there in 308 BC, and the Greek mathematician Eudoxus, who was one of his pupils, learned from him the true length of the year and month, upon which he formed his octaeterid, or period of 8 years or 99 months.  Ptolemy II had Manetho, the chief priest of Heliopolis, collect his history of the ancient kings of Egypt from its archives. The later Ptolemies probably took little interest in their "father" Ra, and Alexandria had eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with the withdrawal of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the students of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a wealthy population of pious citizens.  By the 1st century BC, in fact, Strabo found the temples deserted, and the town itself almost uninhabited, although priests were still present.

text: The temple of Ra was said to have been, to a special degree, a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of all the Egyptians. Heliopolis flourished as a seat of learning during the Greek period; the schools of philosophy and astronomy are claimed to have been frequented by

text: Orpheus

text: Homer

text: Pythagoras

text: Plato

text: Solon

text: , and other Greek philosophers.

text: Ichonuphys

text: was lecturing there in 308 BC, and the Greek mathematician

text: Eudoxus

text: , who was one of his pupils, learned from him the true length of the year and month, upon which he formed his

text: octaeterid

text: , or period of 8 years or 99 months.

text: Ptolemy II

text: had

text: Manetho

text: , the chief priest of Heliopolis, collect his history of the ancient kings of Egypt from its archives. The later

text: Ptolemies

text: probably took little interest in their "father" Ra, and

text: Alexandria

text: had eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with the withdrawal of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the students of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a wealthy population of pious citizens.  By the 1st century BC, in fact,

text: Strabo

text: found the temples deserted, and the town itself almost uninhabited, although priests were still present.

text: Undoubtedly, Ismael Bullialdus' most famous work is his book titled "Astronomia Philolaica". It was published in 1645 and is thought of by some historians of science today to be the most important book in astronomy between Kepler and Newton. The book widened the awareness of Kepler's planetary ellipses, however, whereas Kepler used a physical cause to explain planetary motion, and called on math and science to support his theory, Bullialdus offered an entirely new cosmology; his "Conical Hypothesis." Bullialdus' Philolaic Astronomy consists of fourteen main assumptions.

text: Known as "The Triple-Breasted Whore of Eroticon Six", Eccentrica Gallumbits, the author of The Big Bang Theory - A Personal View, is mentioned in all six of the novels.  She is first mentioned in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy when Arthur looks up Earth for the first time in the guide. The entry for Earth follows that for Eccentrica Gallumbits. She is heard about again during a newscast that Zaphod Beeblebrox tunes into shortly after stealing the spaceship Heart of Gold. The newsreader quotes Eccentrica describing Zaphod as "The best bang since the Big One." It was also reported in  that Zaphod had delivered a presidential address from her bedroom on at least one occasion.  Commentary on Zaphod in  intimates that one reason for his acquiring a third arm is the ability to fondle all of Eccentrica's breasts at the same time.

text: Known as "The Triple-Breasted Whore of Eroticon Six", Eccentrica Gallumbits, the author of The Big Bang Theory - A Personal View, is mentioned in all six of the novels.  She is first mentioned in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy when Arthur looks up Earth for the first time in the guide. The entry for Earth follows that for Eccentrica Gallumbits. She is heard about again during a newscast that

text: Zaphod Beeblebrox

text: tunes into shortly after stealing the spaceship

entity_name: Technology in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

text: Heart of Gold

text: . The newsreader quotes Eccentrica describing Zaphod as "The best bang since the

text: Big One

text: ." It was also reported in  that Zaphod had delivered a presidential address from her bedroom on at least one occasion.  Commentary on Zaphod in  intimates that one reason for his acquiring a third arm is the ability to fondle all of Eccentrica's breasts at the same time.

text: Kepler-7 received its name because it was the home to the seventh planetary system discovered by the NASA-led Kepler Mission, a project aimed at detecting terrestrial planets that transit, or pass in front of, their host stars as seen from Earth. The planet orbiting Kepler-7 was the fourth planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft; the first three planets combed from Kepler's data had been previously discovered, and were used to verify the accuracy of Kepler's measurements. Kepler-7b was announced to the public on January 4, 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington, D.C. along with Kepler-4b, Kepler-5b, Kepler-6b, and Kepler-8b. Kepler-7b was noted for its unusually and extremely low density.

text: Kepler-7 received its name because it was the home to the seventh planetary system discovered by the NASA-led Kepler Mission, a project aimed at detecting

text: terrestrial planets

text: that

text: transit

text: , or pass in front of, their host stars as seen from Earth. The planet orbiting Kepler-7 was the fourth planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft; the first three planets combed from Kepler's data had been previously discovered, and were used to verify the accuracy of Kepler's measurements. Kepler-7b was announced to the public on January 4, 2010 at the

entity_name: American Astronomical Society 215th meeting

text: 215th meeting

text: of the

text: American Astronomical Society

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: along with

text: , and

text: . Kepler-7b was noted for its unusually and extremely low density.

text: Kepler-8 was named the way it was because it is home to the eighth planetary system confirmed during the course of the Kepler Mission, a NASA-directed program tasked with searching a region of the sky for terrestrial planets that transit, or cross in front of (and thereby, for a while, make dimmer) the stars that they orbit with respect to Earth. The planet in orbit around Kepler-8, Kepler-8b, was the fifth of the first five planets discovered by the Kepler spacecraft; the first three planets confirmed by Kepler had been previously discovered, and were only used to verify the accuracy of Kepler's measurements. Kepler-8b's discovery was announced to the public on January 4, 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington, D.C., alongside planets in orbit around Kepler-4, Kepler-5, Kepler-6, and Kepler-7.

text: Kepler-8 was named the way it was because it is home to the eighth planetary system confirmed during the course of the

text: Kepler Mission

text: , a

text: NASA

text: -directed program tasked with searching a region of the sky for terrestrial planets that

text: transit

text: , or cross in front of (and thereby, for a while, make dimmer) the stars that they orbit with respect to

text: Earth

text: . The planet in orbit around Kepler-8, Kepler-8b, was the fifth of the first five planets discovered by the Kepler spacecraft; the first three planets confirmed by Kepler had been previously discovered, and were only used to verify the accuracy of Kepler's measurements. Kepler-8b's discovery was announced to the public on January 4, 2010 at the

text: meeting of the

text: American Astronomical Society

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: , alongside planets in orbit around

text: , and

text: 1. ^ "the Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises"), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy. Varāhamihira's knowledge of Western astronomy was thorough. In 5 sections, his monumental work progresses through native Indian astronomy and culminates in 2 treatises on Western astronomy, showing calculations based on Greek and Alexandrian reckoning and even giving complete Ptolemaic mathematical charts and tables. Encyclopædia Britannica (2007) s.v.Varahamihira ^

text: The Babylonian star catalogues entered Greek astronomy in the 4th century BC, via Eudoxus of Cnidus and others.A few of the constellation names in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the Middle Bronze Age, i.e.

text: The Babylonian star catalogues entered

text: Greek astronomy

text: in the 4th century BC, via

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: and others.A few of the

text: constellation name

text: s in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the

text: Middle Bronze Age

text: , i.e.

text: The observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese also observed the orbit of Suìxīng (歲星) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on its approximate number of years; the Chinese language still uses its name (simplified as 岁) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac, with each year associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky; these beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals, now often popularly assumed to be related to the arrival of the animals before Buddha. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, discovered one of Jupiter's moons in 362 with the unaided eye. If accurate, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.In 499, Aryabhata, a mathematician–astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and astronomy, also used a geocentric model to estimate Jupiter's period as 4332.2722 days, or 11.86 years.

text: The observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the

text: Babylonian astronomers

text: of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese also observed the orbit of Suìxīng (歲星) and established their cycle of 12

text: earthly branches

text: based on its approximate number of years; the

text: Chinese language

text: still uses its name (

text: simplified

text: as 岁) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the

text: Chinese zodiac

text: , with each year associated with a

text: Tai Sui

text: star

text: and

text: god

text: controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky; these beliefs survive in some

text: Taoist

text: religious practices

text: and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals, now often

text: popularly assumed

text: to be related to the arrival of the animals before

text: Buddha

text: . The Chinese historian

text: Xi Zezong

text: has claimed that

text: Gan De

text: , an ancient

text: Chinese astronomer

text: , discovered one of

text: Jupiter's moons

text: in 362 with the unaided eye. If accurate, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.In his 2nd century work the

text: Almagest

text: , the Hellenistic astronomer

text: Claudius Ptolemaeus

text: constructed a

text: geocentric

text: planetary model based on

text: deferent

text: s and

text: epicycle

text: s to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.In 499,

text: Aryabhata

text: , a mathematician–astronomer from the classical age of

text: Indian mathematics

text: and

text: astronomy

text: , also used a geocentric model to estimate Jupiter's period as 4332.2722 days, or 11.86 years.

text: |-| 23801 Erikgustafson ||  || Erik Olaf Gustafson, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project.  |-id=804| 23804 Haber ||  || Catherine Michelle Haber, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her behavioral science project.  |-id=808| 23808 Joshuahammer ||  || Joshua Wayne Hammer, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=809| 23809 Haswell ||  || John Douglas Reiji Haswell, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=811| 23811 Connorivens ||  || Connor Joseph Ivens, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=812| 23812 Jannuzi ||  || Brigg Lowell Jannuzi, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his earth and space science project. |-id=814| 23814 Bethanylynne ||  || Bethany Lynne Johnson, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=816| 23816 Rohitkamat ||  || Rohit G. Kamat, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project. |-id=817| 23817 Gokulk ||  || Gokul Krishnan, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=818| 23818 Matthewlepow ||  || Matthew Brice Lepow, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his earth and space science project.  |-id=819| 23819 Tsuyoshi ||  ||  Tsuyoshi Terai (born 1983), Japanese researcher, of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=821| 23821 Morganmonroe ||  || Morgan McKay Monroe, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project. |-id=831| 23831 Mattmooney ||  || Matthew Michael Mooney, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. |-id=833| 23833 Mowers ||  || Christopher Scott Mowers, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=834| 23834 Mukhopadhyay ||  || Prithwis Kumar Mukhopadhyay, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. |-id=837| 23837 Matthewnanni ||  || Matthew James Nanni, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project.  |-id=844| 23844 Raghvendra ||  || Shubha Srinivas Raghvendra, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her behavioral science project.  |-id=850| 23850 Ramaswami ||  || Keshav Ramaswami, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=851| 23851 Rottman-Yang ||  || Jaron Shalom Rottman-Yang, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=852| 23852 Laurierumker ||  || Laurie Ann Rumker, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=854| 23854 Rickschaffer ||  || Rick Schinco Schaffer, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project. |-id=855| 23855 Brandonshih ||  || Brandon H. Shih, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project.  |-id=858| 23858 Ambrosesoehn ||  || Ambrose Geoffrey Soehn, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=861| 23861 Benjaminsong ||  || Benjamin Paul Song, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=865| 23865 Karlsorensen ||  || Karl Mikael Sorensen, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project.  |-id=867| 23867 Cathsoto ||  || Catherine Soto, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=875| 23875 Strube ||  || Katherine Michaela Strube, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project.  |-id=877| 23877 Gourmaud || 1998 SP || Jamy Gourmaud, French journalist, involved in the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23882, 23890) |-id=879| 23879 Demura ||  || Hirohide Demura, Japanese lunar and planetary scientist. |-id=880| 23880 Tongil ||  || "Unification" in Korean|-id=882| 23882 Fredcourant ||  || Frédéric Courant, French journalist, animator of the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23877, 23890) |-id=884| 23884 Karenharvey ||  || Karen L. Harvey, née Angle, American astrophysicist (solar physics researcher) and wife of American astrophysicist (solar physics researcher) John Warren (Jack) Harvey †|-id=886| 23886 Toshihamane ||  || Toshihiko Hamane (born 1963), curator of the Gunma Astronomical Observatory. |-id=887| 23887 Shinsukeabe ||  || Shinsuke Abe (born 1970), a pioneer in modern meteoroid and asteroid research. |-id=888| 23888 Daikinoshita ||  ||Kinoshita Daisuke (born 1974), of the Institute of Astronomy at the National Central University, Taiwan, studies asteroids and comets. He has also worked on instrumentation and operations at Lulin Observatory, and has contributed to the development of astronomy in Taiwan. |-id=889| 23889 Hermanngrassmann ||  || Hermann Günther Grassmann, German mathematician, physicist, linguist, scholar, and neohumanist*|-id=890| 23890 Quindou ||  || Sabine Quindou, French journalist, involved in the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23877, 23882) |-id=893| 23893 Lauman ||  || Stephen W. Lauman (born 1974), an instrument maker at Lowell Observatory. |-id=894| 23894 Arikahiguchi ||  || Arika Higuchi (born 1979), a Japanese theoretical astronomer. |-id=895| 23895 Akikonakamura ||  || Akiko Nakamura (born 1964), a Japanese experimentalist in the field of planetary science. |-id=896| 23896 Tatsuaki ||  ||  Tatsuaki Hashimoto (born 1963) works on spacecraft guidance and control at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Tokyo. He was engaged in the attitude and orbit control systems of spacecraft such as the Hayabusa sample return mission to asteroid Itokawa. |-id=897| 23897 Daikuroda ||  ||  Kuroda Daisuke (born 1977), an astronomer at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=898| 23898 Takir ||  || Driss Takir (b. 1973), a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Ithaca College. |-id=899| 23899 Kornoš ||  || Leonard Kornoš (b. 1956), a lecturer at the Comenius University in Bratislava. |-id=900| 23900 Urakawa ||  || Seitaro Urakawa (born 1975), an astronomer who works at the Bisei Spaceguard Center. |}

text: 23801 Erikgustafson

text: ||  || Erik Olaf Gustafson, a finalist in the 2007

entity_name: Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge

text: Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge

text: (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project.  |-id=804|

text: 23804 Haber

text: ||  || Catherine Michelle Haber, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her behavioral science project.  |-id=808|

text: 23808 Joshuahammer

text: ||  || Joshua Wayne Hammer, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=809|

text: 23809 Haswell

text: ||  || John Douglas Reiji Haswell, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=811|

text: 23811 Connorivens

text: ||  || Connor Joseph Ivens, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=812|

text: 23812 Jannuzi

text: ||  || Brigg Lowell Jannuzi, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his earth and space science project. |-id=814|

text: 23814 Bethanylynne

text: ||  || Bethany Lynne Johnson, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=816|

text: 23816 Rohitkamat

text: ||  || Rohit G. Kamat, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project. |-id=817|

text: 23817 Gokulk

text: ||  || Gokul Krishnan, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=818|

text: 23818 Matthewlepow

text: ||  || Matthew Brice Lepow, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his earth and space science project.  |-id=819|

text: 23819 Tsuyoshi

text: ||  ||  Tsuyoshi Terai (born 1983), Japanese researcher, of the

entity_name: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan

text: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan

text: . |-id=821|

text: 23821 Morganmonroe

text: ||  || Morgan McKay Monroe, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project. |-id=831|

text: 23831 Mattmooney

text: ||  || Matthew Michael Mooney, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. |-id=833|

text: 23833 Mowers

text: ||  || Christopher Scott Mowers, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=834|

text: 23834 Mukhopadhyay

text: ||  || Prithwis Kumar Mukhopadhyay, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. |-id=837|

text: 23837 Matthewnanni

text: ||  || Matthew James Nanni, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project.  |-id=844|

text: 23844 Raghvendra

text: ||  || Shubha Srinivas Raghvendra, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her behavioral science project.  |-id=850|

text: 23850 Ramaswami

text: ||  || Keshav Ramaswami, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=851|

text: 23851 Rottman-Yang

text: ||  || Jaron Shalom Rottman-Yang, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=852|

text: 23852 Laurierumker

text: ||  || Laurie Ann Rumker, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project.  |-id=854|

text: 23854 Rickschaffer

text: ||  || Rick Schinco Schaffer, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project. |-id=855|

text: 23855 Brandonshih

text: ||  || Brandon H. Shih, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project.  |-id=858|

text: 23858 Ambrosesoehn

text: ||  || Ambrose Geoffrey Soehn, a finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his physical science project. |-id=861|

text: 23861 Benjaminsong

text: ||  || Benjamin Paul Song, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=865|

text: 23865 Karlsorensen

text: ||  || Karl Mikael Sorensen, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his botany and zoology project.  |-id=867|

text: 23867 Cathsoto

text: ||  || Catherine Soto, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochem, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=875|

text: 23875 Strube

text: ||  || Katherine Michaela Strube, American finalist in the 2007 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project.  |-id=877|

text: 23877 Gourmaud

text: || 1998 SP || Jamy Gourmaud, French journalist, involved in the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23882, 23890) |-id=879|

text: 23879 Demura

text: ||  || Hirohide Demura, Japanese lunar and planetary scientist. |-id=880|

text: 23880 Tongil

text: Unification

text: " in

text: Korean

text: 23882 Fredcourant

text: ||  || Frédéric Courant, French journalist, animator of the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23877, 23890) |-id=884|

text: 23884 Karenharvey

text: Karen L. Harvey

text: , née Angle, American astrophysicist (solar physics researcher) and wife of American astrophysicist (solar physics researcher)

text: John Warren (Jack) Harvey

text: 23886 Toshihamane

text: ||  || Toshihiko Hamane (born 1963), curator of the

text: Gunma Astronomical Observatory

text: . |-id=887|

text: 23887 Shinsukeabe

text: ||  || Shinsuke Abe (born 1970), a pioneer in modern meteoroid and asteroid research. |-id=888|

text: 23888 Daikinoshita

text: ||  ||Kinoshita Daisuke (born 1974), of the Institute of Astronomy at the

text: National Central University

text: , Taiwan, studies asteroids and comets. He has also worked on instrumentation and operations at

text: Lulin Observatory

text: , and has contributed to the development of astronomy in Taiwan. |-id=889|

text: 23889 Hermanngrassmann

text: Hermann Günther Grassmann

text: , German mathematician, physicist, linguist, scholar, and neohumanist*|-id=890|

text: 23890 Quindou

text: ||  || Sabine Quindou, French journalist, involved in the television science program C’est pas sorcier (see also 23877, 23882) |-id=893|

text: 23893 Lauman

text: ||  || Stephen W. Lauman (born 1974), an instrument maker at

text: Lowell Observatory

text: . |-id=894|

text: 23894 Arikahiguchi

text: ||  || Arika Higuchi (born 1979), a Japanese theoretical astronomer. |-id=895|

text: 23895 Akikonakamura

text: ||  || Akiko Nakamura (born 1964), a Japanese experimentalist in the field of planetary science. |-id=896|

text: 23896 Tatsuaki

text: ||  ||  Tatsuaki Hashimoto (born 1963) works on spacecraft guidance and control at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Tokyo. He was engaged in the attitude and orbit control systems of spacecraft such as the Hayabusa sample return mission to asteroid Itokawa. |-id=897|

text: 23897 Daikuroda

text: ||  ||  Kuroda Daisuke (born 1977), an astronomer at the

text: . |-id=898|

text: 23898 Takir

text: ||  || Driss Takir (b. 1973), a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Ithaca College. |-id=899|

text: 23899 Kornoš

text: ||  || Leonard Kornoš (b. 1956), a lecturer at the

text: Comenius University

text: in Bratislava. |-id=900|

text: 23900 Urakawa

text: ||  || Seitaro Urakawa (born 1975), an astronomer who works at the

text: Bisei Spaceguard Center

text: Ptolemy's Almagest, although a brilliant treatise on theoretical astronomy combined with a practical handbook for computation, nevertheless includes many compromises to reconcile discordant observations. Theoretical astronomy is usually assumed to have begun with Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), and Kepler's laws. It is co-equal with observation. The general history of astronomy deals with the history of the descriptive and theoretical astronomy of the Solar System, from the late sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. The major categories of works on the history of modern astronomy include general histories, national and institutional histories, instrumentation, descriptive astronomy, theoretical astronomy, positional astronomy, and astrophysics. Astronomy was early to adopt computational techniques to model stellar and galactic formation and celestial mechanics. From the point of view of theoretical astronomy, not only must the mathematical expression be reasonably accurate but it should preferably exist in a form which is amenable to further mathematical analysis when used in specific problems. Most of theoretical astronomy uses Newtonian theory of gravitation, considering that the effects of general relativity are weak for most celestial objects. The obvious fact is that theoretical astronomy cannot (and does not try) to predict the position, size and temperature of every star in the heavens. Theoretical astronomy by and large has concentrated upon analyzing the apparently complex but periodic motions of celestial objects.

text: Ptolemy

text: 's

text: Almagest

text: , although a brilliant treatise on theoretical

text: astronomy

text: combined with a practical handbook for computation, nevertheless includes many compromises to reconcile discordant observations. Theoretical astronomy is usually assumed to have begun with Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), and

text: Kepler's laws

text: The Society for the History of Astronomy was founded in 2002 to promote the study of the history of astronomy by hosting talks by members and publishing new research into the field. One main objective was to encourage research into past astronomers who have previously been neglected within the history of science.  Some of its members are professional historians of science but most are amateur historians.

text: Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy, and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.

text: Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with

text: Aryabhata

text: , whose

text: Aryabhatiya

text: represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced

text: Muslim astronomy

text: Chinese astronomy

text: , European astronomy, and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include

text: Brahmagupta

text: Varahamihira

text: and

text: Lalla

text: David Fabricius (Latinization of his proper name David Faber or David Goldschmidt possibly Hebrew) was born at Esens, studied at the University of Helmstedt starting in 1583 and served as pastor for small towns near his birthplace in Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands), at Resterhafe near Dornum in 1584 and at Osteel in 1603. As was common for Protestant ministers of the day, he dabbled in science: his particular interest was astronomy. Fabricius corresponded with astronomer Johannes Kepler.

text: David Fabricius (Latinization of his proper name David Faber or David Goldschmidt possibly Hebrew) was born at

text: Esens

text: , studied at the

text: University of Helmstedt

text: starting in 1583 and served as pastor for small towns near his birthplace in

text: Frisia

text: (now northwest

text: Germany

text: and northeast

text: Netherlands

text: ), at Resterhafe near

text: Dornum

text: in 1584 and at Osteel in 1603. As was common for Protestant ministers of the day, he dabbled in science: his particular interest was astronomy. Fabricius corresponded with astronomer

text: Johannes Kepler

text: In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.

text: In the first months of 1610,

text: Galileo Galilei

text: —using his powerful new

text: telescope

text: —discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as

text: Sidereus Nuncius

text: [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.

text: Galileo also worked on Zeno's paradoxes in order to open the way for his mathematical theory of motion.

text: Galileo also worked on

text: Zeno

text: 's paradoxes in order to open the way for his mathematical theory of motion.

text: The Almagest is the critical source of information on ancient Greek astronomy. It has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient Greek mathematician Hipparchus's work, which has been lost. Hipparchus wrote about trigonometry, but because his works appear to have been lost, mathematicians use Ptolemy's book as their source for Hipparchus's work and ancient Greek trigonometry in general.

text: The Almagest is the critical source of information on ancient

text: Greek astronomy

text: . It has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient Greek mathematician

text: Hipparchus

text: 's work, which has been lost. Hipparchus wrote about

text: trigonometry

text: , but because his works appear to have been lost, mathematicians use Ptolemy's book as their source for Hipparchus's work and ancient Greek trigonometry in general.

text: In 2008, astronomer Pamela Gay initiated brainstorming via e-mail on possible "new media" programs for 2009, the International Year of Astronomy (IYA). The discussion included Michael Koppelman from Slacker Astronomy, Phil Plait of Bad Astronomy, and others involved in the IYA. Their ideas were distilled down into the 365 Days Of Astronomy podcast. The podcast was to publish one episode per day over the entire year of 2009 and was originally planned to only run for that year.

text: In 2008, astronomer

text: Pamela Gay

text: initiated brainstorming via e-mail on possible "new media" programs for 2009, the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: (IYA). The discussion included

text: Michael Koppelman

text: from

text: Slacker Astronomy

text: Phil Plait

text: of

text: Bad Astronomy

text: , and others involved in the IYA. Their ideas were distilled down into the 365 Days Of Astronomy podcast. The podcast was to publish one episode per day over the entire year of 2009 and was originally planned to only run for that year.

text: Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature, which has the value , or 142,000 billion billion billion kelvin/142 decillion kelvin. Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories. There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies. A quantum theory of gravity would be required. The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion.

text: Contemporary models of

text: physical cosmology

text: postulate that the highest possible temperature is the

text: Planck temperature

text: , which has the value , or 142,000 billion billion billion kelvin/142 decillion kelvin. Above about , particle energies become so large that

text: gravitational forces

text: between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories. There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies. A

text: quantum theory of gravity

text: would be required. The models of the origin of the universe based on the

text: Big Bang

text: theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion.

text: While the purpose of the Jantar Mantars was astronomy and astrology (Jyotish), they are also a major tourist attraction and a significant monument of the history of astronomy.

text: While the purpose of the Jantar Mantars was astronomy and astrology (

text: Jyotish

text: ), they are also a major tourist attraction and a significant monument of the history of astronomy.

text: is known as moment of inertia.If forces are in the radial direction only with an inverse square dependence, as in the case of a gravitational orbit, angular momentum is constant, and transverse speed is inversely proportional to the distance, angular speed is inversely proportional to the distance squared, and the rate at which area is swept out is constant.  These relations are known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

text: is known as

text: moment of inertia

text: .If forces are in the radial direction only with an inverse square dependence, as in the case of a gravitational

text: orbit

text: , angular momentum is constant, and transverse speed is inversely proportional to the distance, angular speed is inversely proportional to the distance squared, and the rate at which area is swept out is constant.  These relations are known as

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: Tired light mechanisms were among the proposed alternatives to the Big Bang and the Steady State cosmologies, both of which relied on the general relativistic expansion of the universe of the FRW metric. Through the middle of the twentieth century, most cosmologists supported one of these two paradigms, but there were a few scientists, especially those who were working on alternatives to general relativity, who worked with the tired light alternative. As the discipline of observational cosmology developed in the late twentieth century and the associated data became more numerous and accurate, the Big Bang emerged as the cosmological theory most supported by the observational evidence, and it remains the accepted consensus model with a current parametrization that precisely specifies the state and evolution of the universe. Although the proposals of "tired light cosmologies" are now more-or-less relegated to the dustbin of history, as a completely alternative proposal tired-light cosmologies were considered a remote possibility worthy of some consideration in cosmology texts well into the 1980s, though it was dismissed as an unlikely and ad hoc proposal by mainstream astrophysicists.

text: Tired light mechanisms were among the proposed alternatives to the

text: Big Bang

text: and the

text: Steady State

text: cosmologies

text: , both of which relied on the general relativistic expansion of the universe of the FRW metric. Through the middle of the twentieth century, most cosmologists supported one of these two

text: paradigm

text: s, but there were a few scientists, especially those who were working on alternatives to general relativity, who worked with the tired light alternative. As the discipline of

text: observational cosmology

text: developed in the late twentieth century and the associated data became more numerous and accurate, the Big Bang emerged as the cosmological theory most supported by the observational evidence, and it remains the accepted

text: consensus model

text: with a current

text: parametrization

text: that precisely specifies the state and evolution of the universe. Although the proposals of "tired light cosmologies" are now more-or-less relegated to the dustbin of history, as a completely alternative proposal tired-light cosmologies were considered a remote possibility worthy of some consideration in cosmology texts well into the 1980s, though it was dismissed as an unlikely and ad hoc proposal by mainstream astrophysicists.

text: History of Astronomy:

text: History of Astronomy:

text: A German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) formulated three laws of planetary motion. A key discovery was that the motion of Mars followed an elliptical path. His model with a circular orbit did not match the observations of Mars.The planet's pronounced eccentricity was key in discovering the non-circularity of its orbit, and consequently of orbits in general.

text: |-id=302| 13302 Kezmoh ||  || Lorren J. Kezmoh (born 1990) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her botany and zoology project. |-id=303| 13303 Asmitakumar ||  || Asmita Kumar (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project. |-id=305| 13305 Danielang ||  || Daniel Owen Lang (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=315| 13315 Hilana ||  || Hilana Megan Lewkowitz-Shpuntoff (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=316| 13316 Llano ||  || Rayden Llano (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=319| 13319 Michaelmi ||  || Michael Mi (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=320| 13320 Jessicamiles ||  || Jessica Lian Miles (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=325| 13325 Valérienataf ||  || Valérie Nataf Lambert, a well-known French TV news journalist who covers major international events. |-id=326| 13326 Ferri ||  || Francesca Ferri, a planetary scientist at the University of Padua. |-id=327| 13327 Reitsema ||  || Harold James Reitsema, American astronomer and space scientist*|-id=328| 13328 Guetter ||  || Harry Hendrik Guetter, an astronomer at the U.S. Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station from 1964 until 2002. |-id=329| 13329 Davidhardy ||  || David Hardy, British space artist †|-id=330| 13330 Dondavis ||  || Don Davis, artist and astronomer †|-id=332| 13332 Benkhoff ||  || Johannes Benkhoff, a planetary scientist at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Berlin-Adlerhof. |-id=333| 13333 Carsenty ||  || Uri Carsenty, Israeli planetary scientist. |-id=334| 13334 Tost ||  || Wilfried Tost, German amateur astronomer † ‡|-id=335| 13335 Tobiaswolf ||  || Tobias Wolf (born 1980) is an enthusiastic naked-eye observer of the moon, planets and other wonders of the sky. |-id=346| 13346 Danielmiller ||  || Daniel Louis Miller, Jr. (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=350| 13350 Gmelin ||  || Johann Georg Gmelin, German naturalist |-id=351| 13351 Zibeline ||  || Zibeline is the name of a small animal (Martes zibellina), that generally lives in the colder parts of the globe. Astronomer Chappe d´Auteroche, on his voyage to Tobolsk, Siberia, in 1761, reported how it has been hunted for its beautiful dark fur, resulting in almost complete extinction. |-id=352| 13352 Gyssens ||  || Marc Gyssens, Flemish computer scientist, director of the Urania Public Observatory and co-founder of the International Meteor Organization †|-id=357| 13357 Werkhoven ||  || Margaretha Cornelia Maria Werkhoven, a Dutch-Surinamese botanist at the National Herbarium of Suriname. |-id=358| 13358 Revelle ||  || Douglas ReVelle, American meteorologist and meteor physicist †|-id=365| 13365 Tenzinyama ||  || Tenzinyama, a mountain in the western part of Iwamuro village, Niigata prefecture. |-id=367| 13367 Jiří ||  || Jirí Borovicka (born 1964), of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, is known for his work in meteor physics and astronomy, particularly in meteor spectroscopy. He discovered the low- and high-temperature components of meteor radiation. |-id=368| 13368 Wlodekofman ||  || Wlodek Kofman, French geophysicist*|-id=370| 13370 Júliusbreza || 1998 VF || Július Breza, Czech otorhinolaryngologist ?|-id=376| 13376 Dunphy ||  || Desmond Plunket Dunphy, an Irish medical doctor. |-id=380| 13380 Yamamohammed ||  || Yahya Maqsood Mohammed (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=387| 13387 Irus ||  || The mythological Greek beggar Irus defied and, in the presence of Penelope's suitors, was defeated by Ulysses on his return to Ithaca. |-id=389| 13389 Stacey ||  || Stacey Ward, discoverer's wife|-id=390| 13390 Bouška ||  || Jirí Bouska, emeritus professor of astronomy at Charles University, Prague. |-id=395| 13395 Deconihout ||  || Serge Deconihout, a French amateur astronomer. |-id=396| 13396 Midavaine ||  || Thierry Midavaine, vice-president of the Association Française d´Astronomie. |}

text: 13302 Kezmoh

text: ||  || Lorren J. Kezmoh (born 1990) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her botany and zoology project. |-id=303|

text: 13303 Asmitakumar

text: ||  || Asmita Kumar (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her physical science project. |-id=305|

text: 13305 Danielang

text: ||  || Daniel Owen Lang (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=315|

text: 13315 Hilana

text: ||  || Hilana Megan Lewkowitz-Shpuntoff (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=316|

text: 13316 Llano

text: ||  || Rayden Llano (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=319|

text: 13319 Michaelmi

text: ||  || Michael Mi (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=320|

text: 13320 Jessicamiles

text: ||  || Jessica Lian Miles (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=325|

text: 13325 Valérienataf

text: Valérie Nataf Lambert

text: , a well-known French TV news journalist who covers major international events. |-id=326|

text: 13326 Ferri

text: ||  || Francesca Ferri, a planetary scientist at the University of Padua. |-id=327|

text: 13327 Reitsema

text: Harold James Reitsema

text: , American astronomer and space scientist*|-id=328|

text: 13328 Guetter

text: ||  || Harry Hendrik Guetter, an astronomer at the

text: U.S. Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station

text: from 1964 until 2002. |-id=329|

text: 13329 Davidhardy

text: David Hardy

text: , British space artist †|-id=330|

text: 13330 Dondavis

text: Don Davis

text: , artist and astronomer †|-id=332|

text: 13332 Benkhoff

text: ||  || Johannes Benkhoff, a planetary scientist at the

text: German Aerospace Center

text: (DLR) in Berlin-Adlerhof. |-id=333|

text: 13333 Carsenty

text: Uri Carsenty

text: , Israeli planetary scientist. |-id=334|

text: 13334 Tost

text: Wilfried Tost

text: , German amateur astronomer † ‡|-id=335|

text: 13335 Tobiaswolf

text: ||  || Tobias Wolf (born 1980) is an enthusiastic naked-eye observer of the moon, planets and other wonders of the sky. |-id=346|

text: 13346 Danielmiller

text: ||  || Daniel Louis Miller, Jr. (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=350|

text: 13350 Gmelin

text: Johann Georg Gmelin

text: , German naturalist |-id=351|

text: 13351 Zibeline

text: ||  || Zibeline is the name of a small animal (Martes zibellina), that generally lives in the colder parts of the globe. Astronomer Chappe d´Auteroche, on his voyage to Tobolsk, Siberia, in 1761, reported how it has been hunted for its beautiful dark fur, resulting in almost complete extinction. |-id=352|

text: 13352 Gyssens

text: Marc Gyssens

text: , Flemish computer scientist, director of the

text: Urania Public Observatory

text: and co-founder of the

text: International Meteor Organization

text: 13357 Werkhoven

text: ||  || Margaretha Cornelia Maria Werkhoven, a Dutch-Surinamese botanist at the

text: National Herbarium of Suriname

text: . |-id=358|

text: 13358 Revelle

text: Douglas ReVelle

text: , American meteorologist and meteor physicist †|-id=365|

text: 13365 Tenzinyama

text: Tenzinyama

text: , a mountain in the western part of Iwamuro village,

text: Niigata prefecture

text: . |-id=367|

text: 13367 Jiří

text: ||  || Jirí Borovicka (born 1964), of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, is known for his work in meteor physics and astronomy, particularly in meteor spectroscopy. He discovered the low- and high-temperature components of meteor radiation. |-id=368|

text: 13368 Wlodekofman

text: Wlodek Kofman

text: , French geophysicist*|-id=370|

text: 13370 Júliusbreza

text: || 1998 VF ||

text: Július Breza

text: , Czech otorhinolaryngologist ?|-id=376|

text: 13376 Dunphy

text: ||  || Desmond Plunket Dunphy, an Irish medical doctor. |-id=380|

text: 13380 Yamamohammed

text: ||  || Yahya Maqsood Mohammed (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=387|

text: 13387 Irus

text: ||  || The mythological Greek beggar

text: Irus

text: defied and, in the presence of

text: Penelope

text: 's suitors, was defeated by Ulysses on his return to

text: Ithaca

text: . |-id=389|

text: 13389 Stacey

text: ||  || Stacey Ward, discoverer's wife|-id=390|

text: 13390 Bouška

text: ||  || Jirí Bouska, emeritus professor of astronomy at

text: Charles University

text: Prague

text: . |-id=395|

text: 13395 Deconihout

text: ||  || Serge Deconihout, a French amateur astronomer. |-id=396|

text: 13396 Midavaine

text: ||  || Thierry Midavaine, vice-president of the

text: Association Française d´Astronomie

text: Gravitation demonstrated from the Discoveries of Galileo and Newton: That the Moon revolves in her Orbit by the Force of this Gravitation.

text: Gravitation demonstrated from the Discoveries of

text: Galileo

text: and Newton: That the Moon revolves in her Orbit by the Force of this Gravitation.

text: Patronage in astronomy is an approach which one can use to examine the history of astronomy from a cultural standpoint. Rather than simply focusing on the findings and discoveries of individual astronomers, this approach emphasizes the importance of patronage in shaping the field of astronomy.

text: Patronage in astronomy is an approach which one can use to examine the

text: history of astronomy

text: from a cultural standpoint. Rather than simply focusing on the findings and discoveries of individual astronomers, this approach emphasizes the importance of

text: patronage

text: in shaping the field of astronomy.

text: Scientists who made their mark during this period included: Charles Augustus Chant, 1865–1956 (astronomy), John Stanley Plaskett, 1865–1941 (astronomy), Charles E. Saunders, 1867–1937 (botany), Harriet Brooks, 1867–1933 (atomic physics), Maude Abbott, 1869–1940 (medicine), Stephen Leacock, 1869–1944 (economics), Frances Gertrude McGill, 1877–1959 (forensic pathology), Oswald Avery, 1877–1955  (biology), Alice Wilson, 1881–1964 (geology), Frere Marie-Victorin, 1885–1944 (biology),  Margret Newton, 1887–1971 (biology), Wilder Penfield, 1891–1976 (neurology) and Harold Innis, 1894–1952 (economics).

text: Scientists who made their mark during this period included: Charles Augustus Chant, 1865–1956 (astronomy),

text: John Stanley Plaskett

text: , 1865–1941 (astronomy),

text: Charles E. Saunders

text: , 1867–1937 (botany),

text: Harriet Brooks

text: , 1867–1933 (atomic physics),

text: Maude Abbott

text: , 1869–1940 (medicine),

text: Stephen Leacock

text: , 1869–1944 (economics),

text: Frances Gertrude McGill

text: , 1877–1959 (forensic pathology),

text: Oswald Avery

text: , 1877–1955  (biology),

text: Alice Wilson

text: , 1881–1964 (geology), Frere

text: Marie-Victorin

text: , 1885–1944 (biology),  Margret Newton, 1887–1971 (biology),

text: Wilder Penfield

text: , 1891–1976 (neurology) and

text: Harold Innis

text: , 1894–1952 (economics).

text: The wardenship of John Wilkins (1648-1659) is a significant period in the history of the college. Wilkins was a member of a group which had met for some years in London to discuss problems in the natural sciences. Many of the group moved to Oxford and held regular meetings in the Warden's lodgings at Wadham. Among them were Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, John Locke, William Petty, John Wallis, and Thomas Willis. Wadham provided the largest contingent, some twelve of the fifty names mentioned. These included Christopher Brookes (mathematician and instrument-maker), John Mayow (a distinguished chemist and physician), Lawrence Rooke (later astronomy professor at Gresham College, London), Thomas Sprat (later the official historian of the Royal Society), Seth Ward (mathematician and Savilian Professor of Astronomy), Sir Christopher Wren (mathematician and Savilian Professor of Astronomy).

text: The wardenship of

text: John Wilkins

text: (1648-1659) is a significant period in the history of the college. Wilkins was a member of a group which had met for some years in London to discuss problems in the natural sciences. Many of the group moved to Oxford and held regular meetings in the Warden's lodgings at Wadham. Among them were

text: Robert Boyle

text: Robert Hooke

text: John Locke

text: William Petty

text: John Wallis

text: , and

text: Thomas Willis

text: . Wadham provided the largest contingent, some twelve of the fifty names mentioned. These included Christopher Brookes (mathematician and instrument-maker),

text: John Mayow

text: (a distinguished chemist and physician),

text: Lawrence Rooke

text: (later astronomy professor at

text: Gresham College

text: , London),

text: Thomas Sprat

text: (later the official historian of the

text: Royal Society

text: Seth Ward

text: (mathematician and

text: Savilian Professor of Astronomy

text: Sir Christopher Wren

text: (mathematician and

text: Savilian Professor of Astronomy

text: Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos estimated the size and distance of the Moon and Sun, and was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession, calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe. Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy. The Antikythera mechanism (c. 150–80 BC) was an early analog computer designed to calculate the location of the Sun, Moon, and planets for a given date. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.

text: Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in

text: ancient Greece

text: and the

text: Hellenistic

text: world.

text: Greek astronomy

text: is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. In the 3rd century BC,

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: estimated the

entity_name: On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)

text: size and distance of the Moon and Sun

text: , and was the first to propose a

text: heliocentric

text: model of the

text: solar system

text: . In the 2nd century BC,

text: Hipparchus

text: discovered

text: precession

text: , calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the

text: astrolabe

text: . Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the

text: constellation

text: s of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy. The

text: Antikythera mechanism

text: (c. 150–80 BC) was an early

text: analog computer

text: designed to calculate the location of the

text: Sun

text: Moon

text: , and

text: planets

text: for a given date. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical

text: astronomical clock

text: s appeared in

text: Europe

text: Besides this, Anatoli translated, between the years 1231 and 1235, the following works: (1) The Almagest of Ptolemy, from the Arabic, though probably the Greek or Latin title of this treatise was also familiar to him. Its Hebrew title is Ḥibbur ha-Gadol ha-Niḳra al-Magesti (The Great Composition Called Almagest). (2) A Compendium of Astronomy, by Averroes, a book which was unknown to the Christians of the Middle Ages, and of which neither a manuscript of the original nor a Latin translation has come down. Its Hebrew title is Ḳiẓẓur al-Magesti (Compendium of the Almagest). (3) The Elements of Astronomy, by Al-Fargani (Alfraganus); possibly translated from a Latin version. It was afterward rendered into Latin by Jacob Christmann (Frankfort, 1590) under the title of Elementa Astronomica, which, in its turn, may have given rise to the Hebrew title of the treatise Yesodot ha-Teḳunah, which is undoubtedly recent. (4) A treatise on the Syllogism, by Al-Farabi, from the Arabic. Its Hebrew title is Sefer Heḳesh Ḳaẓar (A Brief Treatise on the Syllogism).

text: Besides this, Anatoli translated, between the years 1231 and 1235, the following works: (1) The

text: Almagest

text: of

text: Ptolemy

text: , from the Arabic, though probably the Greek or Latin title of this treatise was also familiar to him. Its Hebrew title is Ḥibbur ha-Gadol ha-Niḳra al-Magesti (The Great Composition Called Almagest). (2) A Compendium of Astronomy, by Averroes, a book which was unknown to the Christians of the Middle Ages, and of which neither a manuscript of the original nor a Latin translation has come down. Its Hebrew title is Ḳiẓẓur al-Magesti (Compendium of the Almagest). (3) The Elements of Astronomy, by

entity_name: Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani

text: Al-Fargani

text: Alfraganus

text: ); possibly translated from a Latin version. It was afterward rendered into Latin by

text: Jacob Christmann

text: (Frankfort, 1590) under the title of Elementa Astronomica, which, in its turn, may have given rise to the Hebrew title of the treatise Yesodot ha-Teḳunah, which is undoubtedly recent. (4) A treatise on the Syllogism, by

text: Al-Farabi

text: , from the Arabic. Its Hebrew title is Sefer Heḳesh Ḳaẓar (A Brief Treatise on the Syllogism).

text: |-id=902| 5902 Talima ||  || Tatiana Alimovna Damir, friend of the discoverer, daughter of Alim Matveevich Damir (5717) and wife of Sergej Petrovich Kapitsa (5094) †|-id=904| 5904 Württemberg ||  || Württemberg, Germany|-id=905| 5905 Johnson ||  || |-id=908| 5908 Aichi || 1989 UF || Aichi Prefecture, Japan. |-id=909| 5909 Nagoya || 1989 UT || Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. |-id=910| 5910 Zátopek ||  || Emil Zátopek, Czech Olympic long distance runner †|-id=912| 5912 Oyatoshiyuki || 1989 YR || Toshiyuki Oya, Japanese amateur astronomer |-id=914| 5914 Kathywhaler || 1990 WK || Kathryn Anne Whaler, Scottish professor of geophysics, Royal Astronomical Society president 2004–2006 |-id=915| 5915 Yoshihiro || 1991 EU || Yoshihiro Yamada, Japanese astronomy educator †|-id=916| 5916 van der Woude ||  || Jurrie van der Woude, Dutch-born former Public Affairs Officer and Image Coordinator at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory †|-id=917| 5917 Chibasai || 1991 NG || -|-id=919| 5919 Patrickmartin ||  || Patrick Martin (b. 1967), a research associate at Cornell University. |-id=922| 5922 Shouichi || 1992 UV || Shouichi Satō, Japanese electric engineer.|-id=923| 5923 Liedeke ||  || |-id=924| 5924 Teruo ||  || Teruo Saegusa, Japanese mountain climber|-id=926| 5926 Schönfeld || 1929 PB || Eduard Schönfeld, German astronomer*|-id=927| 5927 Krogh || 1938 HA || Fred Krogh, an American mathematician. |-id=928| 5928 Pindarus ||  || Pindar, Ancient Greek poet*|-id=929| 5929 Manzano || 1974 XT || José Roberto Manzano, Argentine astronomer and physicist |-id=930| 5930 Zhiganov ||  || |-id=931| 5931 Zhvanetskij ||  || |-id=932| 5932 Prutkov ||  || |-id=933| 5933 Kemurdzhian || 1976 QN || Alexander Kemurdzhian (1921–2003), Soviet designer of Lunokhod moon rover|-id=934| 5934 Mats || 1976 SJ || Mats Lindgren, Swedish astronomer †|-id=935| 5935 Ostankino ||  || The Ostankino Tower in Moscow*|-id=936| 5936 Khadzhinov ||  || |-id=937| 5937 Lodén || 1979 XQ || Kerstin and Lars Olof Lodén, Swedish astronomers †|-id=938| 5938 Keller ||  || Horst Uwe Keller, German physicist †|-id=939| 5939 Toshimayeda ||  || Toshiko Mayeda, Japanese meteoriticist †|-id=940| 5940 Feliksobolev ||  || Feliks Mikhailovich Sobolev, Ukrainian producer [MPC 34622]|-id=941| 5941 Valencia ||  || Valencia, Spain †|-id=942| 5942 Denzilrobert ||  || Denzil Marley (b. 1918) and Robert Behymer (b. 1926), fathers of the discoverers. |-id=943| 5943 Lovi || 1984 EG || George Lovi, Hungarian-born writer on astronomy and author*|-id=944| 5944 Utesov ||  || Leonid Utyosov, Russian singer, musician, actor, founder and artistic leader of the first Russian theatricalized jazz band (on the occasion of the one-hundredth anniversary his birth) †|-id=945| 5945 Roachapproach ||  || Steve Roach, American musician and composer of 'space music' †|-id=946| 5946 Hrozný ||  || Bedřich Hrozný, Czech archeologist, orientalist and linguist, decipherer of Hittite †|-id=947| 5947 Bonnie || 1985 FD || |-id=948| 5948 Longo || 1985 JL || Giuseppe Longo, Italian astronomer †|-id=950| 5950 Leukippos ||  || Leucippus, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=951| 5951 Alicemonet ||  || Alice Kay Monet (Alice Kay Babcock), American astronomer, wife of David Monet |-id=952| 5952 Davemonet || 1987 EV || David Gilbert Monet, American astronomer, husband of Alice Monet |-id=953| 5953 Shelton || 1987 HS || Ian Shelton, Canadian astronomer † |-id=954| 5954 Epikouros ||  || Epicurus, Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=955| 5955 Khromchenko ||  || Vladimir Anatolievich Khromchenko, a music teacher at Yalta and a talented designer who constructed the first home-built organ in Ukraine. |-id=956| 5956 d'Alembert ||  || Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, French philosopher and mathematician †|-id=957| 5957 Irina || 1988 JN || |-id=958| 5958 Barrande ||  || Joachim Barrande, French palaeontologist †|-id=959| 5959 Shaklan ||  || |-id=960| 5960 Wakkanai || 1989 US || Wakkanai, Hokkaidō, Japan|-id=961| 5961 Watt ||  || James Watt (1736-1819), a Scottish engineer whose improvements to the steam engine led to the rapid advances of the industrial revolution. |-id=962| 5962 Shikokutenkyo || 1990 HK || Shikoku Ten-mon Kyōkai, Japanese name for the Astronomical Society of Shikoku Island †|-id=966| 5966 Tomeko ||  || Tomeko Goto, wife of Seizo Goto, Japanese former president of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. †|-id=967| 5967 Edithlevy ||  || Edith Pailet Levy, American-Canadian geneticist, and mother of the second discoverer †|-id=968| 5968 Trauger || 1991 FC || John Trauger, American physicist, Senior Research Scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory*|-id=969| 5969 Ryuichiro || 1991 FT || Ryuichiro Goto, Japanese current president of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. †|-id=970| 5970 Ohdohrikouen ||  || Ohdohri Park, Sapporo, Japan|-id=971| 5971 Tickell ||  || Crispin Tickell, British diplomat, who chaired the board of the Climate Institute of Washington (1990–2002) and the Government Panel on Sustainable Development (1994–2000), and who also served on the UK government's Task Force on Near-Earth Objects |-id=972| 5972 Harryatkinson ||  || Harry Atkinson, New Zealand-born British physicist, head of astronomy and space for the Science Research Council (1972–1978), chair of the European Space Agency Council (1984–1987), and chair of the UK Task Force on Near-Earth Objects in 2000 |-id=973| 5973 Takimoto || 1991 QC || Daisuke Takimoto, Japanese activist in the nuclear-power phase-out movement. |-id=975| 5975 Otakemayumi || 1992 SG || Mayumi Ōtake, music composer of Japanese planetarium|-id=976| 5976 Kalatajean ||  || |-id=978| 5978 Kaminokuni || 1992 WT || Kaminokuni, Hokkaidō, Japan|-id=981| 5981 Kresilas || 2140 P-L || Kresilas, Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=982| 5982 Polykletus || 4862 T-1 || Polykleitos, the Elder and Polykleitos the Younger, Ancient Greek sculptors*|-id=983| 5983 Praxiteles || 2285 T-2 || Praxiteles, Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=984| 5984 Lysippus || 4045 T-3 || Lysippos, Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=986| 5986 Xenophon || 1969 TA || Xenophon, the Athenian nobleman, pupil and interpreter of Socrates, historian, agriculturist, and military officer who lived from about 440 to 354 B.C. |-id=987| 5987 Liviogratton || 1975 LQ || Livio Gratton, Italo-Argentine astrophysicist |-id=988| 5988 Gorodnitskij ||  || Aleksandr Moiseevich Gorodnitskij, Soviet geophysicist and mineralogist, poet and songwriter [MPC 34622]|-id=989| 5989 Sorin ||  || Sergej Ivanovich Sorin, Soviet astronomer [MPC 34622]|-id=990| 5990 Panticapaeon || 1977 EO || Panticapæon or Panticapaeum, ancient Greek colony, now Kerch, Ukrainian seaport at the eastern extremity of the Crimean Peninsula [MPC 34622]|-id=991| 5991 Ivavladis ||  || Vladislav Aleksandrovich Ivanov, Russian engineer [MPC 34622]|-id=992| 5992 Nittler || 1981 DZ || Larry Nittler, American meteoriticist †|-id=993| 5993 Tammydickinson ||  || Tamara Dickinson, American meteoriticist †|-id=994| 5994 Yakubovich ||  || Leonid Arkad'evich Yakubovich, Russian writer [MPC 34622]|-id=995| 5995 Saint-Aignan || 1982 DK || Charles P. de Saint-Aignan, American astronomer*|-id=996| 5996 Julioangel || 1983 NR || Julio Angel Fernandez (born 1946), Uruguayan astronomer|-id=997| 5997 Dirac || 1983 TH || Paul Dirac, British physicist and Nobelist †|-id=998| 5998 Sitenský ||  || Ladislav Sitenský, Czech photographer †|-id=999| 5999 Plescia || 1987 HA || Jeffrey Plescia, American geophysicist and planetary geologist, researcher of terrestrial impact craters*|-id=000| 6000 United Nations || 1987 UN || The United Nations †|}

text: 5902 Talima

text: ||  || Tatiana Alimovna Damir, friend of the discoverer, daughter of Alim Matveevich Damir (5717) and wife of Sergej Petrovich Kapitsa (5094) †|-id=904|

text: 5904 Württemberg

text: Württemberg

text: , Germany|-id=905|

text: 5905 Johnson

text: ||  || |-id=908|

text: 5908 Aichi

text: || 1989 UF ||

text: Aichi Prefecture

text: , Japan. |-id=909|

text: 5909 Nagoya

text: || 1989 UT ||

text: Nagoya

text: , Aichi, Japan. |-id=910|

text: 5910 Zátopek

text: Emil Zátopek

text: , Czech Olympic long distance runner †|-id=912|

text: 5912 Oyatoshiyuki

text: || 1989 YR || Toshiyuki Oya, Japanese amateur astronomer |-id=914|

text: 5914 Kathywhaler

text: || 1990 WK ||

text: Kathryn Anne Whaler

text: , Scottish professor of geophysics,

text: Royal Astronomical Society

text: president 2004–2006 |-id=915|

text: 5915 Yoshihiro

text: || 1991 EU ||

text: Yoshihiro Yamada

text: , Japanese astronomy educator †|-id=916|

text: 5916 van der Woude

text: Jurrie van der Woude

text: , Dutch-born former Public Affairs Officer and Image Coordinator at the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: 5917 Chibasai

text: || 1991 NG || -|-id=919|

text: 5919 Patrickmartin

text: ||  || Patrick Martin (b. 1967), a research associate at Cornell University. |-id=922|

text: 5922 Shouichi

text: || 1992 UV || Shouichi Satō, Japanese electric engineer.|-id=923|

text: 5923 Liedeke

text: ||  || |-id=924|

text: 5924 Teruo

text: ||  || Teruo Saegusa, Japanese mountain climber|-id=926|

text: 5926 Schönfeld

text: || 1929 PB ||

text: Eduard Schönfeld

text: , German astronomer*|-id=927|

text: 5927 Krogh

text: || 1938 HA ||

text: Fred Krogh

text: , an American mathematician. |-id=928|

text: 5928 Pindarus

text: Pindar

text: , Ancient Greek poet*|-id=929|

text: 5929 Manzano

text: || 1974 XT ||

text: José Roberto Manzano

text: , Argentine astronomer and physicist |-id=930|

text: 5930 Zhiganov

text: ||  || |-id=931|

text: 5931 Zhvanetskij

text: ||  || |-id=932|

text: 5932 Prutkov

text: ||  || |-id=933|

text: 5933 Kemurdzhian

text: || 1976 QN ||

text: Alexander Kemurdzhian

text: (1921–2003), Soviet designer of

text: Lunokhod

text: moon rover|-id=934|

text: 5934 Mats

text: || 1976 SJ ||

text: Mats Lindgren

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=935|

text: 5935 Ostankino

text: ||  || The

text: Ostankino Tower

text: in

text: Moscow

text: 5936 Khadzhinov

text: ||  || |-id=937|

text: 5937 Lodén

text: || 1979 XQ ||

text: Kerstin

text: and

text: Lars Olof Lodén

text: , Swedish astronomers †|-id=938|

text: 5938 Keller

text: Horst Uwe Keller

text: , German physicist †|-id=939|

text: 5939 Toshimayeda

text: Toshiko Mayeda

text: , Japanese meteoriticist †|-id=940|

text: 5940 Feliksobolev

text: Feliks Mikhailovich Sobolev

text: , Ukrainian producer [MPC 34622]|-id=941|

text: 5941 Valencia

text: Valencia, Spain

text: 5942 Denzilrobert

text: ||  || Denzil Marley (b. 1918) and Robert Behymer (b. 1926), fathers of the discoverers. |-id=943|

text: 5943 Lovi

text: || 1984 EG ||

text: George Lovi

text: , Hungarian-born writer on astronomy and author*|-id=944|

text: 5944 Utesov

text: Leonid Utyosov

text: , Russian singer, musician, actor, founder and artistic leader of the first Russian theatricalized jazz band (on the occasion of the one-hundredth anniversary his birth) †|-id=945|

text: 5945 Roachapproach

text: Steve Roach

text: , American musician and composer of 'space music' †|-id=946|

text: 5946 Hrozný

text: Bedřich Hrozný

text: , Czech archeologist, orientalist and linguist, decipherer of Hittite †|-id=947|

text: 5947 Bonnie

text: || 1985 FD || |-id=948|

text: 5948 Longo

text: || 1985 JL ||

text: Giuseppe Longo

text: , Italian astronomer †|-id=950|

text: 5950 Leukippos

text: Leucippus

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=951|

text: 5951 Alicemonet

text: Alice Kay Monet

text: (Alice Kay Babcock), American astronomer, wife of David Monet |-id=952|

text: 5952 Davemonet

text: || 1987 EV ||

text: David Gilbert Monet

text: , American astronomer, husband of Alice Monet |-id=953|

text: 5953 Shelton

text: || 1987 HS ||

text: Ian Shelton

text: , Canadian astronomer † |-id=954|

text: 5954 Epikouros

text: Epicurus

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=955|

text: 5955 Khromchenko

text: ||  || Vladimir Anatolievich Khromchenko, a music teacher at Yalta and a talented designer who constructed the first home-built organ in Ukraine. |-id=956|

text: 5956 d'Alembert

text: Jean Le Rond d'Alembert

text: , French philosopher and mathematician †|-id=957|

text: 5957 Irina

text: || 1988 JN || |-id=958|

text: 5958 Barrande

text: Joachim Barrande

text: , French palaeontologist †|-id=959|

text: 5959 Shaklan

text: ||  || |-id=960|

text: 5960 Wakkanai

text: || 1989 US ||

text: Wakkanai, Hokkaidō

text: , Japan|-id=961|

text: 5961 Watt

text: James Watt

text: (1736-1819), a Scottish engineer whose improvements to the steam engine led to the rapid advances of the industrial revolution. |-id=962|

text: 5962 Shikokutenkyo

text: || 1990 HK || Shikoku Ten-mon Kyōkai, Japanese name for the

text: Astronomical Society of Shikoku

text: Island †|-id=966|

text: 5966 Tomeko

text: ||  || Tomeko Goto, wife of

text: Seizo Goto

text: , Japanese former president of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. †|-id=967|

text: 5967 Edithlevy

text: Edith Pailet Levy

text: , American-Canadian geneticist, and mother of the second discoverer †|-id=968|

text: 5968 Trauger

text: || 1991 FC ||

text: John Trauger

text: , American physicist, Senior Research Scientist at the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: 5969 Ryuichiro

text: || 1991 FT ||

text: Ryuichiro Goto

text: , Japanese current president of Goto Optical Mfg. Co. †|-id=970|

text: 5970 Ohdohrikouen

text: Ohdohri Park

text: , Sapporo, Japan|-id=971|

text: 5971 Tickell

text: Crispin Tickell

text: , British diplomat, who chaired the board of the

text: Climate Institute

text: of Washington (1990–2002) and the Government Panel on Sustainable Development (1994–2000), and who also served on the UK government's Task Force on Near-Earth Objects |-id=972|

text: 5972 Harryatkinson

text: Harry Atkinson

text: , New Zealand-born British physicist, head of astronomy and space for the

entity_name: Science and Engineering Research Council

text: Science Research Council

text: (1972–1978), chair of the

text: European Space Agency Council

text: (1984–1987), and chair of the UK Task Force on Near-Earth Objects in 2000 |-id=973|

text: 5973 Takimoto

text: || 1991 QC || Daisuke Takimoto, Japanese activist in the nuclear-power phase-out movement. |-id=975|

text: 5975 Otakemayumi

text: || 1992 SG || Mayumi Ōtake, music composer of Japanese planetarium|-id=976|

text: 5976 Kalatajean

text: ||  || |-id=978|

text: 5978 Kaminokuni

text: || 1992 WT ||

text: Kaminokuni, Hokkaidō

text: , Japan|-id=981|

text: 5981 Kresilas

text: || 2140 P-L ||

text: Kresilas

text: , Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=982|

text: 5982 Polykletus

text: || 4862 T-1 ||

text: Polykleitos, the Elder

text: and

text: Polykleitos the Younger

text: , Ancient Greek sculptors*|-id=983|

text: 5983 Praxiteles

text: || 2285 T-2 ||

text: Praxiteles

text: , Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=984|

text: 5984 Lysippus

text: || 4045 T-3 ||

text: Lysippos

text: , Ancient Greek sculptor|-id=986|

text: 5986 Xenophon

text: || 1969 TA ||

text: Xenophon

text: , the Athenian nobleman, pupil and interpreter of Socrates, historian, agriculturist, and military officer who lived from about 440 to 354 B.C. |-id=987|

text: 5987 Liviogratton

text: || 1975 LQ ||

text: Livio Gratton

text: , Italo-Argentine astrophysicist |-id=988|

text: 5988 Gorodnitskij

text: Aleksandr Moiseevich Gorodnitskij

text: , Soviet geophysicist and mineralogist, poet and songwriter [MPC 34622]|-id=989|

text: 5989 Sorin

text: Sergej Ivanovich Sorin

text: , Soviet astronomer [MPC 34622]|-id=990|

text: 5990 Panticapaeon

text: || 1977 EO ||

text: Panticapæon

text: or Panticapaeum, ancient Greek colony, now

text: Kerch

text: , Ukrainian seaport at the eastern extremity of the

text: Crimean Peninsula

text: [MPC 34622]|-id=991|

text: 5991 Ivavladis

text: Vladislav Aleksandrovich Ivanov

text: , Russian engineer [MPC 34622]|-id=992|

text: 5992 Nittler

text: || 1981 DZ ||

text: Larry Nittler

text: , American meteoriticist †|-id=993|

text: 5993 Tammydickinson

text: Tamara Dickinson

text: , American meteoriticist †|-id=994|

text: 5994 Yakubovich

text: Leonid Arkad'evich Yakubovich

text: , Russian writer [MPC 34622]|-id=995|

text: 5995 Saint-Aignan

text: || 1982 DK ||

text: Charles P. de Saint-Aignan

text: , American astronomer*|-id=996|

text: 5996 Julioangel

text: || 1983 NR ||

text: Julio Angel Fernandez

text: (born 1946), Uruguayan astronomer|-id=997|

text: 5997 Dirac

text: || 1983 TH ||

text: Paul Dirac

text: , British physicist and Nobelist †|-id=998|

text: 5998 Sitenský

text: Ladislav Sitenský

text: , Czech photographer †|-id=999|

text: 5999 Plescia

text: || 1987 HA ||

text: Jeffrey Plescia

text: , American geophysicist and planetary geologist, researcher of terrestrial impact craters*|-id=000|

text: 6000 United Nations

text: || 1987 UN || The

text: United Nations

text: The first episode of The Big Bang Theory originally aired on CBS in the United States on September 24, 2007. It was written by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady, and directed by James Burrows. It marks the first appearance of all five main characters in the series, and also guest stars Brian Patrick Wade as Kurt.

text: The first episode of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: originally aired on

text: CBS

text: in the United States on September 24, 2007. It was written by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: and

text: Bill Prady

text: , and directed by

text: James Burrows

text: . It marks the first appearance of all five main characters in the series, and also guest stars

text: Brian Patrick Wade

text: as Kurt.

text: Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them, which gradually evolved from a reality based on Aristotelian physics to one based on an empirical and mathematical physics after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of Aristotelian cosmology and Ptolemaic astronomy and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and mathematization of astronomy and of nature in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.

text: Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them, which gradually evolved from a reality based on

text: Aristotelian physics

text: to one based on an empirical and mathematical

text: physics

text: after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of

text: Aristotelian cosmology

text: and

text: Ptolemaic astronomy

text: and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and

text: mathematization

text: of astronomy and of

text: nature

text: in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.

text: In this part Barbour provides an overview of how scientific discovery has influenced theology throughout the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.  The major scientific discoveries made in the 17th century included those made by Galileo and Newton.  The scientific discoveries made by Galileo and Newton began to describe and explain the natural and physical laws by which the earth operates.  These discoveries drastically changed the way that man viewed the world and nature.  This in turn caused shifts in theological thought.  Natural theology emerged, where God was able to fill the scientific gaps and was responsible for the orderliness of nature.  The idea of God as the "Divine Clockmaker" and the beginning of Deism can also be traced back to the 17th century.

text: In this part Barbour provides an overview of how scientific discovery has influenced theology throughout the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.  The major scientific discoveries made in the 17th century included those made by

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Newton

text: .  The

text: scientific discoveries

text: made by Galileo and Newton began to describe and explain the natural and

text: physical laws

text: by which the earth operates.  These discoveries drastically changed the way that man viewed the world and nature.  This in turn caused shifts in theological thought.

text: Natural theology

text: emerged, where God was able to fill the scientific gaps and was responsible for the orderliness of nature.  The idea of God as the "Divine Clockmaker" and the beginning of Deism can also be traced back to the 17th century.

text: Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t ). Prior to Galileo, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms).

text: Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t ). Prior to Galileo,

text: Nicole Oresme

text: , in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, and

text: Domingo de Soto

text: had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms).

text: s Bored of the Rings, the VeggieTales episode "Lord of the Beans", the South Park episode "The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers", the Futurama film "Bender's Game", The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius episode "Lights! Camera! Danger!", The Big Bang Theory episode "The Precious Fragmentation", and the American Dad! episode "The Return of the Bling" are testimony to the work's continual presence in popular culture.

text: s

text: Bored of the Rings

text: , the

text: VeggieTales

text: episode "

text: Lord of the Beans

text: ", the

text: South Park

text: episode "

entity_name: The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers

text: The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers

text: ", the

text: Futurama

text: film "

text: Bender's Game

entity_name: The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius

text: The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius

text: episode "Lights! Camera! Danger!",

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: episode "The Precious Fragmentation", and the

text: American Dad!

text: episode "The Return of the Bling" are testimony to the work's continual presence in popular culture.

text: Fomenko is a supporter of drastically revising historical chronology. He has created his own revision called New Chronology, based on statistical correlations, dating of zodiacs, and by examining the mathematics and astronomy involved in chronology. Fomenko claims that he has discovered that many historical events do not correspond mathematically with the dates they are supposed to have occurred on. He asserts from this that all of ancient history (including the history of Greece, Rome, and Egypt) is just a reflection of events that occurred in the Middle Ages and that all of Chinese and Arab history are fabrications of 17th and 18th century Jesuits.

text: Fomenko is a supporter of drastically revising historical chronology. He has created his own revision called

text: New Chronology

text: , based on statistical correlations, dating of

text: zodiac

text: s, and by examining the mathematics and astronomy involved in chronology. Fomenko claims that he has discovered that many historical events do not correspond mathematically with the dates they are supposed to have occurred on. He asserts from this that all of ancient history (including the history of

text: Greece

text: Rome

text: , and

text: Egypt

text: ) is just a reflection of events that occurred in the

text: Middle Ages

text: and that all of Chinese and Arab history are fabrications of 17th and 18th century

text: Jesuits

text: While a novel by Dan Brown  depicts a Catholic priest who holds a romantic view about the big bang theory, taking it as an evidence of everything arising from one. Gurdjieff’s interpretation of the same fact was exactly the opposite. The finding of "everything arose from one” is not a blessed one if one is intelligent enough to think of what awaits in the future as a result of this: everything is moving away from one and in the process of dispersion into nothingness.

text: Whether Raimond actually started a truly central, organized effort at translation, later generalized as the Toledo School of Translators, remains unknown. What is known is that most translations coming out of Spain dealt with either medicine or astronomy. Hugo of Santalla, for example, translated a large selection of Arabic works all dealing with astronomy, as well as tracing the history of astronomic thought through history, underscoring the work of the Greeks, Persians, Hellenists, and Arabs in one large preface to his volume.

text: Whether Raimond actually started a truly central, organized effort at translation, later generalized as the

text: Toledo School of Translators

text: , remains unknown. What is known is that most translations coming out of Spain dealt with either medicine or astronomy. Hugo of Santalla, for example, translated a large selection of Arabic works all dealing with astronomy, as well as tracing the history of astronomic thought through history, underscoring the work of the Greeks, Persians, Hellenists, and Arabs in one large preface to his volume.

text: An early demonstration of the strength of Gauss' Method came when it was used to predict the future location of the newly discovered asteroid Ceres.  On 1 January 1801, the Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered Ceres and was able to track its path for 40 days before it was lost in the glare of the sun. Based on these data, astronomers desired to determine the location of Ceres after it emerged from behind the sun without solving Kepler's complicated nonlinear equations of planetary motion. The only predictions that successfully allowed Hungarian astronomer Franz Xaver von Zach to relocate Ceres were those performed by the 24-year-old Gauss using least-squares analysis.

text: An early demonstration of the strength of

text: Gauss' Method

text: came when it was used to predict the future location of the newly discovered asteroid

text: Ceres

text: .  On 1 January 1801, the Italian astronomer

text: Giuseppe Piazzi

text: discovered Ceres and was able to track its path for 40 days before it was lost in the glare of the sun. Based on these data, astronomers desired to determine the location of Ceres after it emerged from behind the sun without solving

text: Kepler's complicated nonlinear equations

text: of planetary motion. The only predictions that successfully allowed Hungarian astronomer

text: Franz Xaver von Zach

text: to relocate Ceres were those performed by the 24-year-old Gauss using least-squares analysis.

text: The Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Babylonian astronomers had developed arithmetical techniques for calculating astronomical phenomena; Greek astronomers such as Hipparchus had produced geometric models for calculating celestial motions. Ptolemy, however, claimed to have derived his geometrical models from selected astronomical observations by his predecessors spanning more than 800 years, though astronomers have for centuries suspected that his models' parameters were adopted independently of observations. Ptolemy presented his astronomical models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a star catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus. Its list of forty-eight constellations is ancestral to the modern system of constellations, but unlike the modern system they did not cover the whole sky (only the sky Hipparchus could see). Across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa in the Medieval period, it was the authoritative text on astronomy, with its author becoming an almost mythical figure, called Ptolemy, King of Alexandria. The Almagest was preserved, like most of Classical Greek science, in Arabic manuscripts (hence its familiar name). Because of its reputation, it was widely sought and was translated twice into Latin in the 12th century, once in Sicily and again in Spain. Ptolemy's model, like those of his predecessors, was geocentric and was almost universally accepted until the appearance of simpler heliocentric models during the scientific revolution.

text: The

text: Almagest

text: is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy.

text: Babylonian astronomers

text: had developed arithmetical techniques for calculating astronomical phenomena; Greek astronomers such as

text: Hipparchus

text: had produced

text: geometric model

text: s for calculating celestial motions. Ptolemy, however, claimed to have derived his geometrical models from selected astronomical observations by his predecessors spanning more than 800 years, though astronomers have for centuries suspected that his models' parameters were adopted independently of observations. Ptolemy presented his astronomical models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a

text: star catalogue

text: , which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus. Its list of forty-eight

text: constellation

text: s is ancestral to the modern system of constellations, but unlike the modern system they did not cover the whole sky (only the sky Hipparchus could see). Across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa in the Medieval period, it was the authoritative text on astronomy, with its author becoming an almost mythical figure, called Ptolemy, King of Alexandria. The Almagest was preserved, like most of Classical Greek science, in

text: Arabic

text: manuscripts (hence its familiar name). Because of its reputation, it was widely sought and was

text: translated twice into Latin in the 12th century

text: , once in Sicily and again in Spain. Ptolemy's model, like those of his predecessors, was

text: geocentric

text: and was almost universally accepted until the appearance of simpler

text: heliocentric

text: models during the

text: scientific revolution

text: In 1927, Georges Lemaître set out a theory that has since come to be called the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe. In 1948, Fred Hoyle set out his opposing Steady State theory in which the universe continually expanded but remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These two theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, of the cosmic microwave background radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Big Bang theory, and one that the original Steady State theory could not account for. As a result, The Big Bang theory quickly became the most widely held view of the origin of the universe.

text: In 1927,

text: Georges Lemaître

text: set out a theory that has since come to be called the

text: Big Bang

text: theory of the origin of the universe. In 1948,

text: Fred Hoyle

text: set out his opposing

text: Steady State theory

text: in which the universe continually expanded but remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These two theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by

text: Arno Penzias

text: and

text: Robert Wilson

text: , of the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Big Bang theory, and one that the original Steady State theory could not account for. As a result, The Big Bang theory quickly became the most widely held view of the origin of the universe.

text: The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological redshift-distance relation are together regarded as the best available evidence for the Big Bang theory. Measurements of the CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang theory the Standard Model of Cosmology. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in alternatives such as the steady state theory.

text: The cosmic microwave background radiation and the

text: cosmological redshift

text: -distance relation are together regarded as the best available evidence for the

text: Big Bang

text: theory. Measurements of the CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang theory the Standard Model of Cosmology. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in

text: alternatives

text: such as the

text: steady state theory

text: After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady state model, whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time. The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949. For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor Big Bang over Steady State. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.

text: After

text: World War II

text: , two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's

text: steady state model

text: , whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time. The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by

text: George Gamow

text: , who introduced

text: big bang nucleosynthesis

text: (BBN) and whose associates,

text: Ralph Alpher

text: and

text: Robert Herman

text: , predicted the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: (CMB). Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a

text: BBC Radio

text: broadcast in March 1949. For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio

text: source counts

text: , began to favor Big Bang over Steady State. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.

text: Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion states, the square of the periodic time is proportional to the cube of the mean distance, or

text: Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion

text: states, the

text: square

text: of the

text: periodic time

text: is proportional to the

text: cube

text: of the

text: mean distance

text: , or

text: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. Between 1630 and 1650, it was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.  However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.

text: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. Between 1630 and 1650, it was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.  However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of

text: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli

text: and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of

text: inertia

text: . This culminated in Isaac Newton's

text: Principia Mathematica

text: (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of

text: universal gravitation

text: The Australian Aboriginal Astronomy Project is a collaboration of academics, educators, and indigenous elders researching the astronomical traditions and knowledge of Indigenous Australians, commonly termed Australian Aboriginal astronomy.  This research in cultural astronomy covers the disciplines of archaeoastronomy, ethnoastronomy, historical astronomy, geomythology, and Indigenous knowledge.

text: The Australian Aboriginal Astronomy Project is a collaboration of academics, educators, and indigenous elders researching the astronomical traditions and knowledge of Indigenous Australians, commonly termed

text: Australian Aboriginal astronomy

text: .  This research in

text: cultural astronomy

text: covers the disciplines of

text: archaeoastronomy

text: ethnoastronomy

text: historical astronomy

text: geomythology

text: , and

text: Indigenous knowledge

text: Scientists of this period included: William Edmond Logan, 1798–1875 (geology), John William Dawson, 1820–1899 (paleobotany), Sandford Fleming, 1827–1915 (engineer/inventor), Sir William Osler, 1849–1919 (medicine), C.H. McLeod (astronomy), W.F. King (astronomy), Otto Julius Klotz, 1852–1923 (astronomy) and E.G.D. Deville (astronomy).

text: Scientists of this period included:

text: William Edmond Logan

text: , 1798–1875 (geology),

text: John William Dawson

text: , 1820–1899 (paleobotany),

text: Sandford Fleming

text: , 1827–1915 (engineer/inventor), Sir

text: William Osler

text: , 1849–1919 (medicine), C.H. McLeod (astronomy), W.F. King (astronomy),

text: Otto Julius Klotz

text: , 1852–1923 (astronomy) and E.G.D. Deville (astronomy).

text: As a distinct field, experimental physics was established in early modern Europe, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution, by physicists such as Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens, Johannes Kepler, Blaise Pascal and Sir Isaac Newton. In the early 17th century, Galileo made extensive use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in the modern scientific method. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in dynamics, in particular the law of inertia, which later became the first law in Newton's laws of motion. In Galileo's Two New Sciences, a dialogue between the characters Simplicio and Salviati discuss the motion of a ship (as a moving frame) and how that ship's cargo is indifferent to its motion. Huygens used the motion of a boat along a Dutch canal to illustrate an early form of the conservation of momentum.

text: As a distinct field, experimental physics was established in

text: early modern Europe

text: , during what is known as the

text: Scientific Revolution

text: , by physicists such as

text: Galileo Galilei

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: Johannes Kepler

text: Blaise Pascal

text: and Sir

text: Isaac Newton

text: . In the early 17th century, Galileo made extensive use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in the modern scientific method. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in dynamics, in particular the law of

text: inertia

text: , which later became the first law in

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: . In Galileo's

text: Two New Sciences

text: , a dialogue between the characters Simplicio and Salviati discuss the motion of a ship (as a moving frame) and how that ship's cargo is indifferent to its motion. Huygens used the motion of a boat along a Dutch canal to illustrate an early form of the conservation of

text: momentum

text: The eccentricities of the orbits of those planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are small, so the foregoing rules give good approximations of planetary motion; but Kepler's laws fit the observations better than Copernicus'.

text: Bauer M & J Durant (1997) Astrology in present-day Britain: an approach from the sociology of knowledge, Cosmos and Culture - Journal of the History of Astrology and Cultural Astronomy, 1, 1-17

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its temperature dropped below that at which nuclear fusion could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from hydrogen ions (protons), it principally produced deuterium, helium-4, and lithium. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher, and Robert Herman. It was used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the equivalence principle, to probe dark matter, and test neutrino physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its

text: temperature

text: dropped below that at which

text: nuclear fusion

text: could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from

text: hydrogen

text: ion

text: s (

text: proton

text: s), it principally produced

text: deuterium

text: , and

text: lithium

text: . Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by

text: George Gamow

text: Ralph Asher Alpher

text: , and

text: Robert Herman

text: . It was used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the

text: equivalence principle

text: , to probe

text: dark matter

text: , and test

text: neutrino

text: physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.

text: In physical cosmology, cosmological perturbation theory is the theory by which the evolution of structure is understood in the big bang model. It uses general relativity to compute the gravitational forces causing small perturbations to grow and eventually seed the formation of stars, quasars, galaxies and clusters. It only applies to situations in which the universe is predominantly homogeneous, such as during cosmic inflation and large parts of the big bang. The universe is believed to still be homogeneous enough that the theory is a good approximation on the largest scales, but on smaller scales more involved techniques, such as N-body simulations, must be used.

text: In

text: physical cosmology

text: , cosmological perturbation theory is the theory by which the evolution of structure is understood in the

text: big bang

text: model. It uses

text: general relativity

text: to compute the gravitational forces causing small perturbations to grow and eventually seed the formation of

text: star

text: s,

text: quasar

text: s,

text: galaxies

text: and

text: cluster

text: s. It only applies to situations in which the universe is predominantly homogeneous, such as during

text: cosmic inflation

text: and large parts of the big bang. The universe is believed to still be homogeneous enough that the theory is a good approximation on the largest scales, but on smaller scales more involved techniques, such as

text: N-body simulation

text: s, must be used.

text: Cultural astronomy is the set of interdisciplinary fields studying the astronomical systems of current or ancient societies and cultures. Such areas include archaeoastronomy (the study of the use of astronomy and its role in ancient cultures and civilizations), ethnoastronomy (the study of the use of astronomy and its role in contemporary cultures), historical astronomy (analyzing historic astronomical data), history of astronomy (understanding and study and evolution of the discipline of astronomy over the course of human knowledge) and history of astrology (understanding the astrological roots of astronomy and understanding the differences between astrology and astronomy).

text: Cultural astronomy is the set of

text: interdisciplinary

text: fields studying the

text: astronomical systems

text: of current or ancient societies and cultures. Such areas include

text: archaeoastronomy

text: (the study of the use of astronomy and its role in ancient cultures and civilizations),

text: ethnoastronomy

text: (the study of the use of astronomy and its role in contemporary cultures),

text: historical astronomy

text: (analyzing historic astronomical data),

text: history of astronomy

text: (understanding and study and evolution of the discipline of astronomy over the course of human knowledge) and

text: history of astrology

text: (understanding the

text: astrological

text: roots of astronomy and understanding the differences between

text: astrology and astronomy

text: Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures.  As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes), history of astronomy (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies).

text: Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures.  As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes),

text: history of astronomy

text: (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies).

text: Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding what happened in the earliest times after the Big Bang, and reconciling observations with the basic theory. Cosmologists continue to calculate many of the parameters of the Big Bang to a new level of precision, and carry out more detailed observations which are hoped to provide clues to the nature of dark energy and dark matter, and to test the theory of General Relativity on cosmic scales.

text: Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding what happened in the earliest times after the Big Bang, and reconciling observations with the basic theory. Cosmologists continue to calculate many of the parameters of the Big Bang to a new level of precision, and carry out more detailed observations which are hoped to provide clues to the nature of

text: dark energy

text: and

text: dark matter

text: , and to test the theory of

text: General Relativity

text: on cosmic scales.

text: Agucchi was also interested in astronomy and mathematics, and a member of the Accademia dei Gelati of Bologna. He had a long correspondence with Galileo Galilei in 1611–13, including passing on the data from his own astronomical observations, and lectured on the satellites of Jupiter in 1611; Galileo had made the first recorded observations of these in 1609.

text: Agucchi was also interested in

text: astronomy

text: and mathematics, and a member of the

text: Accademia dei Gelati

text: of Bologna. He had a long correspondence with

text: Galileo Galilei

text: in 1611–13, including passing on the data from his own astronomical observations, and lectured on the

text: satellites of Jupiter

text: in 1611; Galileo had made the first recorded observations of these in 1609.

text: Kepler's previous book Astronomia nova related the discovery of the first two of the principles that we know today as Kepler's laws. The third law, which shows a constant proportionality between the cube of the semi-major axis of a planet's orbit and the square of the time of its orbital period, is set out in Chapter 5 of this book, immediately after a long digression on astrology.

text: Kepler's previous book

text: Astronomia nova

text: related the discovery of the first two of the principles that we know today as

text: Kepler's laws

text: . The third law, which shows a constant proportionality between the cube of the semi-major axis of a planet's orbit and the square of the time of its orbital period, is set out in Chapter 5 of this book, immediately after a long digression on astrology.

text: Planetesimals and larger bodies are traditionally thought to have formed via a hierarchical accretion, the formation of large objects via the collision and mergers of small objects. This process begins with the collision of dust due to Brownian motion producing larger aggregates held together by van der Waals forces. The aggregates settle toward the mid-plane of the disk and collide due to gas turbulence forming pebbles and larger objects. Further collisions and mergers eventually yield planetesimals 1–10 km in diameter held together by self-gravity. The growth of the largest planetesimals then accelerates, as gravitational focusing increases their effective cross-section, resulting in runaway accretion forming the larger asteroids. Later, gravitational scattering by the larger objects excites relative motions, causing a transition to slower oligarchic accretion that ends with the formation of planetary embryos. In the outer Solar System the planetary embryos grow large enough to accrete gas, forming the giant planets. In the inner Solar System the orbits of the planetary embryos become unstable, leading to giant impacts and the formation of the terrestrial planets.

text: Planetesimals and larger bodies are traditionally thought to have formed via a hierarchical accretion, the formation of large objects via the collision and mergers of small objects. This process begins with the collision of

text: dust

text: due to

text: Brownian motion

text: producing larger aggregates held together by

text: van der Waals force

text: s. The aggregates settle toward the mid-plane of the disk and collide due to gas turbulence forming pebbles and larger objects. Further collisions and mergers eventually yield planetesimals 1–10 km in diameter held together by self-gravity. The growth of the largest planetesimals then accelerates, as gravitational focusing increases their effective cross-section, resulting in runaway

text: accretion

text: forming the larger

text: asteroid

text: s. Later, gravitational scattering by the larger objects excites relative motions, causing a transition to slower oligarchic accretion that ends with the formation of planetary embryos. In the outer Solar System the planetary embryos grow large enough to accrete gas, forming the giant planets. In the inner Solar System the orbits of the planetary embryos become unstable, leading to giant impacts and the formation of the terrestrial planets.

text: There are two long morning classes with a short break in between them for students to get to their next class. After lunch, classes resume at 1 pm, and there is a break around afternoon teatime before another class period. The classes are about one hour in length, with occasional double periods lasting two hours. Classes end around five o'clock. First-year students get Friday afternoons off, while sixth- and seventh-year students have several free periods during the week. In the evening, students eat their dinner in the Great Hall, after which they are expected to be in their common rooms. Astronomy classes take place late at night in the Astronomy Tower.

text: The eighth season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory first aired on CBS with a one-hour premiere on Monday, September 22, 2014. It returned to its previous Thursday time slot on October 30 for the season's seventh episode. It concluded on May 7, 2015. On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016–17 season for a total of ten seasons.

text: The eighth season of the American

text: sitcom

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: first aired on CBS with a one-hour premiere on Monday, September 22, 2014. It returned to its previous Thursday time slot on October 30 for the season's seventh episode. It concluded on May 7, 2015. On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016–17 season for a total of ten seasons.

text: On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016–17 season for a total of ten seasons. Production for the seventh season began on August 14, 2013.

text: From the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, Newton was able to derive Kepler's laws, demonstrating consistency between observation and theory. The laws of Kepler and Newton formed the basis of modern celestial mechanics until Albert Einstein introduced the concepts of special and general relativity in the early 20th century. For most applications, Keplerian motion approximates the motions of planets and satellites to relatively high degrees of accuracy and is used extensively in astronomy and astrodynamics.

text: From the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, Newton was able to derive Kepler's laws, demonstrating consistency between observation and theory. The laws of Kepler and Newton formed the basis of modern

text: celestial mechanics

text: until

text: Albert Einstein

text: introduced the concepts of

text: special

text: and

text: general

text: relativity in the early 20th century. For most applications, Keplerian motion approximates the motions of planets and satellites to relatively high degrees of accuracy and is used extensively in

text: astronomy

text: and

text: astrodynamics

text: Greek science first covers the philosophies of the pre-Socratics, Plato and Aristotle, after which the narrative continues with the Hellenistic philosophical schools, the Academy, the Lyceum, the Epicureans and the Stoics. Major figures in mathematics are Euclid and Archimedes, and Eudoxus and Claudius Ptolemy (discussed as part of Hellenistic astronomy) in astronomy.

text: Greek science first covers the philosophies of the

text: pre-Socratics

text: Plato

text: and

text: Aristotle

text: , after which the narrative continues with the Hellenistic philosophical schools, the

text: Academy

text: , the

text: Lyceum

text: , the

text: Epicureans

text: and the

text: Stoics

text: . Major figures in mathematics are

text: Euclid

text: and

text: Archimedes

text: , and

text: Eudoxus

text: and

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: (discussed as part of Hellenistic astronomy) in astronomy.

text: |-| 19801 Karenlemmon ||  || Karen Lemmon, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=806| 19806 Domatthews ||  || Donna Matthews, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=808| 19808 Elainemccall ||  || Elaine McCall, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=809| 19809 Nancyowen ||  || Nancy Owen, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=810| 19810 Partridge ||  || Mary Partridge, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=811| 19811 Kimperkins ||  || Kimberly Perkins, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=813| 19813 Ericsands ||  || Eric Sands, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=815| 19815 Marshasega ||  || Marsha Sega, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=816| 19816 Wayneseyfert ||  || Wayne Seyfert, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=817| 19817 Larashelton ||  || Lara Shelton, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=818| 19818 Shotwell ||  || Gary Shotwell, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=820| 19820 Stowers ||  || Josh Stowers, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=821| 19821 Caroltolin ||  || Carol Tolin, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=822| 19822 Vonzielonka ||  || Beverley vonZielonka, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=826| 19826 Patwalker ||  || Pat Walker, mentor of finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=833| 19833 Wickwar ||  || Steve Wickwar, mentor of finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=835| 19835 Zreda ||  || Grazyna Zreda, mentored a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=848| 19848 Yeungchuchiu || 2000 TR || At absolute magnitude 11.7, this largest minor planet found by the discoverer---just 1.2 degrees west of Jupiter---is named in honor of his father, Chu Chiu Yeung (born 1925), for his unconditional support. |-id=852| 19852 Jamesalbers ||  || James J. Albers (b. 1965), a systems engineer. |-id=853| 19853 Ichinomiya ||  || Ichinomiya is the name of a high school in Ichinomiya City, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. |-id=855| 19855 Borisalexeev ||  || Boris Alexeev (b. 1987), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. |-id=857| 19857 Amandajane ||  || Amanda Jennifer Jane Robinson is a student of psychology at the University of Kansas and an empathetic caregiver to those in need of emotional support. She is the daughter of the discoverer. |-id=860| 19860 Anahtar ||  || Melis Nuray Anahtar (b. 1986), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for her engineering project. |-id=861| 19861 Auster ||  || Craig Louis Auster (b. 1986), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for his behavioral and social sciences project. |-id=872| 19872 Chendonghua || 6097 P-L || 19872 Chendonghua Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Donghua Chen (b. 1948) of Gulangyu, Xiamen, is a retired surgeon and active amateur astronomer well known throughout China. He helped organize the fourth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Shanghai in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=873| 19873 Chentao || 6632 P-L || 19873 Chentao Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Tao Chen (b. 1980) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, is a well-known amateur astronomer who codiscovered comet C/2008 C1 (Chen-Gao) and who helped organize the fourth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Shanghai in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=874| 19874 Liudongyan || 6775 P-L || 19874 Liudongyan Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Dongyan Liu (b. 1987) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, a student majoring in English at Suzhou University, served as interpreter for the International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy and a total solar eclipse expedition in China in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=875| 19875 Guedes || 6791 P-L || 19875 Guedes Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Leandro Lage dos Santos Guedes (b. 1976), an astronomer at the Rio de Janeiro planetarium, helped to organize the fifth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Aug. 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|}

text: 19801 Karenlemmon

text: ||  || Karen Lemmon, mentor of a finalist in the 2003

text: (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=806|

text: 19806 Domatthews

text: ||  || Donna Matthews, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=808|

text: 19808 Elainemccall

text: ||  || Elaine McCall, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=809|

text: 19809 Nancyowen

text: ||  || Nancy Owen, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=810|

text: 19810 Partridge

text: ||  || Mary Partridge, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=811|

text: 19811 Kimperkins

text: ||  || Kimberly Perkins, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=813|

text: 19813 Ericsands

text: ||  || Eric Sands, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=815|

text: 19815 Marshasega

text: ||  || Marsha Sega, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=816|

text: 19816 Wayneseyfert

text: ||  || Wayne Seyfert, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=817|

text: 19817 Larashelton

text: ||  || Lara Shelton, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=818|

text: 19818 Shotwell

text: ||  || Gary Shotwell, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=820|

text: 19820 Stowers

text: ||  || Josh Stowers, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=821|

text: 19821 Caroltolin

text: ||  || Carol Tolin, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=822|

text: 19822 Vonzielonka

text: ||  || Beverley vonZielonka, mentor of a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=826|

text: 19826 Patwalker

text: ||  || Pat Walker, mentor of finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=833|

text: 19833 Wickwar

text: ||  || Steve Wickwar, mentor of finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=835|

text: 19835 Zreda

text: ||  || Grazyna Zreda, mentored a finalist in the 2003 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=848|

text: 19848 Yeungchuchiu

text: || 2000 TR || At absolute magnitude 11.7, this largest minor planet found by the discoverer---just 1.2 degrees west of Jupiter---is named in honor of his father, Chu Chiu Yeung (born 1925), for his unconditional support. |-id=852|

text: 19852 Jamesalbers

text: ||  || James J. Albers (b. 1965), a systems engineer. |-id=853|

text: 19853 Ichinomiya

text: ||  || Ichinomiya is the name of a high school in

text: Ichinomiya City

text: Aichi Prefecture

text: , Japan. |-id=855|

text: 19855 Borisalexeev

text: ||  || Boris Alexeev (b. 1987), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for his computer science project. |-id=857|

text: 19857 Amandajane

text: ||  || Amanda Jennifer Jane Robinson is a student of psychology at the University of Kansas and an empathetic caregiver to those in need of emotional support. She is the daughter of the discoverer. |-id=860|

text: 19860 Anahtar

text: ||  || Melis Nuray Anahtar (b. 1986), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for her engineering project. |-id=861|

text: 19861 Auster

text: ||  || Craig Louis Auster (b. 1986), a finalist in the 2004 Intel Science Talent Search, a science competition for high school seniors, for his behavioral and social sciences project. |-id=872|

text: 19872 Chendonghua

text: || 6097 P-L || 19872 Chendonghua Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Donghua Chen (b. 1948) of Gulangyu, Xiamen, is a retired surgeon and active amateur astronomer well known throughout China. He helped organize the fourth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Shanghai in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=873|

text: 19873 Chentao

text: || 6632 P-L || 19873 Chentao Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Tao Chen (b. 1980) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, is a well-known amateur astronomer who codiscovered comet C/2008 C1 (Chen-Gao) and who helped organize the fourth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Shanghai in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=874|

text: 19874 Liudongyan

text: || 6775 P-L || 19874 Liudongyan Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Dongyan Liu (b. 1987) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, a student majoring in English at Suzhou University, served as interpreter for the International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy and a total solar eclipse expedition in China in July 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|-id=875|

text: 19875 Guedes

text: || 6791 P-L || 19875 Guedes Discovered 1960 Sept. 24 by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld on Palomar Schmidt plates taken by T. Gehrels. Leandro Lage dos Santos Guedes (b. 1976), an astronomer at the Rio de Janeiro planetarium, helped to organize the fifth International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy in Aug. 2009. The name was suggested by D. W. E. Green.|}

text: Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.

text: Physical cosmology

text: is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century,

text: Hubble

text: 's discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the

text: Hubble diagram

text: , prompted rival explanations known as the

text: steady state

text: universe and the

text: Big Bang

text: Kepler-20 is a Sun-like star in the constellation Lyra with a mass of 0.91 (± 0.03)  and a radius of 0.94 (± 0.06) , and is thought to be 8.8 billion years old, though there is a large uncertainty in its age. In other words, Kepler-20 is approximately 9% less massive and 6% shorter than the Sun. The star's metallicity is 0.01 (± 0.04), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases planet migration towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has four other known planets in orbit: Kepler-20b, Kepler-20c, Kepler-20d, and Kepler-20e. All of the planets in the system would fit inside the orbit of Mercury.

text: Kepler-20 is a Sun-like star in the constellation

text: Lyra

text: with a mass of 0.91 (± 0.03)  and a radius of 0.94 (± 0.06) , and is thought to be 8.8 billion years old, though there is a large uncertainty in its age. In other words, Kepler-20 is approximately 9% less massive and 6% shorter than the Sun. The star's

text: metallicity

text: is 0.01 (± 0.04), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases

text: planet migration

text: towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has four other known planets in orbit:

text: , and

text: . All of the planets in the system would fit inside the orbit of

text: Mercury

text: According to one school of thought in the history of astronomy, minor imperfections in the original Ptolemaic system were discovered through observations accumulated over time. It was mistakenly believed that more levels of epicycles (circles within circles) were added to the models to match more accurately the observed planetary motions. The multiplication of epicycles is believed to have led to a nearly unworkable system by the 16th century, and that Copernicus created his heliocentric system in order to simplify the Ptolemaic astronomy of his day, thus succeeding in drastically reducing the number of circles.

text: According to one school of thought in the history of astronomy, minor imperfections in the original Ptolemaic system were discovered through observations accumulated over time. It was mistakenly believed that more levels of epicycles (circles within circles) were added to the models to match more accurately the observed planetary motions. The multiplication of epicycles is believed to have led to a nearly unworkable system by the 16th century, and that

text: Copernicus

text: created his

text: heliocentric system

text: in order to simplify the Ptolemaic astronomy of his day, thus succeeding in drastically reducing the number of circles.

text: The tour was highly acclaimed by music critics. The New York Times called Big Bang the "Smooth K-Pop Criminals" and described the concert as an "extreme, intense, overwhelming Korean pop carnival", It was listed as one of the best tours in 2015. The Guardian gave the Newark concert four out of five stars and described it as "K-pop heroes delivering candyfloss hooks with a sharp edge" while praising all five members' individual talents. The Los Angeles Times described Big Bang as "One of the most inventive, aesthetically visionary acts in its genre" and called their Anaheim concert an "incredibly significant moment for K-Pop", praising the diversity of their songs and performances. Billboard gave the concert a 4.5/5, calling Big Bang "five individuals that are separately complex, but together an undeniable supergroup". Vibe called Big Bang the "Kings of K-Pop" and praised their solo performances as the most interesting moments of the night. The Michigan Daily called Big Bang a rare group that "both innovates and defines the direction a genre takes" and described the concert as an "electric, out-of-body experience". The Village Voice described the show as unique and "unlike anything in the western pop schema" saying that the concert "served to reflect the rainbow spectrum of human emotion". The AU Review called the show "A fantastic concert by a fantastic group of talented individuals" while praising the production of the concert as well as the group's musical direction.

text: The tour was highly acclaimed by music critics.

text: The New York Times

text: called Big Bang the "Smooth K-Pop Criminals" and described the concert as an "extreme, intense, overwhelming Korean pop carnival", It was listed as one of the best tours in 2015.

text: The Guardian

text: gave the Newark concert four out of five stars and described it as "K-pop heroes delivering candyfloss hooks with a sharp edge" while praising all five members' individual talents. The

text: Los Angeles Times

text: described Big Bang as "One of the most inventive, aesthetically visionary acts in its genre" and called their Anaheim concert an "incredibly significant moment for K-Pop", praising the diversity of their songs and performances.

text: Billboard

text: gave the concert a 4.5/5, calling Big Bang "five individuals that are separately complex, but together an undeniable

text: supergroup

text: Vibe

text: called Big Bang the "Kings of K-Pop" and praised their solo performances as the most interesting moments of the night.

text: The Michigan Daily

text: called Big Bang a rare group that "both innovates and defines the direction a genre takes" and described the concert as an "electric, out-of-body experience".

text: The Village Voice

text: described the show as unique and "unlike anything in the western pop schema" saying that the concert "served to reflect the rainbow spectrum of human emotion". The AU Review called the show "A fantastic concert by a fantastic group of talented individuals" while praising the production of the concert as well as the group's musical direction.

text: Greek astronomy is astronomy written in the Greek language in classical antiquity. Greek astronomy is understood to include the ancient Greek, Hellenistic, Greco-Roman, and Late Antiquity eras. It is not limited geographically to Greece or to ethnic Greeks, as the Greek language had become the language of scholarship throughout the Hellenistic world following the conquests of Alexander. This phase of Greek astronomy is also known as Hellenistic astronomy, while the pre-Hellenistic phase is known as Classical Greek astronomy. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, much of the Greek and non-Greek astronomers working in the Greek tradition studied at the Musaeum and the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt.

text: Greek astronomy is

text: astronomy

text: written in the

text: Greek language

text: in

text: classical antiquity

text: ancient Greek

text: Hellenistic

text: Greco-Roman

text: , and

text: Late Antiquity

text: eras. It is not limited

text: geographic

text: ally to

text: Greece

text: or to ethnic

text: Greeks

text: Hellenistic world

text: following the conquests of

text: Alexander

text: astronomers

text: Musaeum

text: and the

text: Library of Alexandria

text: in

text: Ptolemaic Egypt

text: Galilean, as an adjective, describes some aspects of mathematics or astronomy associated with Galileo: see for example Galilean moons and Galilean transformation.

text: Galilean, as an adjective, describes some aspects of

text: mathematics

text: or

text: astronomy

text: associated with

text: Galileo

text: : see for example

text: Galilean moons

text: and

text: Galilean transformation

text: Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

text: Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a

text: law of gravity

text: that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.<ref>In his Astronomia nova, Kepler presented only a proof that Mars' orbit is elliptical.  Evidence that the other known planets' orbits are elliptical was presented only in 1621.<br>See:  Johannes Kepler, Astronomia nova … (1609), p. 285.  After having rejected circular and oval orbits, Kepler concluded that Mars' orbit must be elliptical.  From the top of page 285:  "Ergo ellipsis est Planetæ iter; … " (Thus, an ellipse is the planet's [i.e., Mars'] path; … )  Later on the same page:  " … ut sequenti capite patescet:  ubi simul etiam demonstrabitur, nullam Planetæ relinqui figuram Orbitæ, præterquam perfecte ellipticam; … " ( … as will be revealed in the next chapter:  where it will also then be proved that any figure of the planet's orbit must be relinquished, except a perfect ellipse; … )  And then:  "Caput LIX.  Demonstratio, quod orbita Martis, … , fiat perfecta ellipsis: … " (Chapter 59.  Proof that Mars' orbit, … , is a perfect ellipse: … )  The geometric proof that Mars' orbit is an ellipse appears as Protheorema XI on pages 289–290.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: .<ref>In his Astronomia nova, Kepler presented only a proof that Mars' orbit is elliptical.  Evidence that the other known planets' orbits are elliptical was presented only in 1621.<br>See:  Johannes Kepler, Astronomia nova … (1609), p. 285.  After having rejected circular and oval orbits, Kepler concluded that Mars' orbit must be elliptical.  From the top of page 285:  "Ergo ellipsis est Planetæ iter; … " (Thus, an ellipse is the planet's [i.e., Mars'] path; … )  Later on the same page:  " … ut sequenti capite patescet:  ubi simul etiam demonstrabitur, nullam Planetæ relinqui figuram Orbitæ, præterquam perfecte ellipticam; … " ( … as will be revealed in the next chapter:  where it will also then be proved that any figure of the planet's orbit must be relinquished, except a perfect ellipse; … )  And then:  "Caput LIX.  Demonstratio, quod orbita Martis, … , fiat perfecta ellipsis: … " (Chapter 59.  Proof that Mars' orbit, … , is a perfect ellipse: … )  The geometric proof that Mars' orbit is an ellipse appears as Protheorema XI on pages 289–290.

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star in the Cygnus constellation. With a mass of .95 M, a radius of 1.1 R, a measured metallicity of 0, and an effective temperature of 5680 K, Kepler-11 is near in mass (95% of Sun), radius (110% of Sun), and iron content as the Sun. Metallicity has been observed to play a major role determining the type of planet a star forms. As metal-rich gas clouds tend to cause planetary cores to aggregate to a gravitationally prominent size while primordial gases still exist in the system, gas giants tend to form under such conditions. It is also slightly cooler than the Sun. However, it is estimated to be eight (± two) billion years old, far older than the Sun is. Kepler-11 is host to five other planets other than Kepler-11d: Kepler-11b, Kepler-11c, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The first five planets in the system have orbits that would collectively fit inside the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g orbits at a considerably further distance in relation to the orbits of its inner counterparts.

text: is a

text: G-type star

text: in the

text: Cygnus

text: constellation. With a mass of .95

text: M

text: , a radius of 1.1

text: R

text: , a measured

text: metallicity

text: of 0, and an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680 K, Kepler-11 is near in mass (95% of Sun), radius (110% of Sun), and iron content as the Sun. Metallicity has been observed to play a major role determining the type of planet a star forms. As metal-rich gas clouds tend to cause planetary cores to aggregate to a gravitationally prominent size while primordial gases still exist in the system, gas giants tend to form under such conditions. It is also slightly cooler than the Sun. However, it is estimated to be eight (± two) billion years old, far older than the Sun is. Kepler-11 is host to five other planets other than Kepler-11d:

text: , and

text: . The first five planets in the system have orbits that would collectively fit inside the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g orbits at a considerably further distance in relation to the orbits of its inner counterparts.

text: In the late 17th century, as a result of Robert Hooke's suggestion that there is a gravitational force which depends on the inverse square of the distance, Isaac Newton was able to mathematically derive Kepler's three kinematic laws of planetary motion, including the elliptical orbits for the six then known planets and the Moon:

text: In the late 17th century, as a result of

text: Robert Hooke

text: 's suggestion that there is a gravitational force which depends on the

text: inverse square

text: of the

text: distance

text: Isaac Newton

text: was able to

text: mathematically

text: derive

text: Kepler's

text: three

text: kinematic

text: laws of planetary motion

text: , including the

text: elliptical

text: orbits

text: for the six then known

text: planet

text: s and the Moon:

text: The Big Bang theory proposed by Stephen Hawking had imaginary-time axis, perpendicular to the axis of the current time, etc. Such concepts of the theory of the Big Bang, are not correct according to Dynamic Universe Model (Universe model by Gupta). Gupta said that the supporting results of research released by "Rutherford" Appleton Laboratories, telling that "by mutual gravitational attraction of the two different celestial bodies will not be destroyed".

text: In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun [approximately] at one focus, in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation.

text: In the 17th century,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun [approximately] at one focus, in his

text: first law of planetary motion

text: . Later,

text: Isaac Newton

text: explained this as a corollary of his

text: law of universal gravitation

text: |-| 6101 Tomoki || 1993 EG || Tomoki Nakamura (b. 1966), an associate professor of earth and planetary sciences at Kyushu University, specializes in research on primitive solar system materials, most recently leading to the discovery of high-temperature chondrule-like materials in the stardust samples. The name was suggested by K. Ohtsuka.|-id=102| 6102 Visby ||  || Visby, Sweden †|-id=104| 6104 Takao || 1993 HZ || Takao Saito, Japanese geophysicist|-id=105| 6105 Verrocchio || 4580 P-L || Andrea del Verrocchio, Florentine sculptor*|-id=106| 6106 Stoss || 6564 P-L || Veit Stoss, German sculptor and wood-carver|-id=107| 6107 Osterbrock || 1948 AF || Donald Edward Osterbrock, American astrophysicist*|-id=108| 6108 Glebov || 1971 QN || Named in honor of academician Igor' Alekseevich Glebov (b. 1914), outstanding scientist in the field of electrical engineering and power engineering, since 1975 director of the Science Research Institute of Electric Machine Engineering in St. Petersburg. Glebov is renowned for his work in control systems for power turbogenerators and his application of superconductivity in electric machine engineering. Name suggested by the Institute of Applied Astronomy and the Institute of Problems of Electrophysics of RAS.|-id=109| 6109 Balseiro || 1975 QC || José Antonio Balseiro, 20th-century Argentine nuclear physicist |-id=110| 6110 Kazak ||  || Yurij Ivanovich Kazak (b. 1949), surgeon at Bakhchisaraj district hospital, treated many staff members of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. A skilled and kind doctor, he is always ready to help people.|-id=111| 6111 Davemckay ||  || David Stewart McKay, American lunar geologist and meteoriticist †|-id=112| 6112 Ludolfschultz ||  || Ludolf Schultz, German cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=113| 6113 Tsap ||  || Teodor Teodorovich Tsap (b. 1930) and his son Yurij Teodorovich Tsap (b. 1966) are astronomers at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. They have made a significant contribution to observations and theory of various solar phenomena. Teodor Tsap, with coauthors, discovered oscillations in the sun with a period of 160 min.|-id=114| 6114 Dalla-Degregori ||  || Lucio Dalla (b. 1943) and Francesco De Gregori (b. 1951) are two of the most successful singers and songwriters in the history of Italian popular music. The name was suggested by the discoverer and M. Di Martino.|-id=115| 6115 Martinduncan ||  || Martin J. Duncan, Canadian astronomer †|-id=116| 6116 Still ||  || Martin David Still, British astronomer*|-id=119| 6119 Hjorth || 1986 XH || Jens Hjorth, Danish astrophysicist †|-id=120| 6120 Anhalt || 1987 QR || |-id=121| 6121 Plachinda ||  || At the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Sergej Ivanovich Plachinda (b. 1951) has contributed to investigations on the global magnetic fields of stars of different types. His wife, Nelly Ivanovna Merkulova (b. 1949), is a well-known investigator of variability in Seyfert galaxies.|-id=122| 6122 Henrard ||  || Jacques Henrard, Belgian astronomer (celestial mechanics)*|-id=123| 6123 Aristoteles ||  || Aristotle, Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=124| 6124 Mecklenburg ||  || |-id=127| 6127 Hetherington || 1989 HD || Norriss Swigart Hetherington, American historian of astronomy*|-id=128| 6128 Lasorda || 1989 LA || Tommy Lasorda, former manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers †|-id=129| 6129 Demokritos ||  || Democritus, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=130| 6130 Hutton ||  || James Hutton, 18th-century Scottish founder of modern geology |-id=131| 6131 Towen ||  || Tobias Owen, American astronomer*|-id=132| 6132 Danielson ||  || |-id=135| 6135 Billowen ||  || William Mann Owen, American astronomer*|-id=136| 6136 Gryphon || 1990 YH || In Lewis Carroll's Alice's adventures in Wonderland, the Gryphon had an eagle's head, a front half with wings and talons, and at the back a lion's legs and tail. Unfortunately, Alice did not quite like the look of the creature. The Gryphon appears to have been a friend of the Mock Turtle.|-id=137| 6137 Johnfletcher || 1991 BY || John Fletcher, British amateur astronomer and public educator |-id=139| 6139 Naomi ||  || Naomi Sugie, wife of discover|-id=140| 6140 Kubokawa ||  || Kazuo Kubokawa, Japanese astronomer|-id=141| 6141 Durda ||  || Daniel David Durda, American astronomer †|-id=143| 6143 Pythagoras || 1993 JV || Pythagoras, Ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician †|-id=144| 6144 Kondojiro ||  || Jiro Kondo, Japanese Egyptologist and amateur astronomer |-id=145| 6145 Riemenschneider || 2630 P-L || Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor*|-id=146| 6146 Adamkrafft || 3262 T-2 || Adam Krafft, German sculptor*|-id=147| 6147 Straub || 1081 T-3 || Johann Baptist Straub, German sculptor*|-id=148| 6148 Ignazgünther || 5119 T-3 || Ignaz Günther, German sculptor*|-id=149| 6149 Pelčák || 1979 SS || Oldřich Pelčák, Czech astronaut-candidate †|-id=150| 6150 Neukum ||  || Gerhard Neukum, German astronomer, professor at Freie Universität, Berlin †|-id=151| 6151 Viget || 1987 WF || |-id=152| 6152 Empedocles ||  || Empedocles, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=153| 6153 Hershey || 1990 OB || John Landis Hershey, American astronomer*|-id=154| 6154 Stevesynnott ||  || Stephen P. Synnott, American astronomer*|-id=155| 6155 Yokosugano ||  || Yōko Sugano, wife of Matsuo Sugano|-id=156| 6156 Dall ||  || |-id=157| 6157 Prey ||  || Alois Prey, Austrian astronomer or Adalbert Prey, Austrian astronomer*|-id=158| 6158 Shosanbetsu ||  || Shosanbetsu, a village in Hokkaido with a population of about 1450, was established in 1909. The name of the village means "a river where the waterfall is flowing out" in the Ainu language of the former inhabitants of Hokkaido. The Shosanbetsu Observatory has a 0.65-m reflector. The name was suggested by Y. Sano.|-id=160| 6160 Minakata || 1993 JF || Kumagusu Minakata, Japanese author and naturalist|-id=161| 6161 Vojno-Yasenetsky ||  || Valentin Voino-Yasenetsky (Archbishop Luka), Ukrainian surgeon and theologian*|-id=162| 6162 Prokhorov ||  || Yurij Vasil'evich Prokhorov, Russian mathematician*|-id=163| 6163 Reimers || 1977 FT || Dieter Reimers, German astronomer*|-id=164| 6164 Gerhardmüller ||  || Named in memory of academician Gerhard Friedrich Müller (Miller, according to traditional spelling in Russian; 1705–1783), first rector of St. Petersburg University and editor of the first Russian academic journal. He is considered the father of St. Petersburg's historical school, and his works were the foundation for research on the history, ethnography, archeology and geography of Russia and Siberia.|-id=165| 6165 Frolova ||  || Named in honor of Natalia Borisovna Frolova, assistant professor of astronomy at Ural State University in Ekaterinburg. She worked on a detailed catalogue of stars along the path of comet 1P/Halley, and this contributed to the success of the space missions Vega and Giotto. As a leader in educating local schoolchildren about astronomy, she takes an active part in organizing the annual Winter Astronomical Students' School at Kourovskay Observatory.|-id=166| 6166 Univsima ||  || Simferopol State University*|-id=167| 6167 Narmanskij ||  || V. Ya. Narmanskii, Ukrainian researcher in biorhythms and space physics*|-id=168| 6168 Isnello ||  || Isnello, a pleasant village in Sicily's Madonie Natural Park, has long been famous for its traditional refined embroidery. It is now becoming an important center for astronomy with the realization of the Parco Astronomico delle Madonie, an international center devoted to popularization of and research in astronomy.|-id=169| 6169 Sashakrot ||  || Alexander (Sasha) Krot, cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=170| 6170 Levasseur || 1981 GP || Pierre Émile Levasseur, French economist*|-id=171| 6171 Uttorp || 1981 UT || Uttorp, a village in southeastern Sweden, is part of a nature reserve used by the local astronomy club Karlskrona Astronomiförening. In 2010 the site, renowned for its dark skies, also saw the launch of an annual astronomy conference open to amateur astronomers and the public. The name was suggested by U. Petersson.|-id=172| 6172 Prokofeana || 1982 TX || |-id=173| 6173 Jimwestphal || 1983 AD || James A. (Jim) Westphal, American astronomer, at one time Director of Palomar Observatory*|-id=174| 6174 Polybius ||  || Polybius, Ancient Greek historian*|-id=175| 6175 Cori || 1983 XW || Carl Ferdinand and Gerty Theresa Cori (née Radnitz), husband and wife Austro-Hungarian-American biochemists †|-id=176| 6176 Horrigan || 1985 BH || Barbara Llewellyn Horrigan, American member of the Arlington Friends of the Drama (Massachusetts), actress, director, and set and costume designer  ‡|-id=179| 6179 Brett || 1986 EN || Robin Brett, American astronomer*|-id=180| 6180 Bystritskaya ||  || Named in honor of Ehlina Avraamovna Bystritskaya, distinguished Soviet actress. An actress with Moscow Malyj Theatre since 1958, she is especially popular for her brilliant roles in several films.|-id=181| 6181 Bobweber || 1986 RW || Robert ("Bob") Weber, 20th-century American physicist and astronomer, team leader of the Deep Space Satellite Tracking Network, and co-developer of the LINEAR project |-id=182| 6182 Katygord ||  || |-id=183| 6183 Viscome ||  || George R. Viscome, American broadcast technician and astrometrist †|-id=184| 6184 Nordlund ||  || Aake Nordlund, Danish astrophysicist †|-id=185| 6185 Mitsuma || 1987 YD || Shigeo Mitsuma (1956–2012) was a member of Hoshinohiroba (the Japanese Comet Observers Network) and an independent discoverer of C/1987 B1 (Nishikawa-Takamizawa-Tago). He also observed sunspots and search for novae.|-id=186| 6186 Zenon ||  || Zenon, Ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician †|-id=188| 6188 Robertpepin ||  || Robert Pepin, American meteoriticist †|-id=189| 6189 Völk ||  || Elisabeth Völk, secretary of ESO headquarters † ‡|-id=190| 6190 Rennes ||  || Rennes, France*|-id=191| 6191 Eades ||  || |-id=193| 6193 Manabe ||  || Yoshinosuke or Ryōnosuke Manabe, Japanese astronomer*|-id=194| 6194 Denali || 1990 TN || Mt. Denali, rising 6194 meters above sea level, is the tallest peak in North America. The name Denali originates from the Tanana Indian language and translates into English as "The Great One". The Tanana Indians are a subgroup of the Athabaskans; the Athabaskans were the original inhabitants of central and south central Alaska. Name proposed by D. Hamilton.|-id=195| 6195 Nukariya ||  || Motoi Nukariya, Japanese astronomer|-id=197| 6197 Taracho ||  || Tara is a town in Saga prefecture. The preparation of dried seaweed is its main industry, and Tara mandarin oranges are famous. The Saga Astronomical Society's 0.60-m reflector at the Tara Observatory is familiar to many of the local residents. The name was suggested by Y. Yamada.|-id=198| 6198 Shirakawa ||  || Shirakawa, Fukushima, Japan|-id=199| 6199 Yoshiokayayoi ||  || Yayoi Yoshioka, Japanese physician and women's rights activist|-id=200| 6200 Hachinohe || 1993 HL || Akio Hachinohe, Japanese amateur astronomer|}

text: 6101 Tomoki

text: || 1993 EG || Tomoki Nakamura (b. 1966), an associate professor of earth and planetary sciences at Kyushu University, specializes in research on primitive solar system materials, most recently leading to the discovery of high-temperature chondrule-like materials in the stardust samples. The name was suggested by K. Ohtsuka.|-id=102|

text: 6102 Visby

text: Visby

text: Sweden

text: 6104 Takao

text: || 1993 HZ ||

text: Takao Saito

text: , Japanese geophysicist|-id=105|

text: 6105 Verrocchio

text: || 4580 P-L ||

text: Andrea del Verrocchio

text: , Florentine sculptor*|-id=106|

text: 6106 Stoss

text: || 6564 P-L ||

text: Veit Stoss

text: , German sculptor and wood-carver|-id=107|

text: 6107 Osterbrock

text: || 1948 AF ||

text: Donald Edward Osterbrock

text: , American astrophysicist*|-id=108|

text: 6108 Glebov

text: || 1971 QN || Named in honor of academician Igor' Alekseevich Glebov (b. 1914), outstanding scientist in the field of electrical engineering and power engineering, since 1975 director of the Science Research Institute of Electric Machine Engineering in St. Petersburg. Glebov is renowned for his work in control systems for power turbogenerators and his application of superconductivity in electric machine engineering. Name suggested by the Institute of Applied Astronomy and the Institute of Problems of Electrophysics of RAS.|-id=109|

text: 6109 Balseiro

text: || 1975 QC ||

text: José Antonio Balseiro

text: , 20th-century Argentine nuclear physicist |-id=110|

text: 6110 Kazak

text: ||  || Yurij Ivanovich Kazak (b. 1949), surgeon at Bakhchisaraj district hospital, treated many staff members of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. A skilled and kind doctor, he is always ready to help people.|-id=111|

text: 6111 Davemckay

text: David Stewart McKay

text: , American lunar geologist and meteoriticist †|-id=112|

text: 6112 Ludolfschultz

text: Ludolf Schultz

text: , German cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=113|

text: 6113 Tsap

text: ||  || Teodor Teodorovich Tsap (b. 1930) and his son Yurij Teodorovich Tsap (b. 1966) are astronomers at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. They have made a significant contribution to observations and theory of various solar phenomena. Teodor Tsap, with coauthors, discovered oscillations in the sun with a period of 160 min.|-id=114|

text: 6114 Dalla-Degregori

text: ||  || Lucio Dalla (b. 1943) and Francesco De Gregori (b. 1951) are two of the most successful singers and songwriters in the history of Italian popular music. The name was suggested by the discoverer and M. Di Martino.|-id=115|

text: 6115 Martinduncan

text: Martin J. Duncan

text: , Canadian astronomer †|-id=116|

text: 6116 Still

text: Martin David Still

text: , British astronomer*|-id=119|

text: 6119 Hjorth

text: || 1986 XH ||

text: Jens Hjorth

text: , Danish astrophysicist †|-id=120|

text: 6120 Anhalt

text: || 1987 QR || |-id=121|

text: 6121 Plachinda

text: ||  || At the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Sergej Ivanovich Plachinda (b. 1951) has contributed to investigations on the global magnetic fields of stars of different types. His wife, Nelly Ivanovna Merkulova (b. 1949), is a well-known investigator of variability in Seyfert galaxies.|-id=122|

text: 6122 Henrard

text: Jacques Henrard

text: , Belgian astronomer (celestial mechanics)*|-id=123|

text: 6123 Aristoteles

text: Aristotle

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=124|

text: 6124 Mecklenburg

text: ||  || |-id=127|

text: 6127 Hetherington

text: || 1989 HD ||

text: Norriss Swigart Hetherington

text: , American historian of astronomy*|-id=128|

text: 6128 Lasorda

text: || 1989 LA ||

text: Tommy Lasorda

text: , former manager of the

text: Los Angeles Dodgers

text: 6129 Demokritos

text: Democritus

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=130|

text: 6130 Hutton

text: James Hutton

text: , 18th-century Scottish founder of modern geology |-id=131|

text: 6131 Towen

text: Tobias Owen

text: , American astronomer*|-id=132|

text: 6132 Danielson

text: ||  || |-id=135|

text: 6135 Billowen

text: William Mann Owen

text: , American astronomer*|-id=136|

text: 6136 Gryphon

text: || 1990 YH || In Lewis Carroll's Alice's adventures in Wonderland, the Gryphon had an eagle's head, a front half with wings and talons, and at the back a lion's legs and tail. Unfortunately, Alice did not quite like the look of the creature. The Gryphon appears to have been a friend of the Mock Turtle.|-id=137|

text: 6137 Johnfletcher

text: || 1991 BY || John Fletcher, British amateur astronomer and public educator |-id=139|

text: 6139 Naomi

text: ||  || Naomi Sugie, wife of discover|-id=140|

text: 6140 Kubokawa

text: Kazuo Kubokawa

text: , Japanese astronomer|-id=141|

text: 6141 Durda

text: Daniel David Durda

text: , American astronomer †|-id=143|

text: 6143 Pythagoras

text: || 1993 JV ||

text: Pythagoras

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician †|-id=144|

text: 6144 Kondojiro

text: ||  || Jiro Kondo, Japanese Egyptologist and amateur astronomer |-id=145|

text: 6145 Riemenschneider

text: || 2630 P-L ||

text: Tilman Riemenschneider

text: , German sculptor*|-id=146|

text: 6146 Adamkrafft

text: || 3262 T-2 ||

text: Adam Krafft

text: , German sculptor*|-id=147|

text: 6147 Straub

text: || 1081 T-3 ||

text: Johann Baptist Straub

text: , German sculptor*|-id=148|

text: 6148 Ignazgünther

text: || 5119 T-3 ||

text: Ignaz Günther

text: , German sculptor*|-id=149|

text: 6149 Pelčák

text: || 1979 SS ||

text: Oldřich Pelčák

text: , Czech astronaut-candidate †|-id=150|

text: 6150 Neukum

text: Gerhard Neukum

text: , German astronomer, professor at Freie Universität, Berlin †|-id=151|

text: 6151 Viget

text: || 1987 WF || |-id=152|

text: 6152 Empedocles

text: Empedocles

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=153|

text: 6153 Hershey

text: || 1990 OB ||

text: John Landis Hershey

text: , American astronomer*|-id=154|

text: 6154 Stevesynnott

text: Stephen P. Synnott

text: , American astronomer*|-id=155|

text: 6155 Yokosugano

text: ||  || Yōko Sugano, wife of

text: Matsuo Sugano

text: 6156 Dall

text: ||  || |-id=157|

text: 6157 Prey

text: Alois Prey

text: , Austrian astronomer or

text: Adalbert Prey

text: , Austrian astronomer*|-id=158|

text: 6158 Shosanbetsu

text: ||  || Shosanbetsu, a village in Hokkaido with a population of about 1450, was established in 1909. The name of the village means "a river where the waterfall is flowing out" in the Ainu language of the former inhabitants of Hokkaido. The Shosanbetsu Observatory has a 0.65-m reflector. The name was suggested by Y. Sano.|-id=160|

text: 6160 Minakata

text: || 1993 JF ||

text: Kumagusu Minakata

text: , Japanese author and naturalist|-id=161|

text: 6161 Vojno-Yasenetsky

text: Valentin Voino-Yasenetsky

text: (Archbishop Luka), Ukrainian surgeon and theologian*|-id=162|

text: 6162 Prokhorov

text: Yurij Vasil'evich Prokhorov

text: , Russian mathematician*|-id=163|

text: 6163 Reimers

text: || 1977 FT ||

text: Dieter Reimers

text: , German astronomer*|-id=164|

text: 6164 Gerhardmüller

text: ||  || Named in memory of academician Gerhard Friedrich Müller (Miller, according to traditional spelling in Russian; 1705–1783), first rector of St. Petersburg University and editor of the first Russian academic journal. He is considered the father of St. Petersburg's historical school, and his works were the foundation for research on the history, ethnography, archeology and geography of Russia and Siberia.|-id=165|

text: 6165 Frolova

text: ||  || Named in honor of Natalia Borisovna Frolova, assistant professor of astronomy at Ural State University in Ekaterinburg. She worked on a detailed catalogue of stars along the path of comet 1P/Halley, and this contributed to the success of the space missions Vega and Giotto. As a leader in educating local schoolchildren about astronomy, she takes an active part in organizing the annual Winter Astronomical Students' School at Kourovskay Observatory.|-id=166|

text: 6166 Univsima

text: Simferopol State University

text: 6167 Narmanskij

text: V. Ya. Narmanskii

text: , Ukrainian researcher in biorhythms and space physics*|-id=168|

text: 6168 Isnello

text: ||  || Isnello, a pleasant village in Sicily's Madonie Natural Park, has long been famous for its traditional refined embroidery. It is now becoming an important center for astronomy with the realization of the Parco Astronomico delle Madonie, an international center devoted to popularization of and research in astronomy.|-id=169|

text: 6169 Sashakrot

text: Alexander (Sasha) Krot

text: , cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=170|

text: 6170 Levasseur

text: || 1981 GP ||

text: Pierre Émile Levasseur

text: , French economist*|-id=171|

text: 6171 Uttorp

text: || 1981 UT || Uttorp, a village in southeastern Sweden, is part of a nature reserve used by the local astronomy club Karlskrona Astronomiförening. In 2010 the site, renowned for its dark skies, also saw the launch of an annual astronomy conference open to amateur astronomers and the public. The name was suggested by U. Petersson.|-id=172|

text: 6172 Prokofeana

text: || 1982 TX || |-id=173|

text: 6173 Jimwestphal

text: || 1983 AD ||

text: James A. (Jim) Westphal

text: , American astronomer, at one time Director of Palomar Observatory*|-id=174|

text: 6174 Polybius

text: Polybius

text: , Ancient Greek historian*|-id=175|

text: 6175 Cori

text: || 1983 XW ||

text: Carl Ferdinand

text: and

text: Gerty Theresa Cori

text: (née Radnitz), husband and wife Austro-Hungarian-American biochemists †|-id=176|

text: 6176 Horrigan

text: || 1985 BH ||

text: Barbara Llewellyn Horrigan

text: , American member of the Arlington Friends of the Drama (Massachusetts), actress, director, and set and costume designer  ‡|-id=179|

text: 6179 Brett

text: || 1986 EN ||

text: Robin Brett

text: , American astronomer*|-id=180|

text: 6180 Bystritskaya

text: ||  || Named in honor of Ehlina Avraamovna Bystritskaya, distinguished Soviet actress. An actress with Moscow Malyj Theatre since 1958, she is especially popular for her brilliant roles in several films.|-id=181|

text: 6181 Bobweber

text: || 1986 RW ||

text: Robert ("Bob") Weber

text: , 20th-century American physicist and astronomer, team leader of the

text: Deep Space Satellite Tracking Network

text: , and co-developer of the

text: LINEAR

text: project |-id=182|

text: 6182 Katygord

text: ||  || |-id=183|

text: 6183 Viscome

text: George R. Viscome

text: , American broadcast technician and astrometrist †|-id=184|

text: 6184 Nordlund

text: Aake Nordlund

text: , Danish astrophysicist †|-id=185|

text: 6185 Mitsuma

text: || 1987 YD || Shigeo Mitsuma (1956–2012) was a member of Hoshinohiroba (the Japanese Comet Observers Network) and an independent discoverer of C/1987 B1 (Nishikawa-Takamizawa-Tago). He also observed sunspots and search for novae.|-id=186|

text: 6186 Zenon

text: Zenon

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician †|-id=188|

text: 6188 Robertpepin

text: Robert Pepin

text: , American meteoriticist †|-id=189|

text: 6189 Völk

text: ||  || Elisabeth Völk, secretary of

text: ESO

text: headquarters † ‡|-id=190|

text: 6190 Rennes

text: Rennes

text: , France*|-id=191|

text: 6191 Eades

text: ||  || |-id=193|

text: 6193 Manabe

text: ||  || Yoshinosuke or Ryōnosuke Manabe, Japanese astronomer*|-id=194|

text: 6194 Denali

text: || 1990 TN || Mt. Denali, rising 6194 meters above sea level, is the tallest peak in North America. The name Denali originates from the Tanana Indian language and translates into English as "The Great One". The Tanana Indians are a subgroup of the Athabaskans; the Athabaskans were the original inhabitants of central and south central Alaska. Name proposed by D. Hamilton.|-id=195|

text: 6195 Nukariya

text: Motoi Nukariya

text: , Japanese astronomer|-id=197|

text: 6197 Taracho

text: ||  || Tara is a town in Saga prefecture. The preparation of dried seaweed is its main industry, and Tara mandarin oranges are famous. The Saga Astronomical Society's 0.60-m reflector at the Tara Observatory is familiar to many of the local residents. The name was suggested by Y. Yamada.|-id=198|

text: 6198 Shirakawa

text: Shirakawa, Fukushima

text: , Japan|-id=199|

text: 6199 Yoshiokayayoi

text: Yayoi Yoshioka

text: , Japanese physician and women's rights activist|-id=200|

text: 6200 Hachinohe

text: || 1993 HL ||

text: Akio Hachinohe

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer|}

text: Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

text: Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout

text: Europe

text: . The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of

text: mathematics

text: and astronomy.

text: The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Despite its success in explaining many observed features of the universe including galactic redshifts, the relative abundance of light elements such as hydrogen and helium, and the existence of a cosmic microwave background, there are several questions that remain unanswered. For example, the standard Big Bang model does not explain why the universe appears to be same in all directions, why it appears flat on very large distance scales, or why certain hypothesized particles such as magnetic monopoles are not observed in experiments.

text: The Big Bang theory is the prevailing

text: cosmological

text: model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Despite its success in explaining many observed features of the universe including galactic

text: redshift

text: s, the relative abundance of light elements such as

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: , and the existence of a

text: cosmic microwave background

text: , there are several questions that remain unanswered. For example, the standard Big Bang model does not explain why the universe appears to be same in all directions, why it appears flat on very large distance scales, or why certain hypothesized particles such as

text: magnetic monopoles

text: are not observed in experiments.

text: Many Greek astronomical texts are known only by name, and perhaps by a description or quotations. Some elementary works have survived because they were largely non-mathematical and suitable for use in schools. Books in this class include the Phaenomena of Euclid and two works by Autolycus of Pitane. Three important textbooks, written shortly before Ptolemy's time, were written by Cleomedes, Geminus, and Theon of Smyrna. Books by Roman authors like Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius contain some information on Greek astronomy. The most important primary source is the Almagest, since Ptolemy refers to the work of many of his predecessors (Evans 1998, p. 24).

text: Many Greek astronomical texts are known only by name, and perhaps by a description or quotations. Some elementary works have survived because they were largely non-mathematical and suitable for use in schools. Books in this class include the Phaenomena of

text: Euclid

text: and two works by

text: Autolycus of Pitane

text: . Three important textbooks, written shortly before Ptolemy's time, were written by

text: Cleomedes

text: Geminus

text: , and

text: Theon of Smyrna

text: . Books by Roman authors like Pliny the Elder and

text: Vitruvius

text: contain some information on Greek astronomy. The most important primary source is the Almagest, since Ptolemy refers to the work of many of his predecessors (Evans 1998, p. 24).

text: Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy. A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.

text: Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: . A global scheme was laid out by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU), also endorsed by

text: UNESCO

text: —the

text: UN

text: body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.

text: Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.

text: Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of

text: Greek

text: classical Indian

text: , Sassanian,

text: Byzantine

text: Syria

text: n,

text: medieval Islamic

text: Central Asia

text: n, and

text: Western Europe

text: an astronomy.

text: Following the ancient Roman embassies to China recorded in ancient Chinese histories, there appear to have been contacts between the Byzantine Empire and several dynasties of China, beginning with the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). From Chinese records it is known that Michael VII Doukas (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of Fu lin (拂菻; i.e. Byzantium) dispatched a diplomatic mission to China that eventually arrived in 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty (960-1279 AD). Kublai Khan, the Mongol-ruler who founded the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 AD) of China not only maintained correspondence with the Byzantine Greeks but hosted some of them at his court in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing). The History of Yuan (chapter 134) records that a certain Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph) from the country of Fu lin (i.e. the Byzantine Empire), initially in the service of Güyük Khan, was well-versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of Greek medicine and astronomy that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards. Kublai Khan eventually honored Ai-sie with the noble title of Prince of Fu lin (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng). In his biography within the History of Yuan his children are mentioned by their Chinese names, which bear similarities to the Christian names Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.

text: Following the

text: ancient Roman embassies

text: to China recorded in

text: ancient Chinese histories

text: , there appear to have been contacts between the

text: Byzantine Empire

text: and several

text: dynasties of China

text: , beginning with the

text: Tang Dynasty

text: (618-907 AD). From Chinese records it is known that

text: Michael VII Doukas

text: (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of Fu lin (拂菻; i.e.

text: Byzantium

text: ) dispatched a diplomatic mission to China that eventually arrived in 1081, during the reign of

text: Emperor Shenzong

text: of the

text: Song dynasty

text: (960-1279 AD).

text: Kublai Khan

text: , the

text: Mongol-ruler

text: who founded the

text: Yuan dynasty

text: (1271-1368 AD) of China not only maintained correspondence with the Byzantine Greeks but hosted some of them at his court in

text: Khanbaliq

text: (modern

text: Beijing

text: ). The

text: History of Yuan

text: (chapter 134) records that a certain Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph) from the country of Fu lin (i.e. the Byzantine Empire), initially in the service of

text: Güyük Khan

text: , was well-versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of

text: Greek medicine

text: and

text: astronomy

text: that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards. Kublai Khan eventually honored Ai-sie with the

text: noble title

text: of Prince of Fu lin (

text: Chinese

text: : 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng). In his biography within the History of Yuan his children are mentioned by their

text: Chinese name

text: s, which bear similarities to the

text: Christian name

text: s Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.

text: Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements.

text: Physical cosmology

text: , a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot

text: big bang

text: heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the

text: redshift

text: s of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: Hubble's law

text: and

text: cosmological abundances of elements

text: In science, an early user of the vernacular was Galileo, writing in Italian c. 1600, though some of his works remained in Latin. A later example is Isaac Newton, whose 1687 Principia was in Latin, but whose 1704 Opticks was in English. Latin continues to be used in certain fields of science, notably binomial nomenclature in biology, while other fields such as mathematics use vernacular; see scientific nomenclature for details.

text: In science, an early user of the vernacular was

text: Galileo

text: , writing in Italian c. 1600, though some of his works remained in Latin. A later example is

text: Isaac Newton

text: , whose 1687

text: Principia

text: was in Latin, but whose 1704

text: Opticks

text: was in English. Latin continues to be used in certain fields of science, notably

text: binomial nomenclature

text: in biology, while other fields such as mathematics use vernacular; see

text: scientific nomenclature

text: for details.

text: Asger Hartvig Aaboe (April 26, 1922 – January 19, 2007) was a historian of the exact sciences and mathematician who is known for his contributions to the history of ancient Babylonian astronomy.  He studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Copenhagen, and in 1957 obtained a PhD in the History of Science from Brown University, where he studied under Otto Neugebauer, writing a dissertation "On Babylonian Planetary Theories".  In 1961 he joined the Department of the History of Science and Medicine at Yale University, serving as chair from 1968 to 1971, and continuing an active career there until retiring in 1992.  In his studies of Babylonian astronomy, he went beyond analyses in terms of modern mathematics to seek to understand how the Babylonians conceived their computational schemes.

text: Asger Hartvig Aaboe (April 26, 1922 – January 19, 2007) was a

text: historian of the exact sciences

text: and

text: mathematician

text: who is known for his contributions to the history of ancient

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: .  He studied mathematics and astronomy at the

text: University of Copenhagen

text: , and in 1957 obtained a PhD in the

text: History of Science

text: from

text: Brown University

text: , where he studied under

text: Otto Neugebauer

text: , writing a dissertation "On Babylonian Planetary Theories".  In 1961 he joined the Department of the History of Science and Medicine at

text: Yale University

text: , serving as chair from 1968 to 1971, and continuing an active career there until retiring in 1992.  In his studies of Babylonian astronomy, he went beyond analyses in terms of

entity_section: History: Development of the notion of .22algorithm.22

text: modern mathematics

text: to seek to understand how the Babylonians conceived their computational schemes.

text: Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.

text: Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of

text: Roman numerals

text: with the

text: decimal

text: positional number system

text: and the invention of

text: algebra

text: , which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of

text: Ptolemy

text: 's

text: Almagest

text: from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the

text: school at Salerno

text: The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

text: The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was

text: Bernard de Fontenelle

text: 's

entity_name: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

text: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

text: (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists.

text: Charles Leadbetter's

text: Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738.

text: Émilie du Châtelet

text: 's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university.

text: Francesco Algarotti

text: , writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by

text: Elizabeth Carter

text: . A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by

text: Henry Pemberton

text: . His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves.

text: Sarah Trimmer

text: wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

text: Middle-aged, upper-middle class Greg finds Sylvia, a dog (played by a human), in the park and takes a liking to her.  He brings her back to the empty nest he shares with Kate.  When Kate gets home, she reacts very negatively to Sylvia and wants her gone.  They eventually decide that Sylvia will stay for a few days before they decide whether she can stay longer, but Greg and Sylvia have already bonded. Over the next few days, Greg spends more and more time with Sylvia and less time at his job.  Greg and Sylvia go on long walks; they discuss life and astronomy. Already dissatisfied with his job, Greg now has another reason to avoid work.

text: Woodruff T. Sullivan III ("Woody" Sullivan) (born 1944) is a U.S. physicist and astronomer, known primarily for his work in astrobiology, galactic astronomy and extragalactic astronomy, history of astronomy, gnomonics, and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).

text: Woodruff T. Sullivan III ("Woody" Sullivan) (born 1944) is a

text: U.S.

text: physicist

text: and

text: astronomer

text: , known primarily for his work in

text: astrobiology

text: galactic astronomy

text: and

text: extragalactic astronomy

text: , history of astronomy, gnomonics, and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: SETI

text: Kepler Museum in Prague was founded in the International Year of Astronomy, 2009 thanks to the generosity of the owner of the museum's premises Mrs. Jitka Steinwaldová, the professional and organizational support of the Czech Astronomic Society and the Agentura ProVás, and the financial support of the Magistrate of the Capital City of Prague and the Agentura ProVás.

text: Kepler Museum in Prague was founded in the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: , 2009 thanks to the generosity of the owner of the museum's premises Mrs. Jitka Steinwaldová, the professional and organizational support of the

text: Czech Astronomic Society

text: and the Agentura ProVás, and the financial support of the Magistrate of the Capital City of

text: Prague

text: and the Agentura ProVás.

text: The decans (; Egyptian bakiu) are 36 groups of stars (small constellations) used in the Ancient Egyptian astronomy. They rose consecutively on the horizon throughout each earth rotation. The rising of each decan marked the beginning of a new decanal "hour" (Greek hōra) of the night for the ancient Egyptians, and they were used as a sidereal star clock beginning by at least the 9th or 10th Dynasty (c. 2100 BCE).

text: The decans (; Egyptian bakiu) are 36 groups of stars (small

text: constellation

text: s) used in the

text: Ancient Egyptian astronomy

text: . They rose consecutively on the horizon throughout each earth rotation. The rising of each decan marked the beginning of a new decanal "hour" (Greek hōra) of the night for the

text: ancient Egypt

text: ians, and they were used as a sidereal

text: star clock

text: beginning by at least the 9th or 10th Dynasty (c. 2100 BCE).

text: In 2016 she appeared as a psychiatrist on The Big Bang Theory.

text: In 2016 she appeared as a psychiatrist on

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: Problems with the steady-state theory began to emerge in the 1950s and 60s, when observations began to support the idea that the universe was in fact changing: bright radio sources (quasars and radio galaxies) were found only at large distances (therefore could have existed only in the distant past), not in closer galaxies.  Whereas the Big Bang theory predicted as much, the Steady State theory predicted that such objects would be found throughout the universe, including close to our own galaxy. By 1961, statistical tests based on radio-source surveys had ruled out the steady state model in the minds of most cosmologists, although some proponents of the steady state insisted that the radio data were suspect.

text: Problems with the steady-state theory began to emerge in the 1950s and 60s, when observations began to support the idea that the universe was in fact changing: bright radio sources (

text: quasar

text: s and

text: radio galaxies

text: ) were found only at large distances (therefore could have existed only in the distant past), not in closer galaxies.  Whereas the Big Bang theory predicted as much, the Steady State theory predicted that such objects would be found throughout the universe, including close to our own galaxy. By 1961, statistical tests based on radio-source surveys had ruled out the steady state model in the minds of most cosmologists, although some proponents of the steady state insisted that the radio data were suspect.

text: The prevailing astronomical model of the cosmos in Europe in the 1,400 years leading up to the 16th century was that created by the Roman citizen Claudius Ptolemy in his Almagest, dating from about 150 A.D. Throughout the Middle Ages it was spoken of as the authoritative text on astronomy, although its author remained a little understood figure frequently mistaken as one of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt. The Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between—a separate one for each planet. To account for apparent anomalies in this view, such as the apparent retrograde motion of the planets, a system of deferents and epicycles was used. The planet was said to revolve in a small circle (the epicycle) about a center, which itself revolved in a larger circle (the deferent) about a center on or near the Earth.

text: The prevailing astronomical model of the cosmos in Europe in the 1,400 years leading up to the 16th century was that created by the Roman citizen

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: in his

text: Almagest

text: , dating from about 150 A.D. Throughout the

text: Middle Ages

text: it was spoken of as the authoritative text on astronomy, although its author remained a little understood figure frequently mistaken as one of the

text: Ptolemaic rulers

text: of Egypt. The

text: Ptolemaic system

text: drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between—a separate one for each planet. To account for apparent anomalies in this view, such as the

text: apparent retrograde motion

text: of the planets, a system of

text: deferents and epicycles

text: was used. The planet was said to revolve in a small circle (the epicycle) about a center, which itself revolved in a larger circle (the deferent) about a center on or near the Earth.

text: |-| 8601 Ciconia || 3155 T-2 || Ciconia ciconia, or white stork. |-id=602| 8602 Oedicnemus || 2480 T-3 || The stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus (a bird). |-id=603| 8603 Senator || 3134 T-3 || The woodchat shrike Lanius senator (a bird). |-id=604| 8604 Vanier || 1929 PK || 8604 Vanier Discovered 1929 Aug. 12 by C. J. Krieger at Mt. Hamilton. Jean Vanier (b. 1928) is a philosopher, theologian, author and teacher. As the founder of two global communities (L´Arche, Faith and Light) for people with intellectual disabilities, he presents a compelling vision of a fully human life, lived in compassionate community.|-id=608| 8608 Chelomey ||  || Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomey, designer of space technology, creator of space systems for the Salyut manned space stations |-id=609| 8609 Shuvalov ||  || Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov (1727-1797), was a prominent Russian government figure who contributed to the development of Russian science and art and was a patron of scientists, writers and painters. He was a founder and first curator of Moscow University. |-id=610| 8610 Goldhaber || 1977 UD || Brothers Maurice (b. 1911) and Gerson (b. 1924) Goldhaber contributed to 20th-century physics with discoveries that include charmed mesons and photodisintegration of the deuteron. They are still active members of the SuperKamiokande Collaboration and Supernova Cosmology Project. Name suggested by C. Pennypacker. |-id=611| 8611 Judithgoldhaber ||  || Judith Goldhaber (born 1934), science writer for four decades at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. |-id=612| 8612 Burov ||  || Andrej Konstantinovich Burov (1900-1957), a Russian architect and inventor. |-id=616| 8616 Fogelquist ||  || Rune Fogelquist, Swedish amateur astronomer †|-id=618| 8618 Sethjacobson || 1981 DX || Seth A. Jacobson (b. 1986), a postdoctoral researcher at the Observatoire de Nice. |-id=621| 8621 Jimparsons ||  || American actor James Joseph "Jim" Parsons (b. 1973) portrays the fictional Caltech theoretical physicist Dr. Sheldon Lee Cooper in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=622| 8622 Mayimbialik ||  || American actress and real-life neuroscientist Mayim Hoya Bialik (b. 1975) portrays the fictional neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=623| 8623 Johnnygalecki ||  || American actor John Mark "Johnny" Galecki (b. 1975) portrays the fictional Caltech physicist Dr. Leonard Hofstadter in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=624| 8624 Kaleycuoco ||  || American actress Kaley Cuoco-Sweeting (b. 1985) portrays Penny in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=625| 8625 Simonhelberg ||  || American actor and comedian Simon Maxwell Helberg (b. 1980) portrays the fictional Caltech aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=626| 8626 Melissarauch ||  || American actress and comedian Melissa Ivy Rauch (b. 1980) portrays microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=627| 8627 Kunalnayyar ||  || British-born Indian actor Kunal Nayyar (b. 1981) portrays the fictional Caltech astrophysicist Dr. Rajesh Koothrappali in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=628| 8628 Davidsaltzberg ||  || David Saltzberg (b. 1967) is a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, and science consultant for the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=629| 8629 Chucklorre ||  || Chuck Lorre (born Charles Michael Levine, 1952) is an American television writer, director, and producer. He is co-creator and executive producer of the situation comedy "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=630| 8630 Billprady ||  || William Scott Prady (b. 1960) is an American television writer and producer. He is co-creator and executive producer of the situation comedy "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=632| 8632 Egleston || 1981 FR || Margaret Ericksen Egleston (b. 1943), a scientific programmer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics since 1984. |-id=633| 8633 Keisukenagao ||  || Keisuke Nagao (b. 1949), a professor at the Geochemical Research Center of the University of Tokyo. |-id=634| 8634 Neubauer || 1981 GG || Fritz Neubauer (b. 1940), a pioneer in space science. |-id=635| 8635 Yuriosipov ||  || Yurij Aleksandrovich Osipov (b. 1965), a physician at the Bakhchisaraj regional hospital in the Crimea. |-id=636| 8636 Malvina ||  || Daughter of astronomer Alain Maury †|-id=640| 8640 Ritaschulz ||  || Rita Schulz, a German planetary scientist. |-id=642| 8642 Shawnkerry ||  || Shawn Kerry Moore Bus (b. 1956), the wife of the discoverer. |-id=643| 8643 Quercus || 1988 SC || Named for Quercus, a genus belonging to the family Fagaceae. The tree Quercus robur (English oak) reaches a height of 30-40 m and an age of more than a thousand years. |-id=644| 8644 Betulapendula || 1988 SD || Named for Betula pendula (silver birch), a species in the genus Betula belonging to the family Betulaceae. It is a beautiful tree with an almost white bark. It grows fast and reaches a height of about 25 m and an age of 60-80 years. |-id=647| 8647 Populus || 1989 RG || Named for Populus, a genus belonging to the family Salicaceae. Populus nigra (black poplar) is a fast-growing tree with a height of about 30 m, whereas Populus tremula (trembling aspen) is easily recognizable by its shimmering appearance. |-id=648| 8648 Salix || 1989 RJ || Named for Salix, a genus belonging to the family Salicaceae. Salix alba (white willow) is a small tree with long, thin leaves. This fast-growing tree is used for windbreaks and screens. Salix caprea (goat or pussy willow) is a fast-growing small tree with striking catkins in early spring. |-id=649| 8649 Juglans ||  || Named for Juglans, a genus belonging to the family Juglandaceae. Juglans regia (English walnut) produces a particularly delicious fruit. |-id=651| 8651 Alineraynal ||  || Aline Raynal-Roques (b. 1937), professor of botany at the Muséum National d´Histoire Naturelle de Paris. |-id=652| 8652 Acacia ||  || Named for Acacia, belonging to the family Mimosaceae. Acacia mearnsii (mimosa) is a shrub with feathery leaves composed of many small leaflets. The strongly scented tiny yellow flowers are grouped in loose, rounded clusters. |-id=656| 8656 Cupressus ||  || Named for Cupressus, belonging to the family Cupressaceae. Cupressus macrocarpia (Monterrey cypress) produces a durable wood. Cupressocyparis leylandii (Leyland cypress), hybridized from the macrocarpia, has scale-like dark green leaves that are arranged at various angles to the shoot. These trees are typical of the landscape in Tuscany. |-id=657| 8657 Cedrus ||  || Named for Cedrus, belonging to the family Pinaceae. Cedrus libani (cedar of Lebanon) has a fruit that is an ovoid upright cone. |-id=660| 8660 Sano ||  || Yasuo Sano (b. 1959), a staff member of the Nayoro Municipal Kihara Observatory. |-id=661| 8661 Ratzinger ||  || Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (b. 1927), a German professor of theology. |-id=663| 8663 Davidjohnston ||  || David Alexander Johnston (1949-1980), an American volcanologist. |-id=664| 8664 Grigorijrichters ||  || Grigorij Richters (b. 1987), a film director and producer, who has worked to increase awareness of the dangers of asteroid impacts on the Earth. In 2014 he founded Asteroid Day, a world-wide organisation centered on identifying all dangerous NEOs and developing ways to avoid an impending catastrophe. |-id=665| 8665 Daun-Eifel ||  || Daun, a city in the Eifel region of Germany. |-id=666| 8666 Reuter ||  || Fritz Reuter (1810-1874), a German poet and social critic. |-id=667| 8667 Fontane ||  || Named for Theodor Fontane (1819-1898) on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of his death. He brought the German novel to worldwide importance. |-id=668| 8668 Satomimura || 1991 HM || Satomimura (Satomi village), Ibaraki prefecture, Japan, 150 km north of Tokyo, famous for its starry sky and annual autumn star party |-id=672| 8672 Morse ||  || Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872), an American painter and inventor who in 1838 developed the code of dots and dashes that now bears his name. |-id=676| 8676 Lully ||  || Jean-Baptiste Lully, Italian-born French composer. |-id=677| 8677 Charlier ||  || Carl Vilhelm Ludvig Charlier, Swedish astronomer †|-id=678| 8678 Bäl ||  || Bäl, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=679| 8679 Tingstäde ||  || Tingstäde, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=680| 8680 Rone ||  || Rone, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=681| 8681 Burs ||  || Burs, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=682| 8682 Kräklingbo ||  || Kräklingbo, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=683| 8683 Sjölander ||  || Nils Göran Sjölander, Swedish astronomer †|-id=684| 8684 Reichwein ||  || Adolf Reichwein, resistance fighter in Nazi Germany|-id=685| 8685 Fauré ||  || Gabriel Fauré, French composer. |-id=686| 8686 Akenside ||  || Mark Akenside (1721-1770), a British poet and physician. |-id=687| 8687 Caussols || 1992 PV || The observatory at Caussols, in the French Alps-Maritimes, is situated above the northern part of a 1100-m high, open and flat plain, the Plateau de Caussols, about 10 km from the Route Napoléon. |-id=688| 8688 Delaunay ||  || Charles-Eugène Delaunay (1816-1872), a French mathematician and astronomer. |-id=690| 8690 Swindle ||  || Timothy D. Swindle (b. 1955), of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, is a meteoriticist who has specialized in the study of noble gases in meteorites. |-id=691| 8691 Etsuko ||  || Etsuko Kobayashi (b. 1926), the first female lecturer at the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo. |-id=693| 8693 Matsuki ||  || Noboru Matsuki (b. 1934), an amateur astronomer. |-id=695| 8695 Bergvall ||  || Nils Bergvall, Swedish astronomer †|-id=696| 8696 Kjeriksson ||  || Kjell Eriksson, Swedish astronomer †|-id=697| 8697 Olofsson ||  || Kjell Olofsson, Swedish astronomer †|-id=698| 8698 Bertilpettersson ||  || Bertil Pettersson, Swedish astronomer †|-id=700| 8700 Gevaert ||  || Lieven Gevaert, Belgian (Flemish) founder of L. Gevaert & Cie, manufacturer of photographic paper, which merged with Actien-Gesellschaft für Anilin-Fabrikation to become Agfa Geveart Group †|}

text: 8601 Ciconia

text: || 3155 T-2 || Ciconia ciconia, or white stork. |-id=602|

text: 8602 Oedicnemus

text: || 2480 T-3 || The

text: stone curlew

text: Burhinus oedicnemus (a bird). |-id=603|

text: 8603 Senator

text: || 3134 T-3 || The

text: woodchat shrike

text: Lanius senator (a bird). |-id=604|

text: 8604 Vanier

text: || 1929 PK || 8604 Vanier Discovered 1929 Aug. 12 by C. J. Krieger at Mt. Hamilton. Jean Vanier (b. 1928) is a philosopher, theologian, author and teacher. As the founder of two global communities (L´Arche, Faith and Light) for people with intellectual disabilities, he presents a compelling vision of a fully human life, lived in compassionate community.|-id=608|

text: 8608 Chelomey

text: Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomey

text: , designer of space technology, creator of space systems for the

text: Salyut

text: manned space stations |-id=609|

text: 8609 Shuvalov

text: Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov

text: (1727-1797), was a prominent Russian government figure who contributed to the development of Russian science and art and was a patron of scientists, writers and painters. He was a founder and first curator of Moscow University. |-id=610|

text: 8610 Goldhaber

text: || 1977 UD || Brothers Maurice (b. 1911) and Gerson (b. 1924) Goldhaber contributed to 20th-century physics with discoveries that include charmed mesons and photodisintegration of the deuteron. They are still active members of the SuperKamiokande Collaboration and Supernova Cosmology Project. Name suggested by C. Pennypacker. |-id=611|

text: 8611 Judithgoldhaber

text: ||  || Judith Goldhaber (born 1934), science writer for four decades at

text: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

text: . |-id=612|

text: 8612 Burov

text: ||  || Andrej Konstantinovich Burov (1900-1957), a Russian architect and inventor. |-id=616|

text: 8616 Fogelquist

text: Rune Fogelquist

text: , Swedish amateur astronomer †|-id=618|

text: 8618 Sethjacobson

text: || 1981 DX || Seth A. Jacobson (b. 1986), a postdoctoral researcher at the Observatoire de Nice. |-id=621|

text: 8621 Jimparsons

text: ||  || American actor James Joseph "Jim" Parsons (b. 1973) portrays the fictional Caltech theoretical physicist Dr. Sheldon Lee Cooper in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=622|

text: 8622 Mayimbialik

text: ||  || American actress and real-life neuroscientist

text: Mayim Hoya Bialik

text: (b. 1975) portrays the fictional neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=623|

text: 8623 Johnnygalecki

text: ||  || American actor John Mark "Johnny" Galecki (b. 1975) portrays the fictional Caltech physicist Dr. Leonard Hofstadter in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=624|

text: 8624 Kaleycuoco

text: ||  || American actress Kaley Cuoco-Sweeting (b. 1985) portrays Penny in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=625|

text: 8625 Simonhelberg

text: ||  || American actor and comedian

text: Simon Maxwell Helberg

text: (b. 1980) portrays the fictional Caltech aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=626|

text: 8626 Melissarauch

text: ||  || American actress and comedian

text: Melissa Ivy Rauch

text: (b. 1980) portrays microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=627|

text: 8627 Kunalnayyar

text: ||  || British-born Indian actor

text: Kunal Nayyar

text: (b. 1981) portrays the fictional Caltech astrophysicist Dr. Rajesh Koothrappali in the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=628|

text: 8628 Davidsaltzberg

text: David Saltzberg

text: (b. 1967) is a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, and science consultant for the television sitcom "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=629|

text: 8629 Chucklorre

text: Chuck Lorre

text: (born Charles Michael Levine, 1952) is an American television writer, director, and producer. He is co-creator and executive producer of the situation comedy "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=630|

text: 8630 Billprady

text: William Scott Prady

text: (b. 1960) is an American television writer and producer. He is co-creator and executive producer of the situation comedy "The Big Bang Theory". |-id=632|

text: 8632 Egleston

text: || 1981 FR || Margaret Ericksen Egleston (b. 1943), a scientific programmer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics since 1984. |-id=633|

text: 8633 Keisukenagao

text: ||  || Keisuke Nagao (b. 1949), a professor at the Geochemical Research Center of the University of Tokyo. |-id=634|

text: 8634 Neubauer

text: || 1981 GG ||

text: Fritz Neubauer

text: (b. 1940), a pioneer in space science. |-id=635|

text: 8635 Yuriosipov

text: ||  || Yurij Aleksandrovich Osipov (b. 1965), a physician at the Bakhchisaraj regional hospital in the Crimea. |-id=636|

text: 8636 Malvina

text: ||  || Daughter of astronomer

text: Alain Maury

text: 8640 Ritaschulz

text: Rita Schulz

text: , a German planetary scientist. |-id=642|

text: 8642 Shawnkerry

text: ||  || Shawn Kerry Moore Bus (b. 1956), the wife of the discoverer. |-id=643|

text: 8643 Quercus

text: || 1988 SC || Named for Quercus, a genus belonging to the family Fagaceae. The tree Quercus robur (English oak) reaches a height of 30-40 m and an age of more than a thousand years. |-id=644|

text: 8644 Betulapendula

text: || 1988 SD || Named for Betula pendula (

text: silver birch

text: ), a species in the genus Betula belonging to the family Betulaceae. It is a beautiful tree with an almost white bark. It grows fast and reaches a height of about 25 m and an age of 60-80 years. |-id=647|

text: 8647 Populus

text: || 1989 RG || Named for Populus, a genus belonging to the family Salicaceae. Populus nigra (

text: black poplar

text: ) is a fast-growing tree with a height of about 30 m, whereas

text: Populus tremula

text: (trembling aspen) is easily recognizable by its shimmering appearance. |-id=648|

text: 8648 Salix

text: || 1989 RJ || Named for Salix, a genus belonging to the family Salicaceae. Salix alba (

text: white willow

text: ) is a small tree with long, thin leaves. This fast-growing tree is used for windbreaks and screens. Salix caprea (goat or pussy willow) is a fast-growing small tree with striking catkins in early spring. |-id=649|

text: 8649 Juglans

text: ||  || Named for Juglans, a genus belonging to the family Juglandaceae. Juglans regia (

text: English walnut

text: ) produces a particularly delicious fruit. |-id=651|

text: 8651 Alineraynal

text: ||  || Aline Raynal-Roques (b. 1937), professor of botany at the

entity_name: National Museum of Natural History (France)

text: Muséum National d´Histoire Naturelle de Paris

text: . |-id=652|

text: 8652 Acacia

text: ||  || Named for Acacia, belonging to the family Mimosaceae. Acacia mearnsii (

text: mimosa

text: ) is a shrub with feathery leaves composed of many small leaflets. The strongly scented tiny yellow flowers are grouped in loose, rounded clusters. |-id=656|

text: 8656 Cupressus

text: ||  || Named for Cupressus, belonging to the family Cupressaceae. Cupressus macrocarpia (

text: Monterrey cypress

text: ) produces a durable wood. Cupressocyparis leylandii (

text: Leyland cypress

text: ), hybridized from the macrocarpia, has scale-like dark green leaves that are arranged at various angles to the shoot. These trees are typical of the landscape in Tuscany. |-id=657|

text: 8657 Cedrus

text: ||  || Named for Cedrus, belonging to the family Pinaceae. Cedrus libani (

text: cedar of Lebanon

text: ) has a fruit that is an ovoid upright cone. |-id=660|

text: 8660 Sano

text: ||  || Yasuo Sano (b. 1959), a staff member of the Nayoro Municipal Kihara Observatory. |-id=661|

text: 8661 Ratzinger

text: ||  || Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (b. 1927), a German professor of theology. |-id=663|

text: 8663 Davidjohnston

text: ||  || David Alexander Johnston (1949-1980), an American volcanologist. |-id=664|

text: 8664 Grigorijrichters

text: Grigorij Richters

text: (b. 1987), a film director and producer, who has worked to increase awareness of the dangers of asteroid impacts on the Earth. In 2014 he founded

text: Asteroid Day

text: , a world-wide organisation centered on identifying all dangerous NEOs and developing ways to avoid an impending catastrophe. |-id=665|

text: 8665 Daun-Eifel

text: Daun

text: , a city in the

text: Eifel region

text: of Germany. |-id=666|

text: 8666 Reuter

text: ||  || Fritz Reuter (1810-1874), a German poet and social critic. |-id=667|

text: 8667 Fontane

text: ||  || Named for

text: Theodor Fontane

text: (1819-1898) on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of his death. He brought the German novel to worldwide importance. |-id=668|

text: 8668 Satomimura

text: || 1991 HM || Satomimura (Satomi village), Ibaraki prefecture, Japan, 150 km north of Tokyo, famous for its starry sky and annual autumn star party |-id=672|

text: 8672 Morse

text: Samuel F. B. Morse

text: (1791-1872), an American painter and inventor who in 1838 developed the code of dots and dashes that now bears his name. |-id=676|

text: 8676 Lully

text: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: , Italian-born French composer. |-id=677|

text: 8677 Charlier

text: Carl Vilhelm Ludvig Charlier

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=678|

text: 8678 Bäl

text: Bäl

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=679|

text: 8679 Tingstäde

text: Tingstäde

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=680|

text: 8680 Rone

text: Rone

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=681|

text: 8681 Burs

text: Burs

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=682|

text: 8682 Kräklingbo

text: Kräklingbo

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=683|

text: 8683 Sjölander

text: Nils Göran Sjölander

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=684|

text: 8684 Reichwein

text: Adolf Reichwein

text: , resistance fighter in Nazi Germany|-id=685|

text: 8685 Fauré

text: Gabriel Fauré

text: , French composer. |-id=686|

text: 8686 Akenside

text: Mark Akenside

text: (1721-1770), a British poet and physician. |-id=687|

text: 8687 Caussols

text: || 1992 PV || The observatory at Caussols, in the French Alps-Maritimes, is situated above the northern part of a 1100-m high, open and flat plain, the Plateau de Caussols, about 10 km from the Route Napoléon. |-id=688|

text: 8688 Delaunay

text: Charles-Eugène Delaunay

text: (1816-1872), a French mathematician and astronomer. |-id=690|

text: 8690 Swindle

text: Timothy D. Swindle

text: (b. 1955), of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, is a meteoriticist who has specialized in the study of noble gases in meteorites. |-id=691|

text: 8691 Etsuko

text: ||  || Etsuko Kobayashi (b. 1926), the first female lecturer at the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo. |-id=693|

text: 8693 Matsuki

text: ||  || Noboru Matsuki (b. 1934), an amateur astronomer. |-id=695|

text: 8695 Bergvall

text: Nils Bergvall

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=696|

text: 8696 Kjeriksson

text: Kjell Eriksson

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=697|

text: 8697 Olofsson

text: Kjell Olofsson

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=698|

text: 8698 Bertilpettersson

text: Bertil Pettersson

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=700|

text: 8700 Gevaert

text: Lieven Gevaert

text: , Belgian (Flemish) founder of L. Gevaert & Cie, manufacturer of photographic paper, which merged with Actien-Gesellschaft für Anilin-Fabrikation to become

text: Agfa Geveart Group

text: By the 1st century BC, during the Hellenistic period, the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye. These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. So complete was the domination of Ptolemy's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries. To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets, each presumed to be circling Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy. They were, in increasing order from Earth (in Ptolemy's order): the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

text: By the 1st century BC, during the

text: Hellenistic period

text: , the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye. These theories would reach their fullest expression in the

text: Almagest

text: written by

text: Ptolemy

text: in the 2nd century CE. So complete was the domination of Ptolemy's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries. To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets, each presumed to be

text: circling Earth

text: according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy. They were, in increasing order from Earth (in Ptolemy's order): the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

text: Professor P. Devadas was an amateur astronomer from India. A fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and a member of the British Astronomical Association, the Astronomical Society of India, the Planetary Society and the Optical Society of India, Devadas heads the Tamil Nadu Astronomy Association. He teaches observational and practical astronomy and astrophysics to school and college students visiting the Tamil Nadu Science and Technology Centre, where he is called upon to give lectures.

text: Professor P. Devadas was an

text: amateur astronomer

text: from India. A fellow of the

text: Royal Astronomical Society

text: and a member of the

text: British Astronomical Association

text: , the Astronomical Society of India, the

text: Planetary Society

text: and the

text: Optical Society of India

text: , Devadas heads the Tamil Nadu Astronomy Association. He teaches

text: observational

text: and practical

text: astronomy

text: and

text: astrophysics

text: to school and college students visiting the Tamil Nadu Science and Technology Centre, where he is called upon to give lectures.

text: Wil Wheaton- Starring in Star Trek: The Next Generation, The Guild, and current recurring roles on Eureka and The Big Bang Theory, Wil appears in a dual role in the episode "Spaceship Spitzer: Bots of Both Worlds": as both himself and the voice of robot co-pilot Irwin. Wil next appears as "The Physician" in the Doctor Who spoof "Robot Astronomy Talk Show: Destroyer of Worlds", and cameos in the episode "Ask an Astronomy Brain Parasite".

text: Wil Wheaton

text: - Starring in

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: The Guild

text: , and current recurring roles on

text: Eureka

text: and

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: , Wil appears in a dual role in the episode "Spaceship Spitzer: Bots of Both Worlds": as both himself and the voice of robot co-pilot Irwin. Wil next appears as "The Physician" in the Doctor Who spoof "Robot Astronomy Talk Show: Destroyer of Worlds", and cameos in the episode "Ask an Astronomy Brain Parasite".

text: Fragments of texts during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers. Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via Arabic translations. During the Latin translations of the 12th century, Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta), was translated into Latin in 1126 and was influential at the time.

text: Fragments of texts during this period indicate that

text: Arab

text: s adopted the

text: sine function

text: (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the

text: chord

text: s of

text: arc

text: used in

text: Hellenistic mathematics

text: . Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by

text: Muslim astronomers

text: . Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via

text: Arabic

text: translations. During the

text: Latin translations of the 12th century

text: Muhammad al-Fazari

text: 's Great Sindhind (based on the

text: Surya Siddhanta

text: and the works of

text: Brahmagupta

text: ), was translated into

text: Latin

text: in 1126 and was influential at the time.

text: while, in accordance with Kepler's laws of planetary motion (based on the conservation of angular momentum) and the conservation of energy, these two quantities are constant for a given orbit:

text: while, in accordance with

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: (based on the conservation of

text: angular momentum

text: ) and the conservation of energy, these two quantities are constant for a given orbit:

text: The team leader, Michael Liu of the Institute for Astronomy at the University of Hawaii, stated: "We have never before seen an object free-floating in space that looks like this. It has all the characteristics of young planets found around other stars, but it is drifting out there all alone." Current theories about such objects include the possibility that gravitational perturbations may have kicked them out of their planetary systems soon after they formed through planetary accretion, or they may have been formed by some other means. Estimated temperatures inside its clouds exceed . The clouds, made of hot dust and molten iron, show how widespread clouds are in planets and planet-like objects.

text: The team leader, Michael Liu of the

text: Institute for Astronomy

text: at the

text: University of Hawaii

text: , stated: "We have never before seen an object free-floating in space that looks like this. It has all the characteristics of young planets found around other stars, but it is drifting out there all alone." Current theories about such objects include the possibility that

text: gravitational perturbations

text: may have kicked them out of their planetary systems soon after they formed through

text: planetary

text: accretion

text: , or they may have been formed by some other means. Estimated temperatures inside its clouds exceed . The clouds, made of hot dust and molten iron, show how widespread clouds are in planets and planet-like objects.

text: Often cited as the father of modern science, Galileo brought together the ideas of other great thinkers of his time and began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled from some starting position and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall. This acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory. For everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion.

text: Often cited as the father of modern science,

text: Galileo

text: brought together the ideas of other great thinkers of his time and began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled from some starting position and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall. This acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory. For everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion.

text: Astronomy Now is a monthly British magazine on astronomy and space. According to the Royal Astronomical Society, Astronomy Now is the "principal amateur astronomy magazine in Britain" with a reputed circulation of 24,000.

text: Astronomy Now is a monthly

text: British

text: magazine

text: on

text: astronomy

text: and space. According to the

text: Royal Astronomical Society

text: , Astronomy Now is the "principal amateur astronomy magazine in Britain" with a reputed circulation of 24,000.

text: According to Herodotus the ancient Egyptian demigods began 11,340 years before the reign of Seti I (1290 BC), so 11,340 + 1290 = 12,630 BC, while he listed earlier figures, 15,000 and 17,000, for the reign of the gods. These figures were discussed by Isaac Newton in his The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) but were dismissed as fabrications. The mathematician and esotericist R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, however, in his work Sacred Science, reconstructed these dates to conclude that the ancient Egyptians dated their creation to an astronomical (stellar) event some 30,000 years before Herodotus' own time. Martianus Capella, a pagan writer, wrote in his De nuptiis in the 5th century AD that the ancient Egyptians had archives of astronomy which started 40,000 years before his own era. The ancient Greek writer Diodorus Siculus wrote that the ancient Egyptians dated their creation (or start of their reign of Gods) "a little less than eighteen thousand years" from Ptolemy XII Auletes (117–51 BC).

text: According to

text: Herodotus

text: the ancient Egyptian demigods began 11,340 years before the reign of

text: Seti I

text: (1290 BC), so 11,340 + 1290 = 12,630 BC, while he listed earlier figures, 15,000 and 17,000, for the reign of the gods. These figures were discussed by

text: Isaac Newton

text: in his

entity_name: The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended

text: The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended

text: (1728) but were dismissed as fabrications. The mathematician and esotericist

text: R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz

text: , however, in his work Sacred Science, reconstructed these dates to conclude that the ancient Egyptians dated their creation to an astronomical (stellar) event some 30,000 years before

text: Herodotus

text: ' own time.

text: Martianus Capella

text: , a pagan writer, wrote in his De nuptiis in the 5th century AD that the ancient Egyptians had archives of astronomy which started 40,000 years before his own era. The ancient Greek writer

text: Diodorus Siculus

text: wrote that the ancient Egyptians dated their creation (or start of their reign of Gods) "a little less than eighteen thousand years" from

text: Ptolemy XII Auletes

text: (117–51 BC).

text: These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In astronomy, a "metal" is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang.  Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang.

text: These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In

text: astronomy

text: , a "metal" is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang.  Thus, the

text: metallicity

text: of a

text: galaxy

text: or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang.

text: While most would acknowledge Beethoven's intellectual property in the form of his musical compositions, almost everyone would deny that Isaac Newton’s discovery and description of the universal law of gravitation is Newton’s property. Newton’s law of gravitation, as he expounded it, is no less a creation of his mind than Beethoven’s 5th symphony. Beethoven created his music by his unique skill in the musical arts of composition, melody, harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration. Newton created his description of the universal law of gravitation by his unique skill in integrating the discoveries of his intellectual antecedents such as Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Furthermore, in order to work out his theory of gravitation, Newton had to innovate a completely new form of mathematics, the calculus. (Newton's contemporary, Gottfried Leibniz, also developed the calculus independently of Newton.)

text: While most would acknowledge Beethoven's intellectual property in the form of his musical compositions, almost everyone would deny that

text: Isaac Newton’s

text: discovery and description of the universal law of gravitation is Newton’s property. Newton’s law of gravitation, as he expounded it, is no less a creation of his mind than Beethoven’s 5th symphony. Beethoven created his music by his unique skill in the musical arts of composition, melody, harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration. Newton created his description of the universal law of gravitation by his unique skill in integrating the discoveries of his intellectual antecedents such as

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and

text: Johannes Kepler

text: . Furthermore, in order to work out his theory of gravitation, Newton had to innovate a completely new form of mathematics, the

text: calculus

text: . (Newton's contemporary,

text: Gottfried Leibniz

text: , also developed the calculus independently of Newton.)

text: Their work have influenced numerous artists, including Jill Scott, Pixie Lott, A*M*E, Dakota Fanning, Nelly Furtado, Jaden Smith, Astro, BTS, Teen Top, Monsta X, Chang Kiha, Sonamoo, Topp Dogg, Nu'est, Mamamoo's Hwasa, Got7's BamBam, Block B's U-Kwon, iKon, and Grimes.  The latter also stated that K-pop, in particular G-Dragon, has influenced her musical style "more visually than anything else." The Chinese boy band OkBang was specifically fashioned after Big Bang and was stated to have "many similarities to Big Bang in terms of musical style, wardrobe and hairstyles."  Filipino singer-actress Glaiza de Castro draws inspirations from Big Bang and their stage presence when performing original Pilipino music and acting. Rapper BewhY, the winner of Show Me the Money 5, revealed he started rapping after listening to Big Bang.

text: Their work have influenced numerous artists, including

text: Jill Scott

text: Pixie Lott

text: A*M*E

text: Dakota Fanning

text: Nelly Furtado

text: Jaden Smith

text: Astro

text: BTS

text: Teen Top

text: Monsta X

text: Chang Kiha

text: Sonamoo

text: Topp Dogg

text: Nu'est

text: Mamamoo

text: 's Hwasa,

text: 's

text: BamBam

text: Block B

text: 's U-Kwon,

text: iKon

text: , and

text: Grimes

text: .  The latter also stated that K-pop, in particular

text: G-Dragon

text: , has influenced her musical style "more visually than anything else." The Chinese boy band OkBang was specifically fashioned after Big Bang and was stated to have "many similarities to Big Bang in terms of musical style, wardrobe and hairstyles."  Filipino singer-actress

text: Glaiza de Castro

text: draws inspirations from Big Bang and their stage presence when performing

text: original Pilipino music

text: and acting. Rapper BewhY, the winner of

text: Show Me the Money 5

text: , revealed he started rapping after listening to Big Bang.

text: The various sun-dials, including a tropical sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain found in the excavations also suggest that some transmission into Indian astronomy may have happened, due to the numerous interactions with the Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India.

text: The various sun-dials, including a tropical sundial adjusted to the latitude of

text: Ujjain

text: found in the excavations also suggest that some transmission into

text: Indian astronomy

text: may have happened, due to the numerous interactions with the

text: Mauryan Empire

text: , and the later expansion of the

text: Indo-Greeks

text: into India.

text: Ussher's chronology represented a considerable feat of scholarship: it demanded great depth of learning in what was then known of ancient history, including the rise of the Persians, Greeks and Romans, as well as expertise in the Bible, biblical languages, astronomy, ancient calendars and chronology. Ussher's account of historical events for which he had multiple sources other than the Bible is usually in close agreement with modern accounts – for example, he placed the death of Alexander in 323 BC and that of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Ussher's last extra-biblical co-ordinate was the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, and beyond this point he had to rely on other considerations. Faced with inconsistent texts of the Torah, each with a different number of years between Flood and Creation, Ussher chose the Masoretic version, which claims an unbroken history of careful transcription stretching back centuries — but his choice was confirmed for him, because it placed Creation exactly four thousand years before 4 BC, the generally accepted date for the birth of the 'Jesus' of the Christian faith; moreover, he calculated, Solomon's temple was completed in the year 3000 from creation, so that there were exactly 1000 years from the temple to Jesus, who was supposedly the 'fulfillment' of the Temple.

text: Ussher's chronology represented a considerable feat of scholarship: it demanded great depth of learning in what was then known of ancient history, including the rise of the Persians, Greeks and Romans, as well as expertise in the Bible, biblical languages, astronomy, ancient calendars and chronology. Ussher's account of historical events for which he had multiple sources other than the Bible is usually in close agreement with modern accounts – for example, he placed the death of

text: Alexander

text: in 323 BC and that of

text: Julius Caesar

text: in 44 BC. Ussher's last extra-biblical co-ordinate was the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, and beyond this point he had to rely on other considerations. Faced with inconsistent texts of the Torah, each with a different number of years between Flood and Creation, Ussher chose the Masoretic version, which claims an unbroken history of careful transcription stretching back centuries — but his choice was confirmed for him, because it placed Creation exactly four thousand years before 4 BC, the generally accepted date for the birth of the 'Jesus' of the Christian faith; moreover, he calculated, Solomon's temple was completed in the year 3000 from creation, so that there were exactly 1000 years from the temple to Jesus, who was supposedly the 'fulfillment' of the Temple.

text: Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens, and Robert Hooke, made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it.

text: Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including

text: Galileo

text: Kepler

text: Isaac Newton

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: , and

text: Robert Hooke

text: , made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it.

text: Gerald James Toomer (born 23 November 1934) is a historian of astronomy and mathematics who has written numerous books and papers on ancient Greek and medieval Islamic astronomy.  In particular, he translated Ptolemy's Almagest into English.

text: Gerald James Toomer (born 23 November 1934) is a

text: historian

text: of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: who has written numerous books and papers on ancient Greek and medieval Islamic astronomy.  In particular, he translated

text: Ptolemy

text: 's

text: Almagest

text: into English.

text: The bat'leth has appeared in television programs outside the Star Trek franchise. In 2002, it was seen in Stargate SG-1 episode "The Other Guys". In 2005, a bat'leth was in the background of the US detective series Monk episode "Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra". In 2010, one was seen in the "Chuck Versus the Beard" episode of American comedy series Chuck. In 2011, a bat'leth was used in American situation comedy The Big Bang Theory episode "The Zarnecki Incursion".

text: The bat'leth has appeared in television programs outside the Star Trek franchise. In 2002, it was seen in

text: Stargate SG-1

text: episode "

text: The Other Guys

text: ". In 2005, a bat'leth was in the background of the US detective series

text: Monk

text: episode "

text: Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra

text: ". In 2010, one was seen in the "

text: Chuck Versus the Beard

text: " episode of American comedy series

text: Chuck

text: . In 2011, a bat'leth was used in American

text: situation comedy

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: episode "The Zarnecki Incursion".

text: The song is described by critics as reminiscent of Green Day's early punk rock days of 39/Smooth (1990), Kerplunk! (1992), and Dookie (1994), as well as hints of their album 21st Century Breakdown (2009). "Bang Bang" is considered to be a combination of the "’90s Green Day sound and the 2000s Green Day lyrics". The song was described to reflect a state of confusion in today's world while trying to figure out one's position amongst the chaos; something noted by Armstrong to also be "a big theme through all of Green Day's history", about "feeling lost".

text: The song is described by critics as reminiscent of Green Day's early punk rock days of

text: Kerplunk!

text: (1992), and

text: Dookie

text: (1994), as well as hints of their album

text: 21st Century Breakdown

text: (2009). "Bang Bang" is considered to be a combination of the "’90s Green Day sound and the 2000s Green Day lyrics". The song was described to reflect a state of confusion in today's world while trying to figure out one's position amongst the chaos; something noted by Armstrong to also be "a big theme through all of Green Day's history", about "feeling lost".

text: In physical cosmology, cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just inflation is a theory of exponential expansion of space in the early universe. The inflationary epoch lasted from 10 seconds after the conjectured Big Bang singularity to sometime between 10 and 10 seconds after the singularity. Following the inflationary period, the Universe continues to expand, but at a less rapid rate.

text: In

text: physical cosmology

text: , cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just inflation is a theory of exponential

text: expansion of space

text: in the early

text: universe

text: . The

text: inflationary epoch

text: lasted from 10 seconds after the conjectured

text: Big Bang

text: singularity to sometime between 10 and 10 seconds after the singularity. Following the inflationary period, the Universe continues to expand, but at a less rapid rate.

text: Two central figures in the early modern age are Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. Galileo's final statement of his mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his Two New Sciences (1638). Newton's 1687 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica provided a detailed mathematical account of mechanics, using the newly developed mathematics of calculus and providing the basis of Newtonian mechanics.

text: Two central figures in the early modern age are

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and

text: Isaac Newton

text: . Galileo's final statement of his mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his

text: Two New Sciences

text: (1638). Newton's 1687

text: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: provided a detailed mathematical account of mechanics, using the newly developed mathematics of

text: calculus

text: and providing the basis of

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: Despite the pressure of the GPO, the Committee decided that the motion does not have sufficient grounds, as the evidence provided could not be deemed sufficient; it is impossible to conclude the lawfulness of the collection of the evidence mentioned in the Motion, as the General Prosecutor of Ukraine has not provided the respective materials requested by the Committee, which would confirm otherwise.In compliance with Paragraph 4 of Article 220 of the Rules of Procedure of Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, the Chairman of Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine must return the Motion to the GPO in the absence of sufficient evidence to justify the Motion. For the first time in the history of Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine a precendent was established when a Motion was not returned to the General Prosecutor Office of Ukraine.

text: NAOJ is the national center for astronomy research in Japan. It provides observational facilities to researchers throughout the country and promotes joint research programs. It also utilizes the development of astronomy and other related fields as opportunities for international cooperation.

text: In 1957, Schealer wrote This Way to the Stars, an astronomy textbook aimed at ten- to fourteen-year-old readers which discussed the history of astronomy.

text: The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.

text: The discovery by

text: Karl Jansky

text: in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of

text: radio astronomy

text: . Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for

text: infrared

text: ultraviolet

text: gamma-ray

text: , and

text: X-ray astronomy

text: A roller screw, also known as a planetary roller screw or satellite roller screw, is a low-friction precision screw-type actuator, a mechanical device for converting rotational motion to linear motion, or vice versa.  Planetary roller screws are used as the actuating mechanism in many electro-mechanical linear actuators.  Due to its complexity the roller screw is a relatively expensive actuator (as much as an order of magnitude more expensive than ball screws), but may be suitable for high-precision, high-speed, heavy-load, long-life and heavy-use applications.

text: A roller screw, also known as a planetary roller screw or satellite roller screw, is a low-

text: friction

text: precision screw-type

text: actuator

text: , a mechanical device for converting rotational motion to linear motion, or vice versa.  Planetary roller screws are used as the actuating mechanism in many electro-mechanical

text: linear actuator

text: s.  Due to its complexity the roller screw is a relatively expensive actuator (as much as an

text: order of magnitude

text: more expensive than

text: ball screw

text: s), but may be suitable for high-precision, high-speed, heavy-load, long-life and heavy-use applications.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their declination or motion; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries, planetary hours, body and character types, and so on.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their

text: declination

text: or

text: motion

text: ; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries,

text: planetary hours

text: , body and character types, and so on.

text: Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true, as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Engineering above.)

text: Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and

text: René Descartes

text: , was a precursor of the

text: classical mechanics

text: developed by

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: . Galileo conducted several experiments with

text: pendulum

text: s. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by

text: Vincenzo Viviani

text: ) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his

text: Two New Sciences

text: . Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is

text: isochronous

text: , i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the

text: amplitude

text: . In fact, this is only approximately true, as was discovered by

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: . Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its

text: verge escapement

text: , would have been a poor timekeeper. (See

text: Engineering

text: above.)

text: Pope Pius XII declared, at the November 22, 1951, opening meeting of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, that the Big Bang theory does not conflict with the Catholic concept of creation.Some Conservative Protestant Christian denominations have also welcomed the Big Bang theory as supporting a historical interpretation of the doctrine of creation; however, some adherents of Young Earth Creationism, who advocate a very literal interpretation of the Book of Genesis, reject the theory.

text: Pope Pius XII

text: declared, at the November 22, 1951, opening meeting of the

text: Pontifical Academy of Sciences

text: , that the Big Bang theory does not conflict with the

text: Catholic

text: concept of creation.Some

text: Conservative Protestant

text: Christian denominations

text: have also welcomed the Big Bang theory as supporting a historical interpretation of the doctrine of

text: creation

text: ; however, some adherents of

text: Young Earth Creationism

text: , who advocate a very literal interpretation of the

text: Book of Genesis

text: , reject the theory.

text: In his book, Galileo Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism, Mario Biagioli looks to shed light on the ways in which a society characterized by patronage relationships affected one of astronomy’s, and modern science’s, greatest heroes: Galileo Galilei. Biagioli looks to uncover aspects of Galileo’s life by “vividly [presenting] the pioneer physicist to us through the active social relations he experienced with persons in the different courts with which he was connected.”

text: The big bang theory is based upon the cosmological principle, which states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic.  According to theory, the Universe approximately a second after its formation was a near-ideal black body in thermal equilibrium at a temperature above 10 K. The temperature decreased as the Universe expanded and the matter and radiation in it cooled.  The cosmic microwave background radiation observed today is "the most perfect black body ever measured in nature". It has a nearly ideal Planck spectrum at a temperature of about 2.7 K.  It departs from the perfect isotropy of true black-body radiation by an observed anisotropy that varies with angle on the sky only to about one part in 100,000.

text: The big bang theory is based upon the

text: cosmological principle

text: , which states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic.  According to theory, the Universe approximately a second after its formation was a near-ideal black body in thermal equilibrium at a temperature above 10 K. The temperature decreased as the Universe expanded and the matter and radiation in it cooled.  The cosmic microwave background radiation observed today is "the most perfect black body ever measured in nature". It has a nearly ideal Planck spectrum at a temperature of about 2.7 K.  It departs from the perfect isotropy of true black-body radiation by an observed anisotropy that varies with angle on the sky only to about one part in 100,000.

text: Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was the first to closely integrate the predictive geometrical astronomy, which had been dominant from Ptolemy in the 2nd century  to Copernicus, with physical concepts to produce a New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics in 1609.  His work led to the modern laws of planetary orbits, which he developed using his physical principles and the planetary observations made by Tycho Brahe. Kepler's model greatly improved the accuracy of predictions of planetary motion, years before Isaac Newton developed his law of gravitation in 1686.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: (1571–1630) was the first to closely integrate the predictive geometrical astronomy, which had been dominant from

text: Ptolemy

text: in the 2nd century  to

text: Copernicus

text: , with physical concepts to produce a

text: New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics

text: in 1609.  His work led to the

text: modern laws of planetary orbits

text: , which he developed using his physical principles and the

text: planet

text: ary observations made by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: . Kepler's model greatly improved the accuracy of predictions of planetary motion, years before

text: Isaac Newton

text: developed his

text: law of gravitation

text: in 1686.

text: Kepler divides The Harmony of the World into five long chapters: the first is on regular polygons; the second is on the congruence of figures; the third is on the origin of harmonic proportions in music; the fourth is on harmonic configurations in astrology; and the fifth on the harmony of the motions of the planets.

text: Kepler divides The Harmony of the World into five long chapters: the first is on regular polygons; the second is on the congruence of figures; the third is on the origin of harmonic proportions in music; the fourth is on

text: harmonic configurations in astrology

text: ; and the fifth on the harmony of the motions of the planets.

text: On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016–17 season for a total of ten seasons.

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion can be proved almost directly with the above relationships.

text: Late in 1613, Galileo's former student Benedetto Castelli, a Benedictine monk, wrote to Galileo about the events at a recent dinner with the Grand Duke Cosimo II de' Medici. In the course of conversation at the dinner Cosimo Boscaglia, a professor of philosophy, argued that the motion of the Earth could not be true, being contrary to the Bible.  After dinner ended, Castelli was called back to answer scriptural arguments against the motion of the Earth from Christina.  The monk took on the role of theologian in response, and convinced everyone there except the Duchess (whom he thought was arguing mainly to hear his answers) and Boscaglia (who said nothing during this dialogue). Galileo decided to address Christina because of her desire to learn more about astronomy. Christina's position of power would also give the letter more exposure to other noble and Church leaders.

text: Late in 1613, Galileo's former student

text: Benedetto Castelli

text: , a

text: Benedictine

text: monk

text: , wrote to Galileo about the events at a recent dinner with the Grand Duke

entity_name: Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

text: Cosimo II de' Medici

text: . In the course of conversation at the dinner

text: Cosimo Boscaglia

text: , a professor of

text: philosophy

text: , argued that the motion of the Earth could not be true, being contrary to the

text: Bible

text: .  After dinner ended, Castelli was called back to answer scriptural arguments against the motion of the Earth from Christina.  The monk took on the role of

text: theologian

text: in response, and convinced everyone there except the Duchess (whom he thought was arguing mainly to hear his answers) and Boscaglia (who said nothing during this dialogue). Galileo decided to address Christina because of her desire to learn more about astronomy. Christina's position of power would also give the letter more exposure to other noble and Church leaders.

text: Superiors in Rome found out, but bowed to the same family ties that had bound Calasanz. Cherubini became visitor-general for the Piarists, able to conduct himself just as he wanted in any school he visited. The Piarists became entangled in church politics, and partially because they were associated with Galileo, were opposed by the Jesuits, who were more orthodox in astronomy. (Galileo’s views also involved atomism, and were thought to be heretical regarding transubstantiation.) The support for Cherubini was broad enough that in 1643, he was made head of the order and the elderly Calasanz was pushed aside. Upon this appointment, Calasanz publicly documented Cherubini’s long pattern of child molestation, a pattern that he had known about for years. Even this did not block Cherubini’s appointment, but other members of the order were indignant about it, although they may have objected to Cherubini's more overt shortcomings. With such dissention, the Vatican took the easy course of suppressing the order. In 1646, the order was deprived of its privileges by Pope Innocent X.

text: Superiors in Rome found out, but bowed to the same family ties that had bound Calasanz. Cherubini became visitor-general for the Piarists, able to conduct himself just as he wanted in any school he visited. The Piarists became entangled in church politics, and partially because they were associated with Galileo, were opposed by the

text: Jesuits

text: , who were more orthodox in

text: astronomy

text: . (Galileo’s views also involved

text: atomism

text: transubstantiation

text: .) The support for Cherubini was broad enough that in 1643, he was made head of the order and the elderly Calasanz was pushed aside. Upon this appointment, Calasanz publicly documented Cherubini’s long pattern of child molestation, a pattern that he had known about for years. Even this did not block Cherubini’s appointment, but other members of the order were indignant about it, although they may have objected to Cherubini's more overt shortcomings. With such dissention, the

text: Vatican

text: took the easy course of suppressing the order. In 1646, the order was deprived of its privileges by Pope

text: Innocent X

text: Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was left to Newton's invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally explain the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting telescope.

text: Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was left to

text: Newton's

text: invention of

text: celestial dynamics

text: and his

text: law of gravitation

text: to finally explain the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the

text: reflecting telescope

text: Kepler-14b is an extrasolar planet in orbit around the primary star of the binary Kepler-14 system. It is currently the only planet known to exist in this star system. Kepler-14b is 8.4 times the mass of Jupiter and has a radius 1.14 times that of Jupiter, and it orbits its host star every 6.79 days. It was discovered by NASA-led Kepler mission, which noted the planet as a planetary candidate as early as March 2009, around the same time as the discovery of the first five planets discovered by Kepler (Kepler-4b to Kepler-8b). However, the team was unable to confirm the planet until extensive follow-up observations, as high-resolution imaging resolved the star Kepler-14 as a closely orbiting binary system. The Kepler team would have not noticed that Kepler-14 was a binary star based solely on initial radial velocity measurements (a standard method for confirming a planet's existence), and found that if they had not realized this, their data on Kepler-14b would have been very inaccurate.

text: Kepler-14b is an extrasolar planet in orbit around the primary star of the

text: binary

text: system. It is currently the only planet known to exist in this star system. Kepler-14b is 8.4 times the mass of Jupiter and has a radius 1.14 times that of Jupiter, and it orbits its host star every 6.79 days. It was discovered by NASA-led

text: Kepler mission

text: , which noted the planet as a planetary candidate as early as March 2009, around the same time as the discovery of the first five planets discovered by Kepler (

text: to

text: ). However, the team was unable to confirm the planet until extensive follow-up observations, as high-resolution imaging resolved the star Kepler-14 as a closely orbiting binary system. The Kepler team would have not noticed that Kepler-14 was a binary star based solely on initial

text: radial velocity

text: measurements (a standard method for confirming a planet's existence), and found that if they had not realized this, their data on Kepler-14b would have been very inaccurate.

text: The science of physical cosmology as it is practiced today had its subject material defined in the years following the Shapley-Curtis debate when it was determined that the universe had a larger scale than the Milky Way galaxy. This was precipitated by observations that established the size and the dynamics of the cosmos that could be explained by Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. In its infancy, cosmology was a speculative science based on a very limited number of observations and characterized by a dispute between steady state theorists and promoters of Big Bang cosmology. It was not until the 1990s and beyond that the astronomical observations would be able to eliminate competing theories and drive the science to the "Golden Age of Cosmology" which was heralded by David Schramm at a National Academy of Sciences colloquium in 1992.

text: The science of

text: physical cosmology

text: as it is practiced today had its subject material defined in the years following the

text: Shapley-Curtis debate

text: when it was determined that the

text: universe

text: had a larger scale than the

text: Milky Way galaxy

text: . This was precipitated by observations that established the

text: size

text: and the dynamics of the cosmos that could be explained by

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: General Theory of Relativity

text: . In its infancy, cosmology was a speculative science based on a very limited number of observations and characterized by a dispute between

text: steady state

text: theorists and promoters of

text: Big Bang

text: cosmology. It was not until the 1990s and beyond that the astronomical observations would be able to eliminate competing theories and drive the science to the "Golden Age of Cosmology" which was heralded by

text: David Schramm

text: at a

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: colloquium in 1992.

text: Astronomy Photographer of the Year is an annual astronomy photography competition which was first run in 2009 during the International Year of Astronomy.  There are eight categories such as aurorae and galaxies plus two special prizes: the Sir Patrick Moore Prize for Best Newcomer and Robotic Scope Image of the Year.  There are also additional prizes open for entrants aged under sixteen.

text: Astronomy Photographer of the Year is an annual astronomy photography competition which was first run in 2009 during the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: .  There are eight categories such as

text: aurorae

text: and

text: galaxies

text: plus two special prizes: the

text: Sir Patrick Moore Prize for Best Newcomer

text: and

text: Robotic Scope Image of the Year

text: .  There are also additional prizes open for entrants aged under sixteen.

text: with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius. The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from Kepler's third law of planetary motion, to the inverse square law of gravitation.

text: with m the

text: mass

text: of the object, v the

text: velocity

text: and r the

text: radius

text: . The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from

text: Kepler's third law

text: of planetary motion, to the

text: inverse square law

text: of gravitation.

text: The Assyrians named this pole star Dayan-same, the "Judge of Heaven", while in Akkadian it was Tir-anna, "Life of Heaven". In Babylonian astronomy, Vega may have been one of the stars named Dilgan, "the Messenger of Light". To the ancient Greeks, the constellation Lyra was formed from the harp of Orpheus, with Vega as its handle. For the Roman Empire, the start of autumn was based upon the hour at which Vega set below the horizon.

text: The

text: Assyrians

text: named this pole star Dayan-same, the "Judge of Heaven", while in

text: Akkadian

text: it was Tir-anna, "Life of Heaven". In

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: , Vega may have been one of the stars named Dilgan, "the Messenger of Light". To the

text: ancient Greeks

text: , the constellation Lyra was formed from the harp of

text: Orpheus

text: , with Vega as its handle. For the

text: Roman Empire

text: , the start of autumn was based upon the hour at which Vega set below the horizon.

text: Riccioli described himself as a theologian, but one with a strong and ongoing interest in astronomy since his student days, when he studied under Biancani. He said that many Jesuits were theologians, but few were astronomers. He said that once the enthusiasm for astronomy arose within him he could never extinguish it, and so he became more committed to astronomy than theology. Eventually his superiors in the Jesuit order officially assigned him to the task of astronomical research. However, he also continued to write on theology (see below).

text: Riccioli described himself as a theologian, but one with a strong and ongoing interest in astronomy since his student days, when he studied under Biancani. He said that many Jesuits were theologians, but few were astronomers. He said that once the enthusiasm for astronomy arose within him he could never extinguish it, and so he became more committed to astronomy than theology. Eventually his superiors in the Jesuit order officially assigned him to the task of astronomical research. However, he also continued to write on theology (see

text: below

text: There are several historic buildings in the gardens. They contain the remains of the west corner of the Roman fort of Eboracum, including the Multangular Tower and parts of the Roman walls. In the same area there is also the Anglian Tower, which was probably built into the remains of a late Roman period fortress. During the Middle Ages, the tower was expanded and the Roman walls were incorporated into York's city walls. Most of the other buildings dating from the Middle Ages are associated with St Mary's Abbey, including the ruins of the abbey church, the Hospitium, the lodge and part of the surviving precinct wall.  The remains of St. Leonard's Hospital chapel and undercroft are on the east side of the gardens. The Yorkshire Philosophical Society constructed several buildings in the gardens during the 19th and early 20th century, including the Yorkshire Museum and its octagonal observatory. The museum houses four permanent collections, covering biology, geology, archaeology and astronomy.

text: There are several historic buildings in the gardens. They contain the remains of the west corner of the

text: Roman fort

text: of

text: Eboracum

text: , including the Multangular Tower and parts of the Roman walls. In the same area there is also the

text: Anglian Tower

text: , which was probably built into the remains of a late

text: Roman

text: period fortress. During the

text: Middle Ages

text: , the tower was expanded and the Roman walls were incorporated into

text: York's city walls

text: . Most of the other buildings dating from the Middle Ages are associated with St Mary's Abbey, including the ruins of the abbey church, the Hospitium, the lodge and part of the surviving precinct wall.  The remains of

text: St. Leonard

text: 's Hospital

text: chapel

text: and

text: undercroft

text: are on the east side of the gardens. The

text: Yorkshire Philosophical Society

text: constructed several buildings in the gardens during the 19th and early 20th century, including the Yorkshire Museum and its octagonal

text: observatory

text: . The museum houses four permanent collections, covering biology, geology, archaeology and astronomy.

text: Astronomy (from the Greek ἀστρονομία from ἄστρον astron, "star" and -νομία -nomia from νόμος nomos, "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the translation). Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct.

text: Astronomy (from the

text: Greek

text: ἀστρονομία

text: from

text: ἄστρον

text: astron, "star" and -νομία

text: -nomia

text: from

text: νόμος

text: nomos, "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the translation). Astronomy should not be confused with

text: astrology

text: , the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the

text: two fields

text: share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct.

text: Fish sent her analysis to Webb. Agreeing with her conclusions, Webb sent the map to Terence Dickinson, editor of the popular magazine Astronomy. Dickinson did not endorse Fish and Webb's conclusions, but for the first time in the journal's history, Astronomy invited comments and debate on a UFO report, starting with an opening article in the December 1974 issue. For about a year afterward, the opinions page of Astronomy carried arguments for and against Fish's star map. Notable was an argument made by Carl Sagan and Steven Soter, arguing that the seeming "star map" was little more than a random alignment of chance points. In contrast, those more favorable to the map, such as David Saunders, a statistician who had been on the Condon UFO study, argued that unusual alignment of key Sun-like stars in a plane centered around Zeta Reticuli (first described by Fish) was statistically improbable to have happened by chance from a random group of stars in our immediate neighborhood.

text: Fish sent her analysis to Webb. Agreeing with her conclusions, Webb sent the map to

text: Terence Dickinson

text: editor

text: of the popular magazine

text: Astronomy

text: . Dickinson did not endorse Fish and Webb's conclusions, but for the first time in the journal's history, Astronomy invited comments and debate on a UFO report, starting with an opening article in the December 1974 issue. For about a year afterward, the opinions page of Astronomy carried

text: arguments

text: for and against Fish's star map. Notable was an argument made by

text: Carl Sagan

text: and

text: Steven Soter

text: , arguing that the seeming "star map" was little more than a

text: random

text: alignment of chance points. In contrast, those more favorable to the map, such as David Saunders, a statistician who had been on the

text: Condon UFO study

text: , argued that unusual alignment of key Sun-like stars in a plane centered around Zeta Reticuli (first described by Fish) was statistically improbable to have happened by chance from a random group of stars in our immediate neighborhood.

text: Backer was born in Plainfield, New Jersey. He attended Cornell University, where he earned a Bachelor's degree in engineering physics (B.E.P.) from Cornell University in June 1966. He received a Master of Science degree in radio astronomy from Manchester University in 1968, and then returned to Cornell to earn his doctorate in astronomy in May 1971. Backer then took post-doctoral positions first at NRAO in Charlottesville, Virginia (1971–1973), and then at NASA/GSFC in Greenbelt, Maryland (1973–1975). In 1975, Backer moved to the University of California, Berkeley as a research astronomer in the Radio Astronomy Laboratory, and became professor of astronomy at Berkeley in 1989. Backer served as the acting chair of the Berkeley Astronomy Department from 1998 to 1999, as vice chair 1999–2001, and as chair 2002–2006 and 2007–2008. In 2008, he was appointed director of Berkeley's Radio Astronomy Laboratory.  Backer collapsed outside his home and died on July 25, 2010.

text: Backer was born in

text: Plainfield

text: New Jersey

text: . He attended

text: Cornell University

text: , where he earned a

text: Bachelor's degree

text: in

text: engineering physics

text: (B.E.P.) from

text: Cornell University

text: in June 1966. He received a

text: Master of Science

text: degree in

text: radio astronomy

text: from

text: Manchester University

text: in 1968, and then returned to Cornell to earn his

text: doctorate

text: in

text: astronomy

text: in May 1971. Backer then took post-doctoral positions first at

text: NRAO

text: in

text: Charlottesville

text: Virginia

text: (1971–1973), and then at

text: NASA

text: GSFC

text: in

text: Greenbelt

text: Maryland

text: (1973–1975). In 1975, Backer moved to the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: as a research astronomer in the Radio Astronomy Laboratory, and became

text: professor

text: of astronomy at Berkeley in 1989. Backer served as the acting chair of the Berkeley Astronomy Department from 1998 to 1999, as vice chair 1999–2001, and as chair 2002–2006 and 2007–2008. In 2008, he was appointed director of Berkeley's

text: Radio Astronomy Laboratory

text: .  Backer collapsed outside his home and died on July 25, 2010.

text: Initially a beneficiary of church patronage of astronomy, Galileo rose to prominence with the publication of Sidereus Nuncius, which comprised astronomical observations made possible by the 1608 invention of the telescope. He was feted in Rome, honoured by the Jesuits of the Roman College and received by Pope Paul V and church dignitaries. Galileo began to dismiss geocentrism and emerging alternative theories like that of Tycho de Brahe. Proponents of these alternatives, led by Lodovico delle Colombe began to work against Galileo and claim a contradiction between scripture and his theories. Galileo rejected the accusation - quoting Cardinal Baronius: "The Holy Ghost intended to teach us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go". He invited the Church to follow established practice and reinterpret scripture in light of the new scientific discoveries. The leading Jesuit Theologian Cardinal Robert Bellarmine agreed that this would be an appropriate response to a true demonstration that the sun was at the center of the universe, but cautioned that the existing materials upon which Galileo relied did not yet constitute an established truth.

text: Initially a beneficiary of church patronage of astronomy, Galileo rose to prominence with the publication of

text: Sidereus Nuncius

text: , which comprised astronomical observations made possible by the 1608 invention of the telescope. He was feted in Rome, honoured by the Jesuits of the Roman College and received by

text: Pope Paul V

text: and church dignitaries. Galileo began to dismiss geocentrism and emerging alternative theories like that of

text: Tycho de Brahe

text: . Proponents of these alternatives, led by

text: Lodovico delle Colombe

text: began to work against Galileo and claim a contradiction between scripture and his theories. Galileo rejected the accusation - quoting

text: Cardinal Baronius

text: : "The Holy Ghost intended to teach us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go". He invited the Church to follow established practice and reinterpret scripture in light of the new scientific discoveries. The leading Jesuit Theologian Cardinal

text: Robert Bellarmine

text: agreed that this would be an appropriate response to a true demonstration that the sun was at the center of the universe, but cautioned that the existing materials upon which Galileo relied did not yet constitute an established truth.

text: Astrology and astronomy were archaically treated together (), and were only gradually separated in Western 17th century philosophy (the "Age of Reason") with the rejection of astrology. During the later part of the medieval period, astronomy was treated as the foundation upon which astrology could operate.

text: Astrology and astronomy were archaically treated together (), and were only gradually separated in Western

text: 17th century philosophy

text: (the "

text: Age of Reason

text: ") with the rejection of astrology. During the later part of the medieval period, astronomy was treated as the foundation upon which astrology could operate.

text: A different resolution, which does not rely on the Big Bang theory, was first proposed by Carl Charlier in 1908 and later rediscovered by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were distributed in a hierarchical fractal cosmology (e.g., similar to Cantor dust)—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers' paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred.

text: A different resolution, which does not rely on the

text: Big Bang

text: theory, was first proposed by

text: Carl Charlier

text: in 1908 and later rediscovered by

text: Benoît Mandelbrot

text: in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were distributed in a hierarchical

text: fractal cosmology

text: (e.g., similar to

text: Cantor dust

text: )—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers' paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred.

text: The Big Bang Theory (often shortened to Big Bang Theory, and abbreviated to TBBT or BBT) is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady, both of whom serve as executive producers on the series, along with Steven Molaro. All three also serve as head writers. The show premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007. In March 2014, the show was renewed for three more years through a tenth season, which premiered on September 19, 2016.

text: The Big Bang Theory (often shortened to Big Bang Theory, and abbreviated to TBBT or BBT) is an American television

text: sitcom

text: created by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: and

text: Bill Prady

text: , both of whom serve as executive producers on the series, along with

text: Steven Molaro

text: . All three also serve as head writers. The show premiered on

text: CBS

text: on September 24, 2007. In March 2014, the show was renewed for three more years through a tenth season, which premiered on September 19, 2016.

text: |-id=410| 48410 Kolmogorov ||  || Andrej Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (1903-1987), a Russian academician, professor at the Moscow State University, and outstanding mathematician. |-id=411| 48411 Johnventre ||  || John Ventre (b. 1935) is a teacher, friend, meteorite expert, Cincinnati Observatory Center historian. |-id=415| 48415 Dehio || 1987 QT || Georg Gottfried Julius Dehio, German art historian |-id=416| 48416 Carmelita ||  || Carmelita Miranda, American astronomy popularizer |-id=422| 48422 Schrade ||  || Hugo Schrade, German optical engineer |-id=424| 48424 Souchay ||  || Jean Souchay, French astronomer, uncredited co-discoverer |-id=425| 48425 Tischendorf ||  || Konstantin von Tischendorf, German theologian, discoverer of the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus |-id=434| 48434 Maxbeckmann ||  || Max Beckmann, German-American painter and printmaker |-id=435| 48435 Jaspers ||  || Karl Jaspers, German-Swiss philosopher, physician, and political thinker language |-id=447| 48447 Hingley ||  || Peter D. Hingley (1951–2012), Librarian of the Royal Astronomical Society. |-id=456| 48456 Wilhelmwien ||  || Wilhelm Wien, German physicist and Nobelist |-id=457| 48457 Joseffried ||  || Josef W. Fried, a German astronomer at the Heidelberg Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie. |-id=458| 48458 Merian ||  || Matthäus Merian, 17th-century Swiss engraver, etcher and book dealer |-id=471| 48471 Orchiston ||  || New Zealander Wayne Orchistron (b. 1943) works as an astronomer at the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand. His main interests lie in the field of history of astronomy. He is the author of many books and the co-founder and editor of the Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. |-id=472| 48472 Mössbauer ||  || Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer, German physicist and Nobelist |-id=480| 48480 Falk ||  || Johann Daniel Falk, German writer and social pedagogue, author of the Christmas carol O du fröhliche |-id=482| 48482 Oruki || 1992 CN || "Oruki", word in the Tosa (Kōchi Prefecture) dialect of Japanese, meaning "the importance of one's presence and reassurance of unflagging support" |-id=492| 48492 Utewielen ||  || Ute Wielen (b. 1934) has worked in astronomy for more than 50 years. She was an assistant observer at the Babelsberg Observatory. She later worked as a programmer at astronomical institutes in Berlin and Heidelberg, and is the coauthor of many books on the history of astronomy. |-id=495| 48495 Ryugado || 1993 BB || Ryugado, Kōchi Prefecture, a Japanese limestone cave |}

text: 48410 Kolmogorov

text: Andrej Nikolaevich Kolmogorov

text: (1903-1987), a Russian academician, professor at the Moscow State University, and outstanding mathematician. |-id=411|

text: 48411 Johnventre

text: ||  || John Ventre (b. 1935) is a teacher, friend, meteorite expert,

text: Cincinnati Observatory Center historian

text: . |-id=415|

text: 48415 Dehio

text: || 1987 QT ||

text: Georg Gottfried Julius Dehio

text: , German art historian |-id=416|

text: 48416 Carmelita

text: ||  || Carmelita Miranda, American astronomy popularizer |-id=422|

text: 48422 Schrade

text: Hugo Schrade

text: , German optical engineer |-id=424|

text: 48424 Souchay

text: Jean Souchay

text: , French astronomer, uncredited co-discoverer |-id=425|

text: 48425 Tischendorf

text: Konstantin von Tischendorf

text: , German theologian, discoverer of the 4th-century

text: Codex Sinaiticus

text: 48434 Maxbeckmann

text: Max Beckmann

text: , German-American painter and printmaker |-id=435|

text: 48435 Jaspers

text: Karl Jaspers

text: , German-Swiss philosopher, physician, and political thinker language |-id=447|

text: 48447 Hingley

text: ||  || Peter D. Hingley (1951–2012), Librarian of the Royal Astronomical Society. |-id=456|

text: 48456 Wilhelmwien

text: Wilhelm Wien

text: , German physicist and Nobelist |-id=457|

text: 48457 Joseffried

text: Josef W. Fried

text: , a German astronomer at the Heidelberg Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie. |-id=458|

text: 48458 Merian

text: Matthäus Merian

text: , 17th-century Swiss engraver, etcher and book dealer |-id=471|

text: 48471 Orchiston

text: ||  || New Zealander Wayne Orchistron (b. 1943) works as an astronomer at the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand. His main interests lie in the field of history of astronomy. He is the author of many books and the co-founder and editor of the Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. |-id=472|

text: 48472 Mössbauer

text: Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer

text: , German physicist and Nobelist |-id=480|

text: 48480 Falk

text: Johann Daniel Falk

text: , German writer and social pedagogue, author of the Christmas carol O du fröhliche |-id=482|

text: 48482 Oruki

text: || 1992 CN || "Oruki", word in the Tosa (

text: Kōchi Prefecture

text: ) dialect of Japanese, meaning "the importance of one's presence and reassurance of unflagging support" |-id=492|

text: 48492 Utewielen

text: ||  || Ute Wielen (b. 1934) has worked in astronomy for more than 50 years. She was an assistant observer at the Babelsberg Observatory. She later worked as a programmer at astronomical institutes in Berlin and Heidelberg, and is the coauthor of many books on the history of astronomy. |-id=495|

text: 48495 Ryugado

text: || 1993 BB ||

text: Ryugado

text: Kōchi Prefecture

text: , a Japanese limestone cave |}

text: In August 2009, Parsons won the Television Critics Association award for individual achievement in comedy, beating Alec Baldwin, Tina Fey, Steve Carell, and Neil Patrick Harris. Parsons was nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, winning in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014. In September 2010, Parsons and costars Johnny Galecki and Kaley Cuoco signed new contracts, guaranteeing each of them $200,000 per episode for the fourth season of The Big Bang Theory, with substantial raises for each of the next three seasons. The three were also promised a percentage of the show's earnings. In January 2011, he won the Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Comedy (the award was presented by co-star Cuoco). From August 2013, Parsons, Cuoco and Galecki each earned $325,000 per episode. In August 2014, Parsons and costars Johnny Galecki and Kaley Cuoco once again signed new contracts, guaranteeing each of them $1,000,000 per episode for the eighth, ninth and tenth seasons of The Big Bang Theory, as well as quadrupling their percentage of the show's earnings to over 1% each.

text: In August 2009, Parsons won the

text: Television Critics Association

text: award for individual achievement in comedy, beating

text: Alec Baldwin

text: Tina Fey

text: Steve Carell

text: , and

text: Neil Patrick Harris

text: . Parsons was nominated for

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: s in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, winning in 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014. In September 2010, Parsons and costars

text: Johnny Galecki

text: and

text: Kaley Cuoco

text: signed new contracts, guaranteeing each of them $200,000 per episode for the fourth season of The Big Bang Theory, with substantial raises for each of the next three seasons. The three were also promised a percentage of the show's earnings. In January 2011, he won the Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Comedy (the award was presented by co-star Cuoco). From August 2013, Parsons, Cuoco and Galecki each earned $325,000 per episode. In August 2014, Parsons and costars

text: Johnny Galecki

text: and

text: Kaley Cuoco

text: once again signed new contracts, guaranteeing each of them $1,000,000 per episode for the eighth, ninth and tenth seasons of The Big Bang Theory, as well as quadrupling their percentage of the show's earnings to over 1% each.

text: Big Bang is known for their lavish sets on stage, complete with choreography, costumes, and props.  Big Bang is choreographed by Seungri and sometimes Shaun Evaristo. While they once relied heavily on street dancing for their moves, they have made a transition towards other styles of choreography, with many of their dance being widely copied and covered. One of the moves, which incorporates the group lifting their shirts to expose their abdomens, quickly gained popularity online and became one of the top searches on the internet.  Another one, in which the group incorporates the idea of "jump roping" as a dance move, also gained attention from fans.  The dance for "Bang Bang Bang," choreographed by Parris Goebel, was one of the most popular dances for the year 2015. Their stage fashion is also a highlight: Fuse TV noted that "their outfits are almost as entertaining as their performances."

text: Big Bang is known for their lavish sets on stage, complete with choreography, costumes, and props.  Big Bang is

text: choreograph

text: ed by Seungri and sometimes

text: Shaun Evaristo

text: . While they once relied heavily on

text: street dancing

text: for their moves, they have made a transition towards other styles of choreography, with many of their dance being widely copied and covered. One of the moves, which incorporates the group lifting their shirts to expose their abdomens, quickly gained popularity online and became one of the top searches on the internet.  Another one, in which the group incorporates the idea of "jump roping" as a dance move, also gained attention from fans.  The dance for "

text: Bang Bang Bang

text: ," choreographed by Parris Goebel, was one of the most popular dances for the year 2015. Their stage fashion is also a highlight:

text: Fuse TV

text: noted that "their outfits are almost as entertaining as their performances."

text: As with any theory, a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang theory. Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding. Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own. For example, the horizon problem, the magnetic monopole problem, and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflationary theory, but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many, including some founders of the theory, say it has been disproven. What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang theory still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists.

text: As with any theory, a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang theory. Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding. Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own. For example, the

text: horizon problem

text: , the

text: magnetic monopole problem

text: , and the

text: flatness problem

text: are most commonly resolved with

text: inflationary theory

text: , but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many, including some founders of the theory, say it has been disproven. What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang theory still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists.

text: Bailyn's research interests include high-energy astronomy and galactic astronomy and he has published over 100 referred papers.

text: Bailyn's research interests include

text: high-energy astronomy

text: and

text: galactic astronomy

text: and he has published over 100 referred papers.

text: Hermannus Contractus (1013–1054) was among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with Eratosthenes' method. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the most important and widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, believed in a spherical Earth; and he even took for granted his readers also knew the Earth is round. Lectures in the medieval universities commonly advanced evidence in favor of the idea that the Earth was a sphere. Also, "On the Sphere of the World", the most influential astronomy textbook of the 13th century and required reading by students in all Western European universities, described the world as a sphere. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica, wrote, "The physicist proves the earth to be round by one means, the astronomer by another: for the latter proves this by means of mathematics, e.g. by the shapes of eclipses, or something of the sort; while the former proves it by means of physics, e.g. by the movement of heavy bodies towards the center, and so forth."

text: Hermannus Contractus

text: (1013–1054) was among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with

text: Eratosthenes

text: ' method.

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: (1225–1274), the most important and widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, believed in a spherical Earth; and he even took for granted his readers also knew the Earth is round. Lectures in the

text: medieval universities

text: commonly advanced evidence in favor of the idea that the Earth was a sphere. Also, "

text: On the Sphere of the World

text: ", the most influential

text: astronomy

text: textbook of the 13th century and required reading by students in all Western European universities, described the world as a sphere. Thomas Aquinas, in his

text: Summa Theologica

text: , wrote, "The physicist proves the earth to be round by one means, the astronomer by another: for the latter proves this by means of mathematics, e.g. by the shapes of eclipses, or something of the sort; while the former proves it by means of physics, e.g. by the movement of heavy bodies towards the center, and so forth."

text: From 2006 to 2007, members of the team produced a set of computer animations described as a pedagogical tour through Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy and Harmony of the World, plus another set on the discovery of the orbit of Ceres titled The Mind of Gauss. After another website, keplersdiscovery.com, appeared that discussed the same works by Kepler, team members asserted that it was a plagiarized and inferior copy of their own work. In August 2008, the team released an hour-long video, The Harvard Yard, in which they elaborate their claim of plagiarism and charge that the "Kepler's Discovery" site was the work of Harvard University. In 2008 they issued Firewallin Defense of the Nation State. This was followed by the release on July 3 of the feature-length sequel 1932, narrated by Robert Beltran, and a December production on scientific method, The Matter of Mind. They are also producing regular short videos on topical issues.

text: From 2006 to 2007, members of the team produced a set of computer animations described as a pedagogical tour through

text: Johannes Kepler

text: 's

text: New Astronomy

text: and

text: Harmony of the World

text: , plus another set on the discovery of the orbit of

text: Ceres

text: titled The Mind of Gauss. After another website, keplersdiscovery.com, appeared that discussed the same works by Kepler, team members asserted that it was a plagiarized and inferior copy of their own work. In August 2008, the team released an hour-long video, The Harvard Yard, in which they elaborate their claim of plagiarism and charge that the "Kepler's Discovery" site was the work of

text: Harvard University

text: . In 2008 they issued Firewallin Defense of the Nation State. This was followed by the release on July 3 of the feature-length sequel 1932, narrated by

text: Robert Beltran

text: , and a December production on

text: scientific method

text: , The Matter of Mind. They are also producing regular short videos on topical issues.

text: The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world and Christianity; the canon of ancient Greek literature includes works of monumental importance and influence for the Western canon such as the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science, especially astronomy, mathematics and logic, and Western philosophy, such as the Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle, are composed; the New Testament of the Holy Bible was written in Koiné Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics.

text: The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the

text: Western world

text: and

text: Christianity

text: ; the canon of

text: ancient Greek literature

text: includes works of monumental importance and influence for the

text: Western canon

text: such as the epic poems

text: Iliad

text: and

text: Odyssey

text: . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science, especially astronomy, mathematics and logic, and

text: Western philosophy

text: , such as the

text: Platonic dialogue

text: s and the works of

text: Aristotle

text: , are composed; the

text: New Testament

text: of the Holy

text: Bible

text: was written in

text: Koiné Greek

text: . Together with the

text: Latin

text: texts and traditions of the

text: Roman world

text: , the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of

text: Classics

text: Project Galileo is an educational astronomy project, based at Clifton College in Bristol, in the United Kingdom.

text: Project Galileo is an educational astronomy project, based at

text: Clifton College

text: in

text: Bristol

text: , in the

text: United Kingdom

text: ISARS was founded in 1955, under the name Ionospheric Institute. In 1990, the Institute was renamed to Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research and in 1999 took its current title in order to reflect its expanded activities, which cover a variety of aspects of space research and applications. The location of the Institute until July 1995 was the historic site of the Hill of Nymphs near the Acropolis of Athens and the Theseion. The significant increase of staff members and R&D projects made it necessary for the institute to move to new modern facilities at the NOA campus north of Athens, on Mount Penteli. In 2012 it was merged with the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics to a single unit entitled Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing (IAASARS), which is supervised and supported by the General Secretariat of Research and Technology of the Greek Ministry of Education.

entity_name: Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing

text: ISARS

text: was founded in 1955, under the name Ionospheric Institute. In 1990, the Institute was renamed to Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research and in 1999 took its current title in order to reflect its expanded activities, which cover a variety of aspects of space research and applications. The location of the Institute until July 1995 was the historic site of the Hill of Nymphs near the

text: Acropolis of Athens

text: and the

text: Theseion

text: . The significant increase of staff members and R&D projects made it necessary for the institute to move to new modern facilities at the NOA campus north of Athens, on

text: Mount Penteli

text: . In 2012 it was merged with the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics to a single unit entitled Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing (IAASARS), which is supervised and supported by the General Secretariat of Research and Technology of the Greek

entity_name: Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs

text: Ministry of Education

text: Galileo was the first to show that the path of a projectile is a parabola. Galileo had an understanding of centrifugal force and gave a correct definition of momentum. This emphasis of momentum as a fundamental quantity in dynamics is of prime importance. He measured momentum by the product of velocity and weight; mass is a later concept, developed by Huygens and Newton. In the swinging of a simple pendulum, Galileo says in Discourses that "every momentum acquired in the descent along an arc is equal to that which causes the same moving body to ascend through the same arc." His analysis on projectiles indicates that Galileo had grasped the first law and the second law of motion. He did not generalize and make them applicable to bodies not subject to the earth's gravitation. That step was Newton's contribution.

text: Galileo was the first to show that the path of a projectile is a

text: parabola

text: . Galileo had an understanding of

text: centrifugal force

text: and gave a correct definition of

text: momentum

text: . This emphasis of momentum as a fundamental quantity in dynamics is of prime importance. He measured momentum by the product of velocity and weight; mass is a later concept, developed by Huygens and Newton. In the swinging of a simple pendulum, Galileo says in

text: Discourses

text: that "every momentum acquired in the descent along an arc is equal to that which causes the same moving body to ascend through the same arc." His analysis on projectiles indicates that Galileo had grasped the first law and the second law of motion. He did not generalize and make them applicable to bodies not subject to the earth's gravitation. That step was Newton's contribution.

text: Kepler's 2nd law of planetary motion states, a line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, or

text: Kepler's 2nd law of planetary motion

text: states, a line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, or

text: Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta ("Doctrine of the Romans"),  and the Paulisa Siddhanta ("Doctrine of Paul") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varāhamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises"). Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state." Another Indian text, the Gargi-Samhita, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting that the Yavanas though barbarians must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.

text: Later in the 6th century, the

text: Romaka Siddhanta

text: ("Doctrine of the Romans"),  and the

text: Paulisa Siddhanta

text: ("Doctrine of

text: Paul

text: ") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by

text: Varāhamihira

text: in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises"). Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state." Another Indian text, the Gargi-Samhita, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting that the Yavanas though barbarians must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.

text: There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic talei instead of the Ancient Greek horoscopus). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe. Some historians suspect that Copernicus or another European author had access to an Arabic astronomical text, resulting in the transmission of the Tusi-couple, an astronomical model developed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi that later appeared in the work of Nicolaus Copernicus. Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with Sassanid and Indian astronomy through citations in some Arabic works.

text: There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic talei instead of the Ancient Greek

text: horoscopus

text: ). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe. Some historians suspect that Copernicus or another European author had access to an Arabic astronomical text, resulting in the transmission of the

text: Tusi-couple

text: , an astronomical model developed by

text: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: that later appeared in the work of

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: . Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with

text: Sassanid

text: and

text: Indian astronomy

text: through citations in some Arabic works.

text: The phrase itself, appeared in the scientific literature in 1987, when it was first used in the title of a pair of articles (in German) in Stern und Weltraum by Wolfgang Priester and Hans-Joachim Blome. It reappeared in 1988 in Iosif Rozental’s Big Bang, Big Bounce, a revised English-language translation of a Russian-language book (by a different title), and in a 1991 article (in English) by Priester and Blome in Astronomy and Astrophysics. (The phrase apparently originated as the title of a novel by Elmore Leonard in 1969, a few years after increased public awareness of the Big Bang model in the wake of the discovery of the cosmic microwave background by Penzias and Wilson.)

text: The phrase itself, appeared in the scientific literature in 1987, when it was first used in the title of a pair of articles (in German) in Stern und Weltraum by Wolfgang Priester and Hans-Joachim Blome. It reappeared in 1988 in Iosif Rozental’s Big Bang, Big Bounce, a revised English-language translation of a Russian-language book (by a different title), and in a 1991 article (in English) by Priester and Blome in Astronomy and Astrophysics. (The phrase apparently originated as the title of

text: a novel

text: by

text: Elmore Leonard

text: in 1969, a few years after increased public awareness of the

text: Big Bang

text: model in the wake of the discovery of the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: by Penzias and Wilson.)

text: Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany (Heather Morris), Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera), Mike Chang (Harry Shum, Jr.), Matt Rutherford (Dijon Talton) and Jesse St. James (Jonathan Groff), former glee club director Sandy Ryerson (Stephen Tobolowsky), football coach Ken Tanaka (Patrick Gallagher) and Sue's sister Jean Sylvester (Robin Trocki). Mary Jo Catlett appears as recently widowed teacher Mrs. Carlisle, and Molly Shannon makes her first appearance in a recurring role as new astronomy teacher and badminton coach Brenda Castle. Special guest star Olivia Newton-John appears as herself, portraying the "dark side" of herself; a "mixture of mean and diva". She and Lynch produced an exact re-creation of the original "Physical" video, filming of which took twelve hours. Series musical producer Adam Anders felt that Newton-John's appearance in the episode was organic, explaining: "The best part of Glee is introducing new music to an older generation and old music to a newer generation. There's so much great music. We all listen to music in a vacuum, then we're exposed to things and love it. Olivia Newton-John is an example of that. It's a perfect marriage between the songs that were chosen and the storyline. When that happens, it moves people."

text: Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members

text: Brittany

text: Heather Morris

text: Santana Lopez

text: Naya Rivera

text: Mike Chang

text: Harry Shum, Jr.

text: Matt Rutherford

text: (Dijon Talton) and

text: Jesse St. James

text: Jonathan Groff

text: ), former glee club director

text: Sandy Ryerson

text: Stephen Tobolowsky

text: ), football coach

text: Ken Tanaka

text: Patrick Gallagher

text: ) and Sue's sister

text: Jean Sylvester

text: (Robin Trocki).

text: Mary Jo Catlett

text: appears as recently widowed teacher Mrs. Carlisle, and

text: Molly Shannon

text: makes her first appearance in a recurring role as new astronomy teacher and badminton coach Brenda Castle. Special guest star Olivia Newton-John appears as herself, portraying the "dark side" of herself; a "mixture of mean and diva". She and Lynch produced an exact re-creation of the original "Physical" video, filming of which took twelve hours. Series musical producer Adam Anders felt that Newton-John's appearance in the episode was organic, explaining: "The best part of Glee is introducing new music to an older generation and old music to a newer generation. There's so much great music. We all listen to music in a vacuum, then we're exposed to things and love it. Olivia Newton-John is an example of that. It's a perfect marriage between the songs that were chosen and the storyline. When that happens, it moves people."

text: Similarly, the other accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid period; i.e. after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley.

text: Similarly, the other accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the

text: Seleucid

text: period; i.e. after the advent of the

text: Greeks

text: in the Euphrates Valley.

text: Horologium Oscillatorium: sive de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demostrationes geometricae (Latin: The Pendulum Clock: or geometrical demonstrations concerning the motion of pendula as applied to clocks), often abbreviated Horologium Oscillatorium, is a book published by Christiaan Huygens in 1673; it is his major work on pendulums and horology. This work is regarded as one of the three most important work done in mechanics in the 17th century, the other two being Galileo Galilei’s Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638) and Isaac Newton’s Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687).

text: Horologium Oscillatorium: sive de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demostrationes geometricae (

text: Latin

text: : The Pendulum Clock: or geometrical demonstrations concerning the motion of pendula as applied to clocks), often abbreviated Horologium Oscillatorium, is a book published by

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: in 1673; it is his major work on

text: pendulum

text: s and

text: horology

text: . This work is regarded as one of the three most important work done in mechanics in the 17th century, the other two being

text: Galileo Galilei

text: ’s

text: Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences

text: (1638) and

text: Isaac Newton

text: ’s

text: The book covers information about the planets, the Earth, the Universe, practical astronomy, history, and awkward questions such as astronomy in the Bible, UFOs, and aliens. Also covered are subjects such as the Big Bang, comprehension of large numbers, and the Moon illusion.

text: The book covers information about the

text: planets

text: the Earth

text: the Universe

text: , practical astronomy, history, and awkward questions such as

text: astronomy in the Bible

text: UFO

text: s, and

text: alien

text: s. Also covered are subjects such as the

text: Big Bang

text: , comprehension of

text: large numbers

text: , and the

text: Moon illusion

text: Cosmology is a branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of the universe, a theory or doctrine describing the natural order of the universe. The basic definition of Cosmology is the science of the origin and development of the universe. In modern astronomy the Big Bang theory is the dominant postulation.

text: Cosmology is a branch of

text: metaphysics

text: that deals with the nature of the universe, a theory or doctrine describing the natural order of the universe. The basic definition of Cosmology is the science of the origin and development of the universe. In modern astronomy the

text: Big Bang theory

text: is the dominant postulation.

text: The friends, followers of the new astronomy of Johannes Kepler, were self-taught mathematical astronomers who had worked methodically to correct and improve Kepler's Rudolphine tables by observation and measurement. In 1639, Horrocks was the only astronomer to realise that a transit of Venus was imminent; others became aware of it only after the event when Horrocks's report of it was circulated. Although the friends both died within five years of making their observations, their ground-breaking work was influential in establishing the size of the Solar System; for this and their other achievements Horrocks and Crabtree, along with their correspondent William Gascoigne, are considered to be the founding fathers of British research astronomy.

text: The friends, followers of the new astronomy of

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , were self-taught

text: mathematical astronomers

text: who had worked methodically to correct and improve Kepler's

text: Rudolphine tables

text: by observation and measurement. In 1639, Horrocks was the only astronomer to realise that a transit of Venus was imminent; others became aware of it only after the event when Horrocks's report of it was circulated. Although the friends both died within five years of making their observations, their ground-breaking work was influential in establishing the size of the Solar System; for this and their other achievements Horrocks and Crabtree, along with their correspondent

text: William Gascoigne

text: , are considered to be the founding fathers of British research astronomy.

text: On CBS, The Big Bang Theory was followed by a season premiere of Rules of Engagement, an hour-long episode of Person of Interest and The Mentalist. All episodes were watched by over 10 million; The Big Bang Theory received the most viewers (14.93 million) while The Mentalist received the second most (12.54 million).

text: On

text: CBS

text: , The Big Bang Theory was followed by a season premiere of

text: Rules of Engagement

text: , an hour-long episode of

text: Person of Interest

text: and

text: The Mentalist

text: . All episodes were watched by over 10 million; The Big Bang Theory received the most viewers (14.93 million) while The Mentalist received the second most (12.54 million).

text: |-| 6001 Thales ||  || Thales of Miletus, Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=006| 6006 Anaximandros ||  || Anaximander, Ancient Greek astronomer †|-id=007| 6007 Billevans ||  || William John ("Bill") Evans, American jazz pianist |-id=009| 6009 Yuzuruyoshii ||  || Yuzuru Yoshii, director of the Institute of Astronomy, University of Tokyo |-id=010| 6010 Lyzenga || 1990 OE || Gregory Allen Lyzenga, American geophysicist, Satellite Geodesy and Geodynamics Systems Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and, Physics Department, Harvey Mudd College*|-id=011| 6011 Tozzi ||  || Gian Paolo Tozzi (b. 1949), Italian astronomer at the Arcetri Observatory near Florence, Italy |-id=012| 6012 Williammurdoch ||  || William Murdoch (1754–1839), a Scottish engineer. |-id=013| 6013 Andanike || 1991 OZ || Andrew S., David S., Nicholas J., and Kevin M. Martinez, grandsons of the discoverer |-id=014| 6014 Chribrenmark ||  || Christopher W., Brendan J., and Mark E. Moeller, grandsons of the discoverer |-id=015| 6015 Paularego ||  || Paula Rego, Luso-British graphic artist |-id=018| 6018 Pierssac ||  || Piers John Sellers (b. 1955), nicknamed Piersac by his brothers, is a British-American Earth scientist, astronaut and Deputy Director of GSFC's Science and Exploration Directorate. |-id=019| 6019 Telford ||  || Thomas Telford (1757-1834), a Scottish civil engineer and famed builder of roads, canals, bridges, tunnels and harbors. |-id=020| 6020 Miyamoto ||  || Yukio Miyamoto, Japanese astronomer, director of Seiwa Kougen Observatory*|-id=022| 6022 Jyuro ||  || Juro Kobayashi, Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=023| 6023 Tsuyashima ||  || Takaaki Tsuyashima, Japanese astronomer, director of Kumamoto Kenmin Observatory|-id=024| 6024 Ochanomizu ||  || Ochanomizu, a neighborhood in Tokyo, Japan|-id=025| 6025 Naotosato ||  || Naoto Sato (b. 1953), active amateur astronomer and junior high school science teacher. |-id=026| 6026 Xenophanes ||  || Xenophanes, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=029| 6029 Edithrand || 1948 AG || |-id=030| 6030 Zolensky ||  || Michael Ewing Zolensky, American meteoriticist, Associate Curator for Interplanetary Dust and Hardware Returned from Space, Co-investigator of the STARDUST Discovery Mission, and member of the science team of the MUSES-C Asteroid Sample Return Mission at NASA Johnson Space Center † ‡|-id=031| 6031 Ryokan ||  || Ryōkan, Japanese Zen monk*|-id=032| 6032 Nobel || 1983 PY || Alfred Bernhard Nobel, Swedish chemist, humanist and philanthropist, founder of the Nobel prize †|-id=035| 6035 Citlaltépetl || 1987 OR || Citlaltépetl, a dormant volcano and the highest mountain (5636 m) in Mexico and lies near to the city of Orizaba. |-id=036| 6036 Weinberg ||  || Steven Weinberg, American physicist and Nobelist † ‡|-id=039| 6039 Parmenides || 1989 RS || Parmenides, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=041| 6041 Juterkilian || 1990 KL || Klas Juter, Swedish architect and photographer, and Danuta Kilian, Polish artist. |-id=042| 6042 Cheshirecat ||  || The Cheshire cat, a cat appearing in Lewis Carroll's famous fairy tale Alice in Wonderland. Its unique characteristic is its laughing voice that lingers after the cat fades away. |-id=043| 6043 Aurochs ||  || The aurochs, Bos primigenius †|-id=044| 6044 Hammer-Purgstall ||  || Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, Austrian orientalist*|-id=049| 6049 Toda || 1991 VP || Kōjun? Toda, Japanese astronomer*|-id=050| 6050 Miwablock || 1992 AE || Miwa Block, application systems analyst at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona and member of the Spacewatch team. |-id=051| 6051 Anaximenes ||  || Anaximenes of Miletus, Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=052| 6052 Junichi ||  || Junichi Watanabe, Japanese astronomer|-id=054| 6054 Ghiberti || 4019 P-L || Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor*|-id=055| 6055 Brunelleschi || 2158 T-3 || Filippo Brunelleschi, Florentine architect*|-id=056| 6056 Donatello || 2318 T-3 || Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi), Florentine artist and sculptor*|-id=057| 6057 Robbia || 5182 T-3 || Luca della Robbia, Italian sculptor*|-id=058| 6058 Carlnielsen ||  || Carl August Nielsen (1865–1931) is widely recognized as a great Danish composer who is especially noted for his six symphonies. |-id=059| 6059 Diefenbach || 1979 TA || Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851–1913), a German painter and philosopher. |-id=060| 6060 Doudleby || 1980 DX || Doudleby, Bohemia, Czech Republic †|-id=062| 6062 Vespa || 1983 JQ || named after the Vespa*|-id=063| 6063 Jason || 1984 KB || Jason, Greek mythological hero*|-id=064| 6064 Holašovice ||  || Holašovice, Bohemia, Czech Republic †|-id=065| 6065 Chesneau || 1987 OC || Olivier Chesneau (b. 1972), a French astronomer. |-id=066| 6066 Hendricks ||  || |-id=068| 6068 Brandenburg ||  || Brandenburg, Germany*|-id=069| 6069 Cevolani ||  || Giordano Cevolani, Italian geophysicist †|-id=070| 6070 Rheinland ||  || Rhineland, Germany*|-id=071| 6071 Sakitama ||  || Sakitama, a region of Gyoda city and from which Saitama prefecture takes its name, is known for its burial mounds, constructed from clay and rocks between the fourth and seventh centuries. |-id=072| 6072 Hooghoudt || 1280 T-1 || Bernard Hooghoudt, developer of the Dutch radio telescopes †|-id=074| 6074 Bechtereva || 1968 QE || Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva, Russian physiologist †|-id=075| 6075 Zajtsev ||  || Aleksandr Zaitsev, Russian radio engineer and astronomer †|-id=076| 6076 Plavec || 1980 CR || Miroslav Plavec (Mirek Plavec), Czech astronomer †|-id=077| 6077 Messner || 1980 TM || Reinhold Messner, Italian mountaineer †|-id=078| 6078 Burt ||  || |-id=079| 6079 Gerokurat ||  || Gero Kurat, Austrian curator of the meteorite collection of the Natural History Museum in Vienna, and president of the Meteoritical Society †|-id=080| 6080 Lugmair ||  || Günter Lugmair, German cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=081| 6081 Cloutis ||  || Edward Cloutis, Canadian physicist † ‡|-id=082| 6082 Timiryazev ||  || Kliment Arkad'evich Timiryazev, Russian botanist*|-id=083| 6083 Janeirabloom ||  || Jane Ira Bloom, American soprano saxophonist and jazz composer †|-id=084| 6084 Bascom || 1985 CT || Florence Bascom, American geologist |-id=085| 6085 Fraethi ||  || Frede Pedersen, father of one of the discoverers; Frede, an old Danish name meaning peace, comes from the old Nordic name Fraethi. |-id=086| 6086 Vrchlický || 1987 VU || Jaroslav Vrchlický (1853–1912), born Emil Frída, was a Czech poet and one of most prolific of all Czech writers. His works included lyric and epic poetry, plays and Czech translations of major European writers. |-id=087| 6087 Lupo || 1988 FK || Bob Lupo, Boston-born Arizona restaurateur |-id=088| 6088 Hoshigakubo || 1988 UH || Hoshigakubo, Niyodo, Kōchi, Japan. The name refers to a section of low ground at Choja, a mountainous place in the western part of Kochi prefecture. Legend has it that a meteorite fell there in olden times. Now there is a pond 20 meters across. |-id=089| 6089 Izumi ||  || Izumi-ku, Sendai, Japan|-id=091| 6091 Mitsuru ||  || Mitsuru Soma, Japanese astronomer|-id=092| 6092 Johnmason || 1990 MN || John W. Mason (b. 1954) has contributed to research on comets and meteors and to the popularization of astronomy. He was president of the British Astronomical Association during 1993–1995. |-id=093| 6093 Makoto ||  || Makoto Yoshikawa, Japanese astronomer|-id=094| 6094 Hisako ||  || Hisako Hioki (b. 1929), the mother of the discoverer and an expert seamstress. |-id=097| 6097 Koishikawa ||  || Masahiro Koishikawa, Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=098| 6098 Mutojunkyu ||  || Junkyu Muto (b. 1950) is famous worldwide as a Japanese sculptor and painter living in Rome. His series of Kazenowa ("circle wind") sculptures is particularly well known, and in 2000 one of them was installated permanently at the papal villa in Castel Gandolfo as its first abstract sculpture as a monument to world peace.|-id=099| 6099 Saarland ||  || Saarland, Germany*|-id=100| 6100 Kunitomoikkansai ||  || Named in memory of Ikkansai Kunitomo (1778–1840). Born into a family of famous gun makers in the Edo period in Japan, he made several Gregorian reflecting telescopes entirely of his own design and observed the sun, moon and planets. For 14 months during 1835–1836 he made a continuous series of observations of sunspots. |}

text: 6001 Thales

text: Thales

text: of Miletus, Ancient Greek philosopher † ‡|-id=006|

text: 6006 Anaximandros

text: Anaximander

text: , Ancient Greek astronomer †|-id=007|

text: 6007 Billevans

text: William John ("Bill") Evans

text: , American jazz pianist |-id=009|

text: 6009 Yuzuruyoshii

text: ||  || Yuzuru Yoshii, director of the Institute of Astronomy,

text: University of Tokyo

text: 6010 Lyzenga

text: || 1990 OE ||

text: Gregory Allen Lyzenga

text: , American geophysicist, Satellite Geodesy and Geodynamics Systems Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and, Physics Department, Harvey Mudd College*|-id=011|

text: 6011 Tozzi

text: ||  || Gian Paolo Tozzi (b. 1949), Italian astronomer at the

text: Arcetri Observatory

text: near Florence, Italy |-id=012|

text: 6012 Williammurdoch

text: William Murdoch

text: (1754–1839), a Scottish engineer. |-id=013|

text: 6013 Andanike

text: || 1991 OZ || Andrew S., David S., Nicholas J., and Kevin M. Martinez, grandsons of the discoverer |-id=014|

text: 6014 Chribrenmark

text: ||  || Christopher W., Brendan J., and Mark E. Moeller, grandsons of the discoverer |-id=015|

text: 6015 Paularego

text: Paula Rego

text: , Luso-British graphic artist |-id=018|

text: 6018 Pierssac

text: ||  || Piers John Sellers (b. 1955), nicknamed Piersac by his brothers, is a British-American Earth scientist, astronaut and Deputy Director of GSFC's Science and Exploration Directorate. |-id=019|

text: 6019 Telford

text: Thomas Telford

text: (1757-1834), a Scottish civil engineer and famed builder of roads, canals, bridges, tunnels and harbors. |-id=020|

text: 6020 Miyamoto

text: ||  || Yukio Miyamoto, Japanese astronomer, director of

text: Seiwa Kougen Observatory

text: 6022 Jyuro

text: Juro Kobayashi

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=023|

text: 6023 Tsuyashima

text: ||  || Takaaki Tsuyashima, Japanese astronomer, director of

text: Kumamoto Kenmin Observatory

text: 6024 Ochanomizu

text: Ochanomizu

text: , a neighborhood in Tokyo, Japan|-id=025|

text: 6025 Naotosato

text: ||  || Naoto Sato (b. 1953), active amateur astronomer and junior high school science teacher. |-id=026|

text: 6026 Xenophanes

text: Xenophanes

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=029|

text: 6029 Edithrand

text: || 1948 AG || |-id=030|

text: 6030 Zolensky

text: Michael Ewing Zolensky

text: , American meteoriticist, Associate Curator for Interplanetary Dust and Hardware Returned from Space, Co-investigator of the STARDUST Discovery Mission, and member of the science team of the MUSES-C Asteroid Sample Return Mission at NASA Johnson Space Center † ‡|-id=031|

text: 6031 Ryokan

text: Ryōkan

text: , Japanese Zen monk*|-id=032|

text: 6032 Nobel

text: || 1983 PY ||

text: Alfred Bernhard Nobel

text: , Swedish chemist, humanist and philanthropist, founder of the

text: Nobel prize

text: 6035 Citlaltépetl

text: || 1987 OR ||

text: Citlaltépetl

text: , a dormant volcano and the highest mountain (5636 m) in Mexico and lies near to the city of

text: Orizaba

text: . |-id=036|

text: 6036 Weinberg

text: Steven Weinberg

text: , American physicist and Nobelist † ‡|-id=039|

text: 6039 Parmenides

text: || 1989 RS ||

text: Parmenides

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=041|

text: 6041 Juterkilian

text: || 1990 KL ||

text: Klas Juter

text: , Swedish architect and photographer, and

text: Danuta Kilian

text: , Polish artist. |-id=042|

text: 6042 Cheshirecat

text: ||  || The

text: Cheshire cat

text: , a cat appearing in

text: Lewis Carroll

text: 's famous fairy tale

text: Alice in Wonderland

text: . Its unique characteristic is its laughing voice that lingers after the cat fades away. |-id=043|

text: 6043 Aurochs

text: ||  || The

text: aurochs

text: , Bos primigenius †|-id=044|

text: 6044 Hammer-Purgstall

text: Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall

text: , Austrian orientalist*|-id=049|

text: 6049 Toda

text: || 1991 VP || Kōjun? Toda, Japanese astronomer*|-id=050|

text: 6050 Miwablock

text: || 1992 AE ||

text: Miwa Block

text: , application systems analyst at the

text: Lunar and Planetary Laboratory

text: of the

text: University of Arizona

text: and member of the

text: Spacewatch

text: team. |-id=051|

text: 6051 Anaximenes

text: Anaximenes of Miletus

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher †|-id=052|

text: 6052 Junichi

text: Junichi Watanabe

text: , Japanese astronomer|-id=054|

text: 6054 Ghiberti

text: || 4019 P-L ||

text: Lorenzo Ghiberti

text: , Italian sculptor*|-id=055|

text: 6055 Brunelleschi

text: || 2158 T-3 ||

text: Filippo Brunelleschi

text: , Florentine architect*|-id=056|

text: 6056 Donatello

text: || 2318 T-3 ||

text: Donatello

text: (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi), Florentine artist and sculptor*|-id=057|

text: 6057 Robbia

text: || 5182 T-3 ||

text: Luca della Robbia

text: , Italian sculptor*|-id=058|

text: 6058 Carlnielsen

text: Carl August Nielsen

text: (1865–1931) is widely recognized as a great Danish composer who is especially noted for his six symphonies. |-id=059|

text: 6059 Diefenbach

text: || 1979 TA ||

text: Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach

text: (1851–1913), a German painter and philosopher. |-id=060|

text: 6060 Doudleby

text: || 1980 DX ||

text: Doudleby

text: Bohemia

text: Czech Republic

text: 6062 Vespa

text: || 1983 JQ || named after the

text: Vespa

text: 6063 Jason

text: || 1984 KB ||

text: Jason

text: , Greek mythological hero*|-id=064|

text: 6064 Holašovice

text: Holašovice

text: Bohemia

text: Czech Republic

text: 6065 Chesneau

text: || 1987 OC || Olivier Chesneau (b. 1972), a French astronomer. |-id=066|

text: 6066 Hendricks

text: ||  || |-id=068|

text: 6068 Brandenburg

text: Brandenburg

text: Germany

text: 6069 Cevolani

text: Giordano Cevolani

text: , Italian geophysicist †|-id=070|

text: 6070 Rheinland

text: Rhineland

text: Germany

text: 6071 Sakitama

text: ||  || Sakitama, a region of

text: Gyoda city

text: and from which

text: Saitama prefecture

text: takes its name, is known for its burial mounds, constructed from clay and rocks between the fourth and seventh centuries. |-id=072|

text: 6072 Hooghoudt

text: || 1280 T-1 ||

text: Bernard Hooghoudt

text: , developer of the Dutch radio telescopes †|-id=074|

text: 6074 Bechtereva

text: || 1968 QE ||

text: Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva

text: , Russian physiologist †|-id=075|

text: 6075 Zajtsev

text: Aleksandr Zaitsev

text: , Russian radio engineer and astronomer †|-id=076|

text: 6076 Plavec

text: || 1980 CR ||

text: Miroslav Plavec

text: (Mirek Plavec), Czech astronomer †|-id=077|

text: 6077 Messner

text: || 1980 TM ||

text: Reinhold Messner

text: , Italian mountaineer †|-id=078|

text: 6078 Burt

text: ||  || |-id=079|

text: 6079 Gerokurat

text: Gero Kurat

text: , Austrian curator of the meteorite collection of the Natural History Museum in Vienna, and president of the Meteoritical Society †|-id=080|

text: 6080 Lugmair

text: Günter Lugmair

text: , German cosmochemist and meteoriticist †|-id=081|

text: 6081 Cloutis

text: Edward Cloutis

text: , Canadian physicist † ‡|-id=082|

text: 6082 Timiryazev

text: Kliment Arkad'evich Timiryazev

text: , Russian botanist*|-id=083|

text: 6083 Janeirabloom

text: Jane Ira Bloom

text: , American soprano saxophonist and jazz composer †|-id=084|

text: 6084 Bascom

text: || 1985 CT ||

text: Florence Bascom

text: , American geologist |-id=085|

text: 6085 Fraethi

text: ||  || Frede Pedersen, father of one of the discoverers; Frede, an old Danish name meaning peace, comes from the old Nordic name Fraethi. |-id=086|

text: 6086 Vrchlický

text: || 1987 VU ||

text: Jaroslav Vrchlický

text: (1853–1912), born Emil Frída, was a Czech poet and one of most prolific of all Czech writers. His works included lyric and epic poetry, plays and Czech translations of major European writers. |-id=087|

text: 6087 Lupo

text: || 1988 FK || Bob Lupo, Boston-born Arizona restaurateur |-id=088|

text: 6088 Hoshigakubo

text: || 1988 UH ||

text: Hoshigakubo

text: Niyodo, Kōchi

text: Japan

text: . The name refers to a section of low ground at Choja, a mountainous place in the western part of Kochi prefecture. Legend has it that a meteorite fell there in olden times. Now there is a pond 20 meters across. |-id=089|

text: 6089 Izumi

text: Izumi-ku, Sendai

text: , Japan|-id=091|

text: 6091 Mitsuru

text: Mitsuru Soma

text: , Japanese astronomer|-id=092|

text: 6092 Johnmason

text: || 1990 MN || John W. Mason (b. 1954) has contributed to research on comets and meteors and to the popularization of astronomy. He was president of the British Astronomical Association during 1993–1995. |-id=093|

text: 6093 Makoto

text: Makoto Yoshikawa

text: , Japanese astronomer|-id=094|

text: 6094 Hisako

text: ||  || Hisako Hioki (b. 1929), the mother of the discoverer and an expert seamstress. |-id=097|

text: 6097 Koishikawa

text: Masahiro Koishikawa

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=098|

text: 6098 Mutojunkyu

text: ||  || Junkyu Muto (b. 1950) is famous worldwide as a Japanese sculptor and painter living in Rome. His series of Kazenowa ("circle wind") sculptures is particularly well known, and in 2000 one of them was installated permanently at the papal villa in Castel Gandolfo as its first abstract sculpture as a monument to world peace.|-id=099|

text: 6099 Saarland

text: Saarland

text: Germany

text: 6100 Kunitomoikkansai

text: ||  || Named in memory of

text: Ikkansai Kunitomo (1778–1840)

text: . Born into a family of famous gun makers in the Edo period in Japan, he made several Gregorian reflecting telescopes entirely of his own design and observed the sun, moon and planets. For 14 months during 1835–1836 he made a continuous series of observations of sunspots. |}

text: Kepler published the first two laws in 1609 and the third law in 1619.  They supplanted earlier models of the Solar System, such as those of Ptolemy and Copernicus.  Kepler's laws apply only in the limited case of the two-body problem.  Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet were the first to call them "Kepler's laws".

text: Kepler published the first two laws in 1609 and the third law in 1619.  They supplanted earlier models of the Solar System, such as those of

text: Ptolemy

text: and

text: Copernicus

text: .  Kepler's laws apply only in the limited case of the two-body problem.

text: Voltaire

text: and

text: Émilie du Châtelet

text: were the first to call them "Kepler's laws".

text: 2000 Islamic Folk Astronomy, In The History of Non-Western Astronomy. Astronomy Across Cultures, pp. 615–650. Edited by Helaine Selin. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

text: The Order promotes the idea that "Dark Gods" exist within the acausal realm, although it is accepted that some members will interpret them not as real entities but as facets of the human subconscious. These entities are perceived as dangerous, with the ONA advising caution when interacting with them. Among those Dark Gods whose identities have been discussed in the Order's publicly available material are a goddess named Baphomet who is depicted as a mature woman carrying a severed head, with the ONA stating that the name is of ancient Greek origin. In addition, there are entities whose names, according to Monette, are borrowed from or influenced by figures from Classical sources and astronomy, such as Kthunae, Nemicu, and Atazoth.

text: The Order promotes the idea that "Dark Gods" exist within the acausal realm, although it is accepted that some members will interpret them not as real entities but as facets of the human subconscious. These entities are perceived as dangerous, with the ONA advising caution when interacting with them. Among those Dark Gods whose identities have been discussed in the Order's publicly available material are a goddess named

text: Baphomet

text: who is depicted as a mature woman carrying a severed head, with the ONA stating that the name is of ancient Greek origin. In addition, there are entities whose names, according to Monette, are borrowed from or influenced by figures from Classical sources and

text: astronomy

text: , such as Kthunae, Nemicu, and Atazoth.

text: In the 16th century, Descartes suggested a philosophic system whereby all living systems, including the human body (but not the soul), are simply machines ruled by the same mechanical laws, an idea that did much to promote and sustain biomechanical study. Giovanni Alfonso Borelli embraced this idea and studied walking, running, jumping, the flight of birds, the swimming of fish, and even the piston action of the heart within a mechanical framework. He could determine the position of the human center of gravity, calculate and measured inspired and expired air volumes, and showed that inspiration is muscle-driven and expiration is due to tissue elasticity. Borelli was the first to understand that the levers of the musculoskeletal system magnify motion rather than force, so that muscles must produce much larger forces than those resisting the motion. Influenced by the work of Galileo, whom he personally knew, he had an intuitive understanding of static equilibrium in various joints of the human body well before Newton published the laws of motion.

text: In the 16th century,

text: Descartes

text: suggested a philosophic system whereby all living systems, including the human body (but not the soul), are simply machines ruled by the same mechanical laws, an idea that did much to promote and sustain biomechanical study.

text: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli

text: embraced this idea and studied walking, running, jumping, the flight of birds, the swimming of fish, and even the piston action of the heart within a mechanical framework. He could determine the position of the human

text: center of gravity

text: , calculate and measured inspired and expired air volumes, and showed that inspiration is muscle-driven and expiration is due to tissue elasticity. Borelli was the first to understand that the levers of the musculoskeletal system magnify motion rather than force, so that muscles must produce much larger forces than those resisting the motion. Influenced by the work of Galileo, whom he personally knew, he had an intuitive understanding of static equilibrium in various joints of the human body well before

text: Newton

text: published the laws of motion.

text: Saltzberg is also known for his work as technical director on the CBS comedy The Big Bang Theory. In addition to reviewing and correcting scripts with technical errors, Saltzberg adds complex formulae to whiteboards on set.  David also has established scientists visit the set of The Big Bang Theory through his "Geek of the Week" program. He has also been a science consultant on the WGN America series Manhattan.

text: Saltzberg is also known for his work as technical director on the CBS comedy

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: . In addition to reviewing and correcting scripts with technical errors, Saltzberg adds complex formulae to whiteboards on set.  David also has established scientists visit the set of The Big Bang Theory through his "Geek of the Week" program. He has also been a science consultant on the

text: WGN America

text: series

text: Manhattan

text: While medieval philosophers spoke metaphorically of the "music of the spheres", Kepler discovered physical harmonies in planetary motion. He found that the difference between the maximum and minimum angular speeds of a planet in its orbit approximates a harmonic proportion. For instance, the maximum angular speed of the Earth as measured from the Sun varies by a semitone (a ratio of 16:15), from mi to fa, between aphelion and perihelion. Venus only varies by a tiny 25:24 interval (called a diesis in musical terms). Kepler explains the reason for the Earth's small harmonic range:

text: While medieval philosophers spoke metaphorically of the "music of the spheres", Kepler discovered physical harmonies in planetary motion. He found that the difference between the maximum and minimum angular speeds of a

text: planet

text: in its orbit approximates a harmonic proportion. For instance, the maximum angular speed of the Earth as measured from the Sun varies by a

text: semitone

text: (a ratio of 16:15), from mi to fa, between

text: aphelion

text: and

text: perihelion

text: . Venus only varies by a tiny 25:24 interval (called a

text: diesis

text: in musical terms). Kepler explains the reason for the Earth's small harmonic range:

text: The Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century. Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories.

text: The Arabic and the Persian world under

text: Islam

text: had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from

text: Greek astronomy

text: and

text: Indian astronomy

text: and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on

text: observational astronomy

text: This led to the emergence of the first astronomical

text: observatories

text: in the

text: Muslim world

text: by the early 9th century.

text: Zij

text: star catalogues were produced at these observatories.

text: In 1601, Johannes Kepler acquired the extensive, meticulous observations of the planets made by Tycho Brahe. Kepler would spend the next five years trying to fit the observations of the planet Mars to various curves. In 1609, Kepler published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion. The first law states:

text: In 1601,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: acquired the extensive, meticulous observations of the planets made by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: . Kepler would spend the next five years trying to fit the observations of the planet

text: Mars

text: to various curves. In 1609, Kepler published the first two of his three

text: laws of planetary motion

text: . The first law states:

text: As he slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul." Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.

text: As he slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and

text: solar eclipse

text: s presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of

text: atmospheric refraction

text: applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the

text: inverse-square law

text: governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of

text: pinhole camera

text: s, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as

text: parallax

text: and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the

text: eye's lens

text: onto the

text: retina

text: . The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul." Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the

text: law of refraction

text: is conspicuously absent). With respect to the beginnings of

text: projective geometry

text: , Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a

text: focus

text: of a

text: conic section

text: were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an

text: ellipse

text: becomes a

text: parabola

text: when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single

text: point at infinity

text: , thus having the properties of a large circle.

text: The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS's highest-rated show of that evening in the adults 18–49 demographic (4.6/10) along with a then-series-high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8:00 ET for the 2010–2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC's Comedy Block and Fox's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on U.S. television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out eight-year champ Two and a Half Men. However, in the age 18–49 demographic (the show's target age range), it was the second highest rated comedy, behind ABC's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million.

text: The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS's highest-rated show of that evening in the adults 18–49 demographic (4.6/10) along with a then-series-high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8:00 ET for the

entity_name: 2010–11 United States network television schedule

text: 2010–2011 schedule

text: , to be in direct competition with

text: NBC

text: 's

text: Comedy Block

text: and

text: Fox

text: 's

text: American Idol

text: (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on U.S. television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out eight-year champ

text: Two and a Half Men

text: . However, in the age 18–49 demographic (the show's target age range), it was the second highest rated comedy, behind

text: ABC

text: 's

text: Modern Family

text: . The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million.

text: Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Boyle.

text: Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as

text: Copernicus

text: Galileo

text: Kepler

text: Newton

text: and

text: Boyle

text: Modern science owes much of its heritage to ancient Greek philosophers; influential work in astronomy, mechanics, geometry, medicine, and natural history was part of the general pursuit of philosophy.  Architectural knowledge, especially in ancient Greece and Rome, also contributed to the development of mathematics, though the extent of the connection between architectural knowledge and more abstract mathematics and mechanics is unclear.

text: Modern science owes much of its heritage to ancient

text: Greek philosophers

text: ; influential work in astronomy, mechanics, geometry, medicine, and

text: natural history

text: was part of the general pursuit of philosophy.  Architectural knowledge, especially in ancient Greece and Rome, also contributed to the development of mathematics, though the extent of the connection between architectural knowledge and more abstract mathematics and mechanics is unclear.

text: Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, and Maya performed methodical observations of the night sky. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy and the making of calendars, but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.

text: Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in

text: recorded history

text: , such as the

text: Babylonians

text: Greeks

text: Indians

text: Egyptians

text: Nubians

text: Iranians

text: Chinese

text: , and

text: Maya

text: performed methodical observations of the

text: night sky

text: . Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as

text: astrometry

text: celestial navigation

text: observational astronomy

text: and the making of

text: calendar

text: s, but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with

text: astrophysics

text: Freely received his PhD in physics at New York University, and later pursued his postdoctoral studies at Oxford University under Alistair Cameron Crombie, the pioneering researcher in the history of Medieval European science. The principal idea he inherited from Crombie was "the continuity of western European science from the Dark Ages through Copernicus, Galileo and Newton". Following his postdoctoral work, he taught courses in history and astronomy at the Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey, including the course, "The Emergence of Modern Science, East and West".

text: Freely received his PhD in physics at

text: New York University

text: , and later pursued his postdoctoral studies at

text: Oxford University

text: under

text: Alistair Cameron Crombie

text: , the pioneering researcher in the history of Medieval European science. The principal idea he inherited from Crombie was "the continuity of western European science from the Dark Ages through Copernicus, Galileo and Newton". Following his postdoctoral work, he taught courses in history and

text: astronomy

text: at the

text: Boğaziçi University

text: in Istanbul, Turkey, including the course, "The Emergence of Modern Science, East and West".

text: Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre's website.

text: Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing a

text: vanity card

text: written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre's website.

text: Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational  telescope with relatively high quality.

text: Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25

entity_name: Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)

text: International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin

text: , minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of

text: Galileo's telescope

text: . The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the

text: Isaac Newton Telescope

text: , the observatory in

text: Kremsmünster Abbey

text: , a modern telescope, a

text: radio telescope

text: and a

text: space telescope

text: . In 2009, the

text: Galileoscope

text: was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational  telescope with relatively high quality.

text: This dynamic cosmological model of general relativity would come to form the standard for both the Big Bang and Steady State theories. Friedmann's work supports both theories equally, so it was not until the detection of the cosmic microwave background radiation that the Steady State theory was abandoned in favor of the current favorite Big Bang paradigm.

text: This dynamic cosmological model of general relativity would come to form the standard for both the

text: Big Bang

text: and

text: Steady State

text: theories. Friedmann's work supports both theories equally, so it was not until the detection of the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: that the Steady State theory was abandoned in favor of the current favorite Big Bang paradigm.

text: George Smoot had written to the producers of the show and requested to appear on an episode of the series. Smoot, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work which cemented the Big Bang theory, is an admitted fan of the series. The scene involving Smoot was shot at the Warner Brothers Studios in Burbank, California on February 18, 2009. Summer Glau also appeared as herself in the episode. Glau was part of the cast of Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles which, along with The Big Bang Theory, was produced by Warner Bros. Television. Bill Prady, a co-creator of The Big Bang Theory, presented the script of the episode to Josh Friedman, creator of Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles with the plan of casting Glau as herself. Friedman, impressed with the story, suggested it to Glau.

text: George Smoot

text: had written to the producers of the show and requested to appear on an episode of the series. Smoot, who received the

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: in 2006 for his work which cemented the

text: Big Bang

text: theory, is an admitted fan of the series. The scene involving Smoot was shot at the Warner Brothers Studios in

text: Burbank, California

text: on February 18, 2009.

text: Summer Glau

text: also appeared as herself in the episode. Glau was part of the cast of

text: Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles

text: which, along with The Big Bang Theory, was produced by

text: Warner Bros. Television

text: Bill Prady

text: , a co-creator of The Big Bang Theory, presented the script of the episode to

text: Josh Friedman

text: , creator of Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles with the plan of casting Glau as herself. Friedman, impressed with the story, suggested it to Glau.

text: That the Earth must be spherical was known since at least the time of Pythagoras (570–495 BC), but this knowledge did not reach ancient folklore such as the Alexander romance where Alexander travels to the ends of a flat Earth. It is notable that, unlike the Babylonians, Greeks, and Indians, the pre-Islamic Arabs had no scientific astronomy. Their knowledge of astronomy was limited to measuring time based on empirical observations of the "rising and setting" of the sun, moon, and particular stars. This area of astronomical study was known as anwa and continued to be developed after Islamization by the Arabs.  Astronomy in medieval Islam began in the 8th century and the first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh written in 830 by al-Khwarizmi.  The work is significant as it introduced the Ptolemaic system into Islamic sciences (the Ptolemaic system was ultimately replaced by the Copernican system during the Scientific Revolution in Europe).

text: That the Earth must be spherical was known since at least the time of

text: Pythagoras

text: (570–495 BC), but this knowledge did not reach ancient folklore such as the Alexander romance where Alexander travels to the ends of a flat Earth. It is notable that, unlike the Babylonians, Greeks, and Indians, the

text: pre-Islamic Arabs

text: had no scientific astronomy. Their knowledge of astronomy was limited to measuring time based on empirical observations of the "rising and setting" of the sun, moon, and particular stars. This area of astronomical study was known as anwa and continued to be developed after

text: Islamization

text: by the Arabs.

text: Astronomy in medieval Islam

text: began in the 8th century and the first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh written in 830 by

text: al-Khwarizmi

text: .  The work is significant as it introduced the

text: Ptolemaic system

text: into Islamic sciences (the Ptolemaic system was ultimately replaced by the

text: Copernican system

text: during the

text: Scientific Revolution

text: in Europe).

text: Upon Sweet's retirement in 1982, the Department of Astronomy was merged into the Department of Natural Philosophy, and John Campbell Brown was appointed to a new Chair of Astrophysics while the Regius Chair remained vacant. Brown was appointed Astronomer Royal for Scotland in 1995, and in 1996 was appointed to the revived Regius Chair of Astronomy. In 2010, the University marked the Chair's 250th anniversary with a week of public lectures, an exhibition on inaugural holder Alexander Wilson in the Hunterian Museum., and by hosting the 2010 National Astronomy Meeting.

text: Upon Sweet's retirement in 1982, the Department of Astronomy was merged into the Department of Natural Philosophy, and

text: John Campbell Brown

text: was appointed to a new Chair of Astrophysics while the Regius Chair remained vacant. Brown was appointed

text: Astronomer Royal for Scotland

text: in 1995, and in 1996 was appointed to the revived Regius Chair of Astronomy. In 2010, the University marked the Chair's 250th anniversary with a week of public lectures, an exhibition on inaugural holder

text: Alexander Wilson

text: in the

text: Hunterian Museum

text: ., and by hosting the 2010

text: National Astronomy Meeting

text: Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when Karl Jansky observed radiation coming from the Milky Way. Subsequent observations have identified a number of different sources of radio emission. These include stars and galaxies, as well as entirely new classes of objects, such as radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars,  and masers. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation, regarded as evidence for the Big Bang theory, was made through radio astronomy.

text: Radio astronomy is a subfield of

text: astronomy

text: that studies

text: celestial objects

text: at

text: radio frequencies

text: . The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when

text: Karl Jansky

text: observed radiation coming from the

text: Milky Way

text: . Subsequent observations have identified a number of different sources of radio emission. These include

text: star

text: s and

text: galaxies

text: , as well as entirely new classes of objects, such as

text: radio galaxies

text: quasar

text: s,

text: pulsar

text: s,  and

text: masers

text: . The discovery of the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: , regarded as evidence for the

text: Big Bang theory

text: , was made through radio astronomy.

text: Though the universe might in theory have a longer history, the International Astronomical Union presently use "age of the universe" to mean the duration of the Lambda-CDM expansion, or equivalently the elapsed time since the Big Bang in the current observable universe.

text: Though the universe might in theory have a longer history, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: presently use "age of the universe" to mean the duration of the Lambda-CDM expansion, or equivalently the elapsed time since the Big Bang in the current

text: observable universe

text: Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier. Some cosmological concepts are present in the Vedas, as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.As in other traditions, there is a close association of astronomy and religion during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of correct performance of religious ritual. Thus, the Shulba Sutras, texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy. Vedanga Jyotisha is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy, it includes the details about the sun, moon, nakshatras, lunisolar calendar.

text: Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of

text: Indus Valley Civilization

text: or earlier. Some cosmological concepts are present in the

text: Vedas

text: , as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.As in other traditions, there is a close association of

text: astronomy and religion

text: during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of

text: correct performance

text: of religious ritual. Thus, the

text: Shulba Sutras

text: , texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.

text: Vedanga Jyotisha

text: is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy, it includes the details about the sun, moon,

text: nakshatra

text: s,

text: lunisolar calendar

text: At the time, conducting researches on relativity theory and cosmology in China was very risky politically, because these theories were considered to be "idealistic" theories in contradiction with the dialectical materialism theory, which is the official philosophy of the Communist Party. According to the dialectical materialism philosophy, both time and space must be infinite, while the Big Bang theory allows the possibility of the finiteness of space and time. During the Culture Revolution, campaigns were waged against Einstein and the Theory of Relativity in Beijing and Shanghai. Once Fang published his theory, some of the critics of the Theory of Relativity, especially a group based in Shanghai, prepared to attack Fang politically. However, by this time the "leftist" line was declining in the Chinese academia. Professor Dai Wensai, the most well-known Chinese astronomer at the time and chair of the Astronomy Department of Nanjing University, also supported Fang. Many of the members of the "Theory of Relativity Criticism Group" changed to study the theory and conduct research in it. Subsequently Fang was regarded as the father of cosmological research in China. Nevertheless, in the 1980s and even as late as the 1990s, articles criticizing the Big Bang theory as "pseudo-science from the west ... in violation of the principles of Marxism philosophy", and "politically incorrect" still appeared frequently in newspapers and magazines in paper.

text: At the time, conducting researches on relativity theory and cosmology in China was very risky politically, because these theories were considered to be "idealistic" theories in contradiction with the

text: dialectical materialism

text: theory, which is the official philosophy of the Communist Party. According to the dialectical materialism philosophy, both time and space must be infinite, while the

text: Big Bang

text: theory allows the possibility of the finiteness of space and time. During the Culture Revolution, campaigns were waged against

text: Einstein

text: and the Theory of Relativity in Beijing and Shanghai. Once Fang published his theory, some of the critics of the Theory of Relativity, especially a group based in Shanghai, prepared to attack Fang politically. However, by this time the "leftist" line was declining in the Chinese academia. Professor Dai Wensai, the most well-known Chinese astronomer at the time and chair of the Astronomy Department of

text: Nanjing University

text: , also supported Fang. Many of the members of the "Theory of Relativity Criticism Group" changed to study the theory and conduct research in it. Subsequently Fang was regarded as the father of cosmological research in China. Nevertheless, in the 1980s and even as late as the 1990s, articles criticizing the Big Bang theory as "pseudo-science from the west ... in violation of the principles of

text: Marxism

text: philosophy", and "politically incorrect" still appeared frequently in newspapers and magazines in paper.

text: 400 Years of the Telescope: A Journey of Science, Technology and Thought is a 2009 American documentary film that was created to coincide with the International Year of Astronomy in 2009. The film chronicles the history of the telescope from the time of Galileo and features interviews with leading astrophysicists and cosmologists from around the world, who explain concepts ranging from Galileo's first use of the telescope to view the moons of Jupiter, to the latest discoveries in space, including new ideas about life on other planets and dark energy, a mysterious vacuum energy that is accelerating the expansion of the universe.

text: 400 Years of the Telescope: A Journey of Science, Technology and Thought is a 2009 American

text: documentary film

text: that was created to coincide with the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: in 2009. The film chronicles the history of the

text: telescope

text: from the time of

text: Galileo

text: and features interviews with leading

text: astrophysicists

text: and

text: cosmologists

text: from around the world, who explain concepts ranging from Galileo's first use of the telescope to view the moons of Jupiter, to the latest discoveries in space, including new ideas about life on other planets and

text: dark energy

text: , a mysterious vacuum energy that is accelerating the expansion of the

text: universe

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion may be derived from Newton's laws, when it is assumed that the orbiting body is subject only to the gravitational force of the central attractor. When an engine thrust or propulsive force is present, Newton's laws still apply, but Kepler's laws are invalidated.  When the thrust stops, the resulting orbit will be different but will once again be described by Kepler's laws.  The three laws are:

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: may be derived from Newton's laws, when it is assumed that the orbiting body is subject only to the gravitational force of the central attractor. When an engine thrust or propulsive force is present, Newton's laws still apply, but Kepler's laws are invalidated.  When the thrust stops, the resulting orbit will be different but will once again be described by Kepler's laws.  The three laws are:

text: Hebrew astronomy refers to any astronomy written in Hebrew or by Hebrew speakers, or translated into Hebrew. It also includes an unusual type of literature from the Middle Ages: works written in Arabic but transcribed in the Hebrew alphabet. It includes a range of genres from the earliest astronomy and cosmology contained in the Bible, mainly the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or "Old Testament"), to Jewish religious works like the Talmud and very technical works.

text: Hebrew astronomy refers to any

text: astronomy

text: written in

text: Hebrew

text: or by Hebrew speakers, or translated into Hebrew. It also includes an unusual type of literature from the Middle Ages: works written in

text: Arabic

text: but transcribed in the

text: Hebrew alphabet

text: . It includes a range of genres from the earliest astronomy and cosmology contained in the

text: Bible

text: , mainly the

text: Tanakh

text: (Hebrew Bible or "Old Testament"), to

text: Jewish

text: religious works like the

text: Talmud

text: and very technical works.

text: The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

text: The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of

text: physical law

text: s and the

text: cosmological principle

text: . The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is

text: homogeneous

text: and

text: isotropic

text: In the 1990s, a dawning of a "golden age of cosmology" was accompanied by a startling discovery that the expansion of the universe was, in fact, accelerating. Previous to this, it had been assumed that matter either in its visible or invisible dark matter form was the dominant energy density in the universe. This "classical" big bang cosmology was overthrown when it was discovered that nearly 70% of the energy in the universe was attributable to the cosmological constant, often referred to as "dark energy". This has led to the development of a so-called concordance ΛCDM model which combines detailed data obtained with new telescopes and techniques in observational astrophysics with an expanding, density-changing universe. Today, it is more common to find in the scientific literature proposals for "non-standard cosmologies" that actually accept the basic tenets of the big bang cosmology, while modifying parts of the concordance model. Such theories include alternative models of dark energy, such as quintessence, phantom energy and some ideas in brane cosmology; alternative models of dark matter, such as modified Newtonian dynamics; alternatives or extensions to inflation such as chaotic inflation and the ekpyrotic model; and proposals to supplement the universe with a first cause, such as the Hartle–Hawking boundary condition, the cyclic model, and the string landscape. There is no consensus about these ideas amongst cosmologists, but they are nonetheless active fields of academic inquiry.

text: In the 1990s, a dawning of a "golden age of cosmology" was accompanied by a startling discovery that the expansion of the universe was, in fact,

text: accelerating

text: . Previous to this, it had been assumed that

text: matter

text: either in its visible or invisible

text: dark matter

text: form was the dominant

text: energy density

text: in the universe. This "classical" big bang cosmology was overthrown when it was discovered that nearly 70% of the energy in the universe was attributable to the cosmological constant, often referred to as "dark energy". This has led to the development of a so-called concordance

text: ΛCDM model

text: which combines detailed data obtained with new telescopes and techniques in observational astrophysics with an expanding, density-changing universe. Today, it is more common to find in the scientific literature proposals for "non-standard cosmologies" that actually accept the basic tenets of the big bang cosmology, while modifying parts of the concordance model. Such theories include alternative models of dark energy, such as

text: quintessence

text: phantom energy

text: and some ideas in

text: brane cosmology

text: ; alternative models of dark matter, such as

text: modified Newtonian dynamics

text: ; alternatives or extensions to inflation such as

text: chaotic inflation

text: and the

text: ekpyrotic model

text: ; and proposals to supplement the universe with a first cause, such as the

text: Hartle–Hawking boundary condition

text: , the

text: cyclic model

text: , and the

text: string landscape

text: . There is no consensus about these ideas amongst cosmologists, but they are nonetheless active fields of academic inquiry.

text: She worked at Leander McCormick Observatory in Charlottesville, Virginia from 1970 to 1972 and received her M.A. in Astronomy from the University of Virginia in 1972 and her Ph.D. in Astronomy from Ege University in Izmir, Turkey, 1982.

text: She worked at

text: Leander McCormick Observatory

text: in

text: Charlottesville, Virginia

text: from 1970 to 1972 and received her

text: M.A.

text: in Astronomy from the

text: University of Virginia

text: in 1972 and her

text: Ph.D.

text: in Astronomy from

text: Ege University

text: in

text: Izmir

text: , Turkey, 1982.

text: Clive L. N. Ruggles (born 1952) is a British astronomer, archaeologist and academic, regarded as one of the leading figures in the field of archaeoastronomy and the author of numerous academic and popular works on the subject.  Ruggles is Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy at the School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester. Ruggles has held the post since it was created in 1999, when it is believed to have been the only appointed Chair for archaeoastronomy among the world's universities. He concurrently also holds the posts of President of the Prehistoric Society, President of the IAU Commission for the History of Astronomy, and is the Chair for the IAU World Heritage and Astronomy Working Group, and was formerly the President of the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture.

text: Clive L. N. Ruggles (born 1952) is a British

text: astronomer

text: archaeologist

text: and academic, regarded as one of the leading figures in the field of

text: archaeoastronomy

text: and the author of numerous academic and popular works on the subject.  Ruggles is

text: Emeritus

text: Professor of Archaeoastronomy at the School of Archaeology and Ancient History,

text: University of Leicester

text: . Ruggles has held the post since it was created in 1999, when it is believed to have been the only appointed Chair for archaeoastronomy among the world's universities. He concurrently also holds the posts of President of the

text: Prehistoric Society

text: , President of the

text: IAU

text: Commission for the

text: History of Astronomy

text: , and is the Chair for the IAU World Heritage and Astronomy Working Group, and was formerly the President of the

text: International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture

text: Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist and is considered as one of the most prominent scientists in history, often regarded as the "father of modern physics". His revolutionary work on the relativity theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century. When first published, relativity superseded a 200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton.In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves.Einstein formulated the well-known Mass–energy equivalence, E = mc2, and explained the photoelectric effect. His work also effected and influenced a large variety of fields of physics including the Big Bang theory (Einstein's General relativity influenced Georges Lemaître), Quantum mechanics and nuclear energy.

text: Albert Einstein

text: was a German-born theoretical physicist and is considered as one of the most prominent scientists in history, often regarded as the "father of modern physics". His revolutionary work on the

text: relativity theory

text: transformed theoretical

text: physics

text: and

text: astronomy

text: during the 20th century. When first published, relativity superseded a 200-year-old

text: theory of mechanics

text: created primarily by

text: Isaac Newton

text: .In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of

text: elementary particles

text: and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the

text: nuclear age

text: . With relativity,

text: cosmology

text: and

text: astrophysics

text: predicted extraordinary

text: astronomical phenomena

text: such as

text: neutron stars

text: black holes

text: , and

text: gravitational waves

text: .Einstein formulated the well-known

text: Mass–energy equivalence

text: , E = mc2, and explained the

text: photoelectric effect

text: . His work also effected and influenced a large variety of fields of physics including the

text: Big Bang

text: theory (Einstein's

text: General relativity

text: influenced

text: Georges Lemaître

text: Quantum mechanics

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: The Astronomia (, "Astronomy") or Astrologia (Ἀστρολογία, also "Astronomy") is a fragmentary Ancient Greek hexameter poem that was attributed to Hesiod during antiquity. As the title of the poem suggests, it was astronomical in focus, dealing with the stars. It has been suspected that the Astronomia influenced the style of Aratus' Phaenomena, but the remains of the Hesiodic poem found in ancient quotations are too meager to allow for certainty on this matter.

text: The Astronomia (, "Astronomy") or Astrologia (Ἀστρολογία, also "Astronomy") is a fragmentary

text: Ancient Greek

text: hexameter

text: poem that was attributed to

text: Hesiod

text: during antiquity. As the title of the poem suggests, it was

text: astronomical

text: in focus, dealing with the stars. It has been suspected that the Astronomia influenced the style of

text: Aratus

text: ' Phaenomena, but the remains of the Hesiodic poem found in ancient quotations are too meager to allow for certainty on this matter.

text: The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with Ancient Greek texts on astronomy and mathematics for translation into Arabic as the Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region in the early Middle Ages. Later as the Muslim world became the center of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as Gregory Choniades translated Arabic texts on Islamic astronomy, mathematics and science into Medieval Greek, including the works of Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn Yunus, al-Khazini (a Muslim scientist of Byzantine Greek descent), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī among others. There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic talei instead of the Ancient Greek hososcopus). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Islamic knowledge to Western Europe. Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with Sassanid and Indian astronomy through citations in some Arabic works.

text: The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with

text: Ancient Greek

text: texts on

text: astronomy

text: and

text: mathematics

text: for translation into

text: Arabic

text: as the Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region in the

text: early Middle Ages

text: . Later as the

text: Muslim world

text: became the center of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as

text: Gregory Choniades

text: translated Arabic texts on

text: Islamic astronomy

text: mathematics

text: and

text: science

text: into

text: Medieval Greek

text: , including the works of

text: Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi

text: Ibn Yunus

text: al-Khazini

text: (a Muslim scientist of Byzantine Greek descent),

text: Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī

text: and

text: Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī

text: among others. There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic talei instead of the Ancient Greek

text: hososcopus

text: ). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Islamic knowledge to Western Europe. Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with

text: Sassanid

text: and

text: Indian astronomy

text: through citations in some Arabic works.

text: Ryle had heated arguments with Fred Hoyle of the Institute of Astronomy about Hoyle's Steady State Universe, which restricted collaboration between the Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group and the Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s.

text: Ryle had heated arguments with

text: Fred Hoyle

text: of the

text: Institute of Astronomy

text: about Hoyle's

text: Steady State Universe

text: , which restricted collaboration between the

text: Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group

text: and the

text: Institute of Astronomy

text: during the 1960s.

text: In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies, and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by 1669 he had shown, for a circular case of planetary motion, that the force he called 'endeavour to recede' (now called centrifugal force) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, described below, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The difference between the centrifugal and centripetal points of view, though a significant change of perspective, did not change the analysis. Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia in the 1660s: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644.

text: In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies, and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by 1669 he had shown, for a circular case of planetary motion, that the force he called 'endeavour to recede' (now called

text: centrifugal force

text: ) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, described below, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The difference between the centrifugal and centripetal points of view, though a significant change of perspective, did not change the analysis. Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia in the 1660s: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644.

text: Otto Eduard Neugebauer (May 26, 1899 – February 19, 1990) was an Austrian American mathematician and historian of science who became known for his research on the history of astronomy and the other exact sciences in antiquity and into the Middle Ages. By studying clay tablets, he discovered that the ancient Babylonians knew much more about mathematics and astronomy than had been previously realized. The National Academy of Sciences has called Neugebauer "the most original and productive scholar of the history of the exact sciences, perhaps of the history of science, of our age."

text: Otto Eduard Neugebauer (May 26, 1899 – February 19, 1990) was an Austrian American

text: mathematician

text: and

text: historian of science

text: who became known for his research on the

text: history of astronomy

text: and the other

text: exact sciences

text: in

text: antiquity

text: and into the

text: Middle Ages

text: . By studying

text: clay tablet

text: s, he discovered that the ancient

text: Babylonia

text: ns knew much more about

text: mathematics

text: and

text: astronomy

text: than had been previously realized. The

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: has called Neugebauer "the most original and productive scholar of the history of the exact sciences, perhaps of the

text: history of science

text: , of our age."

text: A breakthrough in astronomy was made by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) when, in 1543, he proposed a heliocentric model of the Solar system, ostensibly as a means to render tables charting planetary motion more accurate and to simplify their production. In heliocentric models of the Solar system, the Earth orbits the Sun along with other bodies in Earth's galaxy, a contradiction according to the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century CE; see above), whose system placed the Earth at the center of the Universe and had been accepted for over 1,400 years. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (c.310 – c.230 BCE) had suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but Copernicus' theory was the first to be accepted as a valid scientific possibility. Copernicus' book presenting the theory (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres") was published just before his death in 1543 and, as it is now generally considered to mark the beginning of modern astronomy, is also considered to mark the beginning of the Scientific revolution. Copernicus' new perspective, along with the accurate observations made by Tycho Brahe, enabled German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) to formulate his laws regarding planetary motion that remain in use today.

text: A breakthrough in

text: astronomy

text: was made by Polish astronomer

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: (1473–1543) when, in 1543, he proposed a

text: heliocentric model

text: of the

text: Solar system

text: , ostensibly as a means to render tables charting planetary motion more accurate and to simplify their production. In heliocentric models of the Solar system, the Earth orbits the Sun along with other bodies in

text: Earth's

text: galaxy

text: , a contradiction according to the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century CE; see above),

text: whose system

text: placed the Earth at the center of the Universe and had been accepted for over 1,400 years. The Greek astronomer

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: (c.310 – c.230 BCE) had suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but Copernicus' theory was the first to be accepted as a valid scientific possibility. Copernicus' book presenting the theory (

text: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

text: , "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres") was published just before his death in 1543 and, as it is now generally considered to mark the beginning of modern astronomy, is also considered to mark the beginning of the Scientific revolution. Copernicus' new perspective, along with the accurate observations made by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: , enabled German astronomer

text: Johannes Kepler

text: (1571–1630) to formulate

text: his laws regarding planetary motion

text: that remain in use today.

text: Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations. However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being. For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.

text: Though the

text: Big Bang

text: theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations. However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of

text: quantum gravity

text: would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being. For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the

text: anthropic principle

text: , it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a

text: multiverse

text: Peter James is a British historian and author specializing in the ancient history and archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean region, with key related interests being chronology (dating techniques), ancient technology and astronomy, and sub-Roman Britain. He graduated in archaeology and ancient history at the University of Birmingham and pursued postgraduate research in ancient history at University College London. He has published four books (three co-authored) on various aspects of ancient history.

text: Peter James is a British historian and author specializing in the

text: ancient history

text: and

text: archaeology

text: of the Eastern

text: Mediterranean region

text: , with key related interests being chronology (dating techniques), ancient technology and astronomy, and sub-

text: Roman Britain

text: . He graduated in archaeology and ancient history at the

text: University of Birmingham

text: and pursued postgraduate research in ancient history at

text: University College London

text: . He has published four books (three co-authored) on various aspects of ancient history.

text: Since 2005 the observatory has published a newsletter, The Observer.Since 2006 the observatory has been the site of an active research and education program in historical astronomy and history of astronomy.  This research has resulted in a number of papers published in educational and scientific journals.  The observatory was also the impetus behind, and provided funds and resources for, the "Fathers of Astronomy" exhibit in 2009 at the Frazier History Museum, which featured original works of Copernicus and Galileo.  The exhibit was a partnership between the museum, the college/observatory, and the University of Louisville's Ekstrom Library, and was a celebration of the International Year of Astronomy.

text: Since 2005 the observatory has published a newsletter, The Observer.Since 2006 the observatory has been the site of an active research and education program in

text: historical astronomy

text: and

text: history of astronomy

text: .  This research has resulted in a number of papers published in educational and scientific journals.  The observatory was also the impetus behind, and provided funds and resources for, the "Fathers of Astronomy" exhibit in 2009 at the

text: Frazier History Museum

text: , which featured original works of

text: Copernicus

text: and

text: Galileo

text: .  The exhibit was a partnership between the museum, the college/observatory, and the

text: University of Louisville

text: 's Ekstrom Library, and was a celebration of the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: Moffat is best known for his work on gravity and cosmology, culminating in his nonsymmetric gravitational theory and scalar–tensor–vector gravity (now called MOG), and summarized in his 2008 book for general readers, Reinventing Gravity. His theory explains galactic rotation curves without invoking dark matter. He proposes a variable speed of light approach to cosmological problems. The speed of light c may have been more than 30 orders of magnitude higher during the early moments of the Big Bang. His recent work on inhomogeneous cosmological models purports to explain certain anomalous effects in the CMB data, and to account for the recently discovered acceleration of the expansion of the universe.

text: Moffat is best known for his work on

text: gravity

text: and

text: cosmology

text: , culminating in his

text: nonsymmetric gravitational theory

text: and

text: scalar–tensor–vector gravity

text: (now called MOG), and summarized in his 2008 book for general readers, Reinventing Gravity. His theory explains

text: galactic rotation curve

text: s without invoking

text: dark matter

text: . He proposes a

text: variable speed of light

text: approach to

text: cosmological

text: problems. The

text: speed of light

text: c may have been more than 30 orders of magnitude higher during the early moments of the

text: Big Bang

text: . His recent work on

text: inhomogeneous cosmological model

text: s purports to explain certain anomalous effects in the

text: CMB

text: data, and to account for the recently discovered acceleration of the expansion of the universe.

text: In 2006, Newton was selected by unanimous vote of the AL council for honorary membership in the Astronomical League, an association of over 200 local amateur astronomy societies promoting astronomy.

text: In 2006, Newton was selected by unanimous vote of the AL council for honorary membership in the

text: Astronomical League

text: , an association of over 200 local amateur astronomy societies promoting astronomy.

text: Big Bang Theory is a 1998 album by the Canadian hard rock band Harem Scarem.

text: Big Bang Theory is a 1998 album by the

text: Canadian

text: hard rock

text: band

text: Harem Scarem

text: The water clock mechanism described by Galileo was engineered to provide laminar flow of the water during the experiments, thus providing a constant flow of water for the durations of the experiments, and embodying what Newton called duration.

text: The

text: water clock

text: mechanism described by Galileo was engineered to provide

text: laminar flow

text: of the water during the experiments, thus providing a constant flow of water for the durations of the experiments, and embodying what Newton called duration.

text: The Kepler problem derives its name from Johannes Kepler, who worked as an assistant to the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe.  Brahe took extraordinarily accurate measurements of the motion of the planets of the Solar System.  From these measurements, Kepler was able to formulate Kepler's laws, the first modern description of planetary motion:

text: The Kepler problem derives its name from

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , who worked as an assistant to the Danish astronomer

text: Tycho Brahe

text: .  Brahe took extraordinarily accurate measurements of the motion of the planets of the Solar System.  From these measurements, Kepler was able to formulate

text: Kepler's laws

text: , the first modern description of planetary motion:

text: Orbit determination has a long history, beginning with the prehistoric discovery of the planets and subsequent attempts to predict their motions. Johannes Kepler used Tycho Brahe's careful observations of Mars to deduce the elliptical shape of its orbit and its orientation in space, deriving his three laws of planetary motion in the process.

text: Orbit determination has a long history, beginning with the prehistoric discovery of the

text: planet

text: s and subsequent attempts to predict their motions.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: used

text: Tycho Brahe

text: 's careful observations of

text: Mars

text: to deduce the elliptical shape of its orbit and its orientation in space, deriving his three

text: laws of planetary motion

text: in the process.

text: Before giving a mathematical proof for the formula for the volume of a sphere, Archimedes used physical reasoning to discover the solution (imagining the balancing of bodies on a scale).<ref name></ref> From the seventeenth century, many of the most important advances in mathematics appeared motivated by the study of physics, and this continued in the following centuries (although, it has already been appointed that from the nineteenth century, mathematics started to become increasingly independent from physics). The creation and development of calculus were strongly linked to the needs of physics: There was a need for a new mathematical language to deal with the new dynamics that had arisen from the work of scholars such as Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. During this period there was little distinction between physics and mathematics; as an example, Newton regarded geometry as a branch of mechanics. As time progressed, increasingly sophisticated mathematics started to be used in physics. The current situation is that the mathematical knowledge used in physics is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as in the case of superstring theory.

text: Before giving a

text: mathematical proof

text: for the formula for the

text: volume

text: of a

text: sphere

text: Archimedes

text: used physical reasoning to discover the solution (imagining the balancing of bodies on a scale).<ref name></ref> From the seventeenth century, many of the most important advances in mathematics appeared motivated by the study of physics, and this continued in the following centuries (although, it has already been appointed that from the nineteenth century, mathematics started to become increasingly independent from physics). The creation and development of

text: calculus

text: were strongly linked to the needs of physics: There was a need for a new mathematical language to deal with the new

text: dynamics

text: that had arisen from the work of scholars such as Galileo Galilei and

text: Isaac Newton

text: . During this period there was little distinction between physics and mathematics; as an example, Newton regarded

text: geometry

text: as a branch of

text: mechanics

text: . As time progressed, increasingly sophisticated mathematics started to be used in physics. The current situation is that the mathematical knowledge used in physics is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as in the case of

text: superstring theory

text: As it turns out, a major difficulty with this epicycles-on-epicycles theory is that historians examining books on Ptolemaic astronomy from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance have found absolutely no trace of multiple epicycles being used for each planet. The Alfonsine Tables, for instance, were apparently computed using Ptolemy's original unadorned methods.

text: The Cosmic Connection is a 150 ft long hallway connecting the main building and the underground exhibition areas (see below) that depicts the history of the universe, and dramatizes the amount of time that has passed from the Big Bang to the present day using, hundreds of individual pieces of astronomy-related jewelry.

text: The show has been well received by audiences and met with positive reviews since it is one of the few long-running TV shows that encouraged television comedy. The ratings dropped throughout the show's run mainly because of the constant reuse of running gags and jokes. Most of the criticism is directed towards the written material using jokes from Chinese-translated American sitcoms such as Friends, How I Met Your Mother and The Big Bang Theory.

text: The show has been well received by audiences and met with positive reviews since it is one of the few long-running TV shows that encouraged television comedy. The ratings dropped throughout the show's run mainly because of the constant reuse of

text: running gag

text: s and jokes. Most of the criticism is directed towards the written material using jokes from Chinese-translated American sitcoms such as

text: Friends

text: How I Met Your Mother

text: and

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: In Ptolemaic Egypt, the Egyptian tradition merged with Greek astronomy and Babylonian astronomy, with the city of Alexandria in Lower Egypt becoming the centre of scientific activity across the Hellenistic world. Roman Egypt produced the greatest astronomer of the era, Ptolemy (90-168 CE). His works on astronomy, including the Almagest, became the most influential books in the history of Western astronomy. Following the Muslim conquest of Egypt, the region came to be dominated by Arabic culture and Islamic astronomy. The astronomer Ibn Yunus (c. 950-1009) observed the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe, and his observations on eclipses were still used centuries later. In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed the SN 1006, a supernova regarded as the brightest stellar event in recorded history, and left the most detailed description of it. In the 14th century, Najm al-Din al-Misri wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself. In the 20th century, Farouk El-Baz from Egypt worked for NASA and was involved in the first Moon landings with the Apollo program, where he assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon.

text: In

text: Ptolemaic Egypt

text: , the Egyptian tradition merged with

text: Greek astronomy

text: and

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: , with the city of

text: Alexandria

text: in

text: Lower Egypt

text: becoming the centre of scientific activity across the

text: Hellenistic world

text: Roman Egypt

text: produced the greatest astronomer of the era,

text: Ptolemy

text: (90-168 CE). His works on astronomy, including the

text: Almagest

text: , became the most influential books in the history of Western astronomy. Following the

text: Muslim conquest of Egypt

text: , the region came to be

text: dominated by Arabic culture

text: and

text: Islamic astronomy

text: . The astronomer

text: Ibn Yunus

text: (c. 950-1009) observed the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe, and his observations on eclipses were still used centuries later. In 1006,

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: observed the

text: SN 1006

text: , a

text: supernova

text: regarded as the brightest stellar event in

text: recorded history

text: , and left the most detailed description of it. In the 14th century, Najm al-Din al-Misri wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself. In the 20th century,

text: Farouk El-Baz

text: from Egypt worked for

text: NASA

text: and was involved in the first

text: Moon landing

text: s with the

text: Apollo program

text: , where he assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon.

text: September 20, 2016, Sagal appeared as Susan, Penny's mother on "The Big Bang Theory"

text: September 20, 2016, Sagal appeared as Susan, Penny's mother on "

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious.  Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BCE and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.

text: As with

text: other traditions

text: , the original application of astronomy was thus religious.  Indian astronomy was influenced by

text: Greek astronomy

text: beginning in the 4th century BCE and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the

text: Yavanajataka

text: and the

text: Romaka Siddhanta

text: , a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.

text: Kepler's third law of motion is

text: Kepler's third law of motion

text: is

text: The idea was almost immediately attacked by proponents of the Big Bang who described the C-field as contradictory to a consistent understanding of physics. Hoyle, one of the most vocal proponents of the steady state model, and a committed materialist, believed that the competing, older model was forced as it violated fundamental philosophical principles regarding the infinite nature of existence. Hoyle explicitly warned that the Big Bang was being promoted as a first cause dogma in line with Western theology rather than science. To attack the connection, Hoyle began a public campaign to discredit the Big Bang theory and wound up coining the term "Big Bang" which remains stuck to the standard cosmological theory today, though the descriptive quality of the name has heavily been criticized as being misleading.

text: The idea was almost immediately attacked by proponents of the Big Bang who described the C-field as contradictory to a consistent understanding of physics. Hoyle, one of the most vocal proponents of the steady state model, and a committed

text: materialist

text: , believed that the competing, older model was forced as it violated fundamental philosophical principles regarding the

text: infinite nature

text: of existence. Hoyle explicitly warned that the Big Bang was being promoted as a

text: first cause

text: dogma in line with Western

text: theology

text: rather than science. To attack the connection, Hoyle began a public campaign to discredit the Big Bang theory and wound up coining the term "Big Bang" which remains stuck to the standard cosmological theory today, though the descriptive quality of the name has heavily been criticized as being misleading.

text: In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name was Galileo for this planet. The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands. It honors early-17th century astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei.

text: In July 2014 the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name was Galileo for this planet. The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the

text: Netherlands

text: . It honors early-17th century astronomer and physicist

text: Galileo Galilei

text: Since this discovery, the Big Bang theory has been considered to provide the best explanation of the origin of the universe. In most astrophysical publications, the Big Bang is implicitly accepted and is used as the basis of more complete theories.

text: Kepler-11 is a sunlike star in the constellation Cygnus that has a mass of 0.95 (± 0.1) M and a radius of 1.1 (± 0.1) R. In other words, Kepler-11 is approximately 5% less massive and 10% wider than the Sun. The star's metallicity is 0 (± 0.1), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases planet migration towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has five other known planets in orbit: Kepler-11c, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The first five planets in the system are all able to fit within the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g orbits further out.

text: Kepler-11 is a sunlike star in the constellation

text: Cygnus

text: that has a mass of 0.95 (± 0.1)

text: M

text: and a radius of 1.1 (± 0.1)

text: R

text: . In other words, Kepler-11 is approximately 5% less massive and 10% wider than the Sun. The star's

text: metallicity

text: is 0 (± 0.1), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases

text: planet migration

text: towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has five other known planets in orbit:

text: , and

text: . The first five planets in the system are all able to fit within the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g orbits further out.

text: The positions and periods of the planets was calculated relative to uniformly moving points. In the case of Mercury and Venus, they move around the Earth at the same mean speed as the Sun. In the case of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, they move around the Earth at specific speeds, representing each planet's motion through the zodiac. Most historians of astronomy consider that this two-epicycle model reflects elements of pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy. Another element in Aryabhata's model, the śīghrocca, the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun, is seen by some historians as a sign of an underlying heliocentric model.

text: The positions and periods of the planets was calculated relative to uniformly moving points. In the case of Mercury and Venus, they move around the Earth at the same mean speed as the Sun. In the case of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, they move around the Earth at specific speeds, representing each planet's motion through the zodiac. Most historians of astronomy consider that this two-epicycle model reflects elements of pre-Ptolemaic

text: Greek astronomy

text: . Another element in Aryabhata's model, the śīghrocca, the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun, is seen by some historians as a sign of an underlying

text: heliocentric

text: model.

text: Several major cosmological disputes have occurred throughout the history of cosmology. One of the earliest was the Copernican Revolution, which established the heliocentric model of the Solar System. More recent was the Great Debate of 1920, in the aftermath of which the Milky Way's status as but one of the Universe's many galaxies was established. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was equally divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of a rival steady state universe; this was eventually decided in favour of the Big Bang theory by advances in observational cosmology in the late 1960s. The current standard model of cosmology is the Lambda-CDM model, wherein the Universe is governed by General Relativity, began with a Big Bang and today is a nearly-flat universe that consists of approximately 5% baryons, 27% cold dark matter, and 68% dark energy.

text: Several major cosmological disputes have occurred throughout the

text: history of cosmology

text: . One of the earliest was the

text: Copernican Revolution

text: , which established the

text: heliocentric model

text: of the Solar System. More recent was the

text: Great Debate

text: of 1920, in the aftermath of which the Milky Way's status as but one of the Universe's many galaxies was established. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the

text: astrophysical

text: community was equally divided between supporters of the

text: Big Bang

text: theory and supporters of a rival

text: steady state universe

text: ; this was eventually decided in favour of the Big Bang theory by advances in

text: observational cosmology

text: in the late 1960s. The current standard model of cosmology is the

text: Lambda-CDM

text: model, wherein the Universe is governed by

text: General Relativity

text: , began with a Big Bang and today is a nearly-

text: flat universe

text: that consists of approximately 5% baryons, 27%

text: cold dark matter

text: , and 68%

text: dark energy

text: In February 2016, West guest-starred as himself on the 200th episode of The Big Bang Theory.

text: In February 2016, West guest-starred as himself on the 200th episode of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: The concept of a scientific revolution taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century in the work of Jean Sylvain Bailly, who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new. The beginning of the scientific revolution,  the Scientific Renaissance, was focused on the recovery of the knowledge of the ancients; this is generally considered to have ended in 1632 with publication of Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. The completion of the scientific revolution is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of Isaac Newton's 1687 Principia, that formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, and completed the synthesis of a new cosmology. By the end of the 18th century, the scientific revolution had given way to the "Age of Reflection."

text: The concept of a scientific revolution taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century in the work of

text: Jean Sylvain Bailly

text: , who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new. The beginning of the scientific revolution,  the Scientific Renaissance, was focused on the recovery of the knowledge of the ancients; this is generally considered to have ended in 1632 with publication of

text: Galileo

text: 's

entity_name: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

text: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

text: . The completion of the scientific revolution is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's 1687

text: Principia

text: , that formulated the

text: laws of motion

text: and

text: universal gravitation

text: , and completed the synthesis of a new cosmology. By the end of the 18th century, the scientific revolution had given way to the "

text: Age of Reflection

text: The scientific revolution "nurtured a growing awareness" that "there were universal laws of nature at work that ordered the movement of the world and its parts." James K. A. Smith and Amos Yong write that in "astronomy, the Copernican revolution regarding the heliocentrism of the solar system, Johannes Kepler's (1571–1630) three laws of planetary motion, and Isaac Newton's (1642–1727) law of universal gravitation—laws of gravitation and of motion, and notions of absolute space and time—all combined to establish the regularities of heavenly and earthly bodies." With such a backdrop, "deists suggested the watchmaker analogy: just as watches are set in motion by watchmakers, after which they operate according to their pre-established mechanisms, so also was the world begun by the God as creator, after which it and all its parts have operated according to their pre-established natural laws. With these laws perfectly in place, events have unfolded according to the prescribed plan." For Sir Isaac Newton, "the regular motion of the planets made it reasonable to believe in the continued existence of God." Newton also upheld the idea that "like a watchmaker, God was forced to intervene in the universe and tinker with the mechanism from time to time to ensure that it continued operating in good working order." Like Newton, René Descartes viewed "the cosmos as a great time machine operating according to fixed laws, a watch created and wound up by the great watchmaker."

text: The

text: scientific revolution

text: "nurtured a growing awareness" that "there were universal laws of nature at work that ordered the movement of the world and its parts."

text: James K. A. Smith

text: and

text: Amos Yong

text: write that in "astronomy, the Copernican revolution regarding the heliocentrism of the solar system, Johannes Kepler's (1571–1630) three laws of planetary motion, and Isaac Newton's (1642–1727) law of universal gravitation—laws of gravitation and of motion, and notions of absolute space and time—all combined to establish the regularities of heavenly and earthly bodies." With such a backdrop, "deists suggested the watchmaker analogy: just as watches are set in motion by watchmakers, after which they operate according to their pre-established mechanisms, so also was the world begun by the God as creator, after which it and all its parts have operated according to their pre-established natural laws. With these laws perfectly in place, events have unfolded according to the prescribed plan." For

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: , "the regular motion of the planets made it reasonable to believe in the continued existence of God." Newton also upheld the idea that "like a watchmaker, God was forced to intervene in the universe and tinker with the mechanism from time to time to ensure that it continued operating in good working order." Like Newton,

text: René Descartes

text: viewed "the cosmos as a great time machine operating according to fixed laws, a watch created and wound up by the great watchmaker."

text: The practical need for counting, elementary measurements and calculations became the reason for the emergence of arithmetic. The first authentic data on arithmetic knowledge are found in the historical monuments of Babylon and Ancient Egypt in the third and second millennia BC. The big contribution to the development of arithmetic was made by the ancient Greek mathematicians, in particular Pythagoreans, who tried to define all regularities of the world in terms of numbers. In the Middle Ages trade and approximate calculations were the main scope of arithmetic. Arithmetic developed first of all in India and the countries of Islam and only then came to Western Europe. In the seventeenth century the needs of astronomy, mechanics, and more difficult commercial calculations put before arithmetic new challenges regarding methods of calculation and gave an impetus to further development.

text: The practical need for counting, elementary

text: measurement

text: s and calculations became the reason for the emergence of arithmetic. The first authentic data on arithmetic knowledge are found in the historical monuments of

text: Babylon

text: and

text: Ancient Egypt

text: in the third and second millennia BC. The big contribution to the development of arithmetic was made by the

text: ancient Greek mathematicians

text: , in particular

text: Pythagoreans

text: , who tried to define all regularities of the world in terms of numbers. In the

text: Middle Ages

text: trade and approximate calculations were the main scope of arithmetic. Arithmetic developed first of all in

text: India

text: and the countries of

text: Islam

text: and only then came to

text: Western Europe

text: . In the seventeenth century the needs of

text: astronomy

text: mechanics

text: , and more difficult commercial calculations put before arithmetic new challenges regarding methods of calculation and gave an impetus to further development.

text: For the next two and a half centuries, because of the satellite's small size and distance, Io remained a featureless, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. So, the determination of its orbital period, along with those of the other Galilean satellites, was an early focus for astronomers. By June 1611, Galileo himself had determined that Io's orbital period was 42.5 hours long, only 2.5 minutes longer than the modern estimate. Simon Marius' estimate was only one minute longer in the data published in Mundus Iovalis. The orbital periods generated for Io and the other Jovian satellites provided an additional validation for Kepler's Third Law of planetary motion.

text: For the next two and a half centuries, because of the satellite's small size and distance, Io remained a featureless,

text: point of light in astronomers' telescopes. So, the determination of its

text: orbital period

text: , along with those of the other Galilean satellites, was an early focus for astronomers. By June 1611, Galileo himself had determined that Io's orbital period was 42.5 hours long, only 2.5 minutes longer than the modern estimate. Simon Marius' estimate was only one minute longer in the data published in Mundus Iovalis. The orbital periods generated for Io and the other Jovian satellites provided an additional validation for Kepler's

text: Third Law of planetary motion

text: |-id=403| 13403 Sarahmousa ||  || Sarah S. Mousa (born 1987) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=404| 13404 Norris ||  || Noele Rosalie Norris (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=405| 13405 Dorisbillings ||  || Doris Billings, née Dora Kawchuk, mother of the discoverer †|-id=406| 13406 Sekora ||  || Ondrej Sekora (1899–1967), Czech journalist, cartoonist, illustrator and writer. |-id=408| 13408 Deadoklestic ||  || Dea Doklestic (b. 1982), a geophysicist and atmospheric scientist, is the wife of the first discoverer. This minor planet is being named on the occasion of their wedding on 2009 June 21.|-id=410| 13410 Arhale ||  || Alan R. Hale (b. 1941) joined with Tom Johnson in the mid-1960s in the creation and development of the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope and its ultimate production. In this he was instrumental in bringing astronomy to many schools and ordinary people over the years.|-id=411| 13411 OLRAP ||  || Orchestre Lyrique de Région Avignon Provence (OLRAP) † ?|-id=412| 13412 Guerrieri ||  || Mary Guerrieri (b. 1966) has supported astronomical research at the University of Arizona. She served as an editor of the university Press Space Science Series, manager of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory's Space Imagery Center and manager of Academic Affairs for the Department of Planetary Sciences.|-id=413| 13413 Bobpeterson ||  || Robert ("Bob") Peterson (b. 1949), a graduate of the University of Arizona, was assistant director at the Steward Observatory and for over 26 years, has been responsible for U. of A. operations in the Catalinas, on Kitt Peak, the Vatican Observatory on Mt. Graham, and for the U. of A. aluminizing facility.|-id=414| 13414 Grantham ||  || James Grantham (b. 1966) is the observatory operations supervisor at the Steward Observatory Mt. Lemmon Station. He played a vital role defending the telescopes at both Mt. Lemmon and Mt. Bigelow during the 2002 Bullock and 2003 Aspen wildfires. He enjoys working on his family's ranch near Arivaca, Arizona.|-id=415| 13415 Stevenbland ||  || Steven Bland (born 1967) is a member of the Mountain Operations team for Steward Observatory at the University of Arizona. |-id=416| 13416 Berryman ||  || Jay Berryman (born 1980) is a member of the Mountain Operations team for Steward Observatory at the University of Arizona. |-id=421| 13421 Holvorcem ||  || Paulo R. Holvorcem, astronomer*|-id=423| 13423 Bobwoolley ||  || Robert Woolley (born 1953) taught astronomy and was planetarium director at Montgomery College (1976–1981) and president of the Von Braun Astronomical Society (1993–1994). Since 1994 he has been conducting week-long astronomical/geological educational experiences at a dark site near Flagstaff, Arizona. |-id=424| 13424 Margalida ||  || Santa Margalida, Majorca*|-id=425| 13425 Waynebrown ||  || Since 1993 Wayne Brown (born 1957) has developed and makes widely available CCD imaging systems for the astronomical and biomedical communities. He has also designed and built CCD cameras used for imaging from space. |-id=433| 13433 Phelps ||  || Kels Gordon Phelps (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=434| 13434 Adamquade ||  || Adam Robert Quade (born 1987) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=435| 13435 Rohret ||  || Sasha Annalicia Rohret (born 1989) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her botany and zoology project. |-id=436| 13436 Enid || 1999 WF || Enid, a city in northern Oklahoma. |-id=437| 13437 Wellton-Persson ||  || Helen Wellton and Claes Wellton Persson, Swedish entrepreneurs who sponsor the Uppsala-DLR Asteroid Survey*|-id=438| 13438 Marthanalexander ||  || Martha N. Alexander, a mentor of a finalist in the 2001 Discovery Young Scientist Challenge (DYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=439| 13439 Frankiethomas || 2072 P-L || Frankie Thomas, actor |-id=441| 13441 Janmerlin || 2098 P-L || Jan Merlin, actor |-id=446| 13446 Almarkim || 3087 P-L || Al Markim, actor |-id=448| 13448 Edbryce || 4526 P-L || Ed Bryce, actor |-id=449| 13449 Margaretgarland || 4845 P-L || Margaret Garland, actress |-id=463| 13463 Antiphos || 5159 T-2 || Antiphos, a friend of Telemachos and Odysseus and lived at Ithaca. |-id=473| 13473 Hokema || 1953 GJ || Peter Hokema (born 1955), a German violinist and maker of musical instruments. |-id=474| 13474 V'yus ||  || Yurij Sergeevich Vasil'ev (born 1929), rector of St. Petersburg State Technical University. |-id=475| 13475 Orestes || 1973 SX || Orestes, a son of Agamemnon, was a child at the time of the murder of his father.|-id=477| 13477 Utkin ||  || Vladimir Fedorovich Utkin, Russian rocket designer and scientist |-id=478| 13478 Fraunhofer ||  || Joseph von Fraunhofer, German physicist *|-id=479| 13479 Vet ||  || Vladimir Evgen'evich Tretyakov ("VET"), Russian mathematician. |-id=480| 13480 Potapov ||  || Mikhail Mikhailovich Potapov (born 1904) is a distinctive Russian painter who made a series of icon works in the twelfth-century Byzantine manner for several temples. |-id=482| 13482 Igorfedorov ||  || Igor' Borisovich Fedorov, Russian radio-wave scientist and over-the-horizon radar specialist. |-id=488| 13488 Savanov ||  || Igor' Spartakovich Savanov (born 1956), the vice-director of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. |-id=489| 13489 Dmitrienko ||  || Elena Sergeevna Dmitrienko (born 1952), a senior researcher at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory and wife of astronomer Igor' Savanov. |-id=492| 13492 Vitalijzakharov ||  || Vitalij Aleksandrovich Zakharov (born 1964) is an active surgeon-oncologist at the Simferopol cancer dispensary center. |-id=493| 13493 Lockwood || 1985 PT || George W. ("Wes") Lockwood (b. 1941), an astronomer at Lowell Observatory since 1973, is an expert on high-precision photometry. Central to his research has been a decades-long study of the seasonal variability of Saturn VI (Titan), Uranus, and Neptune, as well as activity cycles in the sun and solar-type stars.|-id=494| 13494 Treiso || 1985 RT || Treiso is a village near Alba, Piemonte. Each year, a day is set aside to celebrate both astronomy and the locally produced red wine, Barbaresco. The event is called "Tasting the Universe". The name was suggested by V. Zappalà and A. W. Harris.|-id=497| 13497 Ronstone ||  || Ronald C. Stone (born 1946) joined the U.S. Naval Observatory in 1981, working in Washington D.C., in New Zealand and in Flagstaff, Arizona. He developed the Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope (FASTT) and obtained extremely accurate positions for thousands of minor planets. |-id=498| 13498 Al Chwarizmi || 1986 PX || Al Chwarizmi (c.~780-c.~850), a Persian mathematician, astronomer and geographer.  |-id=499| 13499 Steinberg ||  || Jean Louis Steinberg (born 1922), a co-founder of the Nançay Radio Observatory and Astronomy and Astrophysics. |-id=500| 13500 Viscardy || 1987 PM || Georges Viscardy (b. 1917), the founder of the Société Monégasque d´Astronomie and of the Observatoire de Saint Martin de Peille on the French Riviera. |}

text: 13403 Sarahmousa

text: ||  || Sarah S. Mousa (born 1987) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=404|

text: 13404 Norris

text: ||  || Noele Rosalie Norris (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=405|

text: 13405 Dorisbillings

text: ||  || Doris Billings, née Dora Kawchuk, mother of the discoverer †|-id=406|

text: 13406 Sekora

text: ||  || Ondrej Sekora (1899–1967), Czech journalist, cartoonist, illustrator and writer. |-id=408|

text: 13408 Deadoklestic

text: ||  || Dea Doklestic (b. 1982), a geophysicist and atmospheric scientist, is the wife of the first discoverer. This minor planet is being named on the occasion of their wedding on 2009 June 21.|-id=410|

text: 13410 Arhale

text: ||  || Alan R. Hale (b. 1941) joined with Tom Johnson in the mid-1960s in the creation and development of the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope and its ultimate production. In this he was instrumental in bringing astronomy to many schools and ordinary people over the years.|-id=411|

text: 13411 OLRAP

text: Orchestre Lyrique de Région Avignon Provence (OLRAP)

text: † ?|-id=412|

text: 13412 Guerrieri

text: ||  || Mary Guerrieri (b. 1966) has supported astronomical research at the University of Arizona. She served as an editor of the university Press Space Science Series, manager of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory's Space Imagery Center and manager of Academic Affairs for the Department of Planetary Sciences.|-id=413|

text: 13413 Bobpeterson

text: ||  || Robert ("Bob") Peterson (b. 1949), a graduate of the University of Arizona, was assistant director at the Steward Observatory and for over 26 years, has been responsible for U. of A. operations in the Catalinas, on Kitt Peak, the Vatican Observatory on Mt. Graham, and for the U. of A. aluminizing facility.|-id=414|

text: 13414 Grantham

text: ||  || James Grantham (b. 1966) is the observatory operations supervisor at the Steward Observatory Mt. Lemmon Station. He played a vital role defending the telescopes at both Mt. Lemmon and Mt. Bigelow during the 2002 Bullock and 2003 Aspen wildfires. He enjoys working on his family's ranch near Arivaca, Arizona.|-id=415|

text: 13415 Stevenbland

text: ||  || Steven Bland (born 1967) is a member of the Mountain Operations team for

text: Steward Observatory

text: at the

text: University of Arizona

text: . |-id=416|

text: 13416 Berryman

text: ||  || Jay Berryman (born 1980) is a member of the Mountain Operations team for

text: Steward Observatory

text: at the

text: University of Arizona

text: . |-id=421|

text: 13421 Holvorcem

text: Paulo R. Holvorcem

text: , astronomer*|-id=423|

text: 13423 Bobwoolley

text: ||  || Robert Woolley (born 1953) taught astronomy and was planetarium director at Montgomery College (1976–1981) and president of the Von Braun Astronomical Society (1993–1994). Since 1994 he has been conducting week-long astronomical/geological educational experiences at a dark site near Flagstaff, Arizona. |-id=424|

text: 13424 Margalida

text: Santa Margalida

text: Majorca

text: 13425 Waynebrown

text: ||  || Since 1993 Wayne Brown (born 1957) has developed and makes widely available CCD imaging systems for the astronomical and biomedical communities. He has also designed and built CCD cameras used for imaging from space. |-id=433|

text: 13433 Phelps

text: ||  || Kels Gordon Phelps (born 1988) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=434|

text: 13434 Adamquade

text: ||  || Adam Robert Quade (born 1987) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for his biochemistry, medicine, health, and microbiology project. |-id=435|

text: 13435 Rohret

text: ||  || Sasha Annalicia Rohret (born 1989) is a finalist in the 2002 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), a middle school science competition, for her botany and zoology project. |-id=436|

text: 13436 Enid

text: || 1999 WF || Enid, a city in northern

text: Oklahoma

text: . |-id=437|

text: 13437 Wellton-Persson

text: Helen Wellton

text: and

text: Claes Wellton Persson

text: , Swedish entrepreneurs who sponsor the

text: Uppsala-DLR Asteroid Survey

text: 13438 Marthanalexander

text: ||  || Martha N. Alexander, a mentor of a finalist in the 2001 Discovery Young Scientist Challenge (DYSC), a middle school science competition. |-id=439|

text: 13439 Frankiethomas

text: || 2072 P-L ||

text: Frankie Thomas

text: , actor |-id=441|

text: 13441 Janmerlin

text: || 2098 P-L ||

text: Jan Merlin

text: , actor |-id=446|

text: 13446 Almarkim

text: || 3087 P-L ||

text: Al Markim

text: , actor |-id=448|

text: 13448 Edbryce

text: || 4526 P-L ||

text: Ed Bryce

text: , actor |-id=449|

text: 13449 Margaretgarland

text: || 4845 P-L ||

text: Margaret Garland

text: , actress |-id=463|

text: 13463 Antiphos

text: || 5159 T-2 ||

text: Antiphos

text: , a friend of

text: Telemachos

text: and

text: Odysseus

text: and lived at

text: Ithaca

text: . |-id=473|

text: 13473 Hokema

text: || 1953 GJ || Peter Hokema (born 1955), a German violinist and maker of musical instruments. |-id=474|

text: 13474 V'yus

text: ||  || Yurij Sergeevich Vasil'ev (born 1929), rector of St. Petersburg State Technical University. |-id=475|

text: 13475 Orestes

text: || 1973 SX ||

text: Orestes

text: , a son of

text: Agamemnon

text: , was a child at the time of the murder of his father.|-id=477|

text: 13477 Utkin

text: Vladimir Fedorovich Utkin

text: , Russian rocket designer and scientist |-id=478|

text: 13478 Fraunhofer

text: Joseph von Fraunhofer

text: , German physicist *|-id=479|

text: 13479 Vet

text: Vladimir Evgen'evich Tretyakov

text: ("VET"), Russian mathematician. |-id=480|

text: 13480 Potapov

text: ||  || Mikhail Mikhailovich Potapov (born 1904) is a distinctive Russian painter who made a series of icon works in the twelfth-century Byzantine manner for several temples. |-id=482|

text: 13482 Igorfedorov

text: Igor' Borisovich Fedorov

text: , Russian radio-wave scientist and over-the-horizon radar specialist. |-id=488|

text: 13488 Savanov

text: ||  || Igor' Spartakovich Savanov (born 1956), the vice-director of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. |-id=489|

text: 13489 Dmitrienko

text: ||  || Elena Sergeevna Dmitrienko (born 1952), a senior researcher at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory and wife of astronomer Igor' Savanov. |-id=492|

text: 13492 Vitalijzakharov

text: ||  || Vitalij Aleksandrovich Zakharov (born 1964) is an active surgeon-oncologist at the Simferopol cancer dispensary center. |-id=493|

text: 13493 Lockwood

text: || 1985 PT || George W. ("Wes") Lockwood (b. 1941), an astronomer at Lowell Observatory since 1973, is an expert on high-precision photometry. Central to his research has been a decades-long study of the seasonal variability of Saturn VI (Titan), Uranus, and Neptune, as well as activity cycles in the sun and solar-type stars.|-id=494|

text: 13494 Treiso

text: || 1985 RT || Treiso is a village near Alba, Piemonte. Each year, a day is set aside to celebrate both astronomy and the locally produced red wine, Barbaresco. The event is called "Tasting the Universe". The name was suggested by V. Zappalà and A. W. Harris.|-id=497|

text: 13497 Ronstone

text: ||  || Ronald C. Stone (born 1946) joined the U.S. Naval Observatory in 1981, working in Washington D.C., in New Zealand and in Flagstaff, Arizona. He developed the Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope (FASTT) and obtained extremely accurate positions for thousands of minor planets. |-id=498|

text: 13498 Al Chwarizmi

text: || 1986 PX ||

text: Al Chwarizmi

text: (c.~780-c.~850), a Persian mathematician, astronomer and geographer.  |-id=499|

text: 13499 Steinberg

text: ||  || Jean Louis Steinberg (born 1922), a co-founder of the Nançay Radio Observatory and Astronomy and Astrophysics. |-id=500|

text: 13500 Viscardy

text: || 1987 PM || Georges Viscardy (b. 1917), the founder of the Société Monégasque d´Astronomie and of the Observatoire de Saint Martin de Peille on the French Riviera. |}

text: It is also true that many of the important figures of the scientific revolution shared in the general Renaissance respect for ancient learning and cited ancient pedigrees for their innovations. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Kepler (1571–1630), Newton (1642–1727), and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) all traced different ancient and medieval ancestries for the heliocentric system. In the Axioms Scholium of his Principia, Newton said its axiomatic three laws of motion were already accepted by mathematicians such as Huygens (1629–1695), Wallace, Wren and others.  While preparing a revised edition of his Principia, Newton attributed his law of gravity and his first law of motion to a range of historical figures.

text: It is also true that many of the important figures of the scientific revolution shared in the general

text: Renaissance

text: respect for ancient learning and cited ancient pedigrees for their innovations.

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: Kepler

text: Newton

text: (1642–1727), and

text: Galileo Galilei

text: (1564–1642) all traced different ancient and medieval ancestries for the

text: heliocentric system

text: . In the Axioms Scholium of his

text: Principia

text: , Newton said its axiomatic

text: three laws of motion

text: were already accepted by mathematicians such as

text: Huygens

text: (1629–1695), Wallace, Wren and others.  While preparing a revised edition of his Principia, Newton attributed his

text: law of gravity

text: and his

text: first law of motion

text: to a range of historical figures.

text: Johannes Kepler (; December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

text: Johannes Kepler (; December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German

text: mathematician

text: astronomer

text: , and

text: astrologer

text: . A key figure in the 17th century

text: scientific revolution

text: , he is best known for his

text: laws of planetary motion

text: , based on his works

text: Astronomia nova

text: Harmonices Mundi

text: , and

text: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy

text: . These works also provided one of the foundations for

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's theory of

text: universal gravitation

text: Standish's work towards the development of the ephemerides took him also into the field of the history of astronomy, including study of the recently noted occurrence of Neptune in the notes of Galileo, identifying an additional manuscript observation of Neptune by Galileo (who had regarded it as a background star while studying the satellites of Jupiter), and analyzing its significance for the modern-day ephemerides.

text: The Astronomia nova records the discovery of the first two of the three principles known today as Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which are:

text: The Astronomia nova records the discovery of the first two of the three principles known today as

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: , which are:

text: He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits" This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).

text: He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called

text: "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion

text: so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. Philosophical ideas relating to

text: inertia

text: had been proposed by

text: John Philoponus

text: and

text: Jean Buridan

text: . Galileo stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits" This was incorporated into

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: (first law).

text: Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.  William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.

text: Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the

text: philosophy

text: and

text: historiography of science

text: . Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as

text: Jean-Étienne Montucla

text: 's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and

text: Jean-Baptiste Delambre

text: 's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an

text: Enlightenment

text: perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later

text: Romantic

text: -era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.

text: William Whewell

text: , in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of

text: scientific method

text: . Similarly,

text: Ernst Friedrich Apelt

text: —the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by

text: Catherine the Great

text: —identified Kepler as a key to the "

text: Revolution of the sciences

text: ". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.

text: Eldem has published dozens of articles and essays on archaeo-astronomy, along with unorthodox interpretations of sacred texts and papyri. His writings on ancient Mesopotamian cosmology and Mayan astronomy eventually became the basis and nucleus of a trilogy, named "The Hidden History". The first volume was published in 2003: the best-selling "2012: Rendez-vous With Marduk".

text: Eldem has published dozens of articles and essays on archaeo-astronomy, along with unorthodox interpretations of sacred texts and papyri. His writings on ancient

text: Mesopotamian

text: cosmology

text: and

text: Mayan

text: astronomy

text: eventually became the basis and nucleus of a trilogy, named "The Hidden History". The first volume was published in 2003: the best-selling "2012: Rendez-vous With Marduk".

text: In the Newtonian framework there was indeed a degree of comfort in the answers one could give. Consider for example the question of whether the Earth really goes round the Sun. In a frame of reference adapted to calculating the Earth's orbit, this is a mathematical but also tautological statement. Newtonian mechanics can answer the question, whether it is not equally the case that the Sun goes round the Earth, as it indeed appears to Earth-based astronomers. In Newton's theory there is a basic, fixed frame of reference that is inertial. The 'correct answer' is that the point of view of an observer in an inertial frame of reference is privileged: other observers see artifacts of their acceleration relative to an inertial frame (the inertial forces). Before Newton, Galileo would draw the consequences, from the Copernican heliocentric model. He was, however, constrained to call his work (in effect) scientific formalism, under the old 'description' saving the phenomena. To avoid going against authority, the elliptic orbits of the heliocentric model could be labelled as a more convenient device for calculations, rather than an actual description of reality.

text: In the

text: Newtonian

text: framework there was indeed a degree of comfort in the answers one could give. Consider for example the question of whether the

text: Earth

text: really goes round the

text: Sun

text: . In a

text: frame of reference

text: adapted to calculating the Earth's orbit, this is a mathematical but also tautological statement.

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: can answer the question, whether it is not equally the case that the Sun goes round the Earth, as it indeed appears to Earth-based astronomers. In Newton's theory there is a basic, fixed frame of reference that is

text: inertial

text: . The 'correct answer' is that the point of view of an observer in an inertial frame of reference is privileged: other observers see artifacts of their acceleration relative to an inertial frame (the

text: inertial forces

text: ). Before Newton,

text: Galileo

text: would draw the consequences, from the

text: Copernican

text: heliocentric

text: model. He was, however, constrained to call his work (in effect) scientific formalism, under the old 'description' saving the phenomena. To avoid going against authority, the elliptic orbits of the heliocentric model could be labelled as a more convenient device for calculations, rather than an actual description of reality.

text: Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his Metaphysics and a fifth element in his On the Heavens, Johannes Kepler was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by Tycho Brahe, Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion that now carry his name.

text: Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his

text: Metaphysics

text: and a fifth element in his

text: On the Heavens

text: Johannes Kepler

text: was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: , Kepler discovered the three

text: laws of planetary motion

text: that now carry his name.

text: During the past century, astronomy has been revolutionized by the use of new methods for observing the universe. Astronomical observations were originally made using visible light. Galileo Galilei pioneered the use of telescopes to enhance these observations. However, visible light is only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and not all objects in the distant universe shine strongly in this particular band. More useful information may be found, for example, in radio wavelengths. Using radio telescopes, astronomers have found pulsars, quasars, and other extreme objects that push the limits of our understanding of physics. Observations in the microwave band have opened our eyes to the faint imprints of the Big Bang, a discovery Stephen Hawking called the "greatest discovery of the century, if not all time". Similar advances in observations using gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and infrared light have also brought new insights to astronomy. As each of these regions of the spectrum has opened, new discoveries have been made that could not have been made otherwise. Astronomers hope that the same holds true of gravitational waves.

text: During the past century,

text: astronomy

text: has been revolutionized by the use of new methods for observing the universe. Astronomical observations were originally made using

text: visible light

text: Galileo Galilei

text: pioneered the use of telescopes to enhance these observations. However, visible light is only a small portion of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , and not all objects in the distant universe shine strongly in this particular band. More useful information may be found, for example, in radio wavelengths. Using

text: radio telescopes

text: , astronomers have found

text: pulsars

text: quasars

text: , and other extreme objects that push the limits of our understanding of physics. Observations in the

text: microwave

text: band have opened our eyes to the

text: faint imprints

text: of the

text: Big Bang

text: , a discovery

text: Stephen Hawking

text: called the "greatest discovery of the century, if not all time". Similar advances in observations using

text: gamma ray

text: s,

text: x-ray

text: s,

text: ultraviolet light

text: , and

text: infrared light

text: have also brought new insights to astronomy. As each of these regions of the spectrum has opened, new discoveries have been made that could not have been made otherwise. Astronomers hope that the same holds true of gravitational waves.

text: In the field of astronomy, he wrote a Theorica Planetarum in which he geometrically described the motions of the planets as well as their longitude.  He also included instructions on building a planetary equatorium as well as its geometrical description.  Campanus also attempted to determine the time of each planet's retrograde motion.  The data on planets are drawn from the Almagest and the Toledan Tables of the Arab astronomer Arzachel.  Campanus gave precise instructions on using the tables, and made detailed calculations of the distances to the planets and their sizes. This work has been called "the first detailed account of the Ptolemaic astronomical system... to be written in the Latin-speaking West."

text: In the field of astronomy, he wrote a Theorica Planetarum in which he geometrically described the motions of the

text: planet

text: s as well as their

text: longitude

text: .  He also included instructions on building a planetary

text: equatorium

text: as well as its geometrical description.  Campanus also attempted to determine the time of each planet's

text: retrograde motion

text: .  The data on planets are drawn from the

text: Almagest

text: and the

text: Toledan Tables

text: of the Arab astronomer

text: Arzachel

text: .  Campanus gave precise instructions on using the tables, and made detailed calculations of the distances to the planets and their sizes. This work has been called "the first detailed account of the Ptolemaic astronomical system... to be written in the Latin-speaking West."

text: In ancient Greek society, education was considered to encompass cultural training in addition to formal schooling. Young Greek children, both boys and girls alike, were taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by a litterator (the equivalent to a modern elementary school teacher). If a family did not have the financial ability to provide further education, boys would begin working for the family business or train as an apprentice, while girls were expected to stay home and help their mother’s manage the household. If a family did the money to continue their children’s education, parents could choose to continue to educate their daughters as well as their sons. This next level of schooling included learning how to speak correctly and interpret poetry, and was taught by a Grammaticus. Music, mythology, religion, art, astronomy, philosophy, and history were all taught as segments of this level of education.

text: The passage of Plutarch has created some controversy. W. Hamilton indicated the similarities of Plutarch's account on "the great continent" and Plato's location of Atlantis in Timaeus 24E – 25A. Kepler  in his Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia estimated that “the great continent” was America and attempted to locate Ogygia and the surrounding islands. Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh used Ogygia as a synonym for Ireland in the title of his Irish history, Ogygia: Seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia ("Ogygia: Or a Chronological Account of Irish Events"), 1685. Wilhelm von Christ was convinced that the continent was America and states that in the 1st century sailors travelling through Iceland, Greenland, and the Baffin Region reached the North American coast.

text: The passage of Plutarch has created some controversy. W. Hamilton indicated the similarities of Plutarch's account on "the great continent" and

text: Plato

text: 's location of

text: Atlantis

text: in

text: Timaeus

text: 24E – 25A.

text: Kepler

text: in his Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia estimated that “the great continent” was

text: America

text: and attempted to locate Ogygia and the surrounding islands.

text: Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh

text: used Ogygia as a synonym for

text: Ireland

text: in the title of his Irish history, Ogygia: Seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia ("Ogygia: Or a Chronological Account of Irish Events"), 1685.

text: Wilhelm von Christ

text: was convinced that the continent was America and states that in the 1st century sailors travelling through

text: Iceland

text: Greenland

text: , and the

text: Baffin Region

text: reached the

text: North America

text: n coast.

text: Jardine notes that this “honourable exchange of tokens figures in the oration as the culmination of the Landgraf’s life. Jardine also highlights a dispute between Tycho Brahe and Ursus where Ursus was accused of stealing a diagram of Tycho’s planetary ordering while at Hven. Tycho eventually brought in the help of Kepler, who wrote a detailed defence of Tycho’s claims to priority  Jardine contends that “in the course of these challenges and counter challenges Tycho and Kepler had redefined the object of the dispute in Tycho’s favour… [t]he claim to priority in the construction of a world system was not the starting point of this courtly duel, but its end-product… [being] so to speak, the final challenge.”  Upon recognition of these events, and looking through this interpretation, it seems “the very setting of the world system- a complete physically grounded model of the cosmos—as the goal of astronomy was a product of the competitive practices of courtly exchange of gifts and novelties.”  In conclusion, Jardine points that early modern astronomy was formed by its cultural settings, settings in which patronage played a significant part. Further, he suggests that the “courtly patronage of astronomy generated a new agenda for astronomy—specifically, the quest for the true and complete world system.”

text: Jardine notes that this “honourable exchange of tokens figures in the oration as the culmination of the Landgraf’s life. Jardine also highlights a dispute between Tycho Brahe and

text: Ursus

text: where Ursus was accused of stealing a diagram of Tycho’s planetary ordering while at Hven. Tycho eventually brought in the help of Kepler, who wrote a detailed defence of Tycho’s claims to priority  Jardine contends that “in the course of these challenges and counter challenges Tycho and Kepler had redefined the object of the dispute in Tycho’s favour… [t]he claim to priority in the construction of a world system was not the starting point of this courtly duel, but its end-product… [being] so to speak, the final challenge.”  Upon recognition of these events, and looking through this interpretation, it seems “the very setting of the world system- a complete physically grounded model of the cosmos—as the goal of astronomy was a product of the competitive practices of courtly exchange of gifts and novelties.”  In conclusion, Jardine points that early modern astronomy was formed by its cultural settings, settings in which patronage played a significant part. Further, he suggests that the “courtly patronage of astronomy generated a new agenda for astronomy—specifically, the quest for the true and complete

text: world system

text: The name is well-suited to the theory, which addresses the fundamental question that remains unanswered by the big bang inflationary model: what happened before the big bang?   The explanation, according to the ekpyrotic theory, is that the big bang was actually a big bounce, a transition from a previous epoch of contraction to the present epoch of expansion. The key events that shaped our universe occurred before the bounce, and, in a cyclic version, the universe bounces at regular intervals.

text: The name is well-suited to the theory, which addresses the fundamental question that remains unanswered by the

text: big bang

text: inflationary model: what happened before the big bang?   The explanation, according to the ekpyrotic theory, is that the big bang was actually a big bounce, a transition from a previous epoch of contraction to the present epoch of expansion. The key events that shaped our universe occurred before the bounce, and, in a cyclic version, the universe bounces at regular intervals.

text: In 2006, Newton was elected by membership of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific to a third term of office on its board of trustees. During an earlier term, he led the launch of Project Astro, which aims to assist astronomers and teachers in the classroom. Newton was the recipient of the Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1988 for his work in astrophotography. This award "recognizes significant observational or technological contributions to astronomy or amateur astronomy by an individual not employed in the field of astronomy in a professional capacity".

text: In 2006, Newton was elected by membership of the

text: Astronomical Society of the Pacific

text: to a third term of office on its board of trustees. During an earlier term, he led the launch of Project Astro, which aims to assist astronomers and teachers in the classroom. Newton was the recipient of the

entity_name: Amateur Achievement Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

text: Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific

text: in 1988 for his work in astrophotography. This award "recognizes significant observational or technological contributions to astronomy or amateur astronomy by an individual not employed in the field of astronomy in a professional capacity".

text: The Society for the History of Astronomy is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that promotes research into the history of astronomy. It publishes a research journal called The Antiquarian Astronomer and a regular Bulletin.

text: During the High Middle Ages, the astronomical knowledge in Christian Europe was extended beyond what was transmitted directly from ancient authors by transmission of learning from Medieval Islamic astronomy. An early student of such learning was Gerbert d'Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II.

text: During the

text: High Middle Ages

text: , the astronomical knowledge in Christian Europe was extended beyond what was transmitted directly from ancient authors by transmission of learning from

text: Medieval Islamic astronomy

text: . An early student of such learning was Gerbert d'Aurillac, the later

text: Pope Sylvester II

text: Colonna became interested in the recently invented telescope and microscope, corresponding with Galileo Galilei and other Lincean academics on astronomy.

text: Colonna became interested in the recently invented

text: telescope

text: and

text: microscope

text: , corresponding with

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and other Lincean academics on astronomy.

text: All this knowledge was transferred to the Greeks probably shortly after the conquest by Alexander the Great (331 BC). According to the late classical philosopher Simplicius (early 6th century AD), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler Callisthenes of Olynthus, who sent it to his uncle Aristotle. Although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the Sassanid (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard), which is an odd name for a historical work, but is an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning guarding, but also observing.  Anyway, Aristotle's pupil Callippus of Cyzicus introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved on the 19-year Metonic cycle, about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC (Proleptic Julian calendar date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at Gaugamela in fall 331 BC.  So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as Berossus wrote around 281 BC a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the Babyloniaca, for the new ruler Antiochus I; it is said that later he founded a school of astrology on the Greek island of Kos. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy/astrology was Sudines who was at the court of Attalus I Soter late in the 3rd century BC.

text: All this knowledge was transferred to the

text: Greeks

text: probably shortly after the conquest by

text: Alexander the Great

text: (331 BC). According to the late classical philosopher

text: Simplicius

text: (early 6th century AD), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler

text: Callisthenes of Olynthus

text: , who sent it to his uncle

text: Aristotle

text: . Although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the

text: Sassanid

text: (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard), which is an odd name for a historical work, but is an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning guarding, but also observing.  Anyway, Aristotle's pupil

text: Callippus of Cyzicus

text: introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved on the 19-year

text: Metonic cycle

text: , about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC (

text: Proleptic Julian calendar

text: date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at

text: Gaugamela

text: in fall 331 BC.  So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as

text: Berossus

text: wrote around 281 BC a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the

text: Babyloniaca

text: , for the new ruler

text: Antiochus I

text: ; it is said that later he founded a school of

text: astrology

text: on the Greek island of

text: Kos

text: . Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian

text: astronomy

text: astrology

text: was

text: Sudines

text: who was at the court of

text: Attalus I Soter

text: late in the 3rd century BC.

text: The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by Galileo Galilei, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton with the publication of three great scientific works. In 1638 Galileo published Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences, outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining gravity as a force giving rise to a constant acceleration). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical representation and design of building structures.

text: The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: Robert Hooke

text: and

text: Isaac Newton

text: with the publication of three great scientific works. In 1638

text: Galileo

text: published

text: Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences

text: , outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining

text: gravity

text: as a

text: force

text: giving rise to a constant

text: acceleration

text: ). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical representation and design of building structures.

text: The contributions that Galileo made to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus; his discovery, in 1609, of Jupiter's four largest moons (subsequently given the collective name of the "Galilean moons"); and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also pursued applied science and technology, inventing, among other instruments, a military compass. His discovery of the Jovian moons was published in 1610 and enabled him to obtain the position of mathematician and philosopher to the Medici court.  As such, he was expected to engage in debates with philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition and received a large audience for his own publications such as the Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences (published abroad following his arrest for the publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems) and The Assayer. Galileo's interest in experimenting with and formulating mathematical descriptions of motion established experimentation as an integral part of natural philosophy.  This tradition, combining with the non-mathematical emphasis on the collection of "experimental histories" by philosophical reformists such as William Gilbert and Francis Bacon, drew a significant following in the years leading up to and following Galileo's death, including Evangelista Torricelli and the participants in the Accademia del Cimento in Italy; Marin Mersenne and Blaise Pascal in France; Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands; and Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle in England.

text: The contributions that Galileo made to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the

text: phases of Venus

text: ; his discovery, in 1609, of

text: Jupiter's four largest moons

text: (subsequently given the collective name of the "

text: Galilean moons

text: "); and the observation and analysis of

text: sunspot

text: s. Galileo also pursued applied science and technology, inventing, among other instruments, a military

text: compass

text: . His discovery of the Jovian moons

text: was published in 1610

text: and enabled him to obtain the position of mathematician and philosopher to the

text: Medici

text: court.  As such, he was expected to engage in debates with philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition and received a large audience for his own publications such as the

text: Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences

text: (published abroad following his arrest for the publication of

text: ) and

text: The Assayer

text: . Galileo's interest in experimenting with and formulating mathematical descriptions of motion established experimentation as an integral part of natural philosophy.  This tradition, combining with the non-mathematical emphasis on the collection of "experimental histories" by philosophical reformists such as

text: William Gilbert

text: and

text: Francis Bacon

text: , drew a significant following in the years leading up to and following Galileo's death, including

text: Evangelista Torricelli

text: and the participants in the

text: Accademia del Cimento

text: in Italy;

text: Marin Mersenne

text: and

text: Blaise Pascal

text: in France;

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: in the Netherlands; and

text: Robert Hooke

text: and

text: Robert Boyle

text: in England.

text: Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed Heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations. In 1632 Galileo, now an old man, published his  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named Simplicio who was a simpleton. This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of heresy", sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment. Galileo's Dialogue was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.

text: Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed Heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations. In 1632 Galileo, now an old man, published his

text: , which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named Simplicio who was a simpleton. This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically. Responding to mounting controversy over

text: theology

text: astronomy

text: and

text: philosophy

text: , the

text: Roman Inquisition

text: tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of

text: heresy

text: ", sentencing him to

text: indefinite imprisonment

text: . Galileo's Dialogue was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.

text: After running a test, Professor Stein reveals the origin of the Firestorm Matrix. Stein believes that during the initial experiment he was able to capture the spark that preceded the Big Bang that created our universe. Thereby making the matrix a trigger for a new big bang, if the boys continue to experience emotional imbalance, they increase the likelihood of triggering a new big bang. After explaining this to the boys, the voice inside them speaks again. Declaring that it is not the matrix, a pair of black hands reaches out from inside Firestorm. Forcibly separating Jason and Ronnie, Black Lantern Firestorm stands between them, separate from both Ronnie and Jason and apparently calling itself "Deathstorm".

text: This period saw the beginning of the 'rediscovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West.  As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in 'friendly' religious territory. As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.

text: This period saw the beginning of the '

text: rediscovery

text: ' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West.  As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After a successful burst of

text: Reconquista

text: in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in 'friendly' religious territory. As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as

text: Adelard of Bath

text: traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of

text: Euclid

text: 's

text: Elements

text: into Latin.

text: Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.  In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.  Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter,<ref>By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law.

text: Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.  In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.  Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the

text: Medicean satellites of Jupiter

text: ,<ref>By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law.

text: Evidence often cited in support of the Big Bang Theory:

text: Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures." Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.

text: Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how people in the past "have understood the

text: phenomena

text: in the

text: sky

text: , how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their

text: culture

text: s."

text: Clive Ruggles

text: argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient

text: astronomy

text: , as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the

text: anthropological

text: study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with

text: historical astronomy

text: , the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the

text: history of astronomy

text: , which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.

text: As the law of gravitation, this law was suggested in 1645 by Ismael Bullialdus. But Bullialdus did not accept Kepler’s second and third laws, nor did he appreciate Christiaan Huygens’s solution for circular motion (motion in a straight line pulled aside by the central force).  Indeed, Bullialdus maintained the sun's force was attractive at aphelion and repulsive at perihelion. Robert Hooke and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli both expounded gravitation in 1666 as an attractive force (Hooke’s lecture "On gravity" at the Royal Society, London, on 21 March; Borelli's "Theory of the Planets", published later in 1666).  Hooke's 1670 Gresham lecture explained that gravitation applied to "all celestiall bodys" and added the principles that the gravitating power decreases with distance and that in the absence of any such power bodies move in straight lines. By 1679, Hooke thought gravitation had inverse square dependence and communicated this in a letter to Isaac Newton. Hooke remained bitter about Newton claiming the invention of this principle, even though Newton's Principia acknowledged that Hooke, along with Wren and Halley, had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system, as well as giving some credit to Bullialdus.

text: As the law of gravitation, this

text: law

text: was suggested in 1645 by

text: Ismael Bullialdus

text: . But Bullialdus did not accept

text: Kepler’s second and third laws

text: , nor did he appreciate

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: ’s solution for circular motion (motion in a straight line pulled aside by the central force).  Indeed, Bullialdus maintained the sun's force was attractive at aphelion and repulsive at perihelion.

text: Robert Hooke

text: and

text: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli

text: both expounded gravitation in 1666 as an attractive force (Hooke’s lecture "On gravity" at the Royal Society, London, on 21 March; Borelli's "Theory of the Planets", published later in 1666).  Hooke's 1670 Gresham lecture explained that gravitation applied to "all celestiall bodys" and added the principles that the gravitating power decreases with distance and that in the absence of any such power bodies move in straight lines. By 1679, Hooke thought gravitation had inverse square dependence and communicated this in a letter to

text: Isaac Newton

text: . Hooke remained bitter about Newton claiming the invention of this principle, even though Newton's Principia acknowledged that Hooke, along with Wren and Halley, had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system, as well as giving some credit to Bullialdus.

text: The ancient Greeks, in particular Hipparchus, knew the equation of the center as prostaphaeresis, although their understanding of the geometry of the planets' motion was not the same. The word equation (Latin, aequatio, -onis) in the present sense comes from astronomy. It was specified and used by Kepler, as that variable quantity determined by calculation which must be added or subtracted from the mean motion to obtain the true motion. In astronomy, the term equation of time has a similar meaning. The equation of the center in modern form was developed as part of perturbation analysis, that is, the study of the effects of a third body on two-body motion.

text: The

text: ancient Greeks

text: , in particular

text: Hipparchus

text: , knew the equation of the center as

text: prostaphaeresis

text: , although their understanding of the geometry of the planets' motion was not the same. The word equation (

text: Latin

text: , aequatio, -onis) in the present sense comes from

text: astronomy

text: . It was specified and used by

text: Kepler

text: , as that variable quantity determined by calculation which must be added or subtracted from the mean motion to obtain the true motion. In astronomy, the term

text: equation of time

text: has a similar meaning. The equation of the center in modern form was developed as part of

text: perturbation

text: analysis, that is, the study of the effects of a

text: third body

text: on

text: two-body motion

text: The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and Hubble's Law. The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space. The governing equations were formulated by Alexander Friedmann, and similar solutions were worked on by Willem de Sitter. Since then, astrophysicists have incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model, and its parametrization as the Lambda-CDM model serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology. The Lambda-CDM model is the current "standard model" of Big Bang cosmology, consensus is that it is the simplest model that can account for the various measurements and observations relevant to cosmology.

text: The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: large scale structure

text: , and

text: Hubble's Law

text: . The framework for the Big Bang model relies on

text: Albert Einstein

text: 's theory of

text: general relativity

text: and on simplifying assumptions such as

text: homogeneity

text: and

text: isotropy

text: of space. The governing equations were formulated by

text: Alexander Friedmann

text: , and similar solutions were worked on by

text: Willem de Sitter

text: . Since then, astrophysicists have incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model, and its

text: parametrization

text: as the

text: Lambda-CDM model

text: serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology. The Lambda-CDM model is the current "standard model" of Big Bang cosmology,

text: consensus

text: is that it is the simplest model that can account for the various measurements and

text: observations relevant to cosmology

text: Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the solar system with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies determined by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy by Galileo Galilei in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and Isaac Newton's discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation that would come to bear his name. Newton also developed calculus, the mathematical study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.

text: Major developments in this period include the replacement of the

text: geocentric model

text: of the

text: solar system

text: with the heliocentric

text: Copernican model

text: , the

text: laws governing the motion of planetary bodies

text: determined by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on

text: telescope

text: s and

text: observational astronomy

text: by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's discovery and unification of the

text: laws of motion

text: and

text: universal gravitation

text: that would come to bear his name. Newton also developed

text: calculus

text: , the mathematical study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.

text: He co-wrote an influential two-volume textbook in 1927 with Raymond Smith Dugan and Henry Norris Russell: Astronomy: A Revision of Young’s Manual of Astronomy (Ginn & Co., Boston, 1926–27, 1938, 1945).  This became the standard astronomy textbook for about two decades.  There were two volumes: the first was The Solar System and the second was Astrophysics and Stellar Astronomy.

text: He co-wrote an influential two-volume textbook in 1927 with

text: Raymond Smith Dugan

text: and

text: Henry Norris Russell

text: : Astronomy: A Revision of Young’s Manual of Astronomy (Ginn & Co., Boston, 1926–27, 1938, 1945).  This became the standard astronomy textbook for about two decades.  There were two volumes: the first was The Solar System and the second was Astrophysics and Stellar Astronomy.

text: Galileo Galilei turned a telescope to the heavens and recorded what he saw. Since that time, observational astronomy has made steady advances with each improvement in telescope technology.

text: Galileo Galilei

text: turned a

text: telescope

text: to the heavens and recorded what he saw. Since that time, observational astronomy has made steady advances with each improvement in telescope technology.

text: In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as progressing by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements.  Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can account for the phenomena that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory power. For example, Aristotelian mechanics explained observations of everyday situations, but were falsified by Galileo's experiments, and were replaced by Newtonian mechanics, which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others). Newtonian mechanics' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the luminiferous aether) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in turn was falsified by the Michelson-Morley experiment and was superseded by Maxwell's electrodynamics and Einstein's special relativity, which did account for the newly observed phenomena. Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics applied to the atomic scale was replaced with quantum mechanics, when the old theory could not provide an answer to the ultraviolet catastrophe, the Gibbs paradox, or how electron orbits could exist without the particles radiating away their energy and spiraling towards the centre. Thus the new theory had to posit the existence of unintuitive concepts such as energy levels, quanta and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

text: In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as progressing by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements.  Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can account for the

text: phenomena

text: that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater

text: explanatory power

text: . For example,

text: Aristotelian mechanics

text: explained observations of everyday situations, but were falsified by

text: Galileo

text: 's experiments, and were replaced by Newtonian mechanics, which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others).

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: ' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the

text: luminiferous aether

text: ) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in turn was falsified by the

text: Michelson-Morley experiment

text: and was superseded by

text: Maxwell

text: 's electrodynamics and Einstein's

text: special relativity

text: , which did account for the newly observed phenomena. Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics applied to the atomic scale was replaced with

text: quantum mechanics

text: , when the old theory could not provide an answer to the

text: ultraviolet catastrophe

text: , the

text: Gibbs paradox

text: , or how

text: electron orbits

text: could exist without the particles radiating away their energy and spiraling towards the centre. Thus the new theory had to posit the existence of unintuitive concepts such as

text: energy levels

text: quanta

text: and

text: Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

text: One of the most common creationist criticisms of the Big Bang concerns the horizon problem and supposed problems with the inflationary theory of the early Universe. Creationists have claimed that dark matter and dark energy are doubtful concepts invented by Big Bang theorists in order to uphold the theory. Creationists also point to the Baryon asymmetry problem, i.e., that the big bang is expected to have produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter.

text: One of the most common creationist criticisms of the Big Bang concerns the

text: horizon problem

text: and supposed problems with the

text: inflationary theory

text: of the early Universe. Creationists have claimed that

text: dark matter

text: and

text: dark energy

text: are doubtful concepts invented by Big Bang theorists in order to uphold the theory. Creationists also point to the

text: Baryon asymmetry

text: problem, i.e., that the big bang is expected to have produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter.

text: Astronomy in China has a very long history, with historians indicating that the Chinese were the most persistent and accurate observers of celestial phenomena anywhere in the world before the Arabs. Star names later categorized in the twenty-eight mansions have been found on oracle bones unearthed at Anyang, dating back to the middle Shang Dynasty (Chinese Bronze Age), and the mansion (xiù:宿) system's nucleus seems to have taken shape by the time of the ruler Wu Ding (1339-1281 BC).

text: Astronomy in

text: China

text: has a very long history, with historians indicating that the Chinese were the most persistent and accurate observers of celestial phenomena anywhere in the world before the Arabs. Star names later categorized in the

text: twenty-eight mansions

text: have been found on

text: oracle bones

text: unearthed at

text: Anyang

text: , dating back to the middle

text: Shang Dynasty

text: Chinese Bronze Age

text: ), and the mansion (xiù:宿) system's nucleus seems to have taken shape by the time of the ruler

text: Wu Ding

text: (1339-1281 BC).

text: Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the Lambda-CDM model are the Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics.

text: Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the

text: Lambda-CDM model

text: are the

text: Big Bang

text: Cosmic inflation

text: dark matter

text: , and fundamental theories of

text: physics

text: Of the roughly 10,000 stars visible to the naked eye, only a few hundred have been given proper names in the history of astronomy. Traditional astronomy tends to group stars into asterisms, and give proper names to those, not to individual stars.

text: Of the roughly 10,000 stars visible to the

text: naked eye

text: , only a few hundred have been given proper names in the history of astronomy. Traditional astronomy tends to group stars into

text: asterisms

text: , and give proper names to those, not to individual stars.

text: One of Galileo’s experiments regarding falling bodies was that describing the relativity of motions, explaining that, under the right circumstances, “one motion may be superimposed upon another without effect upon either…”. In Two New Sciences, Galileo made his case for this argument and it would become the basis of Newton's first law, the law of inertia.

text: One of Galileo’s experiments regarding falling bodies was that describing the relativity of motions, explaining that, under the right circumstances, “one motion may be superimposed upon another without effect upon either…”. In Two New Sciences, Galileo made his case for this argument and it would become the basis of

text: Newton's first law

text: , the law of inertia.

text: The ancients worked from a geocentric perspective for the simple reason that the Earth was where they stood and observed the sky, and it is the sky which appears to move while the ground seems still and steady underfoot. Some Greek astronomers (e.g., Aristarchus of Samos) speculated that the planets (Earth included) orbited the Sun, but the optics (and the specific mathematics – Newton's Law of Gravitation for example) necessary to provide data that would convincingly support the heliocentric model did not exist in Ptolemy's time and would not come around for over fifteen hundred years after his time.  Furthermore, Aristotelian Physics was not designed with these sorts of calculations in mind, and Aristotle's philosophy regarding the heavens was entirely at odds with the concept of heliocentrism.  It was not until Galileo Galilei observed the moons of Jupiter on January 7, 1610, and the phases of Venus in September 1610 that the heliocentric model began to receive broad support among astronomers, who also came to accept the notion that the planets are individual worlds orbiting the Sun (that is, that Earth is a planet and is one among several). Johannes Kepler was able to formulate his three laws of planetary motion, which described the orbits of the planets in our solar system to a remarkable degree of accuracy; Kepler's three laws are still taught today in university physics and astronomy classes, and the wording of these laws has not changed since Kepler first formulated them four hundred years ago.

text: The ancients worked from a

text: geocentric

text: perspective for the simple reason that the Earth was where they stood and observed the sky, and it is the sky which appears to move while the ground seems still and steady underfoot. Some Greek astronomers (e.g.,

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: ) speculated that the planets (Earth included) orbited the Sun, but the

text: optics

text: (and the specific mathematics –

text: Newton

text: 's

text: Law of Gravitation

text: for example) necessary to provide data that would convincingly support the

text: heliocentric

text: model did not exist in

text: Ptolemy

text: 's time and would not come around for over fifteen hundred years after his time.  Furthermore,

text: Aristotelian Physics

text: was not designed with these sorts of calculations in mind, and

text: Aristotle

text: 's philosophy regarding the heavens was entirely at odds with the concept of heliocentrism.  It was not until

text: Galileo Galilei

text: observed the moons of

text: Jupiter

text: on January 7, 1610, and the phases of

text: Venus

text: in September 1610 that the heliocentric model began to receive broad support among astronomers, who also came to accept the notion that the planets are individual worlds orbiting the Sun (that is, that Earth is a planet and is one among several).

text: Johannes Kepler

text: was able to formulate his three

text: laws of planetary motion

text: , which described the orbits of the planets in our solar system to a remarkable degree of accuracy; Kepler's three laws are still taught today in university physics and astronomy classes, and the wording of these laws has not changed since Kepler first formulated them four hundred years ago.

text: The Chronologia developed into an even wider project, the Cosmographia, a description of the whole Universe. Mercator's outline was (1) the creation of the world; (2) the description of the heavens (astronomy and astrology); (3) the description of the earth comprising modern geography, the geography of Ptolemy and the geography of the ancients; (4) genealogy and history of the states; and (5) chronology. Of these the chronology had already been accomplished, the account of the creation and the modern maps would appear in the atlas of 1595, his edition of Ptolemy appeared in 1578 but the ancient geography and the description of the heavens never appeared.

text: He was born in the village of Fingal, Ontario Canada. His family relocated to Ann Arbor, Michigan in 1850. At age 15 he was matriculated at the University of Michigan, where he studied the classical languages. He graduated with a BA in 1857 and received a master's degree on examination after two years' study in astronomy under professor Franz Brünnow. He became Professor of Physics and instructor in Mathematics, and in 1863, succeeded him as professor of Astronomy and director of the Detroit Observatory. He wrote the textbook ''Theoretical Astronomy'' in 1868.

text: He was born in the village of

text: Fingal

text: Ontario

text: Canada. His family relocated to

text: Ann Arbor, Michigan

text: in 1850. At age 15 he was

text: matriculated

text: at the

text: University of Michigan

text: , where he studied the classical languages. He graduated with a BA in 1857 and received a master's degree on examination after two years' study in

text: astronomy

text: under professor

text: Franz Brünnow

text: . He became Professor of Physics and instructor in Mathematics, and in 1863, succeeded him as professor of Astronomy and director of the

text: Detroit Observatory

text: . He wrote the textbook ''Theoretical Astronomy'' in 1868.

text: The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and followed Ptolemy's astronomical paradigm; one historian described their work as "a reformist project intended to consolidate Ptolemaic astronomy by bringing it into line with its own principles."

text: The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the

text: Ptolemaic system

text: of astronomy. These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and followed Ptolemy's astronomical

text: paradigm

text: ; one historian described their work as "a reformist project intended to consolidate Ptolemaic astronomy by bringing it into line with its own principles."

text: The GTTP goal was to create a worldwide network of certified "Galileo Ambassadors" by 2012. These Ambassadors were to train "Galileo Master Teachers" in the effective use and transfer of astronomy education tools and resources into classroom science curricula. The Galileo Teachers were to be equipped to train other teachers in these methodologies, leveraging the work begun during IYA2009 in classrooms everywhere. Through workshops, online training tools and basic education kits, the products and techniques developed by this program could be adapted to reach locations with few resources of their own, as well as computer-connected areas that could take advantage of access to robotic optical and radio telescopes, webcams, astronomy exercises, cross-disciplinary resources, image processing and digital universes (web and desktop planetariums). Among GTTP partners, the Global Hands-On Universe project was a leader.

text: The GTTP goal was to create a worldwide network of certified "Galileo Ambassadors" by 2012. These Ambassadors were to train "Galileo Master Teachers" in the effective use and transfer of astronomy education tools and resources into classroom science curricula. The Galileo Teachers were to be equipped to train other teachers in these methodologies, leveraging the work begun during IYA2009 in classrooms everywhere. Through workshops, online training tools and basic education kits, the products and techniques developed by this program could be adapted to reach locations with few resources of their own, as well as computer-connected areas that could take advantage of access to robotic optical and radio telescopes, webcams, astronomy exercises, cross-disciplinary resources, image processing and digital universes (web and desktop planetariums). Among GTTP partners, the

text: Global Hands-On Universe project

text: was a leader.

text: Plofker deals with the history of Indian mathematics, the topic of her 2008 book Mathematics in India, which has quickly established itself as a standard work. She is particularly interested in the exchange of mathematics and astronomy between India and Islam in the Middle Ages and generally in the exact sciences between Europe and Asia from antiquity to the 20th Century.

text: "Revolutionaries of the Cosmos" deals with eight figures (Galileo, Newton, Herschel, Huggins, Hale, Shapley, Eddington and Hubble) who revolutionised physical astronomy through the introduction of radical new ideas and techniques.

text: In 1913, Willem de Sitter argued that if this was true, a star in a double-star system would usually have an orbit that caused it to have alternating approach and recession velocities, and light emitted from different parts of the orbital path would then travel towards us at different speeds. For a nearby star with a small orbital velocity (or whose orbital plane was almost perpendicular to our line of view) this might merely make the star's orbit seem erratic, but for a sufficient combination of orbital speed and distance (and inclination), the "fast" light given off during approach would be able to catch up with and even overtake "slow" light emitted earlier during a recessional part of the star's orbit, and the star would present an image that was scrambled and out of sequence. That is, Kepler's laws of motion would apparently be violated for a distant observer.

text: In 1913,

text: Willem de Sitter

text: argued that if this was true, a star in a double-star system would usually have an orbit that caused it to have alternating approach and recession velocities, and light emitted from different parts of the orbital path would then travel towards us at different speeds. For a nearby star with a small orbital velocity (or whose orbital plane was almost perpendicular to our line of view) this might merely make the star's orbit seem erratic, but for a sufficient combination of orbital speed and distance (and inclination), the "fast" light given off during approach would be able to catch up with and even overtake "slow" light emitted earlier during a recessional part of the star's orbit, and the star would present an image that was scrambled and out of sequence. That is,

text: Kepler's laws of motion

text: would apparently be violated for a distant observer.

text: After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.  Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.

text: Visitors are taken to a time in history when people believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe. This exhibition features spectacular astrolabes, armillary spheres, and sundials to illustrate the medieval European and Middle Eastern conception of the Universe. The medieval classroom explores how different school was in the Middle Ages compared to today. Visitors learn how to use early astronomy tools including astrolabes and sundials.

text: Visitors are taken to a time in history when people believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe. This exhibition features spectacular astrolabes, armillary spheres, and sundials to illustrate the medieval European and Middle Eastern conception of the Universe. The medieval classroom explores how different school was in the Middle Ages compared to today. Visitors learn how to use early astronomy tools including

text: astrolabes

text: and sundials.

text: Newton's gravitational theory simplified and formalized Galileo's and Kepler's ideas by recognizing Kepler's "animal force or some other equivalent" beyond gravity and inertia were not needed, deducing from Kepler's planetary laws how gravity reduces with distance.

text: Newton's

text: gravitational theory

text: simplified and formalized Galileo's and Kepler's ideas by recognizing Kepler's "animal force or some other equivalent" beyond gravity and inertia were not needed, deducing from Kepler's planetary laws how gravity reduces with distance.

text: The prevailing notion about cosmic change is that the universe is expanding at a constantly accelerating rate; moreover, it is understood that as one traces the universe's history backwards one finds that it was, at one point, far denser. If true, the Rainbow gravity theory prohibits a singularity such as that which is postulated in the Big Bang. This indicates that, when viewed in reverse, the universe slowly approaches a point of terminal density without ever reaching it, implying that the universe does not possess a point of origin.

text: Alfvén believed the problem with the Big Bang was that astrophysicists tried to extrapolate the origin of the universe from mathematical theories developed on the blackboard, rather than starting from known observable phenomena. He also considered the Big Bang to be a myth devised to explain creation. Alfvén and colleagues proposed the Alfvén-Klein model as an alternative cosmological theory to both the Big Bang and steady state theory cosmologies.

text: Alfvén believed the problem with the

text: Big Bang

text: was that astrophysicists tried to extrapolate the origin of the universe from

text: mathematical theories

text: developed on the blackboard, rather than starting from known observable phenomena. He also considered the Big Bang to be a

text: myth

text: devised to explain creation. Alfvén and colleagues proposed the

text: Alfvén-Klein model

text: as an alternative

text: cosmological

text: theory to both the

text: Big Bang

text: and

text: steady state theory

text: cosmologies.

text: High energy astronomy is the study of astronomical objects that release electromagnetic radiation of highly energetic wavelengths. It includes X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, and extreme UV astronomy, as well as studies of neutrinos and cosmic rays. The physical study of these phenomena is referred to as high-energy astrophysics.

text: High energy astronomy is the study of

text: astronomical

text: objects that release

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: of highly

text: energetic

text: wavelength

text: s. It includes

text: X-ray astronomy

text: gamma-ray astronomy

text: , and extreme

text: UV astronomy

text: , as well as studies of

text: neutrino

text: s and

text: cosmic ray

text: s. The physical study of these phenomena is referred to as high-energy astrophysics.

text: Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves (minute distortions of spacetime predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity) to collect observational data about objects such as neutron stars and black holes, events such as supernovae, and processes including those of the  early universe shortly after the Big Bang.

text: Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of

text: observational astronomy

text: which aims to use

text: gravitational waves

text: (minute distortions of

text: spacetime

text: predicted by

text: Einstein

text: 's theory of

text: general relativity

text: ) to collect observational data about objects such as

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s, events such as

text: supernova

text: e, and processes including those of the

text: early universe

text: shortly after the

text: Big Bang

text: The Big Bang Theory is an American comedy television series created and executively produced by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady. Like the name of the series itself (with the exception of the first episode "Pilot"), episode titles of The Big Bang Theory always start with "The" and resemble the name of a scientific principle, theory or experiment, whimsically referencing a plot point or quirk that is stated in that episode.

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: is an American comedy television series created and executively produced by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: and

text: Bill Prady

text: . Like the name of the series itself (with the exception of the first episode "Pilot"), episode titles of The Big Bang Theory always start with "The" and resemble the name of a scientific principle, theory or experiment, whimsically referencing a plot point or quirk that is stated in that episode.

text: In 2008, Gay initiated brainstorming via e-mail on possible "new media" programs for 2009, the International Year of Astronomy (IYA). The discussion included Michael Koppelman from Slacker Astronomy, Phil Plait of Bad Astronomy, and others involved in the IYA, and resulted in the 365 Days Of Astronomy podcast. The podcast was to publish one episode per day over the entire year of 2009 and was originally planned to only run for that year. One of the cornerstones of the IGY was to make astronomy affordable and accessible to everyone in America. To do this 50-power telescopes called Galileoscopes were available for purchase online for only $10 each. "You can actually see the rings of Saturn," exclaims Gay. She was also involved in the New Media Task Group, "We need to communicate all these ideas and get people who don't want to go outside involved online," says Gay.

text: In 2008, Gay initiated brainstorming via e-mail on possible "new media" programs for 2009, the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: (IYA). The discussion included

text: Michael Koppelman

text: from

text: Slacker Astronomy

text: Phil Plait

text: of

text: Bad Astronomy

text: , and others involved in the IYA, and resulted in the

text: 365 Days Of Astronomy

text: podcast. The podcast was to publish one episode per day over the entire year of 2009 and was originally planned to only run for that year. One of the cornerstones of the IGY was to make astronomy affordable and accessible to everyone in America. To do this 50-power telescopes called Galileoscopes were available for purchase online for only $10 each. "You can actually see the rings of Saturn," exclaims Gay. She was also involved in the New Media Task Group, "We need to communicate all these ideas and get people who don't want to go outside involved online," says Gay.

text: This section is about detection in the laboratory. For detection in astronomy, see chapter In astronomy.

text: This section is about detection in the laboratory. For detection in astronomy, see chapter

text: In astronomy

text: If instead of a uniform downwards gravitational force we consider two bodies orbiting with the mutual gravitation between them, we obtain Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The derivation of these was one of the major works of Isaac Newton and provided much of the motivation for the development of differential calculus.

text: If instead of a uniform downwards gravitational force we consider two bodies orbiting with the mutual gravitation between them, we obtain

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: . The derivation of these was one of the major works of

text: Isaac Newton

text: and provided much of the motivation for the development of

text: differential calculus

text: According to Kepler's first law of planetary motion, all planets, comets, and asteroids in the Solar System have approximately elliptical orbits around the Sun. (It is only approximate because the ellipse the body traces in any single orbit does not end exactly where it begins, due to precession.) Hence, an orbiting body has a closest and a farthest point from its parent object, that is, a perihelion and an aphelion. Each extreme is known as an apsis. Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness (departure from a perfect circle) of the orbit.

text: According to

text: Kepler's first law of planetary motion

text: , all planets, comets, and asteroids in the

text: Solar System

text: have approximately

text: elliptical

text: orbits around the Sun. (It is only approximate because the ellipse the body traces in any single orbit does not end exactly where it begins, due to

text: precession

text: .) Hence, an orbiting body has a closest and a farthest point from its parent object, that is, a perihelion and an aphelion. Each extreme is known as an

text: apsis

text: Orbital eccentricity

text: measures the flatness (departure from a perfect

text: circle

text: ) of the

text: orbit

text: There is only limited information on indigenous Greek constellations, with some fragmentary evidence being found in the Works and Days of Greek poet Hesiod, who mentioned the "heavenly bodies". Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the Hellenistic era, first introduced to Greece by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC. The original work of Eudoxus is lost, but it survives as a versification by Aratus, dating to the 3rd century BC. The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed pseudo-Eratosthenes and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-Hyginus. The basis of western astronomy as taught during Late Antiquity and until the Early Modern period is the Almagest by Ptolemy, written in the 2nd century.

text: There is only limited information on indigenous Greek constellations, with some fragmentary evidence being found in the

text: Works and Days

text: of Greek poet

text: Hesiod

text: , who mentioned the "heavenly bodies". Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the

text: Hellenistic era

text: , first introduced to Greece by

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: in the 4th century BC. The original work of Eudoxus is lost, but it survives as a versification by

text: Aratus

text: , dating to the 3rd century BC. The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed

text: pseudo-Eratosthenes

text: and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-

text: Hyginus

text: . The basis of western astronomy as taught during

text: Late Antiquity

text: and until the

text: Early Modern period

text: is the

text: Almagest

text: by

text: Ptolemy

text: , written in the 2nd century.

text: The repository includes books by Galileo, Newton, Copernicus, Kepler, Einstein, and Darwin. It includes most of the Shakespeare Quartos from the British Library, the Bodleian Library, the University of Edinburgh Library, and the National Library of Scotland, as well as the First Folio from the Folger Library. It includes Library of Congress copies of Poor Richard's Almanack by Benjamin Franklin, and other rare editions: a Gutenberg Bible of 1455, William Harvey's book on the circulation of blood, Galileo ’s Sidereus Nuncius, the first printing of the United States Bill of Rights, and the Magna Carta.

text: The repository includes books by

text: Galileo

text: Newton

text: Copernicus

text: Kepler

text: Einstein

text: , and

text: Darwin

text: . It includes most of the

text: Shakespeare Quartos

text: from the

text: British Library

text: , the

text: Bodleian Library

text: , the

text: University of Edinburgh

text: Library, and the

text: National Library of Scotland

text: , as well as the

text: First Folio

text: from the

text: Folger Library

text: . It includes

text: Library of Congress

text: copies of

text: Poor Richard's Almanack

text: by

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: , and other rare editions: a

text: Gutenberg Bible

text: of 1455,

text: William Harvey

text: 's

entity_name: Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

text: book on the circulation of blood

text: , Galileo ’s

text: Sidereus Nuncius

text: , the first printing of the

text: United States Bill of Rights

text: , and the

text: Magna Carta

text: Influenced by European astronomy during the late Ming Dynasty, more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by Xu Guangqi and Johann Adam Schall von Bell, the German Jesuit and was recorded in Chongzhen Lishu (Calendrical Treatise of Chongzhen Period, 1628). Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy.

text: Influenced by European astronomy during the late

text: Ming Dynasty

text: , more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by

text: Xu Guangqi

text: and

text: Johann Adam Schall von Bell

text: , the German Jesuit and was recorded in

text: Chongzhen Lishu

text: (Calendrical Treatise of

text: Chongzhen Period

text: , 1628). Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy.

text: The Gaussian constant is closely related to Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion, and one is easily derived from the other. Beginning with the full definition of Gauss' constant,

text: The Gaussian constant is closely related to

text: Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion

text: , and one is easily derived from the other. Beginning with the full definition of Gauss' constant,

text: Newton himself appears to have previously supported an approach similar to that of Leibniz. Later, Newton in his Principia crucially limited the description of the dynamics of planetary motion to a frame of reference in which the point of attraction is fixed. In this description, Leibniz's centrifugal force was not needed and was replaced by only continually inward forces toward the fixed point. Newton objected to Leibniz's equation on the grounds that it allowed for the centrifugal force to have a different value from the centripetal force, arguing on the basis of his third law of motion, that the centrifugal force and the centripetal force must constitute an equal and opposite action-reaction pair. In this however, Newton was mistaken, as the reactive centrifugal force which is required by the third law of motion is a completely separate concept from the centrifugal force of Leibniz's equation.

text: Most of Feltre's ideas were based on those of previous classical authors, such as Cicero and Quintilian.  The main foundation of the school was liberal studies. Liberal arts were viewed as the key to freedom, which allowed humans to achieve their goals and reach their full potential. Liberal studies included philosophy, history, rhetoric, letters, mathematics, poetry, music and astronomy.  Based on the Greek idea of a "sound mind", the school in Mantua offered physical education as well. This included archery, dance, hunting and swimming.

text: Most of Feltre's ideas were based on those of previous classical authors, such as

text: Cicero

text: and

text: Quintilian

text: .  The main foundation of the school was liberal studies.

text: Liberal arts

text: were viewed as the key to freedom, which allowed humans to achieve their goals and reach their full potential. Liberal studies included

text: philosophy

text: history

text: rhetoric

text: , letters,

text: mathematics

text: poetry

text: music

text: and

text: astronomy

text: .  Based on the Greek idea of a "sound mind", the school in Mantua offered physical education as well. This included

text: archery

text: dance

text: hunting

text: and

text: swimming

text: Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In his famous (though possibly apocryphal) experiment dropping balls from the Tower of Pisa, and later with careful measurements of balls rolling down inclines, Galileo showed that gravitational acceleration is the same for all objects. This was a major departure from Aristotle's belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo postulated air resistance as the reason that objects with less mass may fall slower in an atmosphere. Galileo's work set the stage for the formulation of Newton's theory of gravity.

text: Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of

text: Galileo Galilei

text: in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In his famous (though possibly

text: apocrypha

text: l) experiment dropping balls from the

text: Tower of Pisa

text: , and later with careful measurements of balls rolling down

text: inclines

text: , Galileo showed that gravitational acceleration is the same for all objects. This was a major departure from

text: Aristotle

text: 's belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo postulated

text: air resistance

text: as the reason that objects with less mass may fall slower in an atmosphere. Galileo's work set the stage for the formulation of Newton's theory of gravity.

text: The pillars of modern physics, and perhaps the most revolutionary theories in the history of physics, have been relativity theory and quantum mechanics. Newtonian mechanics was subsumed under special relativity and Newton's gravity was given a kinematic explanation by general relativity. Quantum mechanics led to an understanding of blackbody radiation (which indeed, was an original motivation for the theory) and of anomalies in the specific heats of solids — and finally to an understanding of the internal structures of atoms and molecules. Quantum mechanics soon gave way to the formulation of quantum field theory (QFT), begun in the late 1920s. In the aftermath of World War 2, more progress brought much renewed interest in QFT, which had since the early efforts, stagnated.  The same period also saw fresh attacks on the problems of superconductivity and phase transitions, as well as the first applications of QFT in the area of theoretical condensed matter. The 1960s and 70s saw the formulation of the Standard model of particle physics using QFT and progress in condensed matter physics (theoretical foundation of superconductivity and critical phenomena, among others), in parallel to the applications of relativity to problems in astronomy and cosmology respectively.

text: The pillars of

text: modern physics

text: , and perhaps the most revolutionary theories in the history of physics, have been

text: relativity theory

text: and

text: quantum mechanics

text: . Newtonian mechanics was subsumed under special relativity and Newton's

text: gravity

text: was given a

text: kinematic

text: explanation by

text: general relativity

text: . Quantum mechanics led to an understanding of

text: blackbody

text: radiation

text: (which indeed, was an original motivation for the theory) and of anomalies in the

text: specific heats

text: of

text: solid

text: s — and finally to an understanding of the internal structures of

text: atom

text: s and

text: molecule

text: s. Quantum mechanics soon gave way to the formulation of

text: quantum field theory

text: (QFT), begun in the late 1920s. In the aftermath of World War 2, more progress brought much renewed interest in QFT, which had since the early efforts, stagnated.  The same period also saw fresh attacks on the problems of superconductivity and phase transitions, as well as the first applications of QFT in the area of theoretical condensed matter. The 1960s and 70s saw the formulation of the

text: Standard model of particle physics

text: using QFT and progress in condensed matter physics (theoretical

text: foundation of superconductivity

text: and critical phenomena, among others), in parallel to the applications of relativity to

text: problems in astronomy

text: and

text: cosmology respectively

text: A Golden age of physics appears to have been delineated for certain periods of progress in the physics sciences, and this includes the previous and current developments of cosmology and astronomy. Each "golden age" introduces significant advancements in theoretical and experimental methods. Discernible time periods marking a "golden age" of advancements are, for example, the development of mechanics under Galileo (1564–1642) and Newton (1642–1727). Another small epoch seen as a golden age is the unification of electricity, magnetism, and optics because of 19th century notables, including Faraday, Maxwell, and others.

text: A Golden age of physics appears to have been delineated for certain periods of progress in the

text: physics

text: sciences, and this includes the previous and current developments of

text: cosmology

text: and

text: astronomy

text: . Each "golden age" introduces significant advancements in theoretical and

text: experimental method

text: s. Discernible time periods marking a "golden age" of advancements are, for example, the development of mechanics under

text: Galileo

text: (1564–1642) and

text: Newton

text: (1642–1727). Another small epoch seen as a golden age is the unification of electricity, magnetism, and optics because of 19th century notables, including

text: Faraday

text: Maxwell

text: , and others.

text: The Big Bang Theory started off quietly in Canada, but managed to garner major success in later seasons. The Big Bang Theory is telecast throughout Canada via the CTV Television Network in simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. Now immensely popular in Canada, The Big Bang Theory is also rerun daily on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network.

text: The Big Bang Theory started off quietly in Canada, but managed to garner major success in later seasons. The Big Bang Theory is telecast throughout Canada via the

text: CTV Television Network

text: in

text: simultaneous substitution

text: with cross-border CBS affiliates. Now immensely popular in Canada, The Big Bang Theory is also

text: rerun

text: daily on the Canadian cable channel

text: The Comedy Network

text: Giorgio de Santillana (1902 – 1974) became professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1954 and along with Hertha von Dechend they published a book entitled "Hamlet's Mill, An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time" in 1969. It was an attempt to marry science and mythology that had become separated by the ancient Greeks. Santillana and von Dechend believed that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters, and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization.

text: Giorgio de Santillana

text: (1902 – 1974) became professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: in 1954 and along with Hertha von Dechend they published a book entitled "Hamlet's Mill, An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time" in 1969. It was an attempt to marry science and mythology that had become separated by the ancient Greeks. Santillana and von Dechend believed that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters, and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization.

text: The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.

text: The extended line of research that culminated in

text: Astronomia nova

text: (A New Astronomy)—including the first two

text: laws of planetary motion

text: —began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an

text: equant

text: (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two

text: arcminute

text: s (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an

text: ovoid

text: orbit to the data.

text: In physical cosmology, the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper, or αβγ paper, was created by Ralph Alpher, then a physics PhD student, and his advisor George Gamow.  The work, which would become the subject of Alpher's PhD dissertation, argued that the Big Bang would create hydrogen, helium and heavier elements in the correct proportions to explain their abundance in the early universe.  While the original theory neglected a number of processes important to the formation of heavy elements, subsequent developments showed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis is consistent with the observed constraints on all primordial elements.

text: In

text: physical cosmology

text: , the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper, or αβγ paper, was created by

text: Ralph Alpher

text: , then a

text: physics

text: PhD

text: student, and his advisor

text: George Gamow

text: .  The work, which would become the subject of Alpher's PhD dissertation, argued that the

text: Big Bang

text: would create

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: and heavier elements in the correct proportions to explain their abundance in the early

text: universe

text: .  While the original theory neglected a number of processes important to the formation of heavy elements, subsequent developments showed that

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

text: is consistent with the observed constraints on all primordial elements.

text: Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy and earth science, but which now incorporates many disciplines, including planetary geology (together with geochemistry and geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.

text: Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study of

text: planet

text: s (including

text: Earth

text: moons

text: , and

text: planetary system

text: s (in particular those of the

text: Solar System

text: ) and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from

text: micrometeoroid

text: s to

text: gas giant

text: s, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly

text: interdisciplinary

text: field, originally growing from

text: astronomy

text: and

text: earth science

text: , but which now incorporates many disciplines, including

text: planetary geology

text: (together with

text: geochemistry

text: and

text: geophysics

text: cosmochemistry

text: atmospheric science

text: oceanography

text: hydrology

text: theoretical planetary science

text: glaciology

text: , and

text: exoplanetology

text: . Allied disciplines include

text: space physics

text: , when concerned with the effects of the

text: Sun

text: on the bodies of the Solar System, and

text: astrobiology

text: with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius. The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from Kepler's third law of planetary motion, to the inverse square law of gravitation. The interpretation of Newton's work on gravitation by Huygens differed, however, from that of Newtonians such as Roger Cotes; he did not insist on the a priori attitude of Descartes, but neither would he accept aspects of gravitational attractions that were not attributable in principle to contact of particles.

text: with m the

text: mass

text: of the object, v the

text: velocity

text: and r the

text: radius

text: Kepler's third law

text: of planetary motion, to the

text: inverse square law

text: of gravitation. The interpretation of Newton's work on gravitation by Huygens differed, however, from that of Newtonians such as

text: Roger Cotes

text: ; he did not insist on the a priori attitude of Descartes, but neither would he accept aspects of gravitational attractions that were not attributable in principle to contact of particles.

text: Research into the physical consequences of the theory is proceeding in several directions. Among these, the most well-developed is the application of LQG to cosmology, called loop quantum cosmology (LQC). LQC applies LQG ideas to the study of the early universe and the physics of the Big Bang. Its most spectacular consequence is that the evolution of the universe can be continued beyond the Big Bang. The Big Bang appears thus to be replaced by a sort of cosmic Big Bounce.

text: Research into the physical consequences of the theory is proceeding in several directions. Among these, the most well-developed is the application of LQG to cosmology, called

text: loop quantum cosmology

text: (LQC). LQC applies LQG ideas to the study of the early universe and the physics of the

text: Big Bang

text: . Its most spectacular consequence is that the evolution of the universe can be continued beyond the Big Bang. The Big Bang appears thus to be replaced by a sort of cosmic

text: Big Bounce

text: Dreyer was also a historian of astronomy. In 1890 he published a biography of Tycho Brahe, a noted astronomer from his native country, and in his later years he edited Tycho's publications and unpublished correspondence. History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler (1905), his survey of the history of astronomy, while dated in some respects, is still a good introduction to the subject. It is currently printed with the title A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler.

text: Dreyer was also a historian of astronomy. In 1890 he published a biography of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: , a noted astronomer from his native country, and in his later years he edited Tycho's publications and unpublished correspondence. History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler (1905), his survey of the history of astronomy, while dated in some respects, is still a good introduction to the subject. It is currently printed with the title A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler.

text: The view from the Hindu Puranas is that of an eternal universe cosmology, in which time has no absolute beginning, but rather is infinite and cyclic, rather than a universe which originated from a Big Bang. However, the Encyclopædia of Hinduism, referencing Katha Upanishad 2:20, states that the Big Bang theory reminds humanity that everything came from the Brahman which is "subtler than the atom, greater than the greatest." It consists of several "Big Bangs" and "Big Crunches" following each other in a cyclical manner.

text: The view from the

text: Hindu

text: Puranas

text: is that of an eternal universe cosmology, in which time has no absolute beginning, but rather is infinite and cyclic, rather than a universe which originated from a Big Bang. However, the Encyclopædia of Hinduism, referencing

text: Katha Upanishad

text: 2:20, states that the Big Bang theory reminds humanity that everything came from the

text: Brahman

text: which is "subtler than the atom, greater than the greatest." It consists of several "Big Bangs" and "Big Crunches" following each other in a cyclical manner.

text: Although Orion has a few lines in both Homeric poems and in the Works and Days, most of the stories about him are recorded in incidental allusions and in fairly obscure later writings. No great poet standardized the legend. The ancient sources for Orion's legend are mostly notes in the margins of ancient poets (scholia) or compilations by later scholars, the equivalent of modern reference works or encyclopedias; even the legend from Hesiod's Astronomy survives only in one such compilation. In several cases, including the summary of the Astronomy, although the surviving work bears the name of a famous scholar, such as Apollodorus of Athens, Eratosthenes, or Gaius Julius Hyginus, what survives is either an ancient forgery or an abridgement of the original compilation by a later writer of dubious competence; editors of these texts suggest that they may have borne the names of great scholars because they were abridgments, or even pupil's notes, based on the works of the scholars.

text: Although Orion has a few lines in both Homeric poems and in the Works and Days, most of the stories about him are recorded in incidental allusions and in fairly obscure later writings. No great poet standardized the legend. The ancient sources for Orion's legend are mostly notes in the margins of ancient poets (

text: scholia

text: ) or compilations by later scholars, the equivalent of modern reference works or encyclopedias; even the legend from Hesiod's Astronomy survives only in one such compilation. In several cases, including the summary of the Astronomy, although the surviving work bears the name of a famous scholar, such as

text: Apollodorus of Athens

text: Eratosthenes

text: , or

text: Gaius Julius Hyginus

text: , what survives is either an ancient forgery or an abridgement of the original compilation by a later writer of dubious competence; editors of these texts suggest that they may have borne the names of great scholars because they were abridgments, or even pupil's notes, based on the works of the scholars.

text: The book contained in particular the first version in print of his third law of planetary motion. The work was intended as a textbook, and the first part was written by 1615. Divided into seven books, the Epitome covers much of Kepler's earlier thinking, as well as his later positions on physics, metaphysics and archetypes. In Book IV he supported the Copernican cosmology. Book V provided mathematics underpinning Kepler's views. Kepler wrote and published this work in parallel with his Harmonices Mundi (1619), the last Books V to VII appearing in 1621.

text: The book contained in particular the first version in print of his

text: third law of planetary motion

text: . The work was intended as a textbook, and the first part was written by 1615. Divided into seven books, the Epitome covers much of Kepler's earlier thinking, as well as his later positions on physics, metaphysics and archetypes. In Book IV he supported the

text: Copernican cosmology

text: . Book V provided mathematics underpinning Kepler's views. Kepler wrote and published this work in parallel with his

text: Harmonices Mundi

text: (1619), the last Books V to VII appearing in 1621.

text: Pasachoff has been Chair of the Historical Astronomy Division of the American Astronomical Society (2013-2015).  He is on the Organizing Committee for Commission C.C3 on the History of Astronomy of the International Astronomical Union (2015-2018) and on the Johannes Kepler Working Group.  A catalogue of the Jay and Naomi Pasachoff rare-book collection—including works by Copernicus, Tycho, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Fraunhofer, and Einstein—, on deposit in the Chapin Library of Williams College (W. Hammond, 2014).

text: |-| 5401 Minamioda || 1989 EV || Minamioda, Kamikawa, Hyōgo, Japan|-id=402| 5402 Kejosmith ||  || |-id=403| 5403 Takachiho || 1990 DM || Takachiho, Miyazaki, Japan|-id=404| 5404 Uemura ||  || Naomi Uemura, Japanese adventurer|-id=405| 5405 Neverland || 1991 GY || Neverland, fictional land created by J. M. Barrie*|-id=406| 5406 Jonjoseph ||  || Jonathan Joseph, programmer analyst at the Department of Astronomy of Cornell University †|-id=408| 5408 Thé || 1232 T-1 || Pik Sin Thé, former director of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang, Indonesia †|-id=409| 5409 Saale || 1962 SR || |-id=410| 5410 Spivakov || 1967 DA || Vladimir Spivakov, Russian conductor and violinist*|-id=411| 5411 Liia ||  || |-id=412| 5412 Rou ||  || Aleksandr Arturovich Rou, Russian actor [MPC 34621]|-id=413| 5413 Smyslov ||  || Vasily Smyslov, chess world champion 1957–1958*|-id=414| 5414 Sokolov ||  || Viktor Georgievich Sokolov, Russian astronomer †|-id=415| 5415 Lyanzuridi ||  || Konstantin Petrovich Lyanzuridi (b. 1934), engineer in vacuum technology and optics who has worked at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory.|-id=416| 5416 Estremadoyro ||  || Víctor Antolí Estremadoyro Robles, Peruvian astronomer, founder of the Peruvian Association of Astronomy and the Iberoamerican League of Astronomy |-id=417| 5417 Solovaya || 1981 QT || Nina A. Solovaya, Russian astronomer † ‡|-id=418| 5418 Joyce ||  || James Joyce, Irish writer [MPC 34621] †|-id=419| 5419 Benua ||  || Nikolaj Leont'evich Benua, Russian architect, and his sons Leontij Nikolaevich, Russian architect, and Aleksandr Nikolaevich, Russian painter [MPC 34621]|-id=420| 5420 Jancis ||  || Jancis Robinson, British Master of Wine, editor of The Oxford Companion to Wine, weekly contributor to the Financial Times |-id=421| 5421 Ulanova ||  || Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova, Russian ballerina †|-id=422| 5422 Hodgkin ||  || Dorothy Hodgkin, British chemist and Nobel Prize winner† *|-id=423| 5423 Horahořejš || 1983 DC || Petr Hora Hořejš (b. 1938), a Czech journalist, screenwriter and novelist. |-id=424| 5424 Covington ||  || Arthur Edwin Covington, first Canadian radio-astronomer †|-id=425| 5425 Vojtěch ||  || Václav Vojtěch, Czech Antarctic explorer [MPC 34621] † ‡|-id=426| 5426 Sharp || 1985 DD || |-id=427| 5427 Jensmartin || 1986 JQ || Jens Martin Knudsen, Danish astrophysicist †|-id=430| 5430 Luu ||  || Jane Luu, Vietnamese-American astronomer*|-id=431| 5431 Maxinehelin || 1988 MB || Maxine Helin? *|-id=432| 5432 Imakiire || 1988 VN || Kyōko Imakiire, Japanese yachtswoman|-id=433| 5433 Kairen ||  || Imakiire's Yacht|-id=434| 5434 Tomwhitney || 1989 ES || Thomas (Tom) D. Whitney (b. 1941) served as president of the Amherst Area Amateur Astronomers Association for more than two decades. He ran weekly daytime solar and nighttime observing sessions, along with planetarium shows and introductory astronomy classes, acquainting the public with the wonders of the heavens. |-id=435| 5435 Kameoka ||  || Kameoka, Kyoto, Japan|-id=436| 5436 Eumelos || 1990 DK || Eumelos, mythical person related to Trojan War [MPC 25444]|-id=438| 5438 Lorre || 1990 QJ || Jean J. Lorre, American astronomer*|-id=439| 5439 Couturier || 1990 RW || Pierre Couturier, French astronomer*|-id=440| 5440 Terao || 1991 HD || Hisashi Terao Japanese astronomer|-id=441| 5441 Andymurray ||  || Andrew Barron Murray, Scottish professional tennis player. |-id=442| 5442 Drossart ||  || Pierre Drossart, French astronomer*|-id=443| 5443 Encrenaz ||  || Thérèse Encrenaz, French astronomer, Director of Research at CNRS and Director of the Space Research Department at Paris Observatory, or Pierre Encrenaz, French astronomer, Mission Scientist, Herschel Science Centre, at Paris Observatory*|-id=444| 5444 Gautier ||  || Daniel Gautier, French astronomer or Thomas Nicholas Gautier, American astronomer or Swiss astronomers Raoul Gautier and Étienne Alfred Émile Gautier*|-id=445| 5445 Williwaw ||  || Williwaw, a dramatic mountain on the skyline of Anchorage. |-id=446| 5446 Heyler ||  || Gene A. Heyler, of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission †|-id=447| 5447 Lallement ||  || Rosine Lallement, French astronomer*|-id=448| 5448 Siebold || 1992 SP || Philipp Franz von Siebold, German physician who worked at the Dutch Trading Post on Dejima Island in Nagasaki from 1823 onwards and †|-id=450| 5450 Sokrates || 2780 P-L || Socrates, Ancient Greek philosopher|-id=451| 5451 Plato || 4598 P-L || Plato, Ancient Greek philosopher|-id=453| 5453 Zakharchenya ||  || Boris Petrovich Zakharchenya (b. 1928), Russian scientist. |-id=454| 5454 Kojiki ||  || Kojiki, the first written mythology of Japan|-id=455| 5455 Surkov ||  || Yurii Aleksandrovich Surkov, Russian planetary scientist*|-id=456| 5456 Merman ||  || |-id=457| 5457 Queen's ||  || Queen's University, Kingston, Canada †|-id=458| 5458 Aizman ||  || |-id=459| 5459 Saraburger ||  || Sara Burger, who helped Dutch Jews in World War II †|-id=460| 5460 Tsénaat'a'í || 1983 AW || Navajo for "flying rock" (1996 Flagstaff Festival of Science asteroid naming contest winner) †|-id=461| 5461 Autumn ||  || Autumn Dongxia Thomas, born on 2002 Jan. 15 in Wahun, China, is the discoverer's granddaughter. |-id=463| 5463 Danwelcher || 1985 TO || Dan Welcher, American composer and conductor*|-id=464| 5464 Weller ||  || |-id=465| 5465 Chumakov ||  || |-id=466| 5466 Makibi ||  || Kibi Makibi, Japanese scholar and noble|-id=468| 5468 Hamatonbetsu || 1988 BK || Hamatonbetsu, Hokkaidō, Japan|-id=470| 5470 Kurtlindstrom ||  || Kurt Leighton Lindstrom, American program executive for NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission |-id=471| 5471 Tunguska ||  || Tunguska, site of a presumed asteroidal impact †|-id=473| 5473 Yamanashi || 1988 VR || Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan|-id=474| 5474 Gingasen ||  || Furusato Ginga Line of Hokkaidō Chihoku Kōgen Railway, Japan (Abolished in 2006)|-id=475| 5475 Hanskennedy || 1989 QO || Hans D. Kennedy (b. 1924) is a Dutch-Australian astronomer |-id=477| 5477 Holmes ||  || Robert E. Holmes Jr. (b.~1956), amateur astronomer, who directs the Astronomical Research Observatory in Westfield, Illinois.|-id=478| 5478 Wartburg ||  || |-id=479| 5479 Grahamryder ||  || Graham Ryder, British lunar geologist*|-id=481| 5481 Kiuchi || 1990 CH || Tsuruhiko Kiuchi, Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=482| 5482 Korankei || 1990 DX || Korankei, located in the middle of Aichi prefecture. |-id=483| 5483 Cherkashin ||  || Andrej Andreevich Cherkashin, a literary scholar and historian. |-id=484| 5484 Inoda ||  || Shigeru Inoda, Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=485| 5485 Kaula ||  || William M. Kaula, Australian-American geophysicist †|-id=488| 5488 Kiyosato ||  || Kiyosato, a town of Hokuto, Yamanashi, Japan|-id=489| 5489 Oberkochen ||  || |-id=490| 5490 Burbidge || 2019 P-L || Margaret Burbidge, British astrophysicist*|-id=491| 5491 Kaulbach || 3128 T-1 || |-id=492| 5492 Thoma || 3227 T-1 || |-id=493| 5493 Spitzweg || 1617 T-2 || |-id=494| 5494 Johanmohr ||  || Johan Maurits Mohr, 18th-century German-Dutch astronomer and meteorologist |-id=495| 5495 Rumyantsev ||  || Vasilii Rumyantsev, Russian (Ukrainian?) astronomer*|-id=497| 5497 Sararussell || 1975 SS || Sara Russell, British meteoriticist at the Natural History Museum*|-id=498| 5498 Gustafsson ||  || Bengt Gustafsson, Swedish astronomer † [MPC 22830]|-id=500| 5500 Twilley || 1981 WR || |}

text: 5401 Minamioda

text: || 1989 EV || Minamioda,

text: Kamikawa, Hyōgo

text: , Japan|-id=402|

text: 5402 Kejosmith

text: ||  || |-id=403|

text: 5403 Takachiho

text: || 1990 DM ||

text: Takachiho, Miyazaki

text: , Japan|-id=404|

text: 5404 Uemura

text: Naomi Uemura

text: , Japanese adventurer|-id=405|

text: 5405 Neverland

text: || 1991 GY ||

text: Neverland

text: , fictional land created by

text: J. M. Barrie

text: 5406 Jonjoseph

text: ||  || Jonathan Joseph, programmer analyst at the Department of Astronomy of

text: Cornell University

text: 5408 Thé

text: || 1232 T-1 ||

text: Pik Sin Thé

text: , former director of

text: Bosscha Observatory

text: in Lembang, Indonesia †|-id=409|

text: 5409 Saale

text: || 1962 SR || |-id=410|

text: 5410 Spivakov

text: || 1967 DA ||

text: Vladimir Spivakov

text: , Russian conductor and violinist*|-id=411|

text: 5411 Liia

text: ||  || |-id=412|

text: 5412 Rou

text: Aleksandr Arturovich Rou

text: , Russian actor [MPC 34621]|-id=413|

text: 5413 Smyslov

text: Vasily Smyslov

text: , chess world champion 1957–1958*|-id=414|

text: 5414 Sokolov

text: Viktor Georgievich Sokolov

text: , Russian astronomer †|-id=415|

text: 5415 Lyanzuridi

text: ||  || Konstantin Petrovich Lyanzuridi (b. 1934), engineer in vacuum technology and optics who has worked at the

text: Crimean Astrophysical Observatory

text: 5416 Estremadoyro

text: Víctor Antolí Estremadoyro Robles

text: , Peruvian astronomer, founder of the Peruvian Association of Astronomy and the Iberoamerican League of Astronomy |-id=417|

text: 5417 Solovaya

text: || 1981 QT ||

text: Nina A. Solovaya

text: , Russian astronomer † ‡|-id=418|

text: 5418 Joyce

text: James Joyce

text: , Irish writer [MPC 34621] †|-id=419|

text: 5419 Benua

text: Nikolaj Leont'evich Benua

text: , Russian architect, and his sons

text: Leontij Nikolaevich

text: , Russian architect, and

text: Aleksandr Nikolaevich

text: , Russian painter [MPC 34621]|-id=420|

text: 5420 Jancis

text: Jancis Robinson

text: , British Master of Wine, editor of

text: The Oxford Companion to Wine

text: , weekly contributor to the Financial Times |-id=421|

text: 5421 Ulanova

text: Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova

text: , Russian ballerina †|-id=422|

text: 5422 Hodgkin

text: Dorothy Hodgkin

text: , British chemist and Nobel Prize winner† *|-id=423|

text: 5423 Horahořejš

text: || 1983 DC ||

text: Petr Hora Hořejš

text: (b. 1938), a Czech journalist, screenwriter and novelist. |-id=424|

text: 5424 Covington

text: Arthur Edwin Covington

text: , first Canadian radio-astronomer †|-id=425|

text: 5425 Vojtěch

text: Václav Vojtěch

text: , Czech Antarctic explorer [MPC 34621] † ‡|-id=426|

text: 5426 Sharp

text: || 1985 DD || |-id=427|

text: 5427 Jensmartin

text: || 1986 JQ ||

text: Jens Martin Knudsen

text: , Danish astrophysicist †|-id=430|

text: 5430 Luu

text: Jane Luu

text: , Vietnamese-American astronomer*|-id=431|

text: 5431 Maxinehelin

text: || 1988 MB ||

text: Maxine Helin

text: ? *|-id=432|

text: 5432 Imakiire

text: || 1988 VN ||

text: Kyōko Imakiire

text: , Japanese yachtswoman|-id=433|

text: 5433 Kairen

text: ||  || Imakiire's Yacht|-id=434|

text: 5434 Tomwhitney

text: || 1989 ES || Thomas (Tom) D. Whitney (b. 1941) served as president of the Amherst Area Amateur Astronomers Association for more than two decades. He ran weekly daytime solar and nighttime observing sessions, along with planetarium shows and introductory astronomy classes, acquainting the public with the wonders of the heavens. |-id=435|

text: 5435 Kameoka

text: Kameoka, Kyoto

text: , Japan|-id=436|

text: 5436 Eumelos

text: || 1990 DK ||

text: Eumelos

text: , mythical person related to Trojan War [MPC 25444]|-id=438|

text: 5438 Lorre

text: || 1990 QJ ||

text: Jean J. Lorre

text: , American astronomer*|-id=439|

text: 5439 Couturier

text: || 1990 RW ||

text: Pierre Couturier

text: , French astronomer*|-id=440|

text: 5440 Terao

text: || 1991 HD ||

text: Hisashi Terao

text: Japanese astronomer|-id=441|

text: 5441 Andymurray

text: Andrew Barron Murray

text: , Scottish professional tennis player. |-id=442|

text: 5442 Drossart

text: Pierre Drossart

text: , French astronomer*|-id=443|

text: 5443 Encrenaz

text: Thérèse Encrenaz

text: , French astronomer, Director of Research at CNRS and Director of the Space Research Department at Paris Observatory, or

text: Pierre Encrenaz

text: , French astronomer, Mission Scientist, Herschel Science Centre, at Paris Observatory*|-id=444|

text: 5444 Gautier

text: Daniel Gautier

text: , French astronomer or

text: Thomas Nicholas Gautier

text: , American astronomer or Swiss astronomers

text: Raoul Gautier

text: and

text: Étienne Alfred Émile Gautier

text: 5445 Williwaw

text: Williwaw

text: , a dramatic mountain on the skyline of

text: Anchorage

text: . |-id=446|

text: 5446 Heyler

text: Gene A. Heyler

text: , of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission †|-id=447|

text: 5447 Lallement

text: Rosine Lallement

text: , French astronomer*|-id=448|

text: 5448 Siebold

text: || 1992 SP ||

text: Philipp Franz von Siebold

text: , German physician who worked at the Dutch Trading Post on Dejima Island in Nagasaki from 1823 onwards and †|-id=450|

text: 5450 Sokrates

text: || 2780 P-L ||

text: Socrates

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher|-id=451|

text: 5451 Plato

text: || 4598 P-L ||

text: Plato

text: , Ancient Greek philosopher|-id=453|

text: 5453 Zakharchenya

text: Boris Petrovich Zakharchenya

text: (b. 1928), Russian scientist. |-id=454|

text: 5454 Kojiki

text: Kojiki

text: , the first written mythology of Japan|-id=455|

text: 5455 Surkov

text: Yurii Aleksandrovich Surkov

text: , Russian planetary scientist*|-id=456|

text: 5456 Merman

text: ||  || |-id=457|

text: 5457 Queen's

text: Queen's University, Kingston

text: , Canada †|-id=458|

text: 5458 Aizman

text: ||  || |-id=459|

text: 5459 Saraburger

text: Sara Burger

text: , who helped Dutch Jews in World War II †|-id=460|

text: 5460 Tsénaat'a'í

text: || 1983 AW || Navajo for "flying rock" (1996 Flagstaff Festival of Science asteroid naming contest winner) †|-id=461|

text: 5461 Autumn

text: ||  || Autumn Dongxia Thomas, born on 2002 Jan. 15 in

text: Wahun, China

text: , is the discoverer's granddaughter. |-id=463|

text: 5463 Danwelcher

text: || 1985 TO ||

text: Dan Welcher

text: , American composer and conductor*|-id=464|

text: 5464 Weller

text: ||  || |-id=465|

text: 5465 Chumakov

text: ||  || |-id=466|

text: 5466 Makibi

text: Kibi Makibi

text: , Japanese scholar and noble|-id=468|

text: 5468 Hamatonbetsu

text: || 1988 BK ||

text: Hamatonbetsu, Hokkaidō

text: , Japan|-id=470|

text: 5470 Kurtlindstrom

text: Kurt Leighton Lindstrom

text: , American program executive for NASA's

text: New Horizons

text: Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission |-id=471|

text: 5471 Tunguska

text: Tunguska

text: , site of a presumed asteroidal impact †|-id=473|

text: 5473 Yamanashi

text: || 1988 VR ||

text: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: , Japan|-id=474|

text: 5474 Gingasen

text: Furusato Ginga Line

text: of Hokkaidō Chihoku Kōgen Railway, Japan (Abolished in 2006)|-id=475|

text: 5475 Hanskennedy

text: || 1989 QO || Hans D. Kennedy (b. 1924) is a Dutch-Australian astronomer |-id=477|

text: 5477 Holmes

text: ||  || Robert E. Holmes Jr. (b.~1956), amateur astronomer, who directs the Astronomical Research Observatory in Westfield, Illinois.|-id=478|

text: 5478 Wartburg

text: ||  || |-id=479|

text: 5479 Grahamryder

text: Graham Ryder

text: , British lunar geologist*|-id=481|

text: 5481 Kiuchi

text: || 1990 CH ||

text: Tsuruhiko Kiuchi

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=482|

text: 5482 Korankei

text: || 1990 DX ||

text: Korankei

text: , located in the middle of

text: Aichi prefecture

text: . |-id=483|

text: 5483 Cherkashin

text: Andrej Andreevich Cherkashin

text: , a literary scholar and historian. |-id=484|

text: 5484 Inoda

text: Shigeru Inoda

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer|-id=485|

text: 5485 Kaula

text: William M. Kaula

text: , Australian-American geophysicist †|-id=488|

text: 5488 Kiyosato

text: ||  || Kiyosato, a town of

text: Hokuto, Yamanashi

text: , Japan|-id=489|

text: 5489 Oberkochen

text: ||  || |-id=490|

text: 5490 Burbidge

text: || 2019 P-L ||

text: Margaret Burbidge

text: , British astrophysicist*|-id=491|

text: 5491 Kaulbach

text: || 3128 T-1 || |-id=492|

text: 5492 Thoma

text: || 3227 T-1 || |-id=493|

text: 5493 Spitzweg

text: || 1617 T-2 || |-id=494|

text: 5494 Johanmohr

text: Johan Maurits Mohr

text: , 18th-century German-Dutch astronomer and meteorologist |-id=495|

text: 5495 Rumyantsev

text: Vasilii Rumyantsev

text: , Russian (Ukrainian?) astronomer*|-id=497|

text: 5497 Sararussell

text: || 1975 SS ||

text: Sara Russell

text: , British meteoriticist at the

text: Natural History Museum

text: 5498 Gustafsson

text: Bengt Gustafsson

text: , Swedish astronomer † [MPC 22830]|-id=500|

text: 5500 Twilley

text: || 1981 WR || |}

text: According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task of Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya. The astronomical texts of these 300 years are lost. The later Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century. It is interesting to note that Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.

text: According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task of Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya. The astronomical texts of these 300 years are lost. The later Pañcasiddhāntikā of

text: Varāhamihira

text: summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century. It is interesting to note that Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.

text: In October 2006, Chris Lintott, Patrick Moore and Brian May co-authored a book entitled Bang! – The Complete History of the Universe, which was produced by Canopus Books and published by Carlton Books on 23 October 2006. It has been translated into 13 languages and has appeared in paperback. As suggested by the title, the illustrated book is a history of the Universe from the Big Bang to its eventual predicted end. It is aimed at a popular science audience and claims to make its subject matter easily comprehensible to readers without any knowledge of astronomy.

text: In October 2006, Chris Lintott, Patrick Moore and Brian May co-authored a book entitled Bang! – The Complete History of the Universe, which was produced by Canopus Books and published by

text: Carlton Books

text: on 23 October 2006. It has been translated into 13 languages and has appeared in paperback. As suggested by the title, the illustrated book is a history of the

text: Universe

text: from the

text: Big Bang

text: to its eventual predicted end. It is aimed at a

text: popular science

text: audience and claims to make its subject matter easily comprehensible to readers without any knowledge of astronomy.

text: Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time.  Because of this shared scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not be tested. Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which attempts to bring together observational astronomy and particle physics; more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark energy, known as the Lambda-CDM model.

text: Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as

text: astronomers

text: and

text: physicists

text: , as well as

text: philosophers

text: , such as

text: metaphysicians

text: philosophers of physics

text: , and

text: philosophers of space and time

text: .  Because of this shared scope with

text: philosophy

text: theories

text: in physical cosmology may include both

text: scientific

text: and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not be

text: tested

text: . Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual

text: celestial object

text: s. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the

text: Big Bang

text: theory, which attempts to bring together

text: observational astronomy

text: and

text: particle physics

text: ; more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with

text: dark matter

text: and

text: dark energy

text: , known as the

text: Lambda-CDM

text: model.

text: In some works, Olavo de Carvalho attempts a criticism of mechanicism, strongly criticizing Isaac Newton, Galileo and René Descartes. He explains how Newton's First Law contradicts itself when lacking a traditional metaphysics. According to him, "Galileo and Newton's science belittled the observation of natural phenomena in favour of formulating mathematical models with no relation to empirical reality".

text: In some works, Olavo de Carvalho attempts a criticism of mechanicism, strongly criticizing

text: Isaac Newton

text: Galileo

text: and

text: René Descartes

text: . He explains how

text: Newton's First Law

text: contradicts itself when lacking a traditional metaphysics. According to him, "Galileo and Newton's science belittled the observation of natural phenomena in favour of formulating mathematical models with no relation to empirical reality".

text: At the same time, Milanković began publishing numerous books on the history of science, including Isaac Newton and Newton's Principia (1946), The founders of the natural science Pythagoras – Democritus – Aristotle – Archimedes (1947), History of astronomy – from its beginnings up to 1727 (1948), Through empire of science – images from the lives of great scientists (1950), Twenty-two centuries of Chemistry (1953), and Techniques in the ancient times (1955).

text: In parallel to the evolution of the Big Bang theory, the book tells the personal stories of the people who played a part in advancing it, both by hypothesis and by experiment. These include Einstein, for his General Relativity, Friedmann for first discovering that this theory led to an expanding universe, Lemaître who concluded independently of Friedman discovered an expanding universe, and then that the theory must lead to an initial event of creation, which is the Big Bang theory we know today, Hubble for observing that the universe expanded, thereby confirming Friedman and Lemaître, Gamow, Alpher, Herman, Ryle, Penzias and Wilson, among many others.

text: In parallel to the evolution of the Big Bang theory, the book tells the personal stories of the people who played a part in advancing it, both by

text: hypothesis

text: and by

text: experiment

text: . These include

text: Einstein

text: , for his General Relativity,

text: Friedmann

text: for first discovering that this theory led to an expanding universe,

text: Lemaître

text: who concluded independently of Friedman discovered an expanding universe, and then that the theory must lead to an initial event of creation, which is the Big Bang theory we know today,

text: Hubble

text: for observing that the universe expanded, thereby confirming Friedman and Lemaître,

text: Gamow

text: Alpher

text: Herman

text: Ryle

text: Penzias

text: and

text: Wilson

text: , among many others.

text: In Central India, There is lack of Astronomy club due to which people cannot get access to actual parameters of Amateur astronomy. There is only one vast Semi Governmental organisation working for the sake and promotion of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Named "Sky trackers and Astronomy researchers club" in Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) have been promoting the need of amateur astronomy among all age groups in various parts of Madhya Pradesh and nearby areas.

text: In Central India, There is lack of

text: Astronomy club

text: due to which people cannot get access to actual parameters of

text: Amateur astronomy

text: . There is only one vast Semi Governmental organisation working for the sake and promotion of Astronomy and

text: Astrophysics

text: . Named "Sky trackers and Astronomy researchers club" in Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) have been promoting the need of amateur astronomy among all age groups in various parts of

text: Madhya Pradesh

text: and nearby areas.

text: Kepler-42 c, previously KOI-961.02 then KOI-961 c, is an exoplanet orbiting Kepler-42, a star located about  from the Solar System, in the constellation of Cygnus. A planetary system of at least three exoplanets with sizes between Mars and Venus has been detected around this red dwarf on January 11, 2012 by the method of transits with the help of the space telescope Kepler.

text: Kepler-42 c, previously KOI-961.02 then KOI-961 c, is an

text: exoplanet

text: orbit

text: ing

text: , a

text: star

text: located about  from the

text: Solar System

text: , in the

text: constellation of Cygnus

text: . A

text: planetary system

text: of at least three

text: exoplanet

text: s with sizes between

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: has been detected around this

text: red dwarf

text: on January 11, 2012 by the method of

text: transits

text: with the help of the

text: space telescope Kepler

text: The theory was one alternative to the Big Bang which, like the Big Bang, agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's red shift observations, and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang.  He  coined the term "Big Bang" on BBC radio's Third Programme broadcast on 28 March 1949. It was popularly reported by George Gamov and his opponents that Hoyle intended to be pejorative, and the script from which he read aloud was interpreted by his opponents to be "vain, one-sided, insulting, not worthy of the BBC". Hoyle explicitly denied that he was being insulting and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for the radio audience.  In another BBC interview he said "The reason why scientists like the "big bang" is because they are overshadowed by the Book of Genesis. It is deep within the psyche of most scientists to believe in the first page of Genesis".

text: The theory was one alternative to the

text: Big Bang

text: which, like the Big Bang, agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's

text: red shift observations

text: , and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang.  He  coined the term "Big Bang" on

text: BBC

text: radio's Third Programme broadcast on 28 March 1949. It was popularly reported by

text: George Gamov

text: and his opponents that Hoyle intended to be pejorative, and the script from which he read aloud was interpreted by his opponents to be "vain, one-sided, insulting, not worthy of the BBC". Hoyle explicitly denied that he was being insulting and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for the radio audience.  In another BBC interview he said "The reason why scientists like the "big bang" is because they are overshadowed by the Book of Genesis. It is deep within the psyche of most scientists to believe in the first page of Genesis".

text: During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished.  It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by Ptolemy) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by Aristotle). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (hay'a) of the universe, that would be consistent with both mathematical and physical principles.  Within the context of this hay'a tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.

text: During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished.  It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by

text: Ptolemy

text: ) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by

text: Aristotle

text: ). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (hay'a) of the universe, that would be consistent with both

text: mathematical

text: and

text: physical

text: principles.  Within the context of this hay'a tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the

text: Ptolemaic system

text: of astronomy.

text: The first episode, "The Big Bang Theory", was number 7 in the Canadian Nielsen ratings, and the second episode, "Rave On", was number 14. By the end of its run, the show was at the bottom of the list. In episode 20, there is a reference to the audience's unfavorable reaction to the show: when the Director is told that the trio is coming along well, she replies "that depends on who you talk to."

text: The first episode, "The Big Bang Theory", was number 7 in the Canadian

text: Nielsen ratings

text: , and the second episode, "Rave On", was number 14. By the end of its run, the show was at the bottom of the list. In episode 20, there is a reference to the audience's unfavorable reaction to the show: when the Director is told that the trio is coming along well, she replies "that depends on who you talk to."

text: The development of the scientific method emerges in the history of science itself. Ancient Egyptian documents describe empirical methods in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. The Greeks made contributions to the scientific method, most notably through Aristotle in his six works of logic collected as the Organon. Aristotle's inductive-deductive method used inductions from observations to infer general principles, deductions from those principles to check against further observations, and more cycles of induction and deduction to continue the advance of knowledge

text: The development of the scientific method emerges in the

text: history of science

text: itself.

text: Ancient Egypt

text: ian documents describe

text: empirical method

text: s in

text: astronomy

text: mathematics

text: , and

text: medicine

text: . The Greeks made contributions to the scientific method, most notably through

text: Aristotle

text: in his six works of logic collected as the

text: Organon

text: . Aristotle's inductive-deductive method used inductions from observations to infer general principles, deductions from those principles to check against further observations, and more cycles of induction and deduction to continue the advance of knowledge

text: Despite developing these laws from observations, Kepler was never able to develop a theory to explain these motions.

text: Celestial historian Richard Allen noted that unlike the other constellations introduced by Plancius and La Caille, Phoenix has actual precedent in ancient astronomy, as the Arabs saw this formation as representing young ostriches, Al Ri'āl, or as a griffin or eagle. In addition, the same group of stars was sometimes imagined by the Arabs as a boat, Al Zaurak, on the nearby river Eridanus. He observed, "the introduction of a Phoenix into modern astronomy was, in a measure, by adoption rather than by invention."

text: Celestial historian Richard Allen noted that unlike the other constellations introduced by Plancius and

text: La Caille

text: , Phoenix has actual precedent in ancient astronomy, as the Arabs saw this formation as representing young ostriches, Al Ri'āl, or as a griffin or eagle. In addition, the same group of stars was sometimes imagined by the Arabs as a boat, Al Zaurak, on the nearby river Eridanus. He observed, "the introduction of a Phoenix into modern astronomy was, in a measure, by adoption rather than by invention."

text: It was not intended as a complete work but as a "persuasive preamble" (persuasio praeambula), an enormous proposal for a reform of the medieval university curriculum and the establishment of a kind of library or encyclopedia, bringing in experts to compose a collection of definitive texts on these subjects. The new subjects were to be "perspective" (i.e., optics), "astronomy" (inclusive of astronomy proper, astrology, & the geography necessary in order to use them), "weights" (like some treatment of mechanics but this section of the Opus Majus has been lost), alchemy, agriculture (inclusive of botany and zoology), medicine, and "experimental science", a philosophy of science that would guide the others. The section on geography was allegedly originally ornamented with a map based on ancient and Arabic computations of longitude and latitude, but has since been lost. His (mistaken) arguments supporting the idea that dry land formed the larger proportion of the globe were apparently similar to those which later guided Columbus.

text: It was not intended as a complete work but as a "persuasive preamble" (persuasio praeambula), an enormous proposal for a reform of the

text: medieval university

text: curriculum and the establishment of a kind of library or encyclopedia, bringing in experts to compose a collection of definitive texts on these subjects. The new subjects were to be "perspective" (i.e.,

text: optics

text: ), "astronomy" (inclusive of

text: astronomy

text: proper,

text: astrology

text: , & the

text: geography

text: necessary in order to use them), "weights" (like some treatment of

text: mechanics

text: but this section of the Opus Majus has been lost),

text: alchemy

text: agriculture

text: (inclusive of

text: botany

text: and

text: zoology

text: medicine

text: , and "experimental science", a

text: philosophy of science

text: that would guide the others. The section on geography was allegedly originally ornamented with a

text: map

text: based on ancient and Arabic computations of longitude and latitude, but has since been lost. His (mistaken) arguments supporting the idea that dry land formed the larger proportion of the globe were apparently similar to those which later guided

text: Columbus

text: "The Big Bang Theory" is the 16th episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy. It aired on Fox in the United States on May 8, 2011. This episode follows Stewie and Brian on their quest to stop Stewie's evil half-brother Bertram from going back in time to the Renaissance period and killing Leonardo da Vinci, who is a part of Stewie's ancestry, in order to prevent Stewie's existence.

text: "The Big Bang Theory" is the 16th episode of the

text: ninth season

text: of the

text: animated

text: comedy series

text: Family Guy

text: . It aired on

text: Fox

text: in the United States on May 8, 2011. This episode follows

text: Stewie

text: and

text: Brian

text: on their quest to stop Stewie's evil half-brother

text: Bertram

text: from going back in time to the

text: Renaissance

text: period and killing

text: Leonardo da Vinci

text: , who is a part of Stewie's ancestry, in order to prevent Stewie's existence.

text: The Galileo II was created for the episode "The Way to Eden" to replace the original Galileo, which had been destroyed in "The Galileo Seven". This was despite the Galileo appearing in further episodes following the apparent destruction, which was attributed to an oversight by the producers. According to the non-canon in-universe reference work Star Trek: Ships of the Line, the Galileo II was the final remaining class F shuttle in service and was put on display at the National Air and Space Museum.

text: The Galileo II was created for the episode "

text: The Way to Eden

text: " to replace the original Galileo, which had been destroyed in "The Galileo Seven". This was despite the Galileo appearing in further episodes following the apparent destruction, which was attributed to an oversight by the producers. According to the

text: non-canon

text: in-universe reference work Star Trek: Ships of the Line, the Galileo II was the final remaining class F shuttle in service and was put on display at the

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descendants in direct line from the work of the late Babylonian astronomers. Modern knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age.

text: According to

text: Asger Aaboe

text: , the origins of

text: Western

text: astronomy

text: can be found in

text: Mesopotamia

text: , and all Western efforts in the

text: exact sciences

text: are descendants in direct line from the work of the late

text: Babylonia

text: n astronomers. Modern knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest

text: Babylonian star catalogues

text: dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the

text: Early Bronze Age

text: The astronomy of the late Middle Ages was based on the geocentric model described by Claudius Ptolemy in antiquity. Probably very few practicing astronomers or astrologers actually read Ptolemy's Almagest, which had been translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century. Instead they relied on introductions to the Ptolemaic system such as the De sphaera mundi of Johannes de Sacrobosco and the genre of textbooks known as Theorica planetarum. For the task of predicting planetary motions they turned to the Alfonsine Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on the Almagest models but incorporating some later modifications, mainly the trepidation model attributed to Thabit ibn Qurra. Contrary to popular belief, astronomers of the Middle Ages and Renaissance did not resort to "epicycles on epicycles" in order to correct the original Ptolemaic models—until one comes to Copernicus himself.

text: The astronomy of the late Middle Ages was based on the

text: geocentric model

text: described by

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: in antiquity. Probably very few practicing astronomers or astrologers actually read Ptolemy's

text: Almagest

text: , which had been translated into Latin by

text: Gerard of Cremona

text: in the 12th century. Instead they relied on introductions to the

text: Ptolemaic system

text: such as the

text: De sphaera mundi

text: of

text: Johannes de Sacrobosco

text: and the genre of textbooks known as Theorica planetarum. For the task of predicting planetary motions they turned to the

text: Alfonsine Tables

text: , a set of astronomical tables based on the Almagest models but incorporating some later modifications, mainly the

text: trepidation

text: model attributed to

text: Thabit ibn Qurra

text: . Contrary to popular belief, astronomers of the Middle Ages and Renaissance did not resort to "epicycles on epicycles" in order to correct the original Ptolemaic models—until one comes to Copernicus himself.

text: Greek mathematics and astronomy reached a rather advanced stage during Hellenism, represented by scholars such as Hipparchus, Apollonius and Ptolemy, to the point of constructing simple analogue computers such as the Antikythera mechanism.

text: Greek mathematics and astronomy reached a rather advanced stage during

text: Hellenism

text: , represented by scholars such as

text: Hipparchus

text: Apollonius

text: and

text: Ptolemy

text: , to the point of constructing simple analogue computers such as the

text: Antikythera mechanism

text: The appearance of the Milky Way supernova of 1572 belongs among the more important observation events in the history of astronomy. The appearance of the "new star" helped to revise ancient models of the heavens and to speed on a revolution in astronomy that began with the realisation of the need to produce better astrometric star catalogues (and thus the need for more precise astronomical observing instruments). It also challenged the Aristotelian dogma of the unchangeability of the realm of stars.

text: The appearance of the

text: Milky Way

text: supernova of 1572 belongs among the more important observation events in the history of astronomy. The appearance of the

text: "new star"

text: helped to revise

text: ancient models of the heavens

text: and to speed on a revolution in astronomy that began with the realisation of the need to produce better astrometric

text: star catalogue

text: s (and thus the need for more precise astronomical observing instruments). It also challenged the

text: Aristotelian

text: dogma of the unchangeability of the realm of stars.

text: Deutsch gained notoriety in late 2005 and early 2006, when it was reported that he had instructed a NASA website designer to add the word "theory" after every occurrence of the phrase Big Bang. In his memo to the website designer, Mr. Deutsch wrote that the Big Bang is "not proven fact; it is opinion... It is not NASA's place, nor should it be to make a declaration such as this about the existence of the universe that discounts intelligent design by a creator... This is more than a science issue, it is a religious issue." The memo also noted that the AP Stylebook calls for the usage of the phrase "Big Bang theory".

text: Deutsch gained notoriety in late 2005 and early 2006, when it was reported that he had instructed a NASA website designer to add the word "theory" after every occurrence of the phrase

text: Big Bang

text: . In his memo to the website designer, Mr. Deutsch wrote that the Big Bang is "not proven fact; it is opinion... It is not NASA's place, nor should it be to make a declaration such as this about the existence of the universe that discounts intelligent design by a creator... This is more than a science issue, it is a religious issue." The memo also noted that the

text: AP Stylebook

text: calls for the usage of the phrase "Big Bang theory".

text: Galileo's championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. While under house arrest, he wrote one of his best-known works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.

text: Galileo's championing of

text: heliocentrism

text: and

text: Copernicanism

text: was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either

text: geocentrism

text: or the

text: Tychonic system

text: . He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of an observed

text: stellar parallax

text: . The matter was investigated by the

text: Roman Inquisition

text: in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." Galileo later defended his views in

text: , which appeared to attack Pope

text: Urban VIII

text: and thus alienated him and the

text: Jesuits

text: , who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. While under house arrest, he wrote one of his best-known works,

text: Two New Sciences

text: , in which he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier on the two sciences now called

text: kinematics

text: and

text: strength of materials

text: The history of the Big Bang theory began with the Big Bang's development from observations and theoretical considerations. Much of the theoretical work in cosmology now involves extensions and refinements to the basic Big Bang model.

text: The history of the Big Bang theory began with the

text: Big Bang

text: 's development from observations and theoretical considerations. Much of the theoretical work in cosmology now involves extensions and refinements to the basic Big Bang model.

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models.

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an

text: ellipse

text: with the Sun at one

text: focus

text: . Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller

text: semi-major axes

text: ) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its

text: perihelion

text: , whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its

text: aphelion

text: . The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using

text: numerical models

text: The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favor of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with new discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed scientific inquiry supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition and form at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged and were spread widely through the printing press, touching off the scientific revolution. Newton in 1687 published his The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia Mathematica, which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century.

text: The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and

text: Johannes Kepler

text: 's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favor of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with new discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed scientific inquiry supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition and form at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including

text: Isaac Newton

text: Evangelista Torricelli

text: and

text: Francesco Redi

text: conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring

text: atmospheric pressure

text: using a

text: barometer

text: and disproving

text: spontaneous generation

text: . Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged and were spread widely through the printing press, touching off the

text: scientific revolution

text: . Newton in 1687 published his The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia Mathematica, which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century.

text: In modern astronomy, the designation of stars is done by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).For the brightest stars, nomenclature is based on the Bayer designation, first published for a total of 1,564 naked-eye stars in 1603. Only a minority of these have proper names. Many of the proper names that remain in use in modern astronomy are based on Arabic star names from medieval Islamic astronomy, which in turn was substantially based on  Claudius Ptolemy’s   Almagest, which contained the original Greek and Latin names for stars.

text: In modern astronomy, the

text: designation of stars

text: is done by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU).For the

text: brightest stars

text: , nomenclature is based on the

text: Bayer designation

text: , first published for a total of 1,564 naked-eye stars in 1603. Only a minority of these have proper names. Many of the proper names that remain in use in modern astronomy are based on

text: Arabic star names

text: from

text: medieval Islamic astronomy

text: , which in turn was substantially based on

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: ’s

text: Almagest

text: , which contained the original

text: Greek

text: and Latin names for stars.

text: In 1468 Yuriy Drohobych entered  the Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet Jagielloński) in Krakow. Two years later he received his bachelor's degree and in 1473 his master's. He taught during the summer months and participated in scientific discussions on Saturdays and Sundays. After he gained some significant achievements in Krakow, Drohobych traveled to Bologna University, where natural sciences and medicine were gaining popularity. Here he improved his Latin, learned Greek, and continued his studies of natural philosophy. He paid special attention to his studies in astronomy. It's worth noting that Drohobych's astronomy professor was Girolamo Manfredi, one of the most renowned astronomers in 15th century Italy. Manfredi introduced his promising student to German astronomer Johannes Müller (Regiomontanus) who believed in heliocentrism; however, it had not been mathematically proven at that time.

text: In 1468 Yuriy Drohobych entered  the

text: Jagiellonian University

text: (Uniwersytet Jagielloński) in

text: Krakow

text: . Two years later he received his bachelor's degree and in 1473 his master's. He taught during the summer months and participated in scientific discussions on Saturdays and Sundays. After he gained some significant achievements in Krakow, Drohobych traveled to

text: Bologna University

text: , where natural sciences and medicine were gaining popularity. Here he improved his Latin, learned Greek, and continued his studies of

text: natural philosophy

text: . He paid special attention to his studies in astronomy. It's worth noting that Drohobych's astronomy professor was Girolamo Manfredi, one of the most renowned astronomers in 15th century Italy. Manfredi introduced his promising student to German astronomer Johannes Müller (

text: Regiomontanus

text: ) who believed in

text: heliocentrism

text: ; however, it had not been mathematically proven at that time.

text: In 1980, Kowal's research in astronomical history found a 1613 drawing by Galileo Galilei showing Neptune near Jupiter, predating the discovery of Neptune in 1846; Kowal was awarded the inaugural R. R. Newton Award for Scientific History for this "shockingly outré" finding.

text: In 1980, Kowal's research in astronomical history found a 1613 drawing by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: showing Neptune near Jupiter, predating the

text: discovery of Neptune

text: in 1846; Kowal was awarded the inaugural

text: R. R. Newton Award for Scientific History

text: for this "shockingly outré" finding.

text: The author of Astronomica is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; in the earlier books the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome. According to the early 18th century classicist Richard Bentley, he was an Asiatic Greek; according to the 19th-century classicist Fridericus Jacob an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology).

text: The author of Astronomica is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; in the earlier books the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under

text: Augustus

text: or

text: Tiberius

text: , and that he was a citizen of and resident in

text: Rome

text: . According to the early 18th century classicist

text: Richard Bentley

text: , he was an Asiatic Greek; according to the 19th-century classicist Fridericus Jacob an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced views of the ancients on

text: astronomy

text: (or rather

text: astrology

text: In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

text: In

text: cosmology and astronomy

text: the phenomena of

text: star

text: s,

text: nova

text: supernova

text: quasar

text: s and

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All

text: stellar

text: phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the

text: Big Bang

text: . At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

text: Both Newton and Galileo,as well as most people up until the 20th century, thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere.Our modern conception of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity and Minkowski's spacetime, in which rates of time run differently in different inertial frames of reference, and space and time are merged into spacetime. Time may be quantized, with the theoretical smallest time being on the order of the Planck time. Einstein's general relativity as well as the redshift of the light from receding distant galaxies indicate that the entire Universe and possibly space-time itself began about 13.8 billion years ago in the big bang. Einstein's theory of special relativity mostly (though not universally) made A-theories of time, where there is something metaphysically special about the present seem much less plausible, as the reference-frame-dependence of time seems to not allow the idea of a privileged present moment.

text: Both

text: Newton

text: and

text: Galileo

text: ,as well as most people up until the 20th century, thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere.Our modern conception of time is based on

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: theory of relativity

text: and

text: Minkowski

text: 's

text: spacetime

text: , in which rates of time run differently in different inertial frames of reference, and

text: space

text: and time are merged into

text: spacetime

text: . Time may be quantized, with the theoretical smallest time being on the order of the

text: Planck time

text: . Einstein's

text: general relativity

text: as well as the

text: redshift

text: of the light from receding distant galaxies indicate that the entire

text: Universe

text: and possibly space-time itself began about

text: 13.8 billion years ago

text: in the

text: big bang

text: . Einstein's theory of special relativity mostly (though not universally) made A-theories of time, where there is something metaphysically special about the present seem much less plausible, as the reference-frame-dependence of time seems to not allow the idea of a privileged present moment.

text: Following Alexander the Great's conquests and the foundation of Ptolemaic Egypt, the native Egyptian tradition of astronomy had merged with Greek astronomy as well as Babylonian astronomy. The city of Alexandria in Lower Egypt became the centre of scientific activity throughout the Hellenistic civilization. The greatest Alexandrian astronomer of this era was the Greek, Eratosthenes (c. 276-195 BCE), who calculated the size of the Earth, providing an estimate for the circumference of the Earth.

text: Following

text: Alexander the Great

text: 's conquests and the foundation of

text: Ptolemaic Egypt

text: , the native Egyptian tradition of astronomy had merged with

text: Greek astronomy

text: as well as

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: . The city of

text: Alexandria

text: in

text: Lower Egypt

text: became the centre of scientific activity throughout the

text: Hellenistic civilization

text: . The greatest Alexandrian astronomer of this era was the Greek,

text: Eratosthenes

text: (c. 276-195 BCE), who calculated the size of the

text: Earth

text: , providing an estimate for the circumference of the Earth.

text: The three laws of motion were first compiled by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

text: The three laws of motion were first compiled by

text: Isaac Newton

text: in his

text: (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his

text: law of universal gravitation

text: , explained

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: Though strongly associated with the Classical Greek uranographic tradition, Canis Minor originates from ancient Mesopotamia. Procyon and Gomeisa were called MASH.TAB.BA or "twins" in the Three Stars Each tablets, dating to around 1100 BC. In the later MUL.APIN, this name was also applied to the pairs of Pi and Pi Orionis and Zeta and Xi Orionis. The meaning of MASH.TAB.BA evolved as well, becoming the twin deities Lulal and Latarak, who are on the opposite side of the sky from Papsukal, the True Shepherd of Heaven in Babylonian mythology. Canis Minor was also given the name DAR.LUGAL, which translates to "the star which stands behind it", in the MUL.APIN; the constellation represents a rooster. This name may have also referred to the constellation Lepus. DAR.LUGAL was also denoted DAR.MUŠEN and DAR.LUGAL.MUŠEN in Babylonia. Canis Minor was then called tarlugallu in Akkadian astronomy.

text: Though strongly associated with the

text: Classical Greek

text: uranographic

text: tradition, Canis Minor originates from ancient

text: Mesopotamia

text: . Procyon and Gomeisa were called MASH.TAB.BA or "twins" in the

text: Three Stars Each

text: tablets, dating to around 1100 BC. In the later

text: MUL.APIN

text: , this name was also applied to the pairs of

text: Pi

text: and

text: Pi Orionis

text: and

text: Zeta

text: and

text: Xi Orionis

text: . The meaning of MASH.TAB.BA evolved as well, becoming the twin deities

text: Lulal

text: and

text: Latarak

text: , who are on the opposite side of the sky from

text: Papsukal

text: , the True Shepherd of Heaven in

text: Babylonian mythology

text: . Canis Minor was also given the name DAR.LUGAL, which translates to "the star which stands behind it", in the MUL.APIN; the constellation represents a

text: rooster

text: . This name may have also referred to the constellation

text: Lepus

text: . DAR.LUGAL was also denoted DAR.MUŠEN and DAR.LUGAL.MUŠEN in Babylonia. Canis Minor was then called tarlugallu in

text: Akkadian astronomy

text: Some of the automated "star shows" that appeared in this time interval include: "Planets, Stars, and Galaxies", a general show about our knowledge of astronomy at the time; "Mars, the Journey Begins", the story of the exploration of Mars (from prehistory to the then-present), and possible future plans for terraforming Mars; "Beyond the 4th Dimension", which explored, in layman's terms, the 4 dimensions of General Relativity, the Big Bang and inflation, and the new (at the time) theories of physics that postulated that space has up to 11 dimensions; some of these shows featured creative and novel sound tracks composed by composer-in-residence Mychael Danna.

text: Some of the automated "star shows" that appeared in this time interval include: "Planets, Stars, and Galaxies", a general show about our knowledge of astronomy at the time; "Mars, the Journey Begins", the story of the exploration of Mars (from prehistory to the then-present), and possible future plans for terraforming Mars; "Beyond the 4th Dimension", which explored, in layman's terms, the 4 dimensions of General Relativity, the Big Bang and inflation, and the new (at the time) theories of physics that postulated that space has up to 11 dimensions; some of these shows featured creative and novel sound tracks composed by composer-in-residence

text: Mychael Danna

text: As of 2013 Steve works as a writer and executive producer on the television show The Big Bang Theory.

text: As of 2013 Steve works as a writer and executive producer on the television show

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: By the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, Babylonian astronomy had evolved into the earliest example of a scientific astronomy, as it was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian Asger Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West – if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences – depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

text: By the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in

text: Mesopotamia

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: had evolved into the earliest example of a scientific astronomy, as it was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian

text: Asger Aaboe

text: , "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the

text: Hellenistic world

text: in India

text: in Islam

text: , and in

text: the West

text: – if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the

text: exact science

text: s – depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

text: Produced in 1994, this series focuses on various thinkers and inventors throughout history, from the ancient Chinese, through Henry the Navigator, Gutenberg, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Marie Curie, until "tomorrow". It was directed by Albert Barillé.

text:
||5 January, 01:45 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ultraviolet astronomy||5 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||8 January, 01:40 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA/NRL||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ultraviolet astronomy||8 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||12 January 19:12 GMT||Skylark||El Arenosillo||DFVLR||H-GR-58||DLR||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||12 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||12 January||R-36||LC-162/36, Baikonur||RVSN||DKh||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||12 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||15 January 20:00 GMT||Black Brant VC||LC-36, White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||15 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January, 02:00 GMT||Kappa 9M||Kagoshima||ISAS||||ISAS||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere and Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January 17:40 GMT||Nike Apache||Wallops Island||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January 18:13 GMT||Super Arcas||Wallops Island||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||17 January, 02:37 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||17 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||17 January, 02:37 GMT||Kosmos-3M||LC-132/2, Plesetsk||VKS||Kosmos 628 (Tsiklon)||MO SSSR||LEO||Navigation||Still in orbit||Successful|||-||19 January, 01:38 GMT||Delta 2313||LC-17B, CCAFS||||Skynet 2A||UK Ministry of Defence||Intended: GSO
Achieved: LEO||Comms||25 January 1974||Failure||Placed in incorrect orbit due to carrier rocket malfunction|-||19 January 11:34 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||19 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||19 January||Eridan||ALFS, Kourou||||||||Sub-orbital||Missile test||19 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||20 January||R-36M||LC-103, Baikonur||RVSN||POR||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||20 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||21 January, 02:39 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||21 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||21 January 11:30 GMT||Skua 4||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||21 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||22 January, 02:41 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||22 January 11:00 GMT||Lambda-3H||Area L, Kagoshima||ISAS||||ISAS||Sub-orbital||X-ray astronomy||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||8 January 16:45 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||22 January 1974||Successful||Reached |-||22 January||Minuteman I||LF-06, Vandenberg AFB||USAF||||USAF||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||23 January 11:30 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||23 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||23 January 12:50 GMT||Black Brant VB||Fort Churchill||NRCC||||NRCC||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ionosphere/Aurora research||23 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||24 January 15:00 GMT||Voskhod||Plesetsk||||Kosmos 629 (Zenit-2M)||MOM||LEO||Recon||5 February 1974||Successful|||-||25 January 11:30 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||25 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||25 January||UR-100N||Baikonur Cosmodrome||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||25 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||26 January||Minuteman III||LF-25, Vandenberg AFB||USAF||GT-24GB-1||USAF||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||26 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||26 January||UR-100N||Baikonur Cosmodrome||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||26 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||27 January 19:08 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Andøya||NASA||Ferdinand 35
(Polar 3)||NDRE||Sub-orbital||Aurora research||27 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||30 January 11:00 GMT||Voskhod||Plesetsk||||Kosmos 630 (Zenit-4MK)||MOM||LEO||Recon||13 February 1974||Successful|||-||30 January||SSBS||BLB, Biscarosse||DMA||||DMA||Sub-orbital||Missile test||30 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||January||Vertikal' K65UP||LC-107, Kapustin Yar||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere/Solar research||January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||January||Athena||Wallops Island||Sandia||||USAF||Sub-orbital||Re-entry vehicle test||January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||1 February, 06:30 GMT||JCR||Area T, Tanegashima||NASDA||||NASDA||Sub-orbital||Test flight||1 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||4 February 14:40 GMT||Skylark 6AC||LA-2SL, Woomera||BAC||||BAC||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||4 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||4 February||MR-UR-100||LC-177, Baikonur||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||4 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February, 00:34 GMT||Kosmos-3M||LC-132/2, Plesetsk||VKS||Kosmos 631 (Tselina-O)||MO SSSR||LEO||ELINT||3 October 1980||Successful|||-||6 February 22:48 GMT||Black Brant IVB||Andoya||DLR||||DFVLR||Sub-orbital||Aurora research||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||9 February, 02:10 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||9 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||9 February, 06:30 GMT||LS-C||Area T, Tanegashima||NASDA||LE-3||NASDA||Sub-orbital||Test flight||9 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-|rowspan=2|11 February 13:48 GMT|rowspan=2|Titan IIIE|rowspan=2|LC-41, CCAFS|rowspan=2|||Boilerplate Viking||NASA||Intended: GSO||Test carrier rocket|rowspan=2|12 February 1974|rowspan=2|Failure|rowspan=2|Upper stage turbopump malfunction|-||SPHINX||NASA||Intended: GSO||Plasma research|-||3 July||Soyuz (11A511)||LC-1/5, Baikonur||||Soyuz 14||||LEO, docked to Salyut 3||Manned orbital flight||19 July 1974||Successful|||-||16 July||Scout||Western Space and Missile Center at Vandenberg AFB||NASA||Aeros 2||NASA||||||||Successful|||-||26 August||Soyuz (11A511)||LC-1/5, Baikonur||||Soyuz 15||||LEO

text: ||5 January, 01:45

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ultraviolet astronomy

text: ||5 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||8 January, 01:40

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: NRL

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ultraviolet astronomy

text: ||8 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||12 January 19:12

text: GMT

text: Skylark

text: El Arenosillo

text: DFVLR

text: DLR

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||12 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||12 January||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: ||DKh||

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||12 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||15 January 20:00

text: GMT

text: Black Brant VC

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||15 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January, 02:00

text: GMT

text: Kappa 9M

text: Kagoshima

entity_name: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

text: ISAS

text: ISAS

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: and Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January 17:40

text: GMT

text: Nike Apache

text: Wallops Island

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: ||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January 18:13

text: GMT

text: Super Arcas

text: Wallops Island

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January||

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||17 January, 02:37

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||17 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||17 January, 02:37

text: GMT

text: Plesetsk

text: VKS

text: Kosmos 628

text: Tsiklon

text: MO SSSR

text: LEO

text: Navigation

text: ||Still in orbit||Successful|||-||19 January, 01:38

text: GMT

text: Delta 2313

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17

text: CCAFS

text: Skynet 2A

text: UK Ministry of Defence

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: <br>Achieved:

text: LEO

text: Comms

text: ||25 January 1974||Failure||Placed in incorrect orbit due to carrier rocket malfunction|-||19 January 11:34

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||19 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||19 January||

text: Eridan

text: ||ALFS,

text: Kourou

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Missile test||19 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||20 January||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: ||POR||

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||20 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||21 January, 02:39

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||21 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||21 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua 4

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||21 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||22 January, 02:41

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||22 January 11:00

text: GMT

text: ||Area L,

text: Kagoshima

text: ISAS

text: ISAS

text: Sub-orbital

text: X-ray astronomy

text: ||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||8 January 16:45

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||22 January 1974||Successful||Reached |-||22 January||

text: Minuteman I

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: USAF

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||23 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||23 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||23 January 12:50

text: GMT

text: Black Brant VB

text: Fort Churchill

entity_name: National Republican Congressional Committee

text: NRCC

text: NRCC

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ionosphere

text: Aurora

text: research||23 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||24 January 15:00

text: GMT

text: Voskhod

text: Plesetsk

text: Kosmos 629

text: MOM

text: LEO

text: Recon

text: ||5 February 1974||Successful|||-||25 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||25 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||25 January||

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||25 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||26 January||

text: Minuteman III

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: USAF

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||26 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||26 January||

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||26 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||27 January 19:08

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Andøya

text: NASA

text: ||Ferdinand 35<br>(Polar 3)||

entity_name: Norwegian Defence Research Establishment

text: NDRE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aurora

text: research||27 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||30 January 11:00

text: GMT

text: Voskhod

text: Plesetsk

text: Kosmos 630

text: MOM

text: LEO

text: Recon

text: ||13 February 1974||Successful|||-||30 January||

text: SSBS

text: ||BLB,

text: Biscarosse

text: DMA

text: DMA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Missile test||30 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||January||

text: Vertikal' K65UP

text: Kapustin Yar

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: /Solar research||January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||January||

text: Athena

text: Wallops Island

text: Sandia

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: Re-entry vehicle

text: test||January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||1 February, 06:30

text: GMT

text: JCR

text: ||Area T,

text: Tanegashima

entity_name: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: NASDA

text: NASDA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Test flight||1 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||4 February 14:40

text: GMT

text: Skylark 6AC

text: Woomera

text: BAC

text: BAC

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||4 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||4 February||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||4 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February, 00:34

text: GMT

text: Plesetsk

text: VKS

text: Kosmos 631

text: Tselina-O

text: MO SSSR

text: LEO

text: ELINT

text: ||3 October 1980||Successful|||-||6 February 22:48

text: GMT

text: Black Brant IVB

text: Andoya

text: DLR

text: DFVLR

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aurora

text: research||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||9 February, 02:10

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||9 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||9 February, 06:30

text: GMT

text: LS-C

text: ||Area T,

text: Tanegashima

text: NASDA

text: NASDA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Test flight||9 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-|rowspan=2|11 February 13:48

text: GMT

text: Titan III

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41

text: CCAFS

text: Boilerplate

text: Viking

text: NASA

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: ||Test carrier rocket|rowspan=2|12 February 1974|rowspan=2|Failure|rowspan=2|Upper stage turbopump malfunction|-||

text: SPHINX

text: NASA

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: ||Plasma research|-||3 July||

text: Soyuz

text: Baikonur

text: Soyuz 14

text: LEO

text: , docked to

text: Salyut 3

text: ||Manned orbital flight||19 July 1974||Successful|||-||16 July||

text: Scout

text: Western Space and Missile Center

text: at

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: NASA

text: Aeros 2

text: NASA

text: ||||||||Successful|||-||26 August||

text: Soyuz

text: Baikonur

text: Soyuz 15

text: LEO

text: One of the main problems with the Big Bang theory is that at the moment of the Big Bang, there is a singularity of zero volume and infinite energy. This is normally interpreted as the end of the physics as we know it; in this case, of the theory of general relativity. This is why one expects quantum effects to become important and avoid the singularity.

text: One of the main problems with the Big Bang theory is that at the moment of the Big Bang, there is a

text: singularity

text: of zero volume and infinite energy. This is normally interpreted as the end of the physics as we know it; in this case, of the theory of

text: general relativity

text: . This is why one expects quantum effects to become important and avoid the singularity.

text: The second pilot of The Big Bang Theory was directed by James Burrows, who did not continue with the show. This reworked pilot led to a 13-episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22-episode season on October 19, 2007.

text: The second pilot of The Big Bang Theory was directed by

text: James Burrows

text: , who did not continue with the show. This reworked pilot led to a 13-episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on

text: iTunes

text: free of charge. The show premiered September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22-episode season on October 19, 2007.

text: The Ancient Greeks called Triangulum Deltoton (Δελτωτόν), as the constellation resembled an upper-case Greek letter delta (Δ). It was transliterated by Roman writers, then later Latinised as Deltotum. Eratosthenes linked it with the Nile Delta, while the Roman writer Hyginus associated it with the triangular island of Sicily, formerly known as Trinacria due to its shape. It was also called Sicilia, because the Romans believed Ceres, patron goddess of Sicily, begged Jupiter to place the island in the heavens. Greek astronomers such as Hipparchos and Ptolemy called it Trigonon (Τρίγωνον), and later, it was Romanized as Trigonum. Other names referring to its shape include Tricuspis and Triquetrum. Alpha and Beta Trianguli were called Al Mīzān, which is Arabic for "The Scale Beam". In Chinese astronomy, Gamma Andromedae and neighbouring stars including Beta, Gamma and Delta Trianguli were called Teen Ta Tseang Keun (天大将军, "Heaven's great general"), representing honour in astrology and a great general in mythology.

text: The Ancient Greeks called Triangulum Deltoton (Δελτωτόν), as the constellation resembled an upper-case Greek letter delta (Δ). It was transliterated by Roman writers, then later

text: Latin

text: ised as Deltotum.

text: Eratosthenes

text: linked it with the

text: Nile Delta

text: , while the Roman writer

text: Hyginus

text: associated it with the triangular island of

text: Sicily

text: , formerly known as Trinacria due to its shape. It was also called Sicilia, because the Romans believed

text: Ceres

text: , patron goddess of Sicily, begged

text: Jupiter

text: to place the island in the heavens. Greek astronomers such as Hipparchos and Ptolemy called it Trigonon (Τρίγωνον), and later, it was Romanized as Trigonum. Other names referring to its shape include Tricuspis and Triquetrum.

text: Alpha

text: and

text: Beta Trianguli

text: were called Al Mīzān, which is

text: Arabic

text: for "The Scale Beam". In Chinese astronomy, Gamma Andromedae and neighbouring stars including Beta, Gamma and Delta Trianguli were called

text: Teen Ta Tseang Keun

text: (天大将军, "Heaven's great general"), representing honour in astrology and a great general in mythology.

text: Bill Prady, executive producer of The Big Bang Theory, recently gave the Big Bang Theory "executive producer's challenge coin" to the crew of the last space shuttle.

text: Bill Prady

text: , executive producer of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: , recently gave the Big Bang Theory "executive producer's challenge coin" to the crew of the last space shuttle.

text: |-id=102| 25102 Zhaoye ||  || Zhao Ye, Singaporean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her materials and bioengineering team project. |-id=103| 25103 Kimdongyoung ||  || Kim Dongyoung, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his computer science project and recipient of a Seaborg Stockholm International Youth Science Seminar (SIYSS) award |-id=104| 25104 Chohyunghoon ||  || Cho Hyunghoon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology team project. |-id=105| 25105 Kimnayeon ||  || Kim Na Yeon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. |-id=106| 25106 Ryoojungmin ||  || Ryoo Jung Min, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. |-id=108| 25108 Boström ||  || Johan Ingemar Boström, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. |-id=109| 25109 Hofving ||  || Tobias Olof Hofving, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. |-id=111| 25111 Klokun ||  || Vitaliy Mykhaylovych Klokun, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his chemistry team project. |-id=112| 25112 Mymeshkovych ||  || Maryna Yuriivna Meshkovych, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her chemistry team project. |-id=113| 25113 Benwasserman ||  || Benjamin David Wasserman, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his behavioral and social sciences project. |-id=115| 25115 Drago ||  || Claire Elizabeth Drago, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her behavioral and social sciences team project. |-id=116| 25116 Jonathanwang ||  || Jonathan Wang, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his medicine and health sciences team project and recipient of the European Union Contest for Young Scientists (EUCYS) Award |-id=118| 25118 Kevlin ||  || Kevin Huang Lin, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology project. |-id=119| 25119 Kakani ||  || Pragya Kakani, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. |-id=120| 25120 Yvetteleung ||  || Yvette Leung, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. |-id=122| 25122 Kaitlingus ||  || Kaitlyn Jeanne Lingus, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences project. |-id=124| 25124 Zahramaarouf ||  || Zahra Moein Maarouf, Lebanese 2007 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for her computer science team project. |-id=125| 25125 Brodallan ||  || Broderick David Allan (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Saginaw Arts and Sciences Academy, Saginaw, Michigan.|-id=127| 25127 Laurentbrunetto || 1998 SZ || Laurent Brunetto (b. 1972), a physics professor in Antibes, France. |-id=129| 25129 Uranoscope ||  || Uranoscope, a French amateur observatory, created in 1983 by Christian Bourdeille in Gretz Armainvilliers, near Paris. |-id=131| 25131 Katiemelua ||  || Katie Melua (b. 1984), a Georgian-born British singer, songwriter and musician whose songs have included astronomical culture. |-id=133| 25133 Douglin ||  || Douglas N. C. Lin (b. 1949), a theoretical astrophysicist at the University of California, Santa Cruz. |-id=137| 25137 Seansolomon ||  || Sean Solomon (b. 1945), director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, is a geophysicist and planetary scientist who has studied the Earth's mid-ocean ridges and the surfaces of Venus, Mars and the Moon. He is the Principal Investigator for NASA's MESSENGER mission.|-id=138| 25138 Jaumann ||  || Ralf Jaumann (b. 1954), a research scientist at the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt and a member of the geology working group for the Dawn mission to Vesta. |-id=139| 25139 Roatsch ||  || Thomas Roatsch (b. 1958), a cartographer of planetary satellite and asteroid surfaces. |-id=140| 25140 Schmedemann ||  || Nico Schmedemann (b. 1978), a researcher at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universität in Berlin. |-id=142| 25142 Hopf ||  || Heinz Hopf (1894-1971), a professor of mathematics at the Swiss Institute of Technology in Zurich. |-id=143| 25143 Itokawa ||  || Hideo Itokawa, Japanese rocket scientist. He is regarded as the Father of Japanese rocketry. |-id=151| 25151 Stefanschröder ||  || Stefan E. Schröder (b. 1970), a planetary imaging specialist at the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) in Berlin. |-id=152| 25152 Toplis ||  || Michael J. Toplis (b. 1969), a geochemist at the University of Toulouse. |-id=154| 25154 Ayers ||  || Robert Martin Ayers (b. 1941) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as secretary of the Executive Committee and a multi-year member of the Advisory Board. He spent the summer at Lowell as an undergraduate in 1961. He retired as principal scientist from Adobe in 2005.|-id=155| 25155 van Belle ||  || Gerard van Belle, American-Canadian astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. |-id=156| 25156 Shkolnik ||  || Evgenya Shkolnik, Canadian astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. |-id=157| 25157 Fabian ||  || Andrew Christopher Fabian (b. 1948) is an X-ray astronomer at the University of Cambridge. He has worked with a number of orbiting X-ray observatories to advance our knowledge of such X-ray sources as black holes, their accretion disks, and gas in active galactic nuclei and clusters of galaxies.|-id=162| 25162 Beckage ||  || Michael (Mike) Beckage (b. 1959) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as Chair of Lowell Observatory's Executive Committee and the Lowell Observatory Foundation. He shares his love of astronomy through outreach programs to the community and amateur astronomy clubs.|-id=166| 25166 Thompson ||  || Samantha Thompson (b. 1985) is the curator of exhibits at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ. She has degrees in history and in physics & astronomy. In 2016 she designed Lowell's Spaceguard Academy exhibit that highlighted the science and exploration of asteroids.|-id=175| 25175 Lukeandraka ||  || Luke Steven Andraka (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. He attends the Chesapeake Science Point Public Charter School, Hanover, Maryland.|-id=176| 25176 Thomasaunins ||  || Thomas Rudolf Aunins (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Lenape Middle School, Doylestown, Pennsylvania.|-id=178| 25178 Shreebose ||  || Shree Bose (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her environmental sciences project. She attends the Trinity Valley School, Fort Worth, Texas.|-id=180| 25180 Kenyonconlin ||  || Kenyon Rex Conlin (b. 1996) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Rocky Mountain Middle School, Heber City, Utah.|-id=182| 25182 Siddhawan ||  || Sidharth Dhawan (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Meadow Park Middle School, Beaverton, Oregon.|-id=183| 25183 Grantfisher ||  || Grant Garrett Fisher (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Pi Beta Phi Elementary School, Gatlinburg, Tennessee.|-id=184| 25184 Taylorgaines ||  || Taylor Diahann Gaines (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her animal and plant sciences project. She attends the Iva E. Wells Middle School, Seneca, Missouri.|-id=189| 25189 Glockner ||  || Katherine Whittemore Glockner (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science and microbiology project. She attends the Rhoades School, Encinitas, California.|-id=190| 25190 Thomasgoodin ||  || Thomas J. T. Goodin (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Mid-Pacific Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii.|-id=191| 25191 Rachelouise ||  || Rachel Louise Graham (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her engineering project. She attends the Riverton Middle School, Riverton, Wyoming.|-id=193| 25193 Taliagreene ||  || Talia Kate Greene (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her mathematics and computer science project. She attends the Cocoa Beach Junior Senior High School, Cocoa Beach, Florida.|-id=198| 25198 Kylienicole ||  || Kylie Nicole Grissom (b. 1993) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her earth and space sciences project. She attends the North Ogden Junior High School, North Ogden, Utah.|-id=199| 25199 Jiahegu ||  || Jiahe Gu (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Martin Luther King, Jr., Magnet High School, Nashville, Tennessee.|}

text: 25102 Zhaoye

text: ||  || Zhao Ye, Singaporean 2008 Intel

entity_name: Intel International Science and Engineering Fair

text: International Science and Engineering Fair

text: (ISEF) winner, for her materials and bioengineering team project. |-id=103|

text: 25103 Kimdongyoung

text: ||  || Kim Dongyoung, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his computer science project and recipient of a Seaborg

entity_name: Stockholm International Youth Science Seminar

text: Stockholm International Youth Science Seminar

text: (SIYSS) award |-id=104|

text: 25104 Chohyunghoon

text: ||  || Cho Hyunghoon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology team project. |-id=105|

text: 25105 Kimnayeon

text: ||  || Kim Na Yeon, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. |-id=106|

text: 25106 Ryoojungmin

text: ||  || Ryoo Jung Min, South-Korean 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her microbiology team project. |-id=108|

text: 25108 Boström

text: ||  || Johan Ingemar Boström, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. |-id=109|

text: 25109 Hofving

text: ||  || Tobias Olof Hofving, Swedish 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his animal sciences team project. |-id=111|

text: 25111 Klokun

text: ||  || Vitaliy Mykhaylovych Klokun, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his chemistry team project. |-id=112|

text: 25112 Mymeshkovych

text: ||  || Maryna Yuriivna Meshkovych, Ukrainian 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her chemistry team project. |-id=113|

text: 25113 Benwasserman

text: ||  || Benjamin David Wasserman, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his behavioral and social sciences project. |-id=115|

text: 25115 Drago

text: ||  || Claire Elizabeth Drago, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her behavioral and social sciences team project. |-id=116|

text: 25116 Jonathanwang

text: ||  || Jonathan Wang, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for his medicine and health sciences team project and recipient of the

entity_name: European Union Contest for Young Scientists

text: European Union Contest for Young Scientists

text: (EUCYS) Award |-id=118|

text: 25118 Kevlin

text: ||  || Kevin Huang Lin, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for his microbiology project. |-id=119|

text: 25119 Kakani

text: ||  || Pragya Kakani, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. |-id=120|

text: 25120 Yvetteleung

text: ||  || Yvette Leung, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her physics and astronomy team project. |-id=122|

text: 25122 Kaitlingus

text: ||  || Kaitlyn Jeanne Lingus, American 2008 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner, for her plant sciences project. |-id=124|

text: 25124 Zahramaarouf

text: ||  || Zahra Moein Maarouf, Lebanese 2007 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) winner for her computer science team project. |-id=125|

text: 25125 Brodallan

text: ||  || Broderick David Allan (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Saginaw Arts and Sciences Academy, Saginaw, Michigan.|-id=127|

text: 25127 Laurentbrunetto

text: || 1998 SZ || Laurent Brunetto (b. 1972), a physics professor in

text: Antibes, France

text: . |-id=129|

text: 25129 Uranoscope

text: Uranoscope

text: , a French amateur observatory, created in 1983 by

text: Christian Bourdeille

text: in

text: Gretz Armainvilliers

text: , near Paris. |-id=131|

text: 25131 Katiemelua

text: Katie Melua

text: (b. 1984), a Georgian-born British singer, songwriter and musician whose songs have included astronomical culture. |-id=133|

text: 25133 Douglin

text: ||  || Douglas N. C. Lin (b. 1949), a theoretical astrophysicist at the University of California, Santa Cruz. |-id=137|

text: 25137 Seansolomon

text: ||  || Sean Solomon (b. 1945), director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, is a geophysicist and planetary scientist who has studied the Earth's mid-ocean ridges and the surfaces of Venus, Mars and the Moon. He is the Principal Investigator for NASA's MESSENGER mission.|-id=138|

text: 25138 Jaumann

text: ||  || Ralf Jaumann (b. 1954), a research scientist at the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt and a member of the geology working group for the Dawn mission to Vesta. |-id=139|

text: 25139 Roatsch

text: ||  || Thomas Roatsch (b. 1958), a cartographer of planetary satellite and asteroid surfaces. |-id=140|

text: 25140 Schmedemann

text: ||  || Nico Schmedemann (b. 1978), a researcher at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universität in Berlin. |-id=142|

text: 25142 Hopf

text: Heinz Hopf

text: (1894-1971), a professor of mathematics at the

text: Swiss Institute of Technology

text: in

text: Zurich

text: . |-id=143|

text: 25143 Itokawa

text: Hideo Itokawa

text: , Japanese rocket scientist. He is regarded as the Father of Japanese rocketry. |-id=151|

text: 25151 Stefanschröder

text: ||  || Stefan E. Schröder (b. 1970), a planetary imaging specialist at the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) in Berlin. |-id=152|

text: 25152 Toplis

text: ||  || Michael J. Toplis (b. 1969), a geochemist at the University of Toulouse. |-id=154|

text: 25154 Ayers

text: ||  || Robert Martin Ayers (b. 1941) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as secretary of the Executive Committee and a multi-year member of the Advisory Board. He spent the summer at Lowell as an undergraduate in 1961. He retired as principal scientist from Adobe in 2005.|-id=155|

text: 25155 van Belle

text: Gerard van Belle

text: , American-Canadian astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. |-id=156|

text: 25156 Shkolnik

text: Evgenya Shkolnik

text: , Canadian astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. |-id=157|

text: 25157 Fabian

text: ||  || Andrew Christopher Fabian (b. 1948) is an X-ray astronomer at the University of Cambridge. He has worked with a number of orbiting X-ray observatories to advance our knowledge of such X-ray sources as black holes, their accretion disks, and gas in active galactic nuclei and clusters of galaxies.|-id=162|

text: 25162 Beckage

text: ||  || Michael (Mike) Beckage (b. 1959) is a long-time supporter of Lowell Observatory, currently serving as Chair of Lowell Observatory's Executive Committee and the Lowell Observatory Foundation. He shares his love of astronomy through outreach programs to the community and amateur astronomy clubs.|-id=166|

text: 25166 Thompson

text: ||  || Samantha Thompson (b. 1985) is the curator of exhibits at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ. She has degrees in history and in physics & astronomy. In 2016 she designed Lowell's Spaceguard Academy exhibit that highlighted the science and exploration of asteroids.|-id=175|

text: 25175 Lukeandraka

text: ||  || Luke Steven Andraka (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his environmental sciences project. He attends the Chesapeake Science Point Public Charter School, Hanover, Maryland.|-id=176|

text: 25176 Thomasaunins

text: ||  || Thomas Rudolf Aunins (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Lenape Middle School, Doylestown, Pennsylvania.|-id=178|

text: 25178 Shreebose

text: ||  || Shree Bose (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her environmental sciences project. She attends the Trinity Valley School, Fort Worth, Texas.|-id=180|

text: 25180 Kenyonconlin

text: ||  || Kenyon Rex Conlin (b. 1996) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his physical sciences project. He attends the Rocky Mountain Middle School, Heber City, Utah.|-id=182|

text: 25182 Siddhawan

text: ||  || Sidharth Dhawan (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Meadow Park Middle School, Beaverton, Oregon.|-id=183|

text: 25183 Grantfisher

text: ||  || Grant Garrett Fisher (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Pi Beta Phi Elementary School, Gatlinburg, Tennessee.|-id=184|

text: 25184 Taylorgaines

text: ||  || Taylor Diahann Gaines (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her animal and plant sciences project. She attends the Iva E. Wells Middle School, Seneca, Missouri.|-id=189|

text: 25189 Glockner

text: ||  || Katherine Whittemore Glockner (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science and microbiology project. She attends the Rhoades School, Encinitas, California.|-id=190|

text: 25190 Thomasgoodin

text: ||  || Thomas J. T. Goodin (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his engineering project. He attends the Mid-Pacific Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii.|-id=191|

text: 25191 Rachelouise

text: ||  || Rachel Louise Graham (b. 1995) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her engineering project. She attends the Riverton Middle School, Riverton, Wyoming.|-id=193|

text: 25193 Taliagreene

text: ||  || Talia Kate Greene (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her mathematics and computer science project. She attends the Cocoa Beach Junior Senior High School, Cocoa Beach, Florida.|-id=198|

text: 25198 Kylienicole

text: ||  || Kylie Nicole Grissom (b. 1993) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for her earth and space sciences project. She attends the North Ogden Junior High School, North Ogden, Utah.|-id=199|

text: 25199 Jiahegu

text: ||  || Jiahe Gu (b. 1994) is a finalist in the 2008 Society for Science and the Public middle school science competition, for his animal and plant sciences project. He attends the Martin Luther King, Jr., Magnet High School, Nashville, Tennessee.|}

text: 1991: Although Big Bang never officially disbanded, at the tail end of 1991 Laurence and Iain decided to concentrate on their careers away from the band. The new material they wrote and recorded for their intended album titled 'Theory' was never released.

text: In "The Communication Deterioration" episode of The Big Bang Theory, Sheldon shows a photo of the locomotive to Penny.

text: In "The Communication Deterioration" episode of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: , Sheldon shows a photo of the locomotive to Penny.

text: Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.

text: Galileo put forward

text: the basic principle of relativity

text: , that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to

text: Einstein's

text: special theory of relativity

text: Kepler-42's mass is estimated to be 0.13 times that of the Sun, and to have a radius 0.17 times that of the Sun, that is, just 1.7 times that of the gas giant Jupiter. Due to its small radius and hence surface area, the luminosity of Kepler-42 is only 0.24% of that of the Sun. Its metallicity is one third of the Sun. Kepler-42 has an appreciable proper motion of up to 431±8 mas/yr. Due to its small size and low temperature, the star's habitable zone is much closer to the star than Earth is to the Sun.

text: Kepler-42's mass is estimated to be 0.13 times that of the Sun, and to have a radius 0.17 times that of the Sun, that is, just 1.7 times that of the

text: gas giant

text: Jupiter

text: . Due to its small radius and hence surface area, the

text: luminosity

text: of Kepler-42 is only 0.24% of that of the Sun. Its

text: metallicity

text: is one third of the Sun. Kepler-42 has an appreciable

text: proper motion

text: of up to 431±8

text: mas

text: /yr. Due to its small size and low temperature, the star's

text: habitable zone

text: is much closer to the star than Earth is to the Sun.

text: Because Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion##Third law|Kepler's third law]]. The result is  28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% that of the Moon. Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.

text: Because Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion##Third law|Kepler's third law]]. The result is  28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% that of the

text: Moon

text: . Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.

text: The Burndy Library is one of the world's largest collections of books on the history of science and technology. Founded in 1941 in Norwalk, Connecticut by the electrical engineer, industrialist, and historian Bern Dibner, the library holdings include important scientific literature from antiquity to the 20th century. Highlights of the collection include one of the world's most complete sets of the works of Isaac Newton, including books owned and annotated by Newton, as well as some sixty manuscripts by Newton, and important manuscript and print materials by Louis Pasteur, a 1544 edition of Archimedes' mathematical text Philosophi ac Geometrae and many important original works from the 18th and 19th centuries. Generally, the collection's strengths are in the early modern period, and include strong holdings in the history of mathematics, astronomy, and color theory.

text: The Burndy Library is one of the world's largest collections of books on the history of science and technology. Founded in 1941 in

text: Norwalk, Connecticut

text: by the electrical engineer, industrialist, and historian

text: Bern Dibner

text: , the library holdings include important scientific literature from antiquity to the 20th century. Highlights of the collection include one of the world's most complete sets of the works of

text: Isaac Newton

text: , including books owned and annotated by Newton, as well as some sixty manuscripts by Newton, and important manuscript and print materials by

text: Louis Pasteur

text: , a 1544 edition of

text: Archimedes'

text: mathematical text Philosophi ac Geometrae and many important original works from the 18th and 19th centuries. Generally, the collection's strengths are in the early modern period, and include strong holdings in the

text: history of mathematics

text: astronomy

text: , and

text: color theory

text: In contrast to Greek astronomy which was dependent upon cosmology, Babylonian astronomy was independent from cosmology. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers, for whom uniform circular motion was never a requirement for planetary orbits. There is no evidence that the celestial bodies moved in uniform circular motion, or along celestial spheres, in Babylonian astronomy.

text: In contrast to

text: Greek astronomy

text: which was dependent upon cosmology, Babylonian astronomy was independent from cosmology. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers, for whom

text: uniform circular motion

text: was never a requirement for planetary orbits. There is no evidence that the celestial bodies moved in uniform circular motion, or along

text: celestial spheres

text: , in Babylonian astronomy.

text: KFOP used the Fibre-fed Échelle Spectrograph (FIES) on the Nordic Optical Telescope to measure Kepler-14's radial velocity in October 2009. Other radial velocity measurements were collected using W.M. Keck Observatory. The FIES and Keck data, combined with speckle imaging data from WIYN Observatory and near-infrared adaptive optics measurements at Palomar Observatory and the MMT Observatory, revealed that Kepler-14 was actually a close binary star, something that radial velocity data alone could not recognize. Because of this new discovery, further investigation of Kepler-14 was postponed until after the publishing of the first five new Kepler planets (the ones orbiting Kepler-4, Kepler-5, Kepler-6, Kepler-7, and Kepler-8). Analysis of the data revealed that, of the two component stars in the Kepler-14 system, both stars are of nearly equal magnitude, although one of the stars was fainter. The brighter star was designated the "A" component, and the fainter star received the "B" designation. The transit signal was observed in orbit around the A component of the system, meaning that the planetary candidate would be in orbit of the primary star of Kepler-14. This was confirmed on August 7, 2010, when the Infrared Array Camera on the Spitzer Space Telescope observed Kepler-14 to gather photometric data. Analysis of both the Spitzer photometric data and the radial velocity data confirmed the idea of a planet as the source of the transit signal. The planet was designated Kepler-14b, and this was published alongside the data and research on Kepler-14 in a June 2011 paper.

text: KFOP used the Fibre-fed Échelle Spectrograph (FIES) on the

text: Nordic Optical Telescope

text: to measure Kepler-14's

text: radial velocity

text: in October 2009. Other radial velocity measurements were collected using

text: W.M. Keck Observatory

text: . The FIES and Keck data, combined with

text: speckle imaging

text: data from

text: WIYN Observatory

text: and near-infrared

text: adaptive optics

text: measurements at

text: Palomar Observatory

text: and the

text: MMT Observatory

text: , revealed that Kepler-14 was actually a close

text: binary star

text: , something that radial velocity data alone could not recognize. Because of this new discovery, further investigation of Kepler-14 was postponed until after the publishing of the first five new Kepler planets (the ones orbiting

text: , and

text: ). Analysis of the data revealed that, of the two component stars in the Kepler-14 system, both stars are of nearly equal magnitude, although one of the stars was fainter. The brighter star was designated the "A" component, and the fainter star received the "B" designation. The transit signal was observed in orbit around the A component of the system, meaning that the planetary candidate would be in orbit of the primary star of Kepler-14. This was confirmed on August 7, 2010, when the Infrared Array Camera on the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: observed Kepler-14 to gather

text: photometric

text: data. Analysis of both the Spitzer photometric data and the radial velocity data confirmed the idea of a planet as the source of the transit signal. The planet was designated

text: , and this was published alongside the data and research on Kepler-14 in a June 2011 paper.

text: It was suggested that since Venus had a Greek name, as well as a Roman one, this should be used; however, the adjectival form of Aphrodite was "aphrodisial", which again was felt to be unfortunately close to "aphrodisiac", again evoking matters not directly pertaining to astronomy.

text: It was suggested that since Venus had a Greek name, as well as a Roman one, this should be used; however, the adjectival form of

text: Aphrodite

text: was "aphrodisial", which again was felt to be unfortunately close to "

text: aphrodisiac

text: ", again evoking matters not directly pertaining to astronomy.

text: The history of Big Bang nucleosynthesis began with the calculations of Ralph Alpher in the 1940s. Alpher published the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper that outlined the theory of light-element production in the early universe.

text: The history of Big Bang nucleosynthesis began with the calculations of

text: Ralph Alpher

text: in the 1940s. Alpher published the

text: Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper

text: that outlined the theory of light-element production in the early universe.

text: The recorded history of Mars observation dates back to the era of the ancient Egyptian astronomers in the 2nd millennium BCE. Chinese records about the motions of Mars appeared before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BCE). Detailed observations of the position of Mars were made by Babylonian astronomers who developed arithmetic techniques to predict the future position of the planet. The ancient Greek philosophers and Hellenistic astronomers developed a geocentric model to explain the planet's motions. Measurements of Mars' angular diameter can be found in ancient Greek and Indian texts. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for the Solar System in which the planets follow circular orbits about the Sun. This was revised by Johannes Kepler, yielding an elliptic orbit for Mars that more accurately fitted the observational data.

text: The recorded history of Mars observation dates back to the era of the ancient

text: Egyptian astronomers

text: in the

text: 2nd millennium BCE

text: Chinese

text: records about the motions of

text: Mars

text: appeared before the founding of the

text: Zhou Dynasty

text: (1045 BCE). Detailed observations of the position of Mars were made by

text: Babylonian astronomers

text: who developed arithmetic techniques to predict the future position of the planet. The ancient

text: Greek philosophers

text: and

text: Hellenistic

text: astronomers

text: developed a

text: geocentric model

text: to explain the planet's motions. Measurements of Mars' angular diameter can be found in ancient Greek and

text: Indian

text: texts. In the 16th century,

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: proposed a

text: heliocentric model

text: for the

text: Solar System

text: in which the planets follow circular orbits about the

text: Sun

text: . This was revised by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , yielding an

text: elliptic orbit

text: for Mars that more accurately fitted the observational data.

text: The Latin word nuncius was typically used during this time period to denote messenger; however, it was also (though less frequently) rendered as message. Though the title Sidereus Nuncius is usually translated into English as Sidereal Messenger, many of Galileo's early drafts of the book and later related writings indicate that the intended purpose of the book was "simply to report the news about recent developments in astronomy, not to pass himself off solemnly as an ambassador from heaven." Therefore, the correct English translation of the title is Sidereal Message (or often, Starry Message).

text: The

text: Latin

text: word nuncius was typically used during this time period to denote messenger; however, it was also (though less frequently) rendered as message. Though the title Sidereus Nuncius is usually translated into English as Sidereal Messenger, many of Galileo's early drafts of the book and later related writings indicate that the intended purpose of the book was "simply to report the news about recent developments in astronomy, not to pass himself off solemnly as an ambassador from heaven." Therefore, the correct English translation of the title is Sidereal Message (or often, Starry Message).

text: In an interview during the show the band confirmed the album would have two tracks named "History of Modern" on it and plans to change the name of one of the songs to "The Big Bang Theory" had apparently been scrapped.

text: General relativity gave us our modern notion of the expanding universe that started in the Big Bang.  Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe.  In our epoch, during which  electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky. (Before this epoch, there was a time, 300,000 years after the big bang, during which starlight would not have been visible.)

text: General relativity

text: gave us our modern notion of the expanding universe that started in the Big Bang.  Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe.  In our

text: epoch

text: , during which  electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky. (Before this epoch, there was a time, 300,000 years after the

text: big bang

text: , during which starlight would not have been visible.)

text: Bailly also gained a high literary reputation by his Éloges of King Charles V of France, Lacaille, Molière, Pierre Corneille and Gottfried Leibniz, which were issued in collected form in 1770 and 1790. He was admitted to the Académie française on 26 February 1784, and to the Académie des Inscriptions in 1785, when Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle's simultaneous membership of all three Academies was renewed in him. From then on, Bailly devoted himself to the history of science, publishing A history of ancient astronomy  in 1775, followed by A history of modern astronomy (3 vols., 1782). Other works include Discourse on the origin of the sciences and the peoples of Asia (1777);  Discourse on Plato's 'Atlantide' (1779);  and A treatise on Indian and Oriental astronomy (1787). Though his works were "universally admired" by contemporaries, later commentators have remarked that "their erudition was… marred by speculative extravagances."

text: Bailly also gained a high literary reputation by his Éloges of King

text: Charles V of France

text: Lacaille

text: Molière

text: Pierre Corneille

text: and

text: Gottfried Leibniz

text: , which were issued in collected form in 1770 and 1790. He was admitted to the

text: Académie française

text: on 26 February 1784, and to the

entity_name: Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres

text: Académie des Inscriptions

text: in 1785, when

text: Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle

text: 's simultaneous membership of all three Academies was renewed in him. From then on, Bailly devoted himself to the

text: history of science

text: , publishing A history of ancient astronomy  in 1775, followed by A history of modern astronomy (3 vols., 1782). Other works include Discourse on the origin of the sciences and the peoples of Asia (1777);  Discourse on

text: Plato

text: 's

text: 'Atlantide'

text: (1779);  and A treatise on Indian and Oriental astronomy (1787). Though his works were "universally admired" by contemporaries, later commentators have remarked that "their erudition was… marred by speculative extravagances."

text: During the 1980s, he read widely, and began a program to describe human history in the context of very large time scales from cosmology and astronomy, covering the almost fourteen billion years since the Big Bang. He began teaching his first course, what he described as Big History, in 1989. It was a novel approach which emphasizes summary findings from biology and cosmology and astronomy and geology and anthropology to show what happened before homo sapiens became prevalent on the Earth; generally, humans are not mentioned much in the course until halfway through the 15-week semester. He wrote the book Maps of Time which mirrored the course content. The course was chosen by The Teaching Company's Great Courses and Christian recorded 48 half-hour lectures.

text: During the 1980s, he read widely, and began a program to describe human history in the context of very large time scales from cosmology and astronomy, covering the almost fourteen billion years since the

text: Big Bang

text: . He began teaching his first course, what he described as

text: Big History

text: , in 1989. It was a novel approach which emphasizes summary findings from

text: biology

text: and

text: cosmology

text: and

text: astronomy

text: and

text: geology

text: and

text: anthropology

text: to show what happened before

text: homo sapiens

text: became prevalent on the

text: Earth

text: ; generally, humans are not mentioned much in the course until halfway through the 15-week semester. He wrote the book Maps of Time which mirrored the course content. The course was chosen by

text: The Teaching Company's Great Courses

text: and Christian recorded 48 half-hour lectures.

text: The International Astronomical Union (IAU) launched in 2009 the Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP), a Cornerstone project of the International Year of Astronomy 2009. GHOU is a major component of GTTP.

text: The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) launched in 2009 the Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP), a Cornerstone project of the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: 2009. GHOU is a major component of GTTP.

text: The foundations of the theoretical structure used in astrology originate with the Babylonians, although widespread usage did not occur till the start of the Hellenistic period after Alexander the great swept through Greece. It was not known to the Babylonians that the constellations are not on a celestial sphere and are very far apart. The appearance of them being close is illusory. The exact demarcation of what a constellation is, is cultural, and varied between civilisations. Ptolemy's work on astronomy was driven to some extent by the desire, like all astrologers of the time, to easily calculate the planetary movements. Early western astrology operated under the ancient Greek concepts of the Macrocosm and microcosm; and thus medical astrology related what happened to the planets and other objects in the sky to medical operations. This provided a further motivator for the study of astronomy. While still defending the practice of astrology, Ptolemy acknowledged that the predictive power of astronomy for the motion of the planets and other celestial bodies ranked above astrological predictions.

text: The foundations of the theoretical structure used in astrology originate with the Babylonians, although widespread usage did not occur till the start of the

text: Hellenistic period

text: after Alexander the great swept through Greece. It was not known to the Babylonians that the constellations are not on a

text: celestial sphere

text: and are very far apart. The appearance of them being close is illusory. The exact demarcation of what a constellation is, is cultural, and varied between civilisations.

text: Ptolemy

text: 's work on

text: astronomy

text: was driven to some extent by the desire, like all astrologers of the time, to easily calculate the planetary movements. Early western astrology operated under the

text: ancient Greek

text: concepts of the

text: Macrocosm and microcosm

text: ; and thus

text: medical astrology

text: related what happened to the planets and other objects in the sky to medical operations. This provided a further motivator for the study of astronomy. While still defending the practice of astrology, Ptolemy acknowledged that the predictive power of astronomy for the motion of the planets and other celestial bodies ranked above astrological predictions.

text: Since the 1980s, the big-bang theory has been the prevailing cosmological model for the universe. It was envisioned by a Roman Catholic priest, Monsignor Georges Lemaître in the 1930s. Lemaître suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence. However, in the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist subscribed to a view that the universe is in an eternal steady state. After Lemaître proposed his theory, some scientists complained that its assumption that time had a beginning amounted to a reimportation of religious concepts into physics. When the expression "Big Bang" was coined by Fred Hoyle in 1949, he meant it to be slightly pejorative, but the term stuck and gained currency. Lemaître himself concluded that an initial "creation-like" event must have occurred. The Big-Bang is contrary to young-Earth creationism, sensu strictu. But it has been welcomed by other Christian creeds, and it is in line with the Roman Catholic concept of creation. Under the Anthropic principle, by which the properties of the universe is seemingly fine-tuned for our own existence, some Christians see evidence that a divine creator has purposefully designed the universe.

text: Since the 1980s, the

text: big-bang theory

text: has been the prevailing

text: cosmological

text: model

text: for the

text: universe

text: . It was envisioned by a Roman Catholic priest, Monsignor

text: Georges Lemaître

text: in the 1930s. Lemaître suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence. However, in the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist subscribed to a view that the universe is in an eternal

text: steady state

text: . After Lemaître proposed his theory, some scientists complained that its assumption that time had a beginning amounted to a reimportation of religious concepts into physics. When the expression "Big Bang" was coined by

text: Fred Hoyle

text: in 1949, he meant it to be slightly pejorative, but the term stuck and gained currency. Lemaître himself concluded that an initial "

text: creation

text: -like" event must have occurred. The Big-Bang is contrary to young-Earth creationism, sensu strictu. But it has been welcomed by other Christian creeds, and it is in line with the

text: Roman Catholic

text: concept of creation. Under the

text: Anthropic principle

text: , by which the properties of the universe is seemingly

text: fine-tuned for our own existence

text: , some Christians see evidence that a divine creator has purposefully designed the universe.

text: Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (ancient Greek phusis) by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention." Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature and things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.A clear-cut distinction between formal (eon) and empirical science (doxa) was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides (fl. late sixth or early fifth century BCE). Although his work Peri Physeos (On Nature) is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides' ἐὸν may refer to a formal system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. "Physis" may be identical to ἐὸν.

text: Before the invention or discovery of the

text: concept

text: of "

text: nature

text: ancient Greek

text: phusis

text: ) by the

text: Pre-Socratic philosopher

text: s, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention." Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature and things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or

text: theorists

text: , particularly interested in

text: astronomy

text: . In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or

text: technology

text: , Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.A clear-cut distinction between formal (eon) and empirical science (doxa) was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher

text: Parmenides

text: (fl. late sixth or early fifth century BCE). Although his work Peri Physeos (On Nature) is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides' ἐὸν may refer to a formal system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. "Physis" may be identical to ἐὸν.

text: In 1817, Woodward drafted a territorial act establishing a "Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania," organized into thirteen different professorships, or didaxiim, following the classification system he had published the year before in his A System of Universal Science. He invented names for these using a mix of Greek and Latin so they could be "engrafted, without variation, into every modern language": Anthropoglossica (Literature), Mathematica (Mathematics), Physiognostica (Natural History), Physiosophica (Natural Philosophy), Astronomia (Astronomy), Chymia (Chemistry), Iatrica (Medicine), Œconomica (Economical Sciences), Ethica (Ethics), Polemitactica (Military Science), Diëgetica (Historical Sciences), Ennœica (Intellectual Sciences), and Catholepistemia (Universal Science).

text: In 1817, Woodward drafted a territorial act establishing a "Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania," organized into thirteen different professorships, or didaxiim, following the classification system he had published the year before in his A System of Universal Science. He invented names for these using a mix of

text: Greek

text: and

text: Latin

text: so they could be "engrafted, without variation, into every modern language": Anthropoglossica (

text: Literature

text: ), Mathematica (

text: Mathematics

text: ), Physiognostica (

text: Natural History

text: ), Physiosophica (

text: Natural Philosophy

text: ), Astronomia (

text: Astronomy

text: ), Chymia (

text: Chemistry

text: ), Iatrica (

text: Medicine

text: ), Œconomica (

text: Economical Sciences

text: ), Ethica (

text: Ethics

text: ), Polemitactica (

text: Military Science

text: ), Diëgetica (

text: Historical Sciences

text: ), Ennœica (

text: Intellectual

text: Sciences), and Catholepistemia (Universal Science).

text: In 1990, measurements from the COBE satellite showed that the spectrum of the CMB matches a 2.725 K black-body to very high precision; deviations do not exceed 2 parts in . This showed that earlier claims of spectral deviations were incorrect, and essentially proved that the universe was hot and dense in the past, since no other known mechanism can produce a black-body to such high accuracy. Further observations from COBE in 1992 discovered the very small anisotropies of the CMB on large scales, approximately as predicted from Big Bang models with dark matter. From then on, models of non-standard cosmology without some form of Big Bang became very rare in the mainstream astronomy journals.

text: In 1990, measurements from the

text: COBE

text: satellite showed that the spectrum of the CMB matches a 2.725 K

text: black-body

text: to very high precision; deviations do not exceed 2 parts in . This showed that earlier claims of spectral deviations were incorrect, and essentially proved that the universe was hot and dense in the past, since no other known mechanism can produce a black-body to such high accuracy. Further observations from COBE in 1992 discovered the very small anisotropies of the CMB on large scales, approximately as predicted from Big Bang models with

text: dark matter

text: . From then on, models of

text: non-standard cosmology

text: without some form of Big Bang became very rare in the mainstream astronomy journals.

text: As early as 1811, modern researchers were examining evidence for knowledge of precession of the equinoxes and astrological ages before Hipparchus. Sir William Drummond published "Oedipus Judaicus - Allegory in the Old Testament" in 1811. Drummund expounds on his hypothesis that a greater part of the Hebrew Scriptures are merely allegorical writings that hide the true content. Furthermore, the Orientalists were mainly concerned with astronomy and most of their ancient myths are really disguised astronomical records. Drummond believed that the 49th chapter of Genesis contains prophecies allied to astronomy and that the twelve tribes of Israel represented the 12 zodiacal signs. Drummund makes his case that at the time of Abraham, the Amorites first recorded the shift from the Age of Taurus to the Age of Aries as represented by the year commencing with the Ram (Aries) rather than the bull (Taurus). The Book of Joshua indicates that by the time of Moses the equinoxes had already shifted from Taurus to Aries as Moses had ordained that the civil year should commence with the month of Nisan (Aries) rather than the month of Taurus. The feast of the Passover is probably a celebration of the Age of Aries with the Paschal Lamb representative of Aries, traditionally associated with the symbol of the ram or sheep. Drummond also hypothesizes that most number references in ancient texts were coded to hide their real value by their multiplication by 1000 or multiples of 1,000. For example, in the Old Testament Joshua commanded 30,000 men and he slew 12,000 inhabitants of the city of Ai. The historian Berosus stated the Babylonians commenced astronomical observations 49,000 years (7 x 7 x 1000) before Alexander the Great. Most early references were related to 7 (Sun, Moon, and five visible planets), 12 (number of zodiacal signs and months per year), 30 (degrees per sign of the zodiac), and higher combinations of these numbers and other numbers associated with astronomical observations and astrology.

text: As early as 1811, modern researchers were examining evidence for knowledge of precession of the equinoxes and astrological ages before Hipparchus. Sir

text: William Drummond

text: published "Oedipus Judaicus - Allegory in the Old Testament" in 1811. Drummund expounds on his hypothesis that a greater part of the Hebrew Scriptures are merely allegorical writings that hide the true content. Furthermore, the Orientalists were mainly concerned with astronomy and most of their ancient myths are really disguised astronomical records. Drummond believed that the 49th chapter of Genesis contains prophecies allied to astronomy and that the twelve tribes of Israel represented the 12 zodiacal signs. Drummund makes his case that at the time of

text: Abraham

text: , the

text: Amorites

text: first recorded the shift from the Age of Taurus to the Age of Aries as represented by the year commencing with the Ram (Aries) rather than the bull (Taurus). The

text: Book of Joshua

text: indicates that by the time of

text: Moses

text: the equinoxes had already shifted from

text: Taurus

text: to

text: Aries

text: as

text: Moses

text: had ordained that the civil year should commence with the month of

text: Nisan

text: (Aries) rather than the month of Taurus. The feast of the

text: Passover

text: is probably a celebration of the Age of Aries with the Paschal Lamb representative of Aries, traditionally associated with the symbol of the ram or sheep. Drummond also hypothesizes that most number references in ancient texts were coded to hide their real value by their multiplication by 1000 or multiples of 1,000. For example, in the

text: Old Testament

text: Joshua

text: commanded 30,000 men and he slew 12,000 inhabitants of the city of Ai. The historian

text: Berosus

text: stated the Babylonians commenced astronomical observations 49,000 years (7 x 7 x 1000) before Alexander the Great. Most early references were related to 7 (Sun, Moon, and five visible planets), 12 (number of zodiacal signs and months per year), 30 (degrees per sign of the zodiac), and higher combinations of these numbers and other numbers associated with astronomical observations and astrology.

text: In the first decade of the 16th century, amateur astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed heliocentrism, and published a treatise on it in 1543.  Not quite radical, Copernicus merely sought to simplify astronomy and achieve orbits of more perfect circles, stated by Aristotelian physics to be the intrinsic motion of Aristotle's fifth element—the quintessence or universal essence known in Greek as aither for the English pure air—that was the pure substance beyond the sublunary sphere, and thus was celestial entities' pure composition.  The German Johannes Kepler [1571–1630], Tycho Brahe's assistant, modified Copernican orbits to ellipses, however, formalized in the equations of Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

text: In the first decade of the 16th century, amateur astronomer

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: proposed

text: heliocentrism

text: , and published a treatise on it in 1543.  Not quite radical, Copernicus merely sought to simplify astronomy and achieve orbits of more perfect circles, stated by

text: Aristotelian physics

text: to be the intrinsic motion of Aristotle's

text: fifth element

text: —the quintessence or universal essence known in Greek as

text: aither

text: for the English pure air—that was the pure substance beyond the

text: sublunary sphere

text: , and thus was celestial entities' pure composition.  The German

text: Johannes Kepler

text: Tycho Brahe

text: 's assistant, modified Copernican orbits to

text: ellipse

text: s, however, formalized in the equations of Kepler's

text: laws of planetary motion

text: Dick served as Chairman of the Historical Astronomy Division of the American Astronomical Society (1993–1994), as President of the History of Astronomy Commission of the International Astronomical Union (1997-2000) and as President of the Philosophical Society of Washington. He is on the editorial board for the Journal for the History of Astronomy and the Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. From 2011-2012 he held the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at the National Air & Space Museum. In 2013 Dick was named the Baruch S. Blumberg NASA/Library of Congress Chair in Astrobiology.

text: Dick served as Chairman of the Historical Astronomy Division of the

text: American Astronomical Society

text: (1993–1994), as President of the History of Astronomy Commission of the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (1997-2000) and as President of the

text: Philosophical Society of Washington

text: . He is on the editorial board for the Journal for the History of Astronomy and the Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. From 2011-2012 he held the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at the National Air & Space Museum. In 2013 Dick was named the Baruch S. Blumberg NASA/Library of Congress Chair in Astrobiology.

text: Prabodh Chandra Sengupta (1876–1962) was a historian of astronomy in ancient India. He was a Professor of Mathematics in Bethune College Calcutta and a lecturer in Indian Astronomy and Mathematics at the University of Calcutta.

text: Prabodh Chandra Sengupta (1876–1962) was a historian of

text: astronomy

text: in ancient India. He was a Professor of Mathematics in

text: Bethune College

text: Calcutta

text: and a lecturer in Indian Astronomy and Mathematics at the

text: University of Calcutta

text: The planetarium exhibits the magnificent cosmos, history of astronomy and astronomers, and also various attractions.

text: According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies, while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the northern hemisphere.

text: According to

text: Asger Aaboe

text: , the origins of

text: Western

text: astronomy can be found in

text: Mesopotamia

text: , and all Western efforts in the

text: exact science

text: s are descended from late

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: Egyptian astronomers

text: left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies, while

text: Greek poet

text: Homer

text: wrote of various celestial objects in his

text: Iliad

text: and

text: Odyssey

text: ; later

text: Greek astronomers

text: provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the

text: northern hemisphere

text: Only white males were admitted; some took students as young as 14 or 15, and most had some sort of preparatory academy for those who needed Latin or other basic skills. College faculties were generally very small, typically consisting of the college president (usually a clergyman), perhaps one or two professors, and several tutors, i.e. graduate students who earned their keep by teaching the underclassmen.  All students followed the same course of study, which was of three or (more commonly) four years' duration.  Collegiate studies focused on ancient languages, ancient history, theology, and mathematics.  In the 18th century, science (especially astronomy and physics) and modern history and politics assumed a larger (but still modest) place in the college curriculum.  Until the mid-18th century, the overwhelming majority of American college graduates became Protestant clergymen.  Towards the end of the colonial period, law became another popular career choice for college graduates.

text: In this article the word describes the representation of the star-filled celestial sphere on the plane.The first star chart to have the name "planisphere" was made in 1624 by Jacob Bartsch.Bartsch was the son-in-law of Johannes Kepler, discoverer of Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

text: In this article the word describes the representation of the star-filled celestial sphere on the plane.The first star chart to have the name "planisphere" was made in 1624 by

text: Jacob Bartsch

text: .Bartsch was the son-in-law of

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , discoverer of

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: /ˌek.soʊˈplæn.ɪt/) or extrasolar planet is a planet that orbits a star other than the Sun. Starting in 1988, and as of , there have been  exoplanets in  planetary systems and  multiple planetary systems confirmed. HARPS (since 2004) has discovered about a hundred exoplanets while the Kepler space telescope (since 2009) has found more than two thousand.  Kepler has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.On average, there is at least one planet per star, with a percentage having multiple planets.About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an "Earth-sized" planet in the habitable zone. Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, one can hypothesize that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included.

text: /ˌek.soʊˈplæn.ɪt/) or extrasolar planet is a

text: planet

text: that orbits a

text: star

text: other than the

text: Sun

text: . Starting in 1988, and as of , there have been  exoplanets in

text: planetary system

text: s and

text: multiple planetary systems

text: confirmed.

entity_name: High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher

text: HARPS

text: (since 2004) has discovered about a hundred exoplanets while the

text: Kepler space telescope

text: (since 2009) has found more than two thousand.  Kepler has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be

text: false positive

text: s.On average, there is at least one planet per star, with a percentage having

text: multiple planets

text: .About 1 in 5

text: Sun-like stars

text: have an "

text: Earth

text: -sized" planet in the

text: habitable zone

text: . Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, one can hypothesize that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous

text: red dwarf

text: s are included.

text: Concepts of inertia in Galileo's writings would later come to be refined, modified and codified by Isaac Newton as the first of his Laws of Motion (first published in Newton's work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in 1687):

text: Concepts of inertia in Galileo's writings would later come to be refined, modified and codified by

text: Isaac Newton

text: as the first of his

text: Laws of Motion

text: (first published in Newton's work,

text: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: , in 1687):

text: Yusuf ibn Ahmad al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd was an Arab Mathematician and a  member of the Banu Hud family, al-Mu'taman ruled Zaragoza from 1081 to 1085. Where the Banu Hūd family kept their rule until 1100. Saragossa, which encompasses modern day Aragon, Spain, had its early influence from the Roman Empire. In medieval Islam there was a wave of translations of ancient Greek and Roman texts. Ranging from philosophy, to medicine, to astronomy, and the more influential mathematical translations. Yusuf son to the king, Ahmad ibn Sulayman al-Muqtadir. His father Ahmad was known for philosophy, astronomy, as well as translations of mathematics. Both father and son, as well as medieval Islamic translators such as the Banū Mūsā were known for their expansions on ancient Greek and Roman ideals. There was a stigma in the periods following medieval Islam that Islamic translators only copied the ancient texts, offering no intellectual addition. Later it is proven that translators such as Ibn Sīnā and Yusuf offered copious and revolutionary input into their expansion on ancient ideas. Yusuf ibn Ahmad al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd wrote a mathematical treatise called Kitab al-Istikmāl (Arabic,كتاب الإستكمال, Perfection or Comprehensive Treatise) in  mathematics, where it was edited by Maimonides (ca. 1135 – 1204).

text: Yusuf ibn Ahmad al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd was an

text: Arab Mathematician

text: and a  member of the

text: Banu Hud

text: family, al-Mu'taman ruled

text: Zaragoza

text: from 1081 to 1085. Where the Banu Hūd family kept their rule until 1100. Saragossa, which encompasses modern day Aragon, Spain, had its early influence from the Roman Empire. In medieval Islam there was a wave of translations of ancient Greek and Roman texts. Ranging from

text: philosophy

text: , to

text: medicine

text: , to

text: astronomy

text: , and the more influential mathematical translations. Yusuf son to the king,

text: Ahmad ibn Sulayman al-Muqtadir

text: . His father Ahmad was known for philosophy, astronomy, as well as translations of mathematics. Both father and son, as well as medieval Islamic translators such as the

text: Banū Mūsā

text: were known for their expansions on ancient Greek and Roman ideals. There was a stigma in the periods following medieval Islam that Islamic translators only copied the ancient texts, offering no intellectual addition. Later it is proven that translators such as

text: Ibn Sīnā

text: and Yusuf offered copious and revolutionary input into their expansion on ancient ideas. Yusuf ibn Ahmad al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd wrote a mathematical treatise called Kitab al-Istikmāl (

text: Arabic

text: ,كتاب الإستكمال, Perfection or Comprehensive Treatise) in

text: mathematics

text: , where it was edited by

text: Maimonides

text: (ca. 1135 – 1204).

text: Alpher's dissertation in 1948 dealt with a subject that came to be known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The Big Bang is a term coined initially in derision by Fred Hoyle on BBC Radio in 1950 to describe the cosmological model of the universe as expanding into its current state from a primordial condition of enormous density and temperature. Nucleosynthesis is the explanation of how more complex elements are created out of simple elements in the moments following the Big Bang. Right after the Big Bang, when the temperature was extremely high, if any nuclear particles, such as neutrons and protons, became bound together (being held together by the attractive nuclear force) they would be immediately broken apart by the high energy photons (quanta of light) present in high density. In other words, at this extremely high temperature, the photons' kinetic energy would overwhelm the binding energy of the strong nuclear force. For example, if a proton and a neutron became bound together (forming deuterium), it would be immediately broken apart by a high energy photon. However, as time progressed, the universe expanded and cooled and the average energy of the photons decreased. At some point, roughly one second after the Big Bang, the attractive force of nuclear attraction would begin to win out over the lower energy photons and neutrons and protons would begin to form stable deuterium nuclei. As the universe continued to expand and cool, additional nuclear particles would bind with these light nuclei, building up heavier elements such as helium, etc.

text: Alpher's dissertation in 1948 dealt with a subject that came to be known as

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

text: . The

text: Big Bang

text: is a term coined initially in derision by

text: Fred Hoyle

text: on BBC Radio in 1950 to describe the

text: cosmological model

text: of the universe as expanding into its current state from a primordial condition of enormous density and temperature.

text: Nucleosynthesis

text: is the explanation of how more complex elements are created out of simple elements in the moments following the Big Bang. Right after the Big Bang, when the temperature was extremely high, if any nuclear particles, such as neutrons and protons, became bound together (being held together by the attractive

text: nuclear force

text: ) they would be immediately broken apart by the high energy

text: photon

text: s (

text: quanta

text: of

text: light

text: ) present in high density. In other words, at this extremely high temperature, the photons' kinetic energy would overwhelm the binding energy of the strong nuclear force. For example, if a proton and a neutron became bound together (forming

text: deuterium

text: ), it would be immediately broken apart by a high energy photon. However, as time progressed, the universe expanded and cooled and the average energy of the photons decreased. At some point, roughly one second after the Big Bang, the attractive force of nuclear attraction would begin to win out over the lower energy photons and

text: neutron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s would begin to form stable

text: deuterium

text: nuclei. As the universe continued to expand and cool, additional nuclear particles would bind with these light nuclei, building up heavier elements such as

text: helium

text: , etc.

text: Galileo's early studies at the University of Pisa were in medicine, but he was soon drawn to mathematics and physics. At 19, he discovered (and, subsequently, verified) the isochronal nature of the pendulum when, using his pulse, he timed the oscillations of a swinging lamp in Pisa's cathedral and found that it remained the same for each swing regardless of the swing's amplitude. He soon became known through his invention of a hydrostatic balance and for his treatise on the center of gravity of solid bodies. While teaching at the University of Pisa (1589–92), he initiated his experiments concerning the laws of bodies in motion that brought results so contradictory to the accepted teachings of Aristotle that strong antagonism was aroused. He found that bodies do not fall with velocities proportional to their weights. The famous story in which Galileo is said to have dropped weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is apocryphal, but he did find that the path of a projectile is a parabola and is credited with conclusions that anticipated Newton's laws of motion (e.g. the notion of inertia). Among these is what is now called Galilean relativity, the first precisely formulated statement about properties of space and time outside three-dimensional geometry.

text: Galileo's early studies at the

text: University of Pisa

text: were in medicine, but he was soon drawn to mathematics and physics. At 19, he discovered (and,

text: subsequently, verified

text: ) the

text: isochronal

text: nature of the

text: pendulum

text: when, using his pulse, he timed the oscillations of a swinging lamp in

text: Pisa's cathedral

text: and found that it remained the same for each swing regardless of the swing's

text: amplitude

text: . He soon became known through his invention of a

text: hydrostatic balance

text: and for his treatise on the

text: center of gravity

text: of solid bodies. While teaching at the University of Pisa (1589–92), he initiated his experiments concerning the laws of bodies in motion that brought results so contradictory to the accepted teachings of Aristotle that strong antagonism was aroused. He found that bodies do not fall with velocities

text: proportional

text: to their weights. The famous story in which Galileo is said to have

entity_name: Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment

text: dropped weights from

text: the

text: Leaning Tower of Pisa

text: is apocryphal, but he did find that the

text: path of a projectile

text: is a

text: parabola

text: and is credited with conclusions that anticipated

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: (e.g. the notion of

text: inertia

text: ). Among these is what is now called

text: Galilean relativity

text: , the first precisely formulated statement about properties of space and time outside

text: three-dimensional geometry

text: In 1932, American scientist, inventor, and optician Don Hendrix began developing the Schmidt Camera at the Mount Wilson Observatory in Southern California, where by 1942 he would go on to become the master optician. A genius with only a highschool education, Hendrix was a prolific inventor who by his death in 1962, in addition to his accomplishments and contributions to astronomy and optics had hundreds of patents to his name, most of which were donated to the U.S. Government. He experimented with various technologies and among many firsts was the first person to use aluminum instead of silver in the mirrors he created for the Carnegie Institute's telescopes. During the time he spent at the Carnegie Institute he worked on many projects for the U.S. government, including a co-authored patent for the proximity fuse for use in missiles and bombs, considered to be one of the most important inventions in history outside of the discovery of atomic energy.  Due to the top secret nature of this and other projects, he never openly received credit for these inventions.  During his time at the Mount Wilson and Palomar observatories, he became a protege of Edwin Hubble, and many other noted astronomers, and it is believed that alongside Hubble he contributed to the big bang theory. He was responsible for finishing and polishing the Palomar Observatory's 200-inch primary and the 120-inch primary at Lick Observatory, among many other contributions.

text: In 1932, American scientist, inventor, and optician Don Hendrix began developing the Schmidt Camera at the

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: The majority of scientists hold to the belief that the Big Bang Theory is the most plausible explanation for the beginning of the universe. The Big Bang Theory states that the collision of molecules (approximately 15 billion years ago) created a massive explosion of energy and matter, which condensed to form the early universe. After the Big Bang, gravity pulled together groups of particles to create stars, planets, galaxies, nebulae, and everything else that is known to exist in the universe.

text: As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BC and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.

text: As with

text: other traditions

text: , the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BC and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the

text: Yavanajataka

text: and the

text: Romaka Siddhanta

text: The early curriculum included Penmanship, Astronomy, Composition of Fiction, Sacred and Profane History, Ancient Geography, Chronology, Mythology, and Embroidery.

text: For the American tour, many numbers such as "Flaming" and "The Gnome" were dropped, while others such as "Astronomy Domine" and "Interstellar Overdrive" remained, and were central to the band's setlist during this period, often performed as encores until around 1971. "Astronomy Domine" was later included on the live disc of Ummagumma, and adopted by the post-Waters Pink Floyd during the 1994 Division Bell tour, with a version included on the 1995 live album Pulse. David Gilmour, though not a member of Pink Floyd at the time the song was originally recorded, resurrected "Astronomy Domine" for his On an Island and Rattle That Lock tours.

text: For the American tour, many numbers such as "Flaming" and "The Gnome" were dropped, while others such as "Astronomy Domine" and "Interstellar Overdrive" remained, and were central to the band's setlist during this period, often performed as encores until around 1971. "Astronomy Domine" was later included on the live disc of Ummagumma, and adopted by the post-Waters Pink Floyd during the 1994

text: Division Bell

text: tour, with a version included on the 1995

text: live album

text: Pulse

text: . David Gilmour, though not a member of Pink Floyd at the time the song was originally recorded, resurrected "Astronomy Domine" for his

text: On an Island

text: and

text: Rattle That Lock

text: tours.

text: In 1958, Hoyle was Plumian professor of astronomy at Cambridge and engaged in the study of the structure and evolution of the stars. Even though he coined the phrase “Big Bang,” Hoyle rejected the ‘big bang’ theory of the origin of the universe in favor of the steady state theory, which claimed that the universe has always looked as it does now. Martin Ryle, however, held to the big bang theory for the creation of the universe in a moment, the theory that eventually held sway.  Some of Hoyle’s writings, including science fiction and plays, popularized astronomy.  Christopher H. Derrick of Geoffrey Bles publishers, presumably in 1963 and before Lewis’s death, wrote a proposal for a book that was to include “Religion and Rocketry,” stating that “This essay seems to have been written in rebuttal of an argument which is only likely to be brought forward by a rather silly minority (though an academically distinguished one)…”  Hoyle would have been part of that academically distinguished, but silly, minority.

text: A Short History deviates from Bryson's popular travel book genre, instead describing general sciences such as chemistry, paleontology, astronomy, and particle physics. In it, he explores time from the Big Bang to the discovery of quantum mechanics, via evolution and geology.

text: A Short History deviates from Bryson's popular travel book

text: genre

text: , instead describing general sciences such as

text: chemistry

text: paleontology

text: astronomy

text: , and

text: particle physics

text: . In it, he explores time from the

text: Big Bang

text: to the discovery of

text: quantum mechanics

text: , via

text: evolution

text: and

text: geology

text: Both Galileo and Newton and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere. This is the basis for timelines, where time is a parameter. Our modern conception of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, in which rates of time run differently depending on relative motion, and space and time are merged into spacetime, where we live on a world line rather than a timeline. Thus time is part of a coordinate, in this view. Physicists  believe the entire Universe and therefore time itself began about 13.8 billion years ago in the big bang; see time in Cosmology below. Whether it will ever come to an end is an open question.

text: Both

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Newton

text: and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere. This is the basis for

text: timeline

text: s, where time is a

text: parameter

text: . Our modern conception of time is based on

text: Einstein

text: 's

text: theory of relativity

text: , in which rates of time run differently depending on relative motion, and

text: space

text: and time are merged into

text: spacetime

text: , where we live on a

text: world line

text: rather than a timeline. Thus time is part of a

text: coordinate

text: , in this view. Physicists  believe the entire

text: Universe

text: and therefore time itself began about 13.8 billion years ago in the

text: big bang

text: ; see

text: time in Cosmology

text: below. Whether it will ever come to an end is an open question.

text: Couper was born on 2 June 1949. She is the eldest daughter of George Couper Elder Couper and Anita Couper (née Taylor). She attended St Mary's Grammar School (merged with St. Nicholas Grammar School in 1977 to become Haydon School) on Wiltshire Lane in Northwood Hills, Middlesex. In a TV tribute to Patrick Moore she read out a letter from Moore she received when she was aged 16 in which he responded to a question of hers with the comment that "being a girl" was not detrimental to a career in astronomy. She graduated from the University of Leicester with a BSc in Astronomy and Physics and did research at the Department of Astrophysics at the University of Oxford, whilst a postgraduate student at Linacre College, Oxford.

text: Couper was born on 2 June 1949. She is the eldest daughter of George Couper Elder Couper and Anita Couper (née Taylor). She attended

text: St Mary's Grammar School

text: (merged with

text: St. Nicholas Grammar School

text: in 1977 to become

text: Haydon School

text: ) on Wiltshire Lane in

text: Northwood Hills

text: Middlesex

text: . In a TV tribute to

text: Patrick Moore

text: she read out a letter from Moore she received when she was aged 16 in which he responded to a question of hers with the comment that "being a girl" was not detrimental to a career in astronomy. She graduated from the

text: University of Leicester

text: with a

text: BSc

text: in Astronomy and Physics and did research at the Department of Astrophysics at the

text: University of Oxford

text: , whilst a postgraduate student at

text: Linacre College, Oxford

text: The modern understanding of planetary motion arose from the combined efforts of astronomer Tycho Brahe and physicist Johannes Kepler in the 16th century. Tycho is credited with extremely accurate measurements of planetary motions, from which Kepler was able to derive his laws of planetary motion.  According to these laws, planets move on ellipses (not epicycles) about the Sun (not the Earth). Kepler's second and third laws make specific quantitative predictions: planets sweep out equal areas in equal time, and the square of their orbital periods equals a fixed constant times the cube of their semi-major axis. Subsequent observations of the planetary orbits showed that the long axis of the ellipse (the so-called line of apsides) rotates gradually with time; this rotation is known as apsidal precession. The apses of an orbit are the points at which the orbiting body is closest or furthest away from the attracting center; for planets orbiting the Sun, the apses correspond to the perihelion (closest) and aphelion (furthest).

text: The modern understanding of planetary motion arose from the combined efforts of astronomer

text: Tycho Brahe

text: and physicist

text: Johannes Kepler

text: in the 16th century. Tycho is credited with extremely accurate measurements of planetary motions, from which Kepler was able to derive his

text: laws of planetary motion

text: .  According to these laws, planets move on

text: ellipse

text: s (not epicycles) about the

text: Sun

text: (not the Earth). Kepler's second and third laws make specific quantitative predictions: planets sweep out equal areas in equal time, and the square of their

text: orbital period

text: s equals a fixed constant times the cube of their

text: semi-major axis

text: . Subsequent observations of the planetary orbits showed that the long axis of the ellipse (the so-called line of apsides) rotates gradually with time; this rotation is known as apsidal precession. The

text: apses

text: of an orbit are the points at which the orbiting body is closest or furthest away from the attracting center; for planets orbiting the Sun, the apses correspond to the perihelion (closest) and aphelion (furthest).

text: There are currently three academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and Archaeoastronomy — the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC— La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. There is also SIAC— La Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura, primarily a Latin American organisation which was founded in 2003. Two new organisations focused on regional archaeoastronomy were founded in 2013: ASIA - the Australian Society for Indigenous Astronomy in Australia and SMART - the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions in New Zealand.

text: There are currently three academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and Archaeoastronomy — the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC— La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. There is also SIAC— La Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura, primarily a

text: Latin America

text: n organisation which was founded in 2003. Two new organisations focused on regional archaeoastronomy were founded in 2013: ASIA - the Australian Society for Indigenous Astronomy in Australia and SMART - the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions in New Zealand.

text: Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.

text: Enlightenment

text: philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of

text: Nature

text: and

text: Natural law

text: to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.

text: Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.

text: Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in

text: Greek and Hellenistic astronomy

text: , in classical

text: Indian astronomy

text: , in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in

text: Islamic astronomy

text: , in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.

text: In 1986 Neugebauer was awarded the Balzan Prize "for his fundamental research into the exact sciences in the ancient world, in particular, on ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek astronomy, which has put our understanding of ancient science on a new footing and illuminated its transmission to the classical and medieval worlds. For his outstanding success in promoting interest and further research in the history of science" (Motivation of the Balzan General Prize Committee). Neugebauer donated the prize money of 250,000 Swiss francs to the Institute for Advanced Study.

text: In 1986 Neugebauer was awarded the

text: Balzan Prize

text: "for his fundamental research into the exact sciences in the ancient world, in particular, on ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and

text: Greek astronomy

text: , which has put our understanding of

text: ancient science

text: on a new footing and illuminated its transmission to the classical and medieval worlds. For his outstanding success in promoting interest and further research in the history of science" (Motivation of the Balzan General Prize Committee). Neugebauer donated the prize money of 250,000 Swiss francs to the Institute for Advanced Study.

text: Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius.  In the 6th Century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.

text: Western Europe

text: entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of

text: classical antiquity

text: were written in

text: Greek

text: , and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in

text: Latin

text: were

text: Macrobius

text: Pliny

text: Martianus Capella

text: , and

text: Calcidius

text: .  In the 6th Century Bishop

text: Gregory of Tours

text: noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.

text: Following the war, the LEMO returned to Kharkov in mid-1945, remaining independent of the UPTI.. There Braude continued research in large-scale radio propagation, eventually turning his full interest to interferometry and radio-signal analysis. In 1955, the LEMO became the Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU); Braude played a major role in forming the IRE. He was made a Vice-Director of the IRE, heading the Radio Astronomy Department and pioneering decametre-wavelength radio astronomy in Ukraine. In 1985, he was instrumental in forming a new academic establishment, the Institute of Radio Astronomy of NASU, branched off IRE on the basis of the former Radio Astronomy Department.

text: Following the war, the LEMO returned to Kharkov in mid-1945, remaining independent of the UPTI.. There Braude continued research in large-scale radio propagation, eventually turning his full interest to

text: interferometry

text: and radio-signal analysis. In 1955, the LEMO became the Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE) of the

text: National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine

text: (NASU); Braude played a major role in forming the IRE. He was made a Vice-Director of the IRE, heading the Radio Astronomy Department and pioneering

text: decametre

text: -wavelength radio astronomy in Ukraine. In 1985, he was instrumental in forming a new academic establishment, the Institute of Radio Astronomy of NASU, branched off IRE on the basis of the former Radio Astronomy Department.

text: Owen Jay Gingerich (; born 1930) is professor emeritus of astronomy and of the history of science at Harvard University and a senior astronomer emeritus at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. In addition to his research and teaching, he has written many books on the history of astronomy.

text: Owen Jay Gingerich (; born 1930) is professor emeritus of

text: astronomy

text: and of the

text: history of science

text: at

text: Harvard University

text: and a senior

text: astronomer

text: emeritus at the

text: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

text: . In addition to his research and teaching, he has written many books on the

text: history of astronomy

text: Astronomy, perhaps the oldest science in history, has played an important role in most, if not all, cultures over the ages. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 (IYA2009) was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy, but in science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.

text: Astronomy

text: , perhaps the oldest science in history, has played an important role in most, if not all, cultures over the ages. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 (IYA2009) was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy, but in science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.

text: During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new empirical approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science, and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. Classical Greek and Latin sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.

text: During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new

text: empirical

text: approach to astronomy. They began studying

text: philosophy

text: dealing with the ideal nature of the

text: universe

text: and began employing an

text: internal logic

text: within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the

text: philosophy of science

text: , and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. Classical

text: Greek

text: and

text: Latin

text: sources frequently use the term

text: Chaldea

text: ns for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in

text: astrology

text: and other forms of

text: divination

text: The traditional orbital elements are the six Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his laws of planetary motion.

text: The traditional orbital elements are the six Keplerian elements, after

text: Johannes Kepler

text: and his

text: laws of planetary motion

text: Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier.

text: Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with

text: Ptolemy of Alexandria

text: , who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title

text: Almagest

text: , which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the

text: Renaissance

text: . In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: four centuries earlier.

text: Tantrasamgraha contains a major revision of the older Indian planetary model for the interior planets Mercury and Venus and, in the history of astronomy,  the first accurate formulation of the equation of centre for these planets. His planetary system was a partially heliocentric model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system was more accurate at predicting the heliocentric motions of the interior than the later Tychonic and Copernican models, and remained the most accurate until the 17th century when Johannes Kepler reformed the computation for the interior planets in much the same way Nilakantha did. Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model.

text: Tantrasamgraha contains a major revision of the older Indian planetary model for the interior planets

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Venus

text: and, in the history of astronomy,  the first accurate formulation of the equation of centre for these planets. His planetary system was a partially

text: heliocentric

text: model in which Mercury, Venus,

text: Mars

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: orbit the

text: Sun

text: , which in turn orbits the

text: Earth

text: , similar to the

text: Tychonic system

text: later proposed by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system was more accurate at predicting the heliocentric motions of the interior than the later Tychonic and

text: Copernican models

text: , and remained the most accurate until the 17th century when

text: Johannes Kepler

text: reformed the computation for the interior planets in much the same way Nilakantha did. Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model.

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star located in the Cygnus. It has a mass of .95 M and a radius of 1.1 R, and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun. With an effective temperature of 5680 K, it is also almost as hot as the Sun, and with a metallicity of 0, Kepler-11 is almost as metal-rich as the Sun is. Metal-rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote planetary migration, in which the planet orbits more closely to its star. However, Kepler-11 is almost 1.73 times older than the Sun, as it has an estimated age of eight billion years. Kepler-11 is 613 parsecs away from the Earth; its distance contributes to its apparent magnitude of 14.2 (V). It, thus, cannot be seen with the naked eye. Other than Kepler-11e, Kepler-11 is the host star of the planets Kepler-11b, Kepler-11c, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g, compared to its inner sister planets, orbits at a much further distance.

text: Kepler-11 is a

text: G-type star

text: located in the

text: Cygnus

text: . It has a mass of .95

text: M

text: and a radius of 1.1

text: R

text: , and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun. With an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680

text: K

text: , it is also almost as hot as the Sun, and with a

text: metallicity

text: of 0, Kepler-11 is almost as metal-rich as the Sun is. Metal-rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote

text: planetary migration

text: , in which the planet orbits more closely to its star. However, Kepler-11 is almost 1.73 times older than the Sun, as it has an estimated age of eight billion years. Kepler-11 is 613

text: parsec

text: s away from the Earth; its distance contributes to its

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 14.2 (V). It, thus, cannot be seen with the

text: naked eye

text: . Other than Kepler-11e, Kepler-11 is the host star of the planets

text: , and

text: . The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g, compared to its inner sister planets, orbits at a much further distance.

text: The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model of the early development of the universe. The most commonly held view is that the universe was once a gravitational singularity, which expanded extremely rapidly from its hot and dense state. However, while this expansion is well-modeled by the Big Bang theory, the origins of the singularity remain as one of the unsolved problems in physics.

text: The

text: Big Bang

text: theory is the prevailing

text: cosmological

text: model

text: of the early development of the

text: universe

text: . The most commonly held view is that the universe was once a

text: gravitational singularity

text: , which expanded extremely rapidly from its hot and dense state. However, while this expansion is well-modeled by the

text: Big Bang theory

text: , the origins of the singularity remain as one of the

text: unsolved problems in physics

text: For example, the theory of evolution is supported by a convergence of evidence from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, geology, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, and many other fields. In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. (As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error.) The strength of the evidence, considered together as a whole, results in the strong scientific consensus that the theory is correct. In a similar way, evidence about the history of the universe is drawn from astronomy, astrophysics, planetary geology, and physics.

text: For example, the theory of

text: evolution

text: is supported by a convergence of evidence from

text: genetics

text: molecular biology

text: paleontology

text: geology

text: biogeography

text: comparative anatomy

text: comparative physiology

text: , and many other fields. In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. (As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error.) The strength of the evidence, considered together as a whole, results in the strong scientific consensus that the theory is correct. In a similar way, evidence about the

text: history of the universe

text: is drawn from astronomy, astrophysics, planetary geology, and physics.

text: Pessimists may also make a historical point about the emergence of the various natural sciences from philosophy. In the ancient and medieval world, nearly all fields of study were considered to be parts of the discipline of philosophy. (This historical reality is still reflected in the institutions of the University, where the highest degree awarded in most academic fields is still the Ph.D., or Doctor of Philosophy.) The clearest point at which the natural sciences diverged from philosophy proper just was when they adopted paradigms for research--especially the work of Galileo and Newton in mechanics. The critical step here is for the pessimist to argue that the natural sciences separated from philosophy precisely because they adopted a paradigm--that it was in virtue of that change in their direction that they began engaging in scientific rather than philosophical studies.

text: Pessimists may also make a historical point about the emergence of the various natural sciences from philosophy. In the ancient and medieval world, nearly all fields of study were considered to be parts of the discipline of philosophy. (This historical reality is still reflected in the institutions of the University, where the highest degree awarded in most academic fields is still the

text: Ph.D.

text: , or Doctor of Philosophy.) The clearest point at which the natural sciences diverged from philosophy proper just was when they adopted paradigms for research--especially the work of Galileo and Newton in mechanics. The critical step here is for the pessimist to argue that the natural sciences separated from philosophy precisely because they adopted a paradigm--that it was in virtue of that change in their direction that they began engaging in scientific rather than philosophical studies.

text: The work of Ali Qushji (d. 1474), who worked at Samarkand and then Istanbul, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly had some influence on Nicolaus Copernicus due to similar arguments concerning the Earth's rotation. Before Qushji, the only astronomer to present empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation was Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (d. 1274), who used the phenomena of comets to refute Ptolemy's claim that a stationary Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationary on the basis of Aristotelian cosmology and natural philosophy. By the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from Islamic theologians such as Al-Ghazali who opposed to the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Qushji, in his Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true. His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent astronomical physics.

text: The work of

text: Ali Qushji

text: (d. 1474), who worked at

text: Samarkand

text: and then

text: Istanbul

text: , is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly had some influence on

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: due to similar arguments concerning the

text: Earth's rotation

text: . Before Qushji, the only astronomer to present

text: empirical evidence

text: for the Earth's rotation was

text: Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī

text: (d. 1274), who used the phenomena of

text: comet

text: s to refute

text: Ptolemy

text: 's claim that a stationary Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationary on the basis of

text: Aristotelian cosmology

text: and

text: natural philosophy

text: . By the 15th century, the influence of

text: Aristotelian physics

text: and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from

text: Islamic theologians

text: such as

text: Al-Ghazali

text: who opposed to the interference of

text: Aristotelianism

text: in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Qushji, in his Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely

text: empirical

text: and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true. His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent

text: astronomical physics

text: During the reign of the minor Austrias, Spain practically abandoned the scientific studies, seen with suspicion and continuously persecuted by the Inquisition. The delay with regard to Europe was evident at the beginning of the 18th century. Nevertheless, some intellectuals since the end of the 17th century refused to leave the investigation; not exent of risks, they were always up-to-date about the European discoveries in astronomy, medicine, mathematics or botany. These scholars are the so-called novatores ("innovating ones", contemptuously called this way). They spread the theories of Galileo Galilei, Kepler, Linnaeus or Isaac Newton. Among the novatores, Juan de Cabriada, Antonio Hugo de Omerique, Juan Caramuel, Martínez, Tosca and Corachán stand out. In the 18th century, the legacy that they left was continued by other scientists like Jorge Juan, Cosme Bueno, Antonio de Ulloa, etc.

text: During the reign of the minor Austrias, Spain practically abandoned the scientific studies, seen with suspicion and continuously persecuted by the

text: Inquisition

text: . The delay with regard to Europe was evident at the beginning of the 18th century. Nevertheless, some intellectuals since the end of the 17th century refused to leave the investigation; not exent of risks, they were always up-to-date about the European discoveries in astronomy, medicine, mathematics or botany. These scholars are the so-called novatores ("innovating ones", contemptuously called this way). They spread the theories of Galileo Galilei, Kepler, Linnaeus or Isaac Newton. Among the novatores, Juan de Cabriada, Antonio Hugo de Omerique,

text: Juan Caramuel

text: , Martínez, Tosca and Corachán stand out. In the 18th century, the legacy that they left was continued by other scientists like

text: Jorge Juan

text: , Cosme Bueno,

text: Antonio de Ulloa

text: , etc.

text: The development of astronomy by the Greek and Hellenistic astronomers is considered by historians to be a major phase in the history of astronomy. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.  Most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy, as are the names of many stars, asteroids, and planets.  It was influenced by Egyptian and especially Babylonian astronomy; in turn, it influenced Indian, Arabic-Islamic and Western European astronomy.

text: The development of astronomy by the Greek and Hellenistic astronomers is considered by historians to be a major phase in the

text: history of astronomy

text: . Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.  Most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy, as are the names of many stars, asteroids, and planets.  It was influenced by

text: Egyptian

text: and especially

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: ; in turn, it influenced

text: Indian

text: Arabic-Islamic

text: and

text: Western Europe

text: an astronomy.

text: The Sun wobbles as it rotates around the galactic center, dragging the Solar System and Earth along with it.  What mathematician Kepler did in arriving at his three famous equations was curve-fit the apparent motions of the planets using Tycho Brahe's data, and not curve-fitting their true circular motions about the Sun (see Figure).  Both Robert Hooke and Newton were well aware that Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation did not hold for the forces associated with elliptical orbits.  In fact, Newton's Universal Law does not account for the orbit of Mercury, the asteroid belt's gravitational behavior, or Saturn's rings.  Newton stated (in the 11th Section of the Principia) that the main reason, however, for failing to predict the forces for elliptical orbits was that his math model was for a body confined to a situation that  hardly existed in the real world, namely, the motions of bodies attracted toward an unmoving center.  Some present physics and astronomy textbooks don't emphasize the negative significance of Newton's assumption and end up teaching that his math model is in effect reality.  It is to be understood that the classical two-body problem solution above is a mathematical idealization.  See also Kepler's first law of planetary motion.

text: The Sun wobbles as it rotates around the galactic center, dragging the Solar System and Earth along with it.  What mathematician

text: Kepler

text: did in arriving at his three famous equations was curve-fit the apparent motions of the planets using

text: Tycho Brahe

text: 's data, and not curve-fitting their true circular motions about the Sun (see Figure).  Both

text: Robert Hooke

text: and Newton were well aware that Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation did not hold for the forces associated with elliptical orbits.  In fact, Newton's Universal Law does not account for the orbit of Mercury, the asteroid belt's gravitational behavior, or

text: Saturn's rings

text: .  Newton stated (in the 11th Section of the Principia) that the main reason, however, for failing to predict the forces for elliptical orbits was that his math model was for a body confined to a situation that  hardly existed in the real world, namely, the motions of bodies attracted toward an unmoving center.  Some present physics and astronomy textbooks don't emphasize the negative significance of Newton's assumption and end up teaching that his math model is in effect reality.  It is to be understood that the classical two-body problem solution above is a mathematical idealization.  See also

text: Kepler's first law of planetary motion

text: In 1632, at Copenhagen (Hafnia in Latin) and later reprinted at London in 1696, Petrus Bartholin published Apologia pro observationibus, et hypothesibus...Tycho Brahe...Contra...Martini Hortensii Delfensis criminationes et calumnies, quas in praefationem commentationum praeceptoris sui Philippi Lansbergii Middelburgensis, de motu terrae diurno et annuo etc. cosarcinnavit ("Defense of the Astronomical Observations and Theses of Tycho Brahe against the accusations and false claims of Martinus Hortensius of Delft, which appear in his preface of the commentary by his teacher Philip van Landsberge, who wrote on the daily and annual motion of the earth").  Van den Hove had attacked many of Tycho Brahe's claims in his preface to his Latin translation of a work by Landsbergen.  This was the Commentationes in motum terrae diurnum, & annuum (Middelburg, 1630).  The first Latin edition of Landsberge's illustrated treatise, the Commentationes taught the probability of earth’s motion according to the Copernican theory.  Van den Hove regarded Landsberge, not Tycho Brahe, as the one who was restoring astronomy.  "Only Landsberge held all ancient observations in esteem," Van den Hove wrote, "whereas Tycho, Longomontanus, and Kepler tended to neglect them."

text: In 1632, at

text: Copenhagen

text: (Hafnia in Latin) and later reprinted at

text: London

text: in 1696,

text: Petrus Bartholin

text: published Apologia pro observationibus, et hypothesibus...Tycho Brahe...Contra...Martini Hortensii Delfensis criminationes et calumnies, quas in praefationem commentationum praeceptoris sui Philippi Lansbergii Middelburgensis, de motu terrae diurno et annuo etc. cosarcinnavit ("Defense of the Astronomical Observations and Theses of Tycho Brahe against the accusations and false claims of Martinus Hortensius of Delft, which appear in his preface of the commentary by his teacher Philip van Landsberge, who wrote on the daily and annual motion of the earth").  Van den Hove had attacked many of

text: Tycho Brahe's

text: claims in his preface to his Latin translation of a work by Landsbergen.  This was the Commentationes in motum terrae diurnum, & annuum (

text: Middelburg

text: , 1630).  The first Latin edition of Landsberge's illustrated treatise, the Commentationes taught the probability of earth’s motion according to the Copernican theory.  Van den Hove regarded Landsberge, not Tycho Brahe, as the one who was restoring astronomy.  "Only Landsberge held all ancient observations in esteem," Van den Hove wrote, "whereas Tycho,

text: Longomontanus

text: , and

text: Kepler

text: tended to neglect them."

text: The expansion of space summarized by the Big Bang interpretation of Hubble's Law is relevant to the old conundrum known as Olbers' paradox: if the Universe were infinite, static, and filled with a uniform distribution of stars, then every line of sight in the sky would end on a star, and the sky would be as bright as the surface of a star. However, the night sky is largely dark. Since the 17th century, astronomers and other thinkers have proposed many possible ways to resolve this paradox, but the currently accepted resolution depends in part on the Big Bang theory and in part on the Hubble expansion. In a universe that exists for a finite amount of time, only the light of a finite number of stars has had a chance to reach us yet, and the paradox is resolved. Additionally, in an expanding universe, distant objects recede from us, which causes the light emanating from them to be redshifted and diminished in brightness.

text: The expansion of space summarized by the Big Bang interpretation of Hubble's Law is relevant to the old conundrum known as

text: Olbers' paradox

text: : if the Universe were

text: infinite

text: static

text: , and filled with a uniform distribution of

text: star

text: s, then every line of sight in the sky would end on a star, and the sky would be as

text: bright

text: as the surface of a star. However, the night sky is largely dark. Since the 17th century, astronomers and other thinkers have proposed many possible ways to resolve this paradox, but the currently accepted resolution depends in part on the

text: Big Bang

text: theory and in part on the

text: Hubble expansion

text: . In a universe that exists for a finite amount of time, only the light of a finite number of stars has had a chance to reach us yet, and the paradox is resolved. Additionally, in an expanding universe, distant objects

text: recede

text: from us, which causes the light emanating from them to be

text: redshift

text: ed and diminished in brightness.

text: The logo of OFFICINA STELLARE has its roots in the origin of observational astronomy. The star is a graphic evolution of the original star in the Pleiades originally drawn by Galileo in the Sidereus Nuncius (1610).  Those drawings were a revolution in the history of science and astronomy. The red color of the logo is the Hydrogen Alpha line color.

text: The logo of OFFICINA STELLARE has its roots in the origin of observational astronomy. The star is a graphic evolution of the original star in the Pleiades originally drawn by

text: Galileo

text: in the

text: Sidereus Nuncius

text: (1610).  Those drawings were a revolution in the history of science and astronomy. The red color of the logo is the

text: Hydrogen Alpha

text: line color.

text: The tenth Gathering of the Juggalos had the largest attendance in Gathering history with over 20,000 people. Over 120 musical artists performed at the event, including Ice Cube, Gwar, Coolio, and Scarface. During their set, Insane Clown Posse debuted the songs "Juggalo Island" and "Bang! Pow! Boom!" from their then-upcoming album Bang! Pow! Boom! Juggalo Championship Wrestling hosted Bloodymania III, Oddball Wrestling, and Flashlight Wrestling. Stand-up comedians included Jimmie Walker and Pauly Shore. The trailer for Big Money Rustlas also premiered during the event, where it was screened twice.

text: The tenth Gathering of the Juggalos had the largest attendance in Gathering history with over 20,000 people. Over 120 musical artists performed at the event, including

text: Ice Cube

text: Gwar

text: Coolio

text: , and

text: Scarface

text: . During their set, Insane Clown Posse debuted the songs "Juggalo Island" and "Bang! Pow! Boom!" from their then-upcoming album

text: Bang! Pow! Boom!

text: Juggalo Championship Wrestling hosted

text: Bloodymania III

text: , Oddball Wrestling, and Flashlight Wrestling. Stand-up comedians included

text: Jimmie Walker

text: and

text: Pauly Shore

text: . The trailer for

text: Big Money Rustlas

text: also premiered during the event, where it was screened twice.

text: The earliest known Indian astronomical work (though it is restricted to calendrical discussions) is the Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha, which is dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700–600 BCE). According to Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolomaic Greek astronomy. Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for Indian astronomy. This has been contested by Bartel Leendert van der Waerden who maintains the originality and independent development of Indian astronomy.

text: The earliest known Indian astronomical work (though it is restricted to calendrical discussions) is the

text: Vedanga Jyotisha

text: of Lagadha, which is dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700–600 BCE). According to Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolomaic Greek astronomy. Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for Indian astronomy. This has been contested by

text: Bartel Leendert van der Waerden

text: who maintains the originality and independent development of Indian astronomy.

text: Kepler used Tycho's records of the motion of Mars to deduce laws of planetary motion., enabling calculation of astronomical tables with unprecedented accuracy (the Rudolphine Tables) and providing powerful support for a heliocentric model of the solar system.

text: Kepler used Tycho's records of the motion of Mars to deduce

text: laws of planetary motion

text: ., enabling calculation of astronomical tables with unprecedented accuracy (the Rudolphine Tables) and providing powerful support for a

text: heliocentric

text: model of the

text: solar system

text: Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in ancient Greek astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sasanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, astronomy in the medieval Islamic world, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy.Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient Greek mathematics and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western) scientific revolution.

text: ancient Greek astronomy

text: , in classical

text: Indian astronomy

text: , in Sasanian,

text: Byzantine

text: and Syrian astronomy,

text: astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

text: , and in

text: Central Asia

text: n and

text: Western Europe

text: an astronomy.Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient Greek mathematics and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western)

text: scientific revolution

text: Applying these principles to the case at hand, the Court found that Lens.com's software was "merely the conduit" for its online retail sales services, and was "inextricably intertwined" with it. The Court found "no evidence" that the software had any "independent value."   It distinguished Planetary Motion because the nature of the software at issue, a webmail site called "Coolmail", was different than any "software" used by Lens.com to sell its contact lenses over the internet. In Planetary Motion, consumers associated the mark Coolmail with the software itself, whereas in Lens.com's case, consumers associated the mark LENS with the contact lens service, not the software. Thus, it concluded that Lens.com's trademark was not in "use in commerce" in association with software, thereby affirming the decision of the TTAB below to cancel the trademark.

text: Applying these principles to the case at hand, the Court found that Lens.com's software was "merely the conduit" for its online retail sales services, and was "inextricably intertwined" with it. The Court found "no evidence" that the software had any "independent value."   It distinguished Planetary Motion because the nature of the software at issue, a

text: webmail

text: site called "Coolmail", was different than any "software" used by Lens.com to sell its contact lenses over the internet. In Planetary Motion, consumers associated the mark Coolmail with the software itself, whereas in Lens.com's case, consumers associated the mark LENS with the contact lens service, not the software. Thus, it concluded that Lens.com's trademark was not in "use in commerce" in association with software, thereby affirming the decision of the TTAB below to cancel the trademark.

text: Galileo was considered the father of observational astronomy. He was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed (and correctly explained) sunspots. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe. He may have even observed the planet Neptune in 1612 and 1613, over 200 years before it was discovered, but it is unclear if he was aware of what he was looking at.

text: Galileo was considered the father of

text: observational astronomy

text: . He was among the first to use a

text: telescope

text: to observe the sky and after constructing a 20x

text: refractor telescope

text: he discovered the four largest

text: moon

text: s of

text: Jupiter

text: in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had

text: craters

text: and observed (and correctly explained)

text: sunspot

text: s. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of

text: phases

text: resembling

text: lunar phase

text: s. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe. He may have even observed the planet

text: Neptune

text: in 1612 and 1613, over 200 years before it was discovered, but it is unclear if he was aware of what he was looking at.

text: The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment, than any other, and, probably, all other, institutions. Among the Church's motives was finding the date for Easter.

text: The accidental discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 is a major development in modern physical cosmology. Although predicted by earlier theoretical work around 1950, it was first discovered accidentally by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson as they experimented with the Holmdel Horn Antenna. The discovery was important evidence for a hot early Universe (big bang theory) and was evidence against the rival steady state theory.  In 1978, Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery.

text: The accidental discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 is a major development in modern

text: physical cosmology

text: . Although predicted by earlier theoretical work around 1950, it was first discovered accidentally by American radio astronomers

text: Arno Penzias

text: and

text: Robert Woodrow Wilson

text: as they experimented with the

text: Holmdel Horn Antenna

text: . The discovery was important evidence for a hot early Universe (

text: big bang theory

text: ) and was evidence against the rival

text: steady state theory

text: .  In 1978, Penzias and Wilson were awarded the

text: Nobel Prize for Physics

text: for their joint discovery.

text: Galileo had shown that objects in free fall under the influence of the Earth’s gravitational field have a constant acceleration, and Galileo’s contemporary, Johannes Kepler, had shown that the planets follow elliptical paths under the influence of the Sun’s gravitational mass.  However, Galileo’s free fall motions and Kepler’s planetary motions remained distinct during Galileo’s lifetime.

text: Neugebauer began as a mathematician, then turned to Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics, and then took up the history of mathematical astronomy. In a career of sixty-five years, he largely created our current understanding of mathematical astronomy from Babylon and Egypt, through Greco-Roman antiquity, to India, Islam, and Europe of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. His influence on the study of the history of the exact sciences is profound.

text: Neugebauer began as a mathematician, then turned to

text: Egyptian

text: and

text: Babylonian mathematics

text: , and then took up the history of mathematical astronomy. In a career of sixty-five years, he largely created our current understanding of mathematical

text: astronomy from Babylon

text: and

text: Egypt

text: , through

text: Greco-Roman

text: antiquity,

text: to India

text: Islam

text: , and

text: Europe of the Middle Ages

text: and the

text: Renaissance

text: . His influence on the study of the history of the exact sciences is profound.

text: In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: Kepler

text: 's laws of planetary motion are three

text: scientific law

text: s describing the motion of

text: planet

text: s around the

text: Sun

text: During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

text: During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early

text: universe

text: and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the

text: philosophy of science

text: and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

text: In 1968 and 1970 Roger Penrose, Stephen Hawking, and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of general relativistic models of the Big Bang. Then, from the 1970s to the 1990s, cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems. In 1981 Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang theory with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called "inflation". Meanwhile, during these decades, two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter-density of the universe (before the discovery of dark energy, thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe). In the mid-1990s observations of certain globular clusters appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with most then-current estimates of the age of the universe (and indeed with the age measured today). This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters. While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe.

text: In 1968 and 1970

text: Roger Penrose

text: Stephen Hawking

text: , and

text: George F. R. Ellis

text: published papers where they showed that

text: mathematical singularities

text: were an inevitable initial condition of

text: general relativistic

text: models of the Big Bang. Then, from the 1970s to the 1990s, cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems. In 1981

text: Alan Guth

text: made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical

text: problems in the Big Bang theory

text: with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called "

text: inflation

text: ". Meanwhile, during these decades, two questions in

text: observational cosmology

text: that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the

text: Hubble Constant

text: and the matter-density of the universe (before the discovery of

text: dark energy

text: , thought to be the key predictor for the eventual

text: fate of the universe

text: ). In the mid-1990s observations of certain

text: globular cluster

text: s appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old, which

text: conflicted

text: with most then-current estimates of the age of the universe (and indeed with the age measured today). This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to

text: stellar wind

text: s, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters. While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe.

text: Rubin earned her BA degree in astronomy at Vassar College and attempted to enroll at Princeton but never received their graduate catalogue, as women there were not allowed in the graduate astronomy program until 1975.[4]  She instead enrolled for her Master's degree in science at Cornell University. It was here she studied physics under Philip Morrison, quantum physics under Richard Feynman, and quantum mechanics under Hans Bethe.[5] She completed her study in 1951, during which she made one of the first observations of deviations from the Hubble flow in the motions of galaxies. She argued that galaxies might be rotating around unknown centers, rather than simply moving outwards, as suggested by the Big Bang theory at that time. The presentation of these ideas was not well received. Rubin’s doctoral work at Georgetown University was conducted under advisor George Gamow.

text: Rubin earned her BA degree in astronomy at

text: Vassar College

text: and attempted to enroll at

text: Princeton

text: but never received their graduate catalogue, as women there were not allowed in the graduate astronomy program until 1975.

text: ]  She instead enrolled for her Master's degree in science at

text: Cornell University

text: . It was here she studied physics under

text: Philip Morrison

text: quantum physics

text: under

text: Richard Feynman

text: , and quantum mechanics under

text: Hans Bethe

text: ] She completed her study in 1951, during which she made one of the first observations of deviations from the

text: Hubble flow

text: in the motions of galaxies. She argued that galaxies might be rotating around unknown centers, rather than simply moving outwards, as suggested by the

text: Big Bang

text: theory at that time. The presentation of these ideas was not well received. Rubin’s doctoral work at

text: Georgetown University

text: was conducted under advisor

text: George Gamow

text: Kaplan is a writer and co-executive producer on The Big Bang Theory.

text: Kaplan is a writer and co-executive producer on

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: The true quadratic dependency of drag on velocity was experimentally proven independently by Edme Mariotte and Christiaan Huygens, both members of the Paris Academy of Sciences, in the late 17th century. Sir Isaac Newton later became the first person to theoretically derive this quadratic dependence of air resistance in the early 18th century, making him one of the first theoretical aerodynamicists.  Newton stated that drag was proportional to the dimensions of a body, the density of the fluid, and the square of the air velocity, a relationship which was demonstrated to be correct for low flow speeds, but stood in direct conflict with Galileo's earlier findings.  The discrepancy between the work of Newton, Mariotte, and Huygens, and Galileo's earlier work was not resolved until advances in viscous flow theory in the 20th century.

text: The true quadratic dependency of drag on velocity was experimentally proven independently by

text: Edme Mariotte

text: and

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: , both members of the Paris Academy of Sciences, in the late 17th century.

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: later became the first person to theoretically derive this quadratic dependence of air resistance in the early 18th century, making him one of the first theoretical aerodynamicists.  Newton stated that drag was proportional to the dimensions of a body, the density of the fluid, and the square of the air velocity, a relationship which was demonstrated to be correct for low flow speeds, but stood in direct conflict with Galileo's earlier findings.  The discrepancy between the work of Newton, Mariotte, and Huygens, and Galileo's earlier work was not resolved until advances in viscous flow theory in the 20th century.

text: ICRANet has been Organisational Associate of the International Year of Astronomy 2009 and supported the global coordination of IYA2009 financially. In this occasion ICRANet organized a series of international meetings under the general title "The Sun, the Star, the Universe and General Relativity" including: the 1st Zeldovich meeting (Minsk, Belarus), the Sobral Meeting (Fortaleza, Brazil), the 1st Galileo - Xu Guangqi meeting (Shanghai, China), the 11th Italian-Korean Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics (Seoul, South Korea), the 5th Australasian Conference - Christchurch Meeting (Christchurch, New Zealand).

text: ICRANet has been Organisational Associate of the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: 2009 and supported the global coordination of IYA2009 financially. In this occasion ICRANet organized a series of international meetings under the general title "The Sun, the Star, the Universe and General Relativity" including: the 1st Zeldovich meeting (Minsk, Belarus), the Sobral Meeting (Fortaleza, Brazil), the 1st Galileo - Xu Guangqi meeting (Shanghai, China), the 11th Italian-Korean Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics (Seoul, South Korea), the 5th Australasian Conference - Christchurch Meeting (Christchurch, New Zealand).

text: The confirmed planetary system was first detected by the Kepler mission, and contains four planets. This system was initially believed to contain two co-orbital planets orbiting the star at approximately the same orbital distance every 9.8 days, with one permanently locked 60° behind the other in one of the two Trojan Lagrangian points. The two co-orbital planets were thought to be locked in mean motion resonances with the other two planets, creating an overall 6:4:4:3 resonance. This would have been the first known example of co-orbital planets.

text: The confirmed planetary system was first detected by the Kepler mission, and contains four planets. This system was initially believed to contain two

text: co-orbital planets

text: orbiting the star at approximately the same

text: orbital distance

text: every 9.8 days, with one permanently locked 60° behind the other in one of the two

text: Trojan

text: Lagrangian point

text: s. The two co-orbital planets were thought to be locked in

text: mean motion resonance

text: s with the other two planets, creating an overall 6:4:4:3 resonance. This would have been the first known example of co-orbital planets.

text: The history of navigation is the history of seamanship, the art of directing vessels upon the open sea through the establishment of its position and course by means of traditional practice, geometry, astronomy, or special instruments. A few people have excelled as seafarers, prominent among them the Austronesians, their descendants the Malays, Micronesians, and Polynesians, the Harappans, the Phoenicians, the ancient Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the ancient Tamils, the Norse, the ancient Bengalis, the Chinese, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Hanseatic Germans, the Portuguese, the Spanish, the English, the French, the Dutch and the Danes.

text: The history of navigation is the history of

text: seamanship

text: , the art of directing

text: vessels

text: upon the open sea through the establishment of its position and course by means of traditional practice, geometry, astronomy, or special instruments. A few people have excelled as seafarers, prominent among them the

text: Austronesians

text: , their descendants the

text: Malays

text: Micronesians

text: , and

text: Polynesians

text: , the

text: Harappans

text: , the

text: Phoenicians

text: , the

text: ancient Greeks

text: , the

text: Romans

text: , the

text: Arabs

text: , the ancient

text: Tamils

text: , the

text: Norse

text: , the ancient

text: Bengalis

text: , the

text: Chinese

text: , the

text: Venetians

text: , the

text: Genoese

text: , the

text: Hanseatic Germans

text: , the

text: Portuguese

text: , the

text: Spanish

text: , the

text: English

text: , the

text: French

text: , the

text: Dutch

text: and the

text: Danes

text: Perhaps inspired by Johannes Kepler (and quoting Kepler's third law of planetary motion), Jonathan Swift's satire Gulliver's Travels (1726) refers to two moons in Part 3, Chapter 3 (the "Voyage to Laputa"), in which Laputa's astronomers are described as having discovered two satellites of Mars orbiting at distances of 3 and 5 Martian diameters with periods of 10 and 21.5 hours. The actual orbital distances of Phobos and Deimos are 1.4 and 3.5 Martian diameters, and their respective orbital periods are 7.6 and 30.3 hours. In the 20th century, V. G. Perminov, a spacecraft designer of early Soviet Mars and Venus spacecraft, speculated Swift found and deciphered records that Martians left on Earth. However, the view of most astronomers is that Swift was simply employing a common argument of the time, that as the inner planets Venus and Mercury had no satellites, Earth had one and Jupiter had four (known at the time), that Mars by analogy must have two. Furthermore, as they had not yet been discovered, it was reasoned that they must be small and close to Mars. This would lead Swift to making a roughly accurate estimate of their orbital distances and revolution periods. In addition Swift could have been helped in his calculations by his friend, the mathematician John Arbuthnot

text: Perhaps inspired by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: (and quoting

text: Kepler's third law of planetary motion

text: Jonathan Swift

text: 's satire

text: Gulliver's Travels

text: (1726) refers to two moons in Part 3, Chapter 3 (the "Voyage to

text: Laputa

text: "), in which Laputa's astronomers are described as having discovered two satellites of Mars orbiting at distances of 3 and 5 Martian diameters with periods of 10 and 21.5 hours. The actual orbital distances of Phobos and Deimos are 1.4 and 3.5 Martian diameters, and their respective orbital periods are 7.6 and 30.3 hours. In the 20th century, V. G. Perminov, a spacecraft designer of early Soviet Mars and Venus spacecraft, speculated Swift found and deciphered records that Martians left on Earth. However, the view of most astronomers is that Swift was simply employing a common argument of the time, that as the inner planets Venus and Mercury had no satellites, Earth had one and Jupiter had four (known at the time), that Mars by analogy must have two. Furthermore, as they had not yet been discovered, it was reasoned that they must be small and close to Mars. This would lead Swift to making a roughly accurate estimate of their orbital distances and revolution periods. In addition Swift could have been helped in his calculations by his friend, the mathematician

text: John Arbuthnot

text: Sites at high altitude are ideal for optical astronomy and provide optimal seeing, being above a significant portion of the Earth's atmosphere with its associated weather, turbulence, and diminished clarity. In particular, sites on mountaintops within about  of the ocean often have excellent observing conditions above a stable inversion layer throughout much of the year. High altitude sites are also above most of atmosphere's water vapor, making them ideal for infrared astronomy and submillimeter astronomy as those wavelengths are strongly absorbed by water vapor. On the other hand, high altitude does not offer as significant an advantage for radio astronomy at longer wavelengths, so relatively few radio telescopes are located at such sites. At the far end of the spectrum, for the extremely short wavelengths of x-ray and gamma ray astronomy, along with high-energy cosmic rays, high altitude observations once again offers significant advantages, enough that many experiments at these wavelengths have been conducted by balloon-borne or even by space telescopes, although a number of high-altitude ground-based sites have also been used. These include the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, which at  was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until surpassed in 2009 by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory, an optical-infrared telescope on a remote  mountaintop in Chile.

text: Sites at high altitude are ideal for

text: optical astronomy

text: and provide optimal seeing, being above a significant portion of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: with its associated weather, turbulence, and diminished clarity. In particular, sites on mountaintops within about  of the ocean often have excellent observing conditions above a stable

text: inversion layer

text: throughout much of the year. High altitude sites are also above most of atmosphere's

text: water vapor

text: , making them ideal for

text: infrared astronomy

text: and

text: submillimeter astronomy

text: as those wavelengths are strongly absorbed by water vapor. On the other hand, high altitude does not offer as significant an advantage for

text: radio astronomy

text: at longer wavelengths, so relatively few radio telescopes are located at such sites. At the far end of the spectrum, for the extremely short wavelengths of

text: x-ray

text: and

text: gamma ray astronomy

text: , along with high-energy

text: cosmic ray

text: s, high altitude observations once again offers significant advantages, enough that many experiments at these wavelengths have been conducted by balloon-borne or even by

text: space telescopes

text: , although a number of high-altitude ground-based sites have also been used. These include the

text: Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory

text: in Bolivia, which at  was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until surpassed in 2009 by the new

text: University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory

text: , an optical-infrared telescope on a remote  mountaintop in Chile.

text: Inflation resolves several problems in Big Bang cosmology that were discovered in the 1970s. Inflation was first proposed by Guth while investigating the problem of why no magnetic monopoles are seen today; he found that a positive-energy false vacuum would, according to general relativity, generate an exponential expansion of space. It was very quickly realised that such an expansion would resolve many other long-standing problems. These problems arise from the observation that to look like it does today, the Universe would have to have started from very finely tuned, or "special" initial conditions at the Big Bang. Inflation attempts to resolve these problems by providing a dynamical mechanism that drives the Universe to this special state, thus making a universe like ours much more likely in the context of the Big Bang theory.

text: Inflation resolves

text: several problems

text: in

text: Big Bang

text: cosmology that were discovered in the 1970s. Inflation was first proposed by Guth while investigating the problem of why no

text: magnetic monopoles

text: are seen today; he found that a positive-energy

text: false vacuum

text: would, according to

text: general relativity

text: , generate an exponential expansion of space. It was very quickly realised that such an expansion would resolve many other long-standing problems. These problems arise from the observation that to look like it does today, the Universe would have to have started from very

text: finely tuned

text: , or "special" initial conditions at the Big Bang. Inflation attempts to resolve these problems by providing a dynamical mechanism that drives the Universe to this special state, thus making a universe like ours much more likely in the context of the Big Bang theory.

text: The earliest sundials known from the archaeological finds are the shadow clocks (1500 BC) in ancient Egyptian astronomy and Babylonian astronomy. Much earlier obelisks, once thought to have been used also as sundials, placed at temples built in honor of a pharaoh, are now thought to serve only as a memorial. Presumably, humans were telling time from shadow-lengths at an even earlier date, but this is hard to verify.  In roughly 700 BC, the [Old Testament] describes a sundial — the "dial of Ahaz" mentioned in  and  (possibly the earliest account of a sundial that is anywhere to be found in history) — which was likely of Egyptian or Babylonian design.  Sundials are believed to have existed in China since ancient times, but very little is known of their history.There is an early reference to sundials from 104 BCE in an assembly of calendar experts.

text: The earliest sundials known from the archaeological finds are the

text: shadow clock

text: s (1500 BC) in ancient

text: Egyptian astronomy

text: and

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: . Much earlier

text: obelisks

text: , once thought to have been used also as sundials, placed at temples built in honor of a pharaoh, are now thought to serve only as a memorial. Presumably, humans were telling time from shadow-lengths at an even earlier date, but this is hard to verify.  In roughly 700 BC, the [Old Testament] describes a sundial — the "dial of Ahaz" mentioned in  and  (possibly the earliest account of a sundial that is anywhere to be found in history) — which was likely of Egyptian or Babylonian design.  Sundials are believed to have existed in China since ancient times, but very little is known of their history.There is an early reference to sundials from 104 BCE in an assembly of calendar experts.

text: "The Fish Guts Displacement" is the tenth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy television series The Big Bang Theory. The episode was originally aired on the CBS television network on December 6, 2012. The story was created by Chuck Lorre, Bill Prady, and Tara Hernandez, and turned into a teleplay by  Steven Molaro, Jim Reynolds, and Eric Kaplan. Mark Cendrowski directed the episode.

text: "The Fish Guts Displacement" is the tenth episode of the

text: sixth season

text: of the American

text: comedy

text: television series

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: . The episode was originally aired on the

text: CBS

text: television network on December 6, 2012. The story was created by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: Bill Prady

text: , and Tara Hernandez, and turned into a teleplay by

text: Steven Molaro

text: , Jim Reynolds, and

text: Eric Kaplan

text: Mark Cendrowski

text: directed the episode.

text: The first Galileo patent was filed in 1996 in the same year the first Galileo device was commercially available. The first publications the new field of whole body vibration (WBV) training in 1998 used Galileo devices. Therefore, the Galileo systems were the first available devices in the field of Whole Body Vibration training. While other devices like the biomechanical stimulation systems associated with the name of Vladimir Nazarov were concentrating on selected muscle groups, WBV devices allow a more systematic training since the user stands on the device. Side alternating vibration training is able to stimulate the leg muscles as well as the back in a close to physiological way quite similar to the human gait.

text: The first Galileo patent was filed in 1996 in the same year the first Galileo device was commercially available. The first publications the new field of

text: whole body vibration

text: (WBV) training in 1998 used Galileo devices. Therefore, the Galileo systems were the first available devices in the field of Whole Body Vibration training. While other devices like the biomechanical stimulation systems associated with the name of Vladimir Nazarov were concentrating on selected muscle groups, WBV devices allow a more systematic training since the user stands on the device. Side alternating vibration training is able to stimulate the leg muscles as well as the back in a close to physiological way quite similar to the human gait.

text: According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the Big Bang it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into helium-4 in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis).

text: According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the

text: Big Bang

text: it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into

text: in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

text: The present structure of the Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing (IAASARS) was established in March 2012, by the merging of two independent institutes of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA): The Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (IAA) and the Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing (ISARS).  IAA evolved from the old Astronomical Institute, which was founded as a discrete section of NOA in 1890, together with the Meteorological and Seismological institutes. It carried-on the tradition of ground-based observational astronomy that commenced with the construction of the Observatory of Athens in 1842, but also expanded it to modern research fields such as space observational astrophysics.  ISARS was founded in 1955, under the name Ionospheric Institute. In 1990, the Ionospheric Institute was renamed to Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research and in 1999 took the name Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing in order to reflect its expanded activities, which cover a variety of aspects of space research and applications. The location of the Institute is at the NOA campus north of Athens, on Mount Penteli, nearly 16 km from the historic site of NOA at the center of Athens across the Parthenon. The institute is supervised and supported by the General Secretariat of Research and Technology of the Greek Ministry of Education.

text: The present structure of the Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing (IAASARS) was established in March 2012, by the merging of two independent institutes of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA): The Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (IAA) and the Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing (ISARS).  IAA evolved from the old Astronomical Institute, which was founded as a discrete section of NOA in 1890, together with the Meteorological and Seismological institutes. It carried-on the tradition of ground-based observational astronomy that commenced with the construction of the Observatory of Athens in 1842, but also expanded it to modern research fields such as space observational astrophysics.

text: ISARS

text: was founded in 1955, under the name Ionospheric Institute. In 1990, the Ionospheric Institute was renamed to Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research and in 1999 took the name

text: Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing

text: in order to reflect its expanded activities, which cover a variety of aspects of space research and applications. The location of the Institute is at the NOA campus north of Athens, on

text: Mount Penteli

text: , nearly 16 km from the historic site of NOA at the center of Athens across the Parthenon. The institute is supervised and supported by the General Secretariat of Research and Technology of the Greek

text: Ministry of Education

text: In his work, Gilbert described many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. (Previously, it was thought that Polaris or a large magnetic island at the North Pole attracted the compass). Gilbert also made the claim that gravity was due to the same force and he believed that this held the Moon in orbit around the Earth. While incorrect by modern standards, this claim was still far closer to the truth than the ancient Aristotelian theory, which held that the heavenly bodies consist of a special fifth element which naturally moves in circles, while the earthly elements naturally move downward. Johannes Kepler accepted Gilbert's theory and used it as a working basis for his famous laws of planetary motion.

text: In his work, Gilbert described many of his experiments with his model Earth called the

text: terrella

text: . (Previously, it was thought that

text: Polaris

text: or a large magnetic island at the

text: North Pole

text: attracted the compass). Gilbert also made the claim that gravity was due to the same force and he believed that this held the Moon in orbit around the Earth. While incorrect by modern standards, this claim was still far closer to the truth than the ancient

text: Aristotelian

text: theory, which held that the heavenly bodies consist of a special fifth element which naturally moves in circles, while the earthly elements naturally move downward.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: accepted Gilbert's theory and used it as a working basis for his famous

text: laws of planetary motion

text: Kepler discovered the "second law" before the first.  He presented his second law in two different forms:  In Chapter 32 he states that the speed of the planet varies inversely based upon its distance from the Sun, and therefore he could measure changes in position of the planet by adding up all the distance measures, or looking at the area along an orbital arc.  This is his so-called "distance law".  In Chapter 59, he states that a radius from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. This is his so-called "area law".

text: He has been a councilor of the American Astronomical Society, and helped organize its Historical Astronomy Division. In 2000, he won their Doggett Prize for his contributions to the history of astronomy. He was awarded the Prix Jules Janssen of the French astronomical society in 2006.

text: He has been a councilor of the

text: American Astronomical Society

text: , and helped organize its Historical Astronomy Division. In 2000, he won their Doggett Prize for his contributions to the history of astronomy. He was awarded the

text: Prix Jules Janssen

text: of the French astronomical society in 2006.

text: Through much of the few minutes after the big bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed. This situation is known as the deuterium bottleneck. The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV). At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused to helium). However, very shortly thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis to occur. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the radioactive products of big bang nucleosynthesis (such as tritium) decay. The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (there are no stable nuclei with mass numbers of five or eight) meant that insignificant carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang. These elements thus required formation in stars. At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as our Sun.

text: Through much of the few minutes after the big bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed. This situation is known as the deuterium bottleneck. The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV). At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused to helium). However, very shortly thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis to occur. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the

text: radioactive

text: products of big bang nucleosynthesis (such as

text: tritium

text: ) decay. The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (there are no stable nuclei with mass numbers of five or eight) meant that insignificant carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang. These elements thus required formation in stars. At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as our Sun.

text: A cyclic model (or oscillating model) is any of several cosmological models in which the universe follows infinite, or indefinite, self-sustaining cycles. For example, the oscillating universe theory briefly considered by Albert Einstein in 1930 theorized a universe following an eternal series of oscillations, each beginning with a big bang and ending with a big crunch; in the interim, the universe would expand for a period of time before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back in and undergo a bounce.

text: A cyclic model (or oscillating model) is any of several

text: cosmological model

text: s in which the

text: universe

text: follows infinite, or indefinite, self-sustaining cycles. For example, the oscillating universe theory briefly considered by

text: Albert Einstein

text: in 1930 theorized a universe following an

text: eternal

text: series of oscillations, each beginning with a

text: big bang

text: and ending with a

text: big crunch

text: ; in the interim, the universe would

text: expand

text: for a period of time before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back in and undergo a

text: bounce

text: Essays on Philosophical Subjects, by the Scottish economist Adam Smith, is a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics.

text: Essays on Philosophical Subjects, by the

text: Scottish

text: economist

text: Adam Smith

text: , is a history of

text: astronomy

text: down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on

text: ancient physics

text: and

text: metaphysics

text: The Kepler problem and the simple harmonic oscillator problem are the two most fundamental problems in classical mechanics.  They are the only two problems that have closed orbits for every possible set of initial conditions, i.e., return to their starting point with the same velocity (Bertrand's theorem).  The Kepler problem has often been used to develop new methods in classical mechanics, such as Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, and action-angle coordinates.  The Kepler problem also conserves the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector, which has since been generalized to include other interactions.  The solution of the Kepler problem allowed scientists to show that planetary motion could be explained entirely by classical mechanics and Newton’s law of gravity; the scientific explanation of planetary motion played an important role in ushering in the Enlightenment.

text: The Kepler problem and the

text: simple harmonic oscillator

text: problem are the two most fundamental problems in

text: classical mechanics

text: .  They are the only two problems that have closed orbits for every possible set of initial conditions, i.e., return to their starting point with the same velocity (

text: Bertrand's theorem

text: ).  The Kepler problem has often been used to develop new methods in classical mechanics, such as

text: Lagrangian mechanics

text: Hamiltonian mechanics

text: , the

text: Hamilton–Jacobi equation

text: , and

text: action-angle coordinates

text: .  The Kepler problem also conserves the

text: Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector

text: , which has since been generalized to include other interactions.  The solution of the Kepler problem allowed scientists to show that planetary motion could be explained entirely by classical mechanics and

text: Newton’s law of gravity

text: ; the scientific explanation of planetary motion played an important role in ushering in the

text: Enlightenment

text: Ideas include the theory of the big bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA.

text: Ideas include the theory of the

text: big bang

text: tissue culture

text: radio astronomy

text: , and the discovery of

text: DNA

text: The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The model accounts for the fact that the universe expanded from a very high density and high temperature state, and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure and Hubble's Law. If the known laws of physics are extrapolated to the highest density regime, the result is a singularity which is typically associated with the Big Bang. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place this moment at approximately 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the universe. After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity in halos of dark matter, eventually forming the stars and galaxies visible today.

text: The Big Bang

text: theory

text: is the prevailing

text: cosmological

text: model

text: for the

text: universe

text: from the

text: earliest known periods

text: through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The model accounts for the fact that the universe

text: expanded

text: from a very high density and high temperature state, and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of

text: light element

text: s, the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: large scale structure

text: and

text: Hubble's Law

text: . If the known laws of physics are extrapolated to the highest density regime, the result is a

text: singularity

text: which is typically associated with the Big Bang. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place this moment at approximately 13.8

text: billion

text: years ago, which is thus considered the

text: age of the universe

text: . After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of

text: subatomic particle

text: s, and later simple

text: atom

text: s. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through

text: gravity

text: in halos of

text: dark matter

text: , eventually forming the

text: star

text: s and

text: galaxies

text: visible today.

text: In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town. Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre.

text: In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of

text: Timbuktu

text: in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious

text: Sankore University

text: and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the

text: Qur'an

text: , although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more

text: manuscript

text: s, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town. Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the

text: Ahmed Baba

text: centre.

text: ‘Imiloa Astronomy Center of Hawai‘i is an astronomy and culture education center located in Hilo, Hawaii.  It features exhibits and shows dealing with Hawaiian culture and history, astronomy (particularly at the Mauna Kea Observatories), and the overlap between the two.

text: ‘Imiloa Astronomy Center of Hawai‘i is an

text: astronomy

text: and culture education center located in

text: Hilo

text: Hawaii

text: .  It features exhibits and shows dealing with

text: Hawaiian

text: culture and history, astronomy (particularly at the

text: Mauna Kea Observatories

text: ), and the overlap between the two.

text: From the time of Newton until about 1890, it was generally believed that if one knows the initial state of a system with great accuracy, and if all the forces acting on the system can be formulated with equal accuracy, it would be possible, in principle, to make predictions of the state of the universe for an infinitely long time. The limits to such predictions in physical systems became clear as early as 1893 when Henri Poincaré showed that in the three-body problem in astronomy, small changes to the initial state could result in large changes in trajectories during the numerical integration of the equations.

text: From the time of

text: Newton

text: until about 1890, it was generally believed that if one knows the initial state of a system with great accuracy, and if all the forces acting on the system can be formulated with equal accuracy, it would be possible, in principle, to make predictions of the state of the universe for an infinitely long time. The limits to such predictions in physical systems became clear as early as 1893 when

text: Henri Poincaré

text: showed that in the

text: three-body problem

text: in astronomy, small changes to the initial state could result in large changes in trajectories during the numerical integration of the equations.

text: His literary activity was considerable, his most important work being a Byzantine history in thirteen books, in continuation of that of George Acropolites from 1261 (or rather 1255) to 1308, containing the history of the reigns of Michael and Andronicus II Palaeologus. Pachymeres was also the author of rhetorical exercises on philosophical themes; of a Quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy), valuable for the history of music and astronomy in the Middle Ages; a general sketch of Aristotelian philosophy; a paraphrase of the speeches and letters of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite; poems, including an autobiography; and a description of the square of the Augustaeum, and the column erected by Justinian in the church of Hagia Sophia to commemorate his victories over the Persians.

text: His literary activity was considerable, his most important work being a Byzantine history in thirteen books, in continuation of that of

text: George Acropolites

text: from 1261 (or rather 1255) to 1308, containing the history of the reigns of

text: Michael

text: and

text: Andronicus II Palaeologus

text: . Pachymeres was also the author of

text: rhetoric

text: al exercises on philosophical themes; of a

text: Quadrivium

text: (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy), valuable for the history of music and astronomy in the

text: Middle Ages

text: ; a general sketch of

text: Aristotelian

text: philosophy; a paraphrase of the speeches and letters of

text: Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite

text: ; poems, including an autobiography; and a description of the square of the

text: Augustaeum

text: , and the

text: column

text: erected by

text: Justinian

text: in the church of Hagia Sophia to commemorate his victories over the

text: Persians

text: There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic talei instead of the Ancient Greek horoscopus). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe, such as the transmission of the Tusi-couple, which later appeared in the work of Nicolaus Copernicus. Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with Sassanid and Indian astronomy through citations in some Arabic works.

text: horoscopus

text: ). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe, such as the transmission of the

text: Tusi-couple

text: , which later appeared in the work of

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: Sassanid

text: and

text: Indian astronomy

text: through citations in some Arabic works.

text: Although astronomy is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging spheres whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent growth and decay and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its goal.  Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either Fire as maintained by Plato, or Aether as maintained by Aristotle.During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as Galileo, Descartes, and Newton began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same natural laws.  Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.

text: Although astronomy is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the

text: Aristotel

text: ian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging

text: spheres

text: whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent

text: growth and decay

text: and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its goal.  Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either

text: Fire

text: as maintained by

text: Plato

text: , or

text: Aether

text: as maintained by

text: Aristotle

text: .During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as

text: Galileo

text: Descartes

text: , and

text: Newton

text: began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same

text: natural laws

text: .  Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.

text: Also, on The Big Bang Theory, Sheldon, Leonard, and Penny are seen watching Oshikuru: Demon Samurai. Oshikuru was the show for which the character Charlie Harper wrote the theme song on Two and a Half Men. Charlie Sheen made a cameo appearance in the Big Bang Theory episode "The Griffin Equivalency".

text: Also, on The Big Bang Theory, Sheldon, Leonard, and Penny are seen watching Oshikuru: Demon Samurai. Oshikuru was the show for which the character

text: Charlie Harper

text: wrote the theme song on

text: Two and a Half Men

text: Charlie Sheen

text: made a cameo appearance in the Big Bang Theory episode "The Griffin Equivalency".

text: Big Bang Theory is the fifteenth studio album by the band Styx, released in 2005. It consists of cover versions of classic rock songs.

text: Big Bang Theory is the fifteenth studio

text: album

text: by the band

text: Styx

text: , released in 2005. It consists of

text: cover version

text: s of classic rock songs.

text: As the book steps through the generations following Copernicus, the variation in application of his work is seen and finally concluding with Galileo's and then Newton's and his contemporaries. One trend is that through each generation, the discourse steps away from viewing astrology as a legitimate discipline. It is Galileo's and Newton's work that eventually distinguishes only astronomy as a mainstream scholarly discipline.

text: As the book steps through the generations following Copernicus, the variation in application of his work is seen and finally concluding with

text: Galileo

text: 's and then

text: Newton

text: 's and his contemporaries. One trend is that through each generation, the discourse steps away from viewing

text: astrology

text: as a legitimate discipline. It is Galileo's and Newton's work that eventually distinguishes only astronomy as a mainstream

text: scholarly discipline

text: Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term "inertia" to refer to his First Law.  In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by "innate forces" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration. Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton actually attributed the term "inertia" to mean "the innate force possessed by an object which resists changes in motion"; thus, Newton defined "inertia" to mean the cause of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. However, Newton's original ideas of "innate resistive force" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms. As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it is now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term "inertia" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism. Thus, ultimately, "inertia" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now considered to be equivalent.

text: On October 13, 1590, the German astronomer Michael Maestlin observed an occultation of Mars by Venus. One of his students, Johannes Kepler, quickly became an adherent to the Copernican system. After the completion of his education, Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer, Tycho Brahe. With access granted to Tycho's detailed observations of Mars, Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables. After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism, he succeeded in matching Tycho's observations by assuming the orbit was an ellipse and the Sun was located at one of the foci. His model became the basis for Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which were published in his multi-volume work Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) between 1615 and 1621.

text: On October 13, 1590, the German astronomer

text: Michael Maestlin

text: observed an

text: occultation

text: of Mars by Venus. One of his students,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , quickly became an adherent to the Copernican system. After the completion of his education, Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer,

text: Tycho Brahe

text: . With access granted to Tycho's detailed observations of Mars, Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables. After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism, he succeeded in matching Tycho's observations by assuming the orbit was an

text: ellipse

text: and the Sun was located at one of the

text: foci

text: . His model became the basis for

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: , which were published in his multi-volume work

text: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae

text: (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) between 1615 and 1621.

text: Astronomy and astrology diverged over the course of the 17th through 19th centuries. Copernicus didn't practice astrology (nor empirical astronomy; his work was theoretical), but the most important astronomers before Isaac Newton were astrologers by profession – Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei. Newton most likely rejected astrology, however (as did his contemporary Christiaan Huygens), and interest in astrology declined after his era, helped by the increasing popularity of a Cartesian, "mechanistic" cosmology in the Enlightenment.

text: Astronomy and astrology diverged over the course of the 17th through 19th centuries.

text: Copernicus

text: didn't practice astrology (nor empirical astronomy; his work was theoretical), but the most important astronomers before

text: Isaac Newton

text: were astrologers by profession –

text: Tycho Brahe

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , and

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . Newton most likely rejected astrology, however (as did his contemporary

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: ), and interest in astrology declined after his era, helped by the increasing popularity of a

text: Cartesian

text: , "mechanistic" cosmology in the

text: Enlightenment

text: The Adler Planetarium’s Astronomy department and Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy conduct and publish research for both the scientific community as well as the general public.

text: The idea was first proposed in western philosophy and Greek astronomy as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, but had  received no support from most other ancient astronomers.

text: The idea was first proposed in

text: western philosophy

text: and

text: Greek astronomy

text: as early as the 3rd century BC by

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: , but had  received no support from most other ancient astronomers.

text: The Big Bang Theory initially received mixed reviews and originally received a score of 57/100 from review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Tom Shales of The Washington Post gave the show a positive review, saying "Big Bang is the funniest new sitcom of the season". Robert Bianco of USA Today also gave the show a positive review, saying "This may not be the sitcom breakthrough for which we've all been hoping, but Lorre has produced a first episode that leaves you eager to try the second". Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times gave a mixed review, stating "It's just the same joke endlessly repeated – the everyday translated into geek-speak, and the obscure and difficult treated as if it were common knowledge". Mike Duffy of the Detroit Free Press gave a negative review, stating "This is by far the least charming—the lame, leering sitcom tales of two brainiac losers goofily smitten by the babelicious girl next door. It's about as witty as a pocket protector".

text: The Big Bang Theory initially received mixed reviews and originally received a score of 57/100 from review aggregator

text: Metacritic

text: , indicating "mixed or average reviews".

text: Tom Shales

text: of

text: The Washington Post

text: gave the show a positive review, saying "Big Bang is the funniest new sitcom of the season". Robert Bianco of

text: USA Today

text: also gave the show a positive review, saying "This may not be the sitcom breakthrough for which we've all been hoping, but Lorre has produced a first episode that leaves you eager to try the second". Robert Lloyd of the

text: Los Angeles Times

text: gave a mixed review, stating "It's just the same joke endlessly repeated – the everyday translated into geek-speak, and the obscure and difficult treated as if it were common knowledge". Mike Duffy of the

text: Detroit Free Press

text: gave a negative review, stating "This is by far the least charming—the lame, leering sitcom tales of two brainiac losers goofily smitten by the babelicious girl next door. It's about as witty as a

text: pocket protector

text: Giorgio Strano argues that the members of the Cimento, especially Galileo’s students,  continued to use a deductive approach using ancient texts to drive their selection of experiments and how the experiments were conducted. In a debate about Galileo’s discovery of the Rings of Saturn these members developed an experiment which would demonstrate that Galileo’s discovery was validated by Christiaan Huygens theory. Not only was this experiment never published but all references to the members being motivated by a desire to determine the causes of nature were stricken from published works. The patron’s desire to gain stature in society overshadowed the members desire to be thought of as Philosophers of Natural History. Thus, the patronage system the Cimento worked under created the myth that the Cimento was exclusively concerned with experimentation, when reality paints a different picture. It was only when the Cimento decided to publish their work to their European colleagues, that they decided to describe an atheoretical experimental practice.

text: Giorgio Strano argues that the members of the Cimento, especially Galileo’s students,  continued to use a deductive approach using ancient texts to drive their selection of experiments and how the experiments were conducted. In a debate about Galileo’s discovery of the

text: Rings of Saturn

text: these members developed an experiment which would demonstrate that Galileo’s discovery was validated by

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: theory. Not only was this experiment never published but all references to the members being motivated by a desire to determine the causes of nature were stricken from published works. The patron’s desire to gain stature in society overshadowed the members desire to be thought of as Philosophers of Natural History. Thus, the patronage system the Cimento worked under created the myth that the Cimento was exclusively concerned with experimentation, when reality paints a different picture. It was only when the Cimento decided to publish their work to their European colleagues, that they decided to describe an atheoretical experimental practice.

text: The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion Kelvin and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:

text: The

text: Big Bang

text: theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion

text: Kelvin

text: and photons had mean energies over a million

text: electronvolt

text: s. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:

text: Currently, the leading candidate for a theory going beyond the Big Bang is the theory of cosmic inflation. Developed by Alan Guth and others in the 1980s, inflation postulates a period of extremely rapid accelerated expansion of the universe prior to the expansion described by the standard Big Bang theory. The theory of cosmic inflation preserves the successes of the Big Bang while providing a natural explanation for some of the mysterious features of the universe. The theory has also received striking support from observations of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation that has filled the sky since around 380,000 years after the Big Bang.

text: Currently, the leading candidate for a theory going beyond the Big Bang is the theory of cosmic inflation. Developed by

text: Alan Guth

text: and others in the 1980s, inflation postulates a period of extremely rapid accelerated expansion of the universe prior to the expansion described by the standard Big Bang theory. The theory of cosmic inflation preserves the successes of the Big Bang while providing a natural explanation for some of the mysterious features of the universe. The theory has also received striking support from observations of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation that has filled the sky since around 380,000 years after the Big Bang.

text: As well as proving the heliocentric model, Newton also developed the theory of gravitation. In 1679, Newton began to consider gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Robert Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, in 1684. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.

text: As well as proving the heliocentric model, Newton also developed the

text: theory of gravitation

text: . In 1679, Newton began to consider gravitation and its effect on the orbits of

text: planet

text: s with reference to

text: Kepler's laws

text: of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with

text: Robert Hooke

text: , who had been appointed to manage the

text: Royal Society

text: 's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with

text: John Flamsteed

text: . After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force

text: inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector

text: (see

text: Newton's law of universal gravitation – History

text: and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to

text: Edmond Halley

text: and to the Royal Society in

text: De motu corporum in gyrum

text: , in 1684. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.

text: According to one version of the Big Bang theory of cosmology, in the beginning the universe was infinitely dense. Such a description seems to be at odds with everything else in physics, and especially quantum mechanics and its uncertainty principle. It is not surprising, therefore, that quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Bang theory. Also, if the universe is closed, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses it will spawn another universe in an event similar to the Big Bang after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum force causes re-expansion.

text: According to one version of the Big Bang theory of cosmology, in the beginning the universe was infinitely dense. Such a description seems to be at odds with everything else in physics, and especially quantum mechanics and its

text: uncertainty principle

text: . It is not surprising, therefore, that quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Bang theory. Also, if the universe is closed, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses it will spawn another universe in an event similar to the Big Bang after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum force causes re-expansion.

text: The table of sines may reflect the only extant version of the original table by Hipparchus, which was lost in the West,  but which underwent tradition within Indian astronomy  for at least a millennium before reaching its extant form.Because the tradition of Hellenistic astronomy was essentially stopped short in the West after the end of Late Antiquity, the Surya Siddhanta came to play an important part in the history of science, as its survival allowed  transmission of the knowledge of trigonometry into Islamic astronomy and from there back to medieval Europe by the 12th century. Surya Siddhanta was one of the two books in Sanskrit translated in Arabic in the later half of eighth century during the reign of Abbasid Khalifa Almansur, and was one of the first books to be translated during the movement for translating world heritage in Arabic.

text: The table of

text: sine

text: s may reflect the only extant version of the original table by Hipparchus, which was lost in the West,  but which underwent tradition within Indian astronomy  for at least a millennium before reaching its extant form.Because the tradition of Hellenistic astronomy was essentially stopped short in the West after the end of

text: Late Antiquity

text: , the Surya Siddhanta came to play an important part in the

text: history of science

text: , as its survival allowed  transmission of the knowledge of trigonometry into

text: Islamic astronomy

text: and from there back to medieval Europe by the 12th century. Surya Siddhanta was one of the two books in Sanskrit translated in Arabic in the later half of eighth century during the reign of Abbasid Khalifa Almansur, and was one of the first books to be translated during the movement for translating world heritage in Arabic.

text: The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had the view that all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects (such as rocks) wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens. He thought that a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed continually to propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo Galilei, however, realised that a force is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is needed to maintain its velocity. In other words, Galileo stated that, in the absence of a force, a moving object will continue moving. (The tendency of objects to resist changes in motion was what Johannes Kepler had called inertia.) This insight was refined by Newton, who made it into his first law, also known as the "law of inertia"—no force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity. As Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had already described, Newton appropriately gave credit to Galileo.

text: The ancient Greek philosopher

text: Aristotle

text: had the view that all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects (such as rocks) wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens. He thought that a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed continually to propel it, otherwise it would stop moving.

text: Galileo Galilei

text: , however, realised that a force is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is needed to maintain its velocity. In other words, Galileo stated that, in the absence of a force, a moving object will continue moving. (The tendency of objects to resist changes in motion was what

text: Johannes Kepler

text: had called inertia.) This insight was refined by Newton, who made it into his first law, also known as the "law of inertia"—no force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity. As Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had already described, Newton appropriately gave credit to Galileo.

text: In the years from 1899 to 1922, de Saussure published dozens of articles, especially in the Paris journal T'oung Pao, the leading outlet for sinology in Europe. The subjects included ancient Chinese astronomy, calendars, zodiac, as well as the influence of ancient middle-eastern cultures on China. He argued, however, that Chinese astronomy influenced Babylonian astronomy in the face of those who assumed that China must have been influenced from the outside. A group of these articles were reprinted after his death.

text: In the years from 1899 to 1922, de Saussure published dozens of articles, especially in the Paris journal

text: T'oung Pao

text: , the leading outlet for sinology in Europe. The subjects included ancient Chinese astronomy, calendars, zodiac, as well as the influence of ancient middle-eastern cultures on China. He argued, however, that Chinese astronomy influenced Babylonian astronomy in the face of those who assumed that China must have been influenced from the outside. A group of these articles were reprinted after his death.

text: Galileo did not fully grasp the third law of motion, the law of the equality of action and reaction, though he corrected some errors of Aristotle. With Stevin and others Galileo also wrote on statics. He formulated the principle of the parallelogram of forces, but he did not fully recognize its scope.

text: One of the earliest Indian writings on astronomy and astrology (although not the earliest, as the Vedanga Jyotisha is dated to around 135 BCE), titled the Yavanajataka or "The Saying of the Greeks", is a translation from Greek to Sanskrit made by "Yavanesvara" ("Lord of the Greeks") in 149–150 CE under the rule of the Western Kshatrapa king Rudrakarman I. The Yavanajataka contains instructions on calculating astrological charts (horoscopes) from the time and place of one's birth. Astrology flourished in the Hellenistic world (particularly Alexandria) and the Yavanajataka reflects astrological techniques developed in the Greek-speaking world. Various astronomical and mathematical methods, such as the calculation of the 'horoskopos' (the zodiac sign on the eastern horizon), were used in the service of astrology.

text: One of the earliest Indian writings on astronomy and astrology (although not the earliest, as the

text: Vedanga Jyotisha

text: is dated to around 135 BCE), titled the

text: Yavanajataka

text: or "The Saying of the Greeks", is a translation from Greek to Sanskrit made by "

text: Yavanesvara

text: " ("Lord of the Greeks") in 149–150 CE under the rule of the

text: Western Kshatrapa

text: king

text: Rudrakarman I

text: . The Yavanajataka contains instructions on calculating astrological charts (horoscopes) from the time and place of one's birth. Astrology flourished in the Hellenistic world (particularly Alexandria) and the Yavanajataka reflects astrological techniques developed in the Greek-speaking world. Various astronomical and mathematical methods, such as the calculation of the 'horoskopos' (the zodiac sign on the eastern horizon), were used in the service of astrology.

text: Astrology was widely accepted in medieval Europe as astrological texts from Hellenistic and Arabic astrologers were translated into Latin. In the late Middle Ages, its acceptance or rejection often depended on its reception in the royal courts of Europe. Not until the time of Francis Bacon was astrology rejected as a part of scholastic metaphysics rather than empirical observation. A more definitive split between astrology and astronomy in the West took place gradually in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when astrology was increasingly thought of as an occult science or superstition by the intellectual elite. Because of their lengthy shared history, it sometimes happens that the two are confused with one another even today. Many contemporary astrologers, however, do not claim that astrology is a science, but think of it as a form of divination like the I-Ching, an art, or a part of a spiritual belief structure (influenced by trends such as Neoplatonism, Neopaganism, Theosophy, and Hinduism).

text: Astrology was widely accepted in

text: medieval Europe

text: as astrological texts from Hellenistic and

text: Arabic astrologers

text: were

text: translated into Latin

text: . In the

text: late Middle Ages

text: , its acceptance or rejection often depended on its reception in the royal courts of Europe. Not until the time of

text: Francis Bacon

text: was astrology rejected as a part of scholastic metaphysics rather than empirical observation. A more definitive split between astrology and astronomy in the West took place gradually in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when astrology was increasingly thought of as an occult science or superstition by the intellectual elite. Because of their lengthy shared history, it sometimes happens that the two are confused with one another even today. Many contemporary astrologers, however, do not claim that astrology is a science, but think of it as a form of divination like the

text: I-Ching

text: , an art, or a part of a spiritual belief structure (influenced by trends such as

text: Neoplatonism

text: Neopaganism

text: Theosophy

text: , and

text: Hinduism

text: After the prologue come seven long poems, each of which depicts salient episodes in the career of a major scientist, so as to bring out both the "intensely human drama" ("Prefatory Note") of his life and his contribution to astronomy. Noyes' seven scientists are Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and William and John Herschel – though due mention is also made of the contribution of Caroline Herschel, sister to William and aunt to John. In the epilogue, Noyes meditates once more upon the mountain in the morning, before bringing his narrative to a close in the form of a prayer.

text: After the prologue come seven long poems, each of which depicts salient episodes in the career of a major scientist, so as to bring out both the "intensely human drama" ("Prefatory Note") of his life and his contribution to astronomy. Noyes' seven scientists are

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: Tycho Brahe

text: Johannes Kepler

text: Galileo Galilei

text: Isaac Newton

text: , and

text: William

text: and

text: John Herschel

text: – though due mention is also made of the contribution of

text: Caroline Herschel

text: , sister to William and aunt to John. In the epilogue, Noyes meditates once more upon the mountain in the morning, before bringing his narrative to a close in the form of a prayer.

text: Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation of the Arabic version of Ptolemy’s Almagest made c. 1175 was the most widely known in Western Europe before the Renaissance. Unbeknownst to Gerard, an earlier  translation of the Almagest had already been made in Sicily from the original Greek c. 1160 under the aegis of Henricus Aristippus, although this version was not as widely used in the Middle Ages as Gerard's version. George of Trebizond and then Johannes Regiomontanus retranslated it from the Greek original in the fifteenth century. The Almagest formed the basis for Western astronomy until it was eclipsed by the theories of Copernicus.

text: Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation of the Arabic version of Ptolemy’s

text: Almagest

text: made c. 1175 was the most widely known in

text: Western Europe

text: before the Renaissance. Unbeknownst to Gerard, an earlier  translation of the Almagest had already been made in Sicily from the original Greek c. 1160 under the aegis of

text: Henricus Aristippus

text: , although this version was not as widely used in the Middle Ages as Gerard's version.

text: George of Trebizond

text: and then

text: Johannes Regiomontanus

text: retranslated it from the Greek original in the fifteenth century. The Almagest formed the basis for Western

text: astronomy

text: until it was eclipsed by the theories of

text: Copernicus

text: While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes.

text: While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion

text: square root

text: method passed down from

text: Fibonacci

text: and

text: Archimedes

text: . The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the

text: Eudoxian theory of proportion

text: , as set forth in the fifth book of

text: Euclid's Elements

text: . This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by

text: Tartaglia

text: and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of

text: Descartes

text: Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme

entity_name: Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme

text: "The Egg Salad Equivalency" is the twelfth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy television series The Big Bang Theory. The episode was originally aired the CBS television network on January 3, 2013. The story was created by Chuck Lorre, Eric Kaplan and Jim Reynolds, then turned into teleplay by Steven Molaro, Bill Prady and Steve Holland. Mark Cendrowski directed the episode.

text: "The Egg Salad Equivalency" is the twelfth episode of the

text: sixth season

text: of the American

text: comedy

text: television series

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: . The episode was originally aired the

text: CBS

text: television network on January 3, 2013. The story was created by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: Eric Kaplan

text: and Jim Reynolds, then turned into teleplay by

text: Steven Molaro

text: Bill Prady

text: and

text: Steve Holland

text: Mark Cendrowski

text: directed the episode.

text: In 2014 the pupils of Gowran NS made their own piece of history. The 6th class students were the first students from the school to take part in the Primary Schools BT Young Scientist Exhibition held in the RDS Dublin. The young students were following in the footsteps of Galileo and Newton. Their project was based on theories of gravity, air resistance, shock absorption and cushioning.

text: In 2014 the pupils of Gowran NS made their own piece of history. The 6th class students were the first students from the school to take part in the Primary Schools BT Young Scientist Exhibition held in the RDS Dublin. The young students were following in the footsteps of

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Newton

text: . Their project was based on theories of gravity, air resistance, shock absorption and cushioning.

text: Showrunner Steve Molaro, who took over from Bill Prady with the sixth season, credits some of the show's success to the sitcom's exposure in off-network syndication, particularly on TBS, while Michael Schneider of TV Guide attributes it to the timeslot move two seasons earlier. Chuck Lorre and CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler also credit the success to the influence of Molaro, in particular the deepening exploration of the firmly established regular characters and their interpersonal relationships, such as the on-again, off-again relationship between Leonard and Penny. Throughout much of the 2012–13 season, The Big Bang Theory placed first in all of syndication ratings, receiving formidable competition from only Judge Judy and Wheel of Fortune (first-run syndication programs). By the end of the 2012–13 television season, The Big Bang Theory had dethroned Judge Judy as the ratings leader in all of syndicated programming with 7.1, Judy descending to second place for that season with a 7.0. The Big Bang Theory did not place first in syndication ratings for the 2013–14 television season, beaten out by Judge Judy.

text: Showrunner Steve Molaro, who took over from Bill Prady with the sixth season, credits some of the show's success to the sitcom's exposure in

text: off-network syndication

text: , particularly on

text: TBS

text: , while Michael Schneider of

text: TV Guide

text: attributes it to the timeslot move two seasons earlier. Chuck Lorre and CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler also credit the success to the influence of Molaro, in particular the deepening exploration of the firmly established regular characters and their interpersonal relationships, such as the on-again, off-again relationship between Leonard and Penny. Throughout much of the 2012–13 season, The Big Bang Theory placed first in all of syndication ratings, receiving formidable competition from only

text: Judge Judy

text: and

text: Wheel of Fortune

text: first-run syndication

text: programs). By the end of the 2012–13 television season, The Big Bang Theory had dethroned Judge Judy as the ratings leader in all of syndicated programming with 7.1, Judy descending to second place for that season with a 7.0. The Big Bang Theory did not place first in syndication ratings for the 2013–14 television season, beaten out by Judge Judy.

text: The programming block's name is a portmanteau of The Big Bang Theory, the American sitcom from CBS that will play during the block, and Hockey Night In Canada, a show that airs on CBC Television during that same time block.  Due to the NHL strike, CBC is only broadcasting previous games instead of those of the now-cancelled 2012-2013 season.  Likewise, Big Bang Night in Canada also plays reruns of previous episodes.  Unlike Hockey Night, new Big Bang episodes do play every Thursday at 8 ET/PT, but they are not branded as Big Bang Night.

text: The programming block's name is a portmanteau of

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: , the American sitcom from

text: CBS

text: that will play during the block, and

text: Hockey Night In Canada

text: , a show that airs on

text: CBC Television

text: during that same time block.  Due to the NHL strike, CBC is only broadcasting previous games instead of those of the now-cancelled 2012-2013 season.  Likewise, Big Bang Night in Canada also plays reruns of previous episodes.  Unlike Hockey Night, new Big Bang episodes do play every Thursday at 8 ET/PT, but they are not branded as Big Bang Night.

text: The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.

text: The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. In 1741

text: Pope Benedict XIV

text: authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the

text: Index of prohibited books

text: , although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.

text: During the Middle Ages, there was frequently an exchange of works between Byzantine and Islamic science. The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with Ancient and early Medieval Greek texts on astronomy, mathematics and philosophy for translation into Arabic as the Byzantine Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region at the beginning of the Middle Ages. Later as the Caliphate and other medieval Islamic cultures became the leading centers of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as Gregory Choniades, who had visited the famous Maragheh observatory, translated books on Islamic astronomy, mathematics and science into Medieval Greek, including for example the works of Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn Yunus, Al-Khazini (who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (such as the Zij-i Ilkhani and other Zij treatises) among others.

text: During the Middle Ages, there was frequently an exchange of works between Byzantine and

text: Islamic science

text: . The Byzantine Empire initially provided the

text: medieval Islamic world

text: with

text: Ancient

text: and early

text: Medieval

text: Greek texts on

text: astronomy

text: mathematics

text: and

text: philosophy

text: for translation into

text: Arabic

text: as the Byzantine Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region at the beginning of the Middle Ages. Later as the

text: Caliphate

text: and other

text: medieval Islamic cultures

text: became the leading centers of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as

text: Gregory Choniades

text: , who had visited the famous

text: Maragheh observatory

text: , translated books on

text: Islamic astronomy

text: mathematics

text: and science into

text: Medieval Greek

text: , including for example the works of

text: Ibn Yunus

text: Al-Khazini

text: (who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture),

text: Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī

text: and

text: Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī

text: (such as the

text: Zij-i Ilkhani

text: and other

text: Zij

text: treatises) among others.

text: After a three-year hiatus, Big Bang made their comeback by releasing special "project singles" for their album Made: "M," "A," "D," and "E."  The first single, "M" (May 2015), included the two songs "Loser" and "Bae Bae," with the former charting at No. 1 and the latter at No. 2 on Billboard's World Digital Songs chart, the second Korean act to do so after labelmate Psy for his songs "Gangnam Style" and "Gentleman." At the 13th Korean Music Awards, "Bae Bae" won Best Pop Song and Song of the Year.  The following month saw the release of "A" (June 2015).  Its two songs, "Bang Bang Bang" and "We Like 2 Party," also went on to occupy the number one and two positions on Billboard's World Digital Chart. On the music video charts of QQ Music, "Bang Bang Bang" and "We Like 2 Party" held the No. 1 and No. 2, while "Loser" and "Bae Bae" occupied the No. 3 and 6 positions. On June 25, the special project exceeded 100 million views on YouTube. "Bang Bang Bang" later won International Song of The Summer on MTV IGGY.  "D" (July 2015) contained "If You" and "Sober." On the music video charts of QQ Music, "Sober" took the number one position surpassing "Bang Bang Bang." (The group did not release a music video for "If You.") "If You" and "Sober" landed on Billboard's World Digital Chart with "If You" at number two and "Sober" at number three. That same month, Big Bang broke 200 million views for the "M," "A," and "D" music videos.  The strings of singles concluded with "E" (August 2015), with the songs "Zutter" (featuring the subunit of GD & TOP) and "Let’s Not Fall In Love." The latter debuted at number one on the Gaon Singles Chart as well as peaked at number one on Billboard World Digital Songs chart.  The combined sales of the singles have accumulated to over 15 million copies throughout Asia. To promote their singles, Big Bang commenced the critically acclaim and commercially successful MADE World Tour.  Kicking off with two shows in Seoul on April 25 and 26, the tour gathered 1.5 million fans around the world, making it the largest tour by any Korean act. By the end of the year, Big Bang earned over ₩140 billion (USD$120 million).

text: After a three-year hiatus, Big Bang made their comeback by releasing special "project singles" for their album Made: "

text: M

text: A

text: D

text: ," and "

text: E

text: ."  The first single, "M" (May 2015), included the two songs "

text: Loser

text: " and "

text: Bae Bae

text: ," with the former charting at No. 1 and the latter at No. 2 on Billboard's World Digital Songs chart, the second Korean act to do so after labelmate

text: Psy

text: for his songs "

text: Gangnam Style

text: " and "

text: Gentleman

text: ." At the

text: 13th Korean Music Awards

text: , "Bae Bae" won Best Pop Song and Song of the Year.  The following month saw the release of "A" (June 2015).  Its two songs, "

text: Bang Bang Bang

text: " and "

text: We Like 2 Party

text: ," also went on to occupy the number one and two positions on Billboard's World Digital Chart. On the music video charts of

text: QQ Music

text: , "Bang Bang Bang" and "We Like 2 Party" held the No. 1 and No. 2, while "Loser" and "Bae Bae" occupied the No. 3 and 6 positions. On June 25, the special project exceeded 100 million views on YouTube. "Bang Bang Bang" later won International Song of The Summer on MTV IGGY.  "D" (July 2015) contained "

text: If You

text: " and "

text: Sober

text: ." On the music video charts of QQ Music, "Sober" took the number one position surpassing "Bang Bang Bang." (The group did not release a music video for "If You.") "If You" and "Sober" landed on Billboard's World Digital Chart with "If You" at number two and "Sober" at number three. That same month, Big Bang broke 200 million views for the "M," "A," and "D" music videos.  The strings of singles concluded with "E" (August 2015), with the songs "

text: Zutter

text: " (featuring the subunit of GD & TOP) and "

text: Let’s Not Fall In Love

text: ." The latter debuted at number one on the

text: Gaon Singles Chart

text: as well as peaked at number one on

text: Billboard

text: World Digital Songs chart.  The combined sales of the singles have accumulated to over 15 million copies throughout Asia. To promote their singles, Big Bang commenced the critically acclaim and commercially successful

text: MADE World Tour

text: .  Kicking off with two shows in Seoul on April 25 and 26, the tour gathered 1.5 million fans around the world, making it the largest tour by any Korean act. By the end of the year, Big Bang earned over ₩140 billion (USD$120 million).

text: The Scientific Revolution was a period when European ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other classical sciences were rejected and led to doctrines supplanting those that had prevailed from Ancient Greece to the Middle Ages which would lead to a transition to modern science. This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Individuals started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the Scientific Revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of contemporary sciences and the establishment of several modern scientific fields.

text: The Scientific Revolution was a period when European ideas in

text: classical physics

text: astronomy

text: biology

text: human anatomy

text: chemistry

text: , and other

text: classical science

text: s were rejected and led to doctrines supplanting those that had prevailed from

text: Ancient Greece

text: to the Middle Ages which would lead to a transition to

text: modern science

text: . This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: , and

text: biology

text: , in institutions supporting

text: scientific investigation

text: , and in the more

text: widely held picture of the universe

text: . Individuals started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the Scientific Revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of contemporary sciences and the establishment of several modern scientific fields.

text: Sir Hermann Bondi  (1 November 1919 – 10 September 2005) was an Anglo-Austrian mathematician and cosmologist. He is best known for developing the Steady State theory of the universe with Fred Hoyle and Thomas Gold as an alternative to the Big Bang theory. He contributed to the theory of general relativity.

text: Sir Hermann Bondi  (1 November 1919 – 10 September 2005) was an

text: Anglo

text: Austria

text: n

text: mathematician

text: and

text: cosmologist

text: . He is best known for developing the

text: Steady State theory

text: of the universe with

text: Fred Hoyle

text: and

text: Thomas Gold

text: as an alternative to the

text: Big Bang

text: theory. He contributed to the theory of

text: general relativity

text: The intellectual climate of the time "remained dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and the corresponding Ptolemaic astronomy. At that time there was no reason to accept the Copernican theory, except for its mathematical simplicity [by avoiding using the equant in determining planetary positions]." Tycho Brahe's system ("that the earth is stationary, the sun revolves about the earth, and the other planets revolve about the sun") also directly competed with Copernicus's. It was only a half century later with the work of Kepler and Galileo that any substantial evidence defending Copernicanism appeared, starting "from the time when Galileo formulated the principle of inertia...[which] helped to explain why everything would not fall off the earth if it were in motion."   "[Not until] after Isaac Newton formulated the universal law of gravitation and the laws of mechanics [in his 1687 Principia], which unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, was the heliocentric view generally accepted."

text: The intellectual climate of the time "remained dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and the corresponding Ptolemaic astronomy. At that time there was no reason to accept the Copernican theory, except for its mathematical simplicity [by avoiding using the

text: equant

text: in determining planetary positions]." Tycho Brahe's system ("that the earth is stationary, the sun revolves about the earth, and the other planets revolve about the sun") also directly competed with Copernicus's. It was only a half century later with the work of Kepler and Galileo that any substantial evidence defending Copernicanism appeared, starting "from the time when Galileo formulated the principle of inertia...[which] helped to explain why everything would not fall off the earth if it were in motion."   "[Not until] after

text: Isaac Newton

text: formulated the universal law of gravitation and the laws of mechanics [in his 1687

text: Principia

text: ], which unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, was the heliocentric view generally accepted."

text: Kepler-10b, Kepler-20b, Kepler-36b, Kepler-48d, Kepler 68c, Kepler-78b, Kepler-89b, Kepler-93b, Kepler-97b, Kepler-99b, Kepler-100b, Kepler-101c, Kepler-102b, Kepler-102d, Kepler-113b, Kepler-131b, Kepler-131c, Kepler-138c, Kepler-406b, Kepler-406c, Kepler-409b.

text: Kepler 68c

text: In 2012, Sullivan received the LeRoy E. Doggett Prize from the American Astronomical Society's Historical Astronomy Division for his career contributions to the field of the history of astronomy, in particular his work on the history of early radio astronomy, culminating in his book Cosmic Noise: A History of Early Radio Astronomy (2009).

text: Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historic astronomical data. The American Astronomical Society (AAS), established 1899, states that its Historical Astronomy Division "...shall exist for the purpose of advancing interest in topics relating to the historical nature of astronomy. By historical astronomy we include the history of astronomy; what has come to be known as archaeoastronomy; and the application of historical records to modern astrophysical problems."  Historical and ancient observations are used to track theoretically long term trends, such as eclipse patterns and the velocity of nebular clouds.  Conversely, utilizing known and well documented phenomenological activity, historical astronomers and apply computer models to verify the validity of ancient observations, as well as dating such observations and documents which would otherwise be unknown.

text: Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historic

text: astronomical

text: data. The

text: American Astronomical Society

text: (AAS), established 1899, states that its Historical Astronomy Division "...shall exist for the purpose of advancing interest in topics relating to the historical nature of astronomy. By historical astronomy we include the

text: history of astronomy

text: ; what has come to be known as

text: archaeoastronomy

text: ; and the application of historical records to modern

text: astrophysical

text: problems."  Historical and ancient observations are used to track theoretically long term trends, such as eclipse patterns and the velocity of nebular clouds.  Conversely, utilizing known and well documented phenomenological activity, historical astronomers and apply computer models to verify the validity of ancient observations, as well as

text: dating

text: such observations and documents which would otherwise be unknown.

text: Osler's work concentrated on the history and context of the scientific revolution and the relation of early modern science to religion.  Her work includes writings on Locke, Galileo, Descartes, Boyle, Newton, and Gassendi.

text: Osler's work concentrated on the history and context of the

text: scientific revolution

text: and the relation of early modern science to religion.  Her work includes writings on

text: Locke

text: Galileo

text: Descartes

text: Boyle

text: Newton

text: , and

text: Gassendi

text: After a two-year hiatus in South Korea, Big Bang reunited in 2011 with their EP Tonight (2011). Promotions were cut short when multiple members encountered legal issues. By the end of the year, Big Bang emerged as the inaugural Best Worldwide Act winner at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards. Three months after their win in Europe, Big Bang released their most successful physical album, the Korean EP Alive (2012), which won them their second Artist of the Year Award at the 14th Mnet Asian Music Awards. Alive became the first Korean album to chart on the Billboard 200, with the group embarking on their first ever world tour that concluded in early 2013. In 2015, after a three-year hiatus, Big Bang made their highly anticipated comeback in their native country with the release of four singles, "M", "A", "D", and "E", to precede their third Korean studio album, Made, released in 2016. Their singles were met with critical and commercial success, netting in sales of over 15 million copies throughout Asia and winning the group their third Artist of the Year Award at the 17th Mnet Asian Music Awards.

text: After a two-year hiatus in South Korea, Big Bang reunited in 2011 with their EP

text: Tonight

text: (2011). Promotions were cut short when multiple members encountered legal issues. By the end of the year, Big Bang emerged as the inaugural

entity_name: MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act

text: Best Worldwide Act

text: winner at the

text: 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards

text: . Three months after their win in Europe, Big Bang released their most successful physical album, the Korean EP

text: Alive

text: (2012), which won them their second

entity_name: Mnet Asian Music Award for Artist of the Year

text: Artist of the Year Award

text: at the

text: 14th Mnet Asian Music Awards

text: . Alive became the first Korean album to chart on the

text: Billboard 200

text: , with the group embarking on their

text: first ever world tour

text: that concluded in early 2013. In 2015, after a three-year hiatus, Big Bang made their highly anticipated comeback in their native country with the release of four singles, "

text: M

text: A

text: D

text: ", and "

text: E

text: ", to precede their third Korean studio album,

text: Made

text: , released in 2016. Their singles were met with critical and commercial success, netting in sales of over 15 million copies throughout Asia and winning the group their third Artist of the Year Award at the

text: 17th Mnet Asian Music Awards

text: Johannes Kepler publishes his New Astronomy. In this and later works, he announces his three laws of planetary motion, replacing the circular orbits of Plato with elliptical ones. Almanacs based on his laws prove to be highly accurate.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: publishes his

text: New Astronomy

text: . In this and later works, he announces his

text: three laws of planetary motion

text: , replacing the circular orbits of Plato with

text: elliptical

text: ones.

text: Almanacs

text: based on his laws prove to be highly accurate.

text: History of astronomy

text: History of astronomy

text: Scientific theories of the Big Bang and ideas about the Universe being created out of nothingness resembles those expressed in Kabbalah. "One reads Stephen Hawking's Brief History of Time, perhaps a sign of things to come, and the affinities with Kabbalah are striking."Kenneth Hanson sees similarity in the Kabbalistic idea that Hebrew letters were the material of which the Universe was built and Stephen Hawking's explanation why Albert Einstein's Theory of relativity will break down at some point that he called the "singularity". Hanson says that although Hebrew letters have shapes they are actually made out of nothing, as well as the singularity of the Big Bang. Hanson also argues that the singularity of Black holes could be compared to Kabbalistic "spheres of nothing", as it was written in an early Kabbalistic text Sefer Yetzirah: "For that which is light is not-darkness, and that which is darkness is not-light."

text: Scientific theories of the

text: Big Bang

text: and ideas about the

text: Universe

text: being created out of nothingness resembles those expressed in Kabbalah. "One reads Stephen Hawking's Brief History of Time, perhaps a sign of things to come, and the affinities with Kabbalah are striking."Kenneth Hanson sees similarity in the Kabbalistic idea that

text: Hebrew

text: letters were the material of which the Universe was built and

text: Stephen Hawking

text: 's explanation why

text: Albert Einstein

text: 's

text: Theory of relativity

text: will break down at some point that he called the "

text: singularity

text: ". Hanson says that although Hebrew letters have shapes they are actually made out of nothing, as well as the singularity of the Big Bang. Hanson also argues that the singularity of

text: Black holes

text: could be compared to Kabbalistic "spheres of nothing", as it was written in an early Kabbalistic text Sefer Yetzirah: "For that which is light is not-darkness, and that which is darkness is not-light."

text: Since the acceptance of the Big Bang theory as the dominant physical cosmological paradigm, there have been a variety of reactions by some religious groups as to its implications for their respective religious cosmologies. Some accept the scientific evidence at face value, some seek to harmonize the Big Bang with their religious tenets, and some reject or ignore the evidence for the Big Bang theory.

text: Since the acceptance of the

text: Big Bang theory

text: as the dominant

text: physical cosmological paradigm

text: , there have been a variety of reactions by some religious groups as to its implications for their respective

text: religious cosmologies

text: . Some accept the scientific evidence at face value, some seek to harmonize the Big Bang with their religious tenets, and some reject or ignore the evidence for the Big Bang theory.

text: However, for his contemporaries, the ideas presented by Copernicus were not markedly easier to use than the geocentric theory and did not produce more accurate predictions of planetary positions. Copernicus was aware of this and could not present any observational "proof", relying instead on arguments about what would be a more complete and elegant system. The Copernican model appeared to be contrary to common sense and to contradict the Bible. Tycho Brahe's arguments against Copernicus are illustrative of the physical, theological, and even astronomical grounds on which heliocentric cosmology was rejected.  Tycho, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, appreciated the elegance of the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, but could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort of substance called aether that moved naturally.  So Tycho said that the Copernican system “... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that.” Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Copernicus had assumed in order to explain why the Earth's motion produced no visible changes in the appearance of the fixed stars (known as annual stellar parallax). Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory – see stellar magnitude), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (the size of Earth's orbit or larger, and thus much larger than the sun). Regarding this Tycho wrote, “Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference.” He said his Tychonic system, which incorporated Copernican features into a geocentric system, “offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture”. Thus many astronomers accepted some aspects of Copernicus's theory at the expense of others.  His model did have a large influence on later scientists such as Galileo and Johannes Kepler, who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of de Revolutionibus, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.

text: However, for his contemporaries, the ideas presented by Copernicus were not markedly easier to use than the geocentric theory and did not produce more accurate predictions of planetary positions. Copernicus was aware of this and could not present any observational "proof", relying instead on arguments about what would be a more complete and elegant system. The Copernican model appeared to be contrary to common sense and to contradict the Bible. Tycho Brahe's arguments against Copernicus are illustrative of the physical, theological, and even astronomical grounds on which heliocentric cosmology was rejected.  Tycho, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, appreciated the elegance of the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The

text: Aristotelian physics

text: of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, but could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort of substance called

text: aether

text: that moved naturally.  So Tycho said that the Copernican system “... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that.” Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Copernicus had assumed in order to explain why the Earth's motion produced no visible changes in the appearance of the fixed stars (known as annual

text: stellar parallax

text: ). Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory – see stellar

text: magnitude

text: ), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (the size of Earth's orbit or larger, and thus much larger than the sun). Regarding this Tycho wrote, “Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference.” He said his

text: Tychonic system

text: , which incorporated Copernican features into a geocentric system, “offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture”. Thus many astronomers accepted some aspects of Copernicus's theory at the expense of others.  His model did have a large influence on later scientists such as

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of de Revolutionibus, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.

text: Around 1815 James Calvert was Rector of the Grammar School. John Rintoul taught Reading and Grammar, James Norval taught Grammar and Geography, Robert Baird and William Beattie taught Writing and Arithmetic, and Robert Munro taught Drawing. As was commonly practiced at the time, James Calvert had 20-30 pupils boarding in his house between 1815 and 1820. The first rector of Montrose Academy after it was formally established is said to have been called Johnston. John Pringle Nichol was Rector from 1828 to 1834 and was qualified to teach Classical Literature, English Literature, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Geography, History, Natural History, Geology, Astronomy, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Anatomy, Physiology, Animal Mechanics, Moral Philosophy and Political Economy. He was later appointed Professor of Astronomy at the University of Glasgow in 1836, finding fame through his essays and lectures.

text: Around 1815 James Calvert was

text: Rector

text: of the Grammar School. John Rintoul taught Reading and Grammar, James Norval taught Grammar and

text: Geography

text: , Robert Baird and William Beattie taught Writing and Arithmetic, and Robert Munro taught Drawing. As was commonly practiced at the time, James Calvert had 20-30 pupils boarding in his house between 1815 and 1820. The first rector of Montrose Academy after it was formally established is said to have been called Johnston.

text: John Pringle Nichol

text: was Rector from 1828 to 1834 and was qualified to teach Classical Literature,

text: English Literature

text: , French,

text: German

text: Italian

text: , Spanish,

text: Geography

text: History

text: Natural History

text: Geology

text: Astronomy

text: Chemistry

text: Natural Philosophy

text: Anatomy

text: Physiology

text: , Animal Mechanics,

text: Moral Philosophy

text: and

text: Political Economy

text: . He was later appointed Professor of

text: Astronomy

text: at the

text: University of Glasgow

text: in 1836, finding fame through his essays and lectures.

text: Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book Principia. The law states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the Principia also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object.

text: Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book Principia. The law states that any two objects exert a

text: gravitational force

text: of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the Principia also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object.

text: On June 4, 1998, the city officially opened the Museum Campus, a  lakefront park, surrounding three of the city's main museums, each of which is of national importance: the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The University of Chicago Oriental Institute has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Pritzker Military Library, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry.

text: On June 4, 1998, the city officially opened the

text: Museum Campus

text: , a  lakefront park, surrounding three of the city's main museums, each of which is of national importance: the

text: Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum

text: , the

text: Field Museum of Natural History

text: , and the

text: Shedd Aquarium

text: . The Museum Campus joins the southern section of

text: Grant Park

text: , which includes the renowned

text: Art Institute of Chicago

text: Buckingham Fountain

text: anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The

entity_name: University of Chicago Oriental Institute

text: University of Chicago Oriental Institute

text: has an extensive collection of

text: ancient Egypt

text: ian and

text: Near East

text: ern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the

text: Chicago History Museum

text: , the

text: Driehaus Museum

text: , the

entity_name: DuSable Museum of African American History

text: DuSable Museum of African American History

text: , the

text: Museum of Contemporary Art

text: , the

text: Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum

text: , the

text: Polish Museum of America

text: , the

text: Museum of Broadcast Communications

text: , the

text: Pritzker Military Library

text: , the

text: Chicago Architecture Foundation

text: , and the

entity_name: Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)

text: Museum of Science and Industry

text: More than two thousand planets around other stars ("extrasolar planets" or "exoplanets") have been discovered in the Milky Way. As of ,  known extrasolar planets in  planetary systems (including  multiple planetary systems), ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered, out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth, nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun, i.e. in the habitable zone. On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20. A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.Around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone.

text: More than two thousand planets around other stars ("

text: extrasolar planet

text: s" or "exoplanets") have been discovered in the

text: Milky Way

text: . As of ,  known extrasolar planets in

text: planetary systems

text: (including

text: multiple planetary systems

text: ), ranging in size from

text: just above the size of the Moon

text: to

text: gas giant

text: s

text: about twice as large as Jupiter

text: have been discovered, out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth, nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun, i.e. in the habitable zone. On December 20, 2011, the

text: Kepler Space Telescope

text: team reported the discovery of the first

text: Earth-sized

text: extrasolar planets,

text: and

text: , orbiting a

text: Sun-like star

text: . A 2012 study, analyzing

text: gravitational microlensing

text: data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.Around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone.

text: Galileo greatly improved  on these designs the following year, and is generally credited as the first to use a telescope for astronomy. Galileo's telescope used Hans Lippershey's design of a convex objective lens and a concave eye lens, and this design is now called a Galilean telescope. Johannes Kepler proposed an improvement on the design that used a convex eyepiece, often called the Keplerian Telescope.

text: Galileo

text: greatly improved  on these designs the following year, and is generally credited as the first to use a telescope for astronomy. Galileo's telescope used Hans Lippershey's design of a convex

text: objective lens

text: and a concave

text: eye lens

text: , and this design is now called a

text: Galilean telescope

text: Johannes Kepler

text: proposed an improvement on the design that used a convex

text: eyepiece

text: , often called the

text: Keplerian Telescope

text: Egyptian astronomy begins in prehistoric times. The presence of stone circles at Nabta Playa in Upper Egypt dating from the 5th millennium BCE show the importance of astronomy to the religious life of ancient Egypt even in the prehistoric period. The annual flooding of the Nile meant that the heliacal risings, or first visible appearances of stars at dawn, were of special interest in determining when this might occur, and it is no surprise that the 365-day period of the Egyptian calendar was already in use at the beginning of Egyptian history. The constellation system used among the Egyptians also appears to have been essentially of native origin.

text: Egyptian astronomy begins in prehistoric times. The presence of

text: stone circles

text: at

text: Nabta Playa

text: in

text: Upper Egypt

text: dating from the

text: 5th millennium BCE

text: show the importance of

text: astronomy

text: to the religious life of

text: ancient Egypt

text: even in the prehistoric period. The annual

text: flooding of the Nile

text: meant that the

text: heliacal risings

text: , or first visible appearances of

text: star

text: s at

text: dawn

text: , were of special interest in determining when this might occur, and it is no surprise that the 365-day period of the

text: Egyptian calendar

text: was already in use at the beginning of

text: Egyptian history

text: . The

text: constellation

text: system used among the

text: Egyptians

text: also appears to have been essentially of native origin.

text: In physical cosmology, the study of processes in the early universe often requires to take into account the effects of quantum mechanics and general relativity. In the very dense medium formed by the primordial plasma after the big bang, particles are continuously created and annihilated. In such an environment quantum coherence and the spatial extension of the wavefunction can affect the dynamics, making it questionable whether the classical phase space distribution f that appears in the Boltzmann equation is suitable to describe the system. In many cases it is, however, possible to derive an effective Boltzmann equation for a generalized distribution function from first principles of quantum field theory. This includes the formation of the light elements in big bang nucleosynthesis, the production of dark matter and baryogenesis.

text: In

text: physical cosmology

text: , the study of processes in the

text: early universe

text: often requires to take into account the effects of

text: quantum mechanics

text: and

text: general relativity

text: . In the very dense medium formed by the primordial plasma after the

text: big bang

text: , particles are continuously created and annihilated. In such an environment

text: quantum coherence

text: and the spatial extension of the

text: wavefunction

text: can affect the dynamics, making it questionable whether the classical phase space distribution f that appears in the Boltzmann equation is suitable to describe the system. In many cases it is, however, possible to derive an effective Boltzmann equation for a generalized distribution function from first principles of

text: quantum field theory

text: . This includes the formation of the light elements in

text: big bang nucleosynthesis

text: , the production of

text: dark matter

text: and

text: baryogenesis

text: Kepler's laws were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova.  Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismael Boulliau accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.

text: Kepler's laws were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as

text: Galileo

text: and

text: René Descartes

text: completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova.  Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions.

text: Ismael Boulliau

text: accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while

text: Seth Ward

text: used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.

text: The Newtons own and operate an astronomy-themed bed and breakfast near Osoyoos in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Guests can receive optional tutorial sessions in astronomy. They are also partners in the Arizona Sky Village, an astronomy and nature-oriented real estate development in Portal, Arizona.

text: The Newtons own and operate an astronomy-themed

text: bed and breakfast

text: near

text: Osoyoos

text: in the

text: Okanagan Valley

text: of

text: British Columbia

text: . Guests can receive optional tutorial sessions in astronomy. They are also partners in the Arizona Sky Village, an astronomy and nature-oriented real estate development in

text: Portal, Arizona

text: The Big Bang itself is a scientific theory, and as such stands or falls by its agreement with observations.  But as a theory which addresses the nature of the universe since its earliest discernible existence, the Big Bang carries possible theological implications regarding the concept of creation out of nothing. Many atheist philosophers argued against the idea of the Universe having a beginning by believing in the idea of the Universe having simply always existed for all eternity, but with the emerging evidence of the Big Bang theory, many theologians and physicists have viewed it as implicating theism; a popular philosophical argument for the existence of God known as the Kalām cosmological argument rests in the concepts of the Big Bang. In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state Universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory, who rejected the implication that the universe had a beginning.

text: The Big Bang itself is a

text: scientific theory

text: , and as such stands or falls by its agreement with

text: observation

text: s.  But as a theory which addresses the nature of the universe since its earliest discernible existence, the Big Bang carries possible theological implications regarding the concept of creation

text: out of nothing

text: . Many atheist philosophers argued against the idea of the Universe having a beginning by believing in the idea of the Universe having simply always existed for all eternity, but with the emerging evidence of the Big Bang theory, many theologians and physicists have viewed it as implicating

text: theism

text: ; a popular philosophical argument for the

text: existence of God

text: known as the

text: Kalām cosmological argument

text: rests in the concepts of the Big Bang. In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal

text: steady state

text: Universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory, who rejected the implication that the universe had a beginning.

text: Decisive scientific developments took place during the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and physics. In 1543, astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus from Toruń (Thorn) published his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and became the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. Almost 70 years after Copernicus's death and building on his theories, astronomer Johannes Kepler from Stuttgart was a leader in the 17th-century scientific revolution. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion. His works Astronomia nova and Harmonices Mundi were further codified by later astronomers. These works also influenced contemporary Italian scientist Galileo Galilei and provided one of the foundations for Englishman Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

text: Decisive scientific developments took place during the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and physics. In 1543,

text: astronomer

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: from

text: Toruń

text: (Thorn) published his work

text: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

text: and became the first person to formulate a comprehensive

text: heliocentric

text: cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. Almost 70 years after Copernicus's death and building on his theories, astronomer

text: Johannes Kepler

text: from

text: Stuttgart

text: was a leader in the 17th-century

text: scientific revolution

text: . He is best known for his

text: laws of planetary motion

text: . His works

text: Astronomia nova

text: and

text: Harmonices Mundi

text: were further codified by later astronomers. These works also influenced contemporary Italian scientist

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and provided one of the foundations for Englishman

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's theory of

text: universal gravitation

text: Following in her father's footsteps—while studying classics, he had also taken courses in astronomy—she developed an interest in astronomy from an early age, using her father's 4 inch telescope in her observations  and had begun to write a history of astronomy at the age of 15. In 1861, aged 19, her family moved to Dublin, and in 1863 to Queenstown. At the age of 25, partly for health reasons together with her elder sister Ellen, she went to Italy where she stayed until 1877, chiefly at Florence, studying science, languages, and other subjects that would be useful in their later lives. In 1877 she settled in London.

text: Following in her father's footsteps—while studying classics, he had also taken courses in astronomy—she developed an interest in astronomy from an early age, using her father's 4 inch telescope in her observations  and had begun to write a history of astronomy at the age of 15. In 1861, aged 19, her family moved to

text: Dublin

text: , and in 1863 to

text: Queenstown

text: . At the age of 25, partly for health reasons together with her elder sister Ellen, she went to Italy where she stayed until 1877, chiefly at

text: Florence

text: , studying science, languages, and other subjects that would be useful in their later lives. In 1877 she settled in London.

text: But these works, while proving Scaliger's right to the foremost place among his contemporaries as Latin scholar and critic, did not go beyond mere scholarship. It was reserved for his edition of Manilius (1579), and his De emendatione temporum (1583), to revolutionize perceived ideas of ancient chronology—to show that ancient history is not confined to that of the Greeks and Romans, but also comprises that of the Persians, the Babylonians and the Egyptians, hitherto neglected, and that of the Jews, hitherto treated as a thing apart; and that the historical narratives and fragments of each of these, and their several systems of chronology, must be critically compared. It was this innovation that distinguished Scaliger from contemporary scholars. Neither they nor those who immediately followed seem to have appreciated his innovation. Instead, they valued his emendatory criticism and his skill in Greek. His commentary on Manilius is really a treatise on ancient astronomy, and it forms an introduction to De emendatione temporum; in this work Scaliger investigates ancient systems of determining epochs, calendars and computations of time. Applying the work of  Nicolaus Copernicus and other modern scientists, he reveals the principles behind these systems.

text: But these works, while proving Scaliger's right to the foremost place among his contemporaries as Latin scholar and critic, did not go beyond mere scholarship. It was reserved for his edition of

text: Manilius

text: (1579), and his De emendatione temporum (1583), to revolutionize perceived ideas of ancient

text: chronology

text: —to show that ancient history is not confined to that of the

text: Greeks

text: and

text: Romans

text: , but also comprises that of the

text: Persia

text: ns, the

text: Babylonians

text: and the

text: Egyptians

text: , hitherto neglected, and that of the

text: Jews

text: , hitherto treated as a thing apart; and that the historical narratives and fragments of each of these, and their several systems of chronology, must be critically compared. It was this innovation that distinguished Scaliger from contemporary scholars. Neither they nor those who immediately followed seem to have appreciated his innovation. Instead, they valued his emendatory criticism and his skill in Greek. His commentary on Manilius is really a treatise on ancient

text: astronomy

text: , and it forms an introduction to De emendatione temporum; in this work Scaliger investigates ancient systems of determining

text: epoch

text: s,

text: calendar

text: s and computations of time. Applying the work of

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: and other modern scientists, he reveals the principles behind these systems.

text: The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

text: The

text: Ancient Greeks

text: developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: and

text: Callippus of Cyzicus

text: . Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary

text: Heraclides Ponticus

text: proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

text: Since 2011, Malina has appeared as Pres. Siebert on The Big Bang Theory.

text: Since 2011, Malina has appeared as Pres. Siebert on

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: With the spread of Greek culture in the east, Hellenistic astronomy filtered eastwards to ancient India where its profound influence became apparent in the early centuries AD. The Greek concept of an Earth surrounded by the spheres of the planets and that of the fixed stars, vehemently supported by astronomers like Varahamihir and Brahmagupta, strengthened the astronomical principles. Some ideas were found possible to preserve, although in altered form.

text: With the spread of

text: Greek culture

text: in the east,

text: Hellenistic astronomy

text: filtered eastwards to

text: ancient India

text: where its profound influence became apparent in the early centuries AD. The Greek concept of an Earth surrounded by the spheres of the planets and that of the fixed stars, vehemently supported by astronomers like

text: Varahamihir

text: and

text: Brahmagupta

text: , strengthened the astronomical principles. Some ideas were found possible to preserve, although in altered form.

text: Newton's cannonball was a thought experiment used to bridge the gap between Galileo's gravitational acceleration and Kepler's elliptical orbits.  It appeared in Newton's 1728 book A Treatise of the System of the World.  According to Galileo's concept of gravitation, a dropped stone falls with constant acceleration down towards the Earth.  However, Newton explains that when a stone is thrown horizontally (meaning sideways or perpendicular to Earth's gravity) it follows a curved path.  "For a stone projected is by the pressure of its own weight forced out of the rectilinear path, which by the projection alone it should have pursued, and made to describe a curve line in the air; and through that crooked way is at last brought down to the ground.  And the greater the velocity is with which it is projected, the farther it goes before it falls to the Earth." Newton further reasons that if an object were "projected in an horizontal direction from the top of a high mountain" with sufficient velocity, "it would reach at last quite beyond the circumference of the Earth, and return to the mountain from which it was projected."

text: Newton's cannonball was a

text: thought experiment

text: used to bridge the gap between Galileo's gravitational acceleration and Kepler's elliptical orbits.  It appeared in Newton's 1728 book A Treatise of the System of the World.  According to Galileo's concept of gravitation, a dropped stone falls with constant acceleration down towards the Earth.  However, Newton explains that when a stone is thrown horizontally (meaning sideways or perpendicular to Earth's gravity) it follows a curved path.  "For a stone projected is by the pressure of its own weight forced out of the rectilinear path, which by the projection alone it should have pursued, and made to describe a curve line in the air; and through that crooked way is at last brought down to the ground.  And the greater the velocity is with which it is projected, the farther it goes before it falls to the Earth." Newton further reasons that if an object were "projected in an horizontal direction from the top of a high mountain" with sufficient velocity, "it would reach at last quite beyond the circumference of the Earth, and return to the mountain from which it was projected."

text: The Big Bang theory, the prevailing cosmological model describing the development of the Universe, states that space and time were created in the Big Bang and were given a fixed amount of energy and matter that becomes less dense as space expands. After the initial expansion, the Universe cooled, allowing the first subatomic particles to form and then simple atoms. Giant clouds later merged through gravity to form stars. Assuming that the standard model of the Big Bang theory is correct, the age of the Universe is measured to be .

text: The

text: Big Bang theory

text: , the prevailing

text: cosmological

text: model describing the development of the Universe, states that space and time were created in the Big Bang and were given a fixed amount of energy and matter that becomes less dense as space expands. After the initial expansion, the Universe cooled, allowing the first

text: subatomic particle

text: s to form and then simple

text: atom

text: s. Giant clouds later merged through gravity to form stars. Assuming that the

text: standard model of the Big Bang theory

text: is correct, the age of the Universe is measured to be .

text: Olaf Pedersen (1920–1997) was a "leading authority on astronomy in classical antiquity and the Latin middle ages"

text: The modern era of CCC began with the development by Dr. Yoichiro Ito of the planetary centrifuge which was first introduced in 1966 as a closed helical tube which was rotated on a "planetary" axis as is turned on a "sun" axis. A flow-through model was subsequently developed and the new technique was called countercurrent chromatography in 1970. The technique was further developed by employing test mixtures of DNP amino acids in chloroform:glacial acetic acid:0.1 M aqueous hydrochloric acid (2:2:1 v/v) cosolvent system. Much development was needed to engineer the instrument so that required planetary motion could be sustained while the phases were being pumped through the coil(s). Parameters such as the relative rotation of the two axes (synchronous or non-synchronous), the direction of flow through the coil, and the rotor angles were investigated.

text: The modern era of CCC began with the development by Dr. Yoichiro Ito of the planetary

text: centrifuge

text: which was first introduced in 1966 as a closed helical tube which was rotated on a "planetary" axis as is turned on a "sun" axis. A flow-through model was subsequently developed and the new technique was called countercurrent chromatography in 1970. The technique was further developed by employing test mixtures of DNP amino acids in chloroform:glacial acetic acid:0.1 M aqueous hydrochloric acid (2:2:1 v/v) cosolvent system. Much development was needed to engineer the instrument so that required planetary motion could be sustained while the phases were being pumped through the coil(s). Parameters such as the relative rotation of the two axes (synchronous or non-synchronous), the direction of flow through the coil, and the rotor angles were investigated.

text: Kepler used his two first laws to compute the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation.

text: Kepler used his two first laws to compute the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a

text: transcendental equation

text: called

text: Kepler's equation

text: Journal for the History of Astronomy (JHA) is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of History of Astronomy. The journal's Editor is Michael Hoskin, (Cambridge University). It has been in publication since 1970 and is currently published by SAGE Publications.

text: Journal for the History of Astronomy (JHA) is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: academic journal

text: that publishes papers in the field of

text: History of Astronomy

text: . The journal's

text: Editor

text: is Michael Hoskin, (

text: Cambridge University

text: ). It has been in publication since 1970 and is currently published by

text: SAGE Publications

text: Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer noted primarily for the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, but also for his often controversial stances on other scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the "Big Bang" theory, a term coined by him on BBC radio, and his promotion of panspermia as the origin of life on Earth. While Hoyle is well-regarded for his works on nucleosynthesis and science popularisation, his career is also noted for the controversial positions he held on a wide range of scientific issues, often in direct opposition to the prevailing theories supported by the majority of the scientific community. He spent most of his working life at the Institute of Astronomy at Cambridge and served as its director for six years. He was a writer of science fiction, and co-authored twelve books with his son, Geoffrey Hoyle.

text: Sir Fred Hoyle

text: FRS

text: (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English

text: astronomer

text: noted primarily for the theory of

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: , but also for his often controversial stances on other scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the "

text: Big Bang

text: " theory, a term coined by him on BBC radio, and his promotion of

text: panspermia

text: as the origin of life on Earth. While Hoyle is well-regarded for his works on nucleosynthesis and

text: science popularisation

text: , his career is also noted for the controversial positions he held on a wide range of scientific issues, often in direct opposition to the prevailing theories supported by the majority of the scientific community. He spent most of his working life at the

text: Institute of Astronomy

text: at Cambridge and served as its director for six years. He was a

text: writer of science fiction

text: , and co-authored twelve books with his son,

text: Geoffrey Hoyle

text: The project provided centrally-purchased (and thus discounted) hardware, professional system administrators, and the developers to write astronomical data-reduction applications for the UK astronomy community and beyond. At its peak size in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the project had a presence at around 30 sites, located at most of the UK universities with an astronomy department, plus facilities at the Joint Astronomy Centre, the home of UKIRT and the JCMT in Hawai'i. The number of active developers fluctuated between five and more than a dozen.

text: The project provided centrally-purchased (and thus discounted) hardware, professional system administrators, and the developers to write astronomical data-reduction applications for the UK astronomy community and beyond. At its peak size in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the project had a presence at around 30 sites, located at most of the UK universities with an astronomy department, plus facilities at the

text: Joint Astronomy Centre

text: , the home of

text: UKIRT

text: and the

text: JCMT

text: in

text: Hawai'i

text: . The number of active developers fluctuated between five and more than a dozen.

text: A bolide (French via Latin from the Greek βολίς bolís, "missile") is an extremely bright meteor, especially one that explodes in the atmosphere. In astronomy, it refers to a fireball about as bright as the full moon, and it is generally considered a synonym of a fireball. In geology, a bolide is a very large impactor.

text: A bolide (French via Latin from the

text: Greek

text: βολίς bolís, "missile") is an extremely bright

text: meteor

text: , especially one that explodes in the atmosphere. In astronomy, it refers to a

text: fireball

text: about as bright as the

text: full moon

text: , and it is generally considered a synonym of a fireball. In geology, a bolide is a very large

text: impactor

text: All this knowledge was transferred to the Greeks probably shortly after the conquest by Alexander the Great (331 BC). According to the late classical philosopher Simplicius (early 6th century), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler Callisthenes of Olynthus, who sent it to his uncle Aristotle. It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the Sassanid (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning "guarding" but also "observing".  Anyway, Aristotle's pupil Callippus of Cyzicus introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved upon the 19-year Metonic cycle, about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC (Julian proleptic date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at Gaugamela in fall 331 BC.  So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as Berossus wrote around 281 BC a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the Babyloniaca, for the new ruler Antiochus I; it is said that later he founded a school of astrology on the Greek island of Kos. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy/astrology was Sudines who was at the court of Attalus I Soter late in the 3rd century BC.

text: Greeks

text: probably shortly after the conquest by

text: Alexander the Great

text: Simplicius

text: (early 6th century), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler

text: Callisthenes of Olynthus

text: , who sent it to his uncle

text: Aristotle

text: . It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the

text: Sassanid

text: (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning "guarding" but also "observing".  Anyway, Aristotle's pupil

text: Callippus of Cyzicus

text: introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved upon the 19-year

text: Metonic cycle

text: Julian proleptic date

text: ), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at

text: Gaugamela

text: Berossus

text: wrote around 281 BC a book in

text: Greek

text: on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the Babyloniaca, for the new ruler

text: Antiochus I

text: astrology

text: on the Greek island of

text: Kos

text: . Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy/astrology was

text: Sudines

text: who was at the court of

text: Attalus I Soter

text: late in the 3rd century BC.

text: The History of Astronomy is the largest of these and is thought to have been written in the 1750s, before Smith's major works.  The overall understanding is excellent, though the Glasgow Edition of 1976 includes some detailed criticism of his use of sources.  But it also defends him for calling Newton a philosopher rather than a scientist; the word 'scientist' did not exist before 1839.

text: The History of Astronomy is the largest of these and is thought to have been written in the 1750s, before Smith's major works.  The overall understanding is excellent, though the

text: Glasgow

text: Edition of 1976 includes some detailed criticism of his use of sources.  But it also defends him for calling

text: Newton

text: a philosopher rather than a

text: scientist

text: ; the word 'scientist' did not exist before 1839.

text: In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, and described this in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation.

text: In the 17th century,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, and described this in his

text: first law of planetary motion

text: . Later,

text: Isaac Newton

text: explained this as a corollary of his

text: law of universal gravitation

text: The astronomical work Terra machinis mota (1658) imagines a dialogue between Galileo, Paul Guldin, and Marin Mersenne on various intellectual problems of cosmology, geography, astronomy and geodesy.  For example, they discuss how to determine the Earth's dimensions, floating bodies, the phenomena of capillarity, and also describe the experiment on the vacuum made by Otto von Guericke in 1654.  The work is remarkable for the fact that it represents Galileo in a positive light, in a Jesuit work, only 25 years after Galileo's condemnation by the Church.

text: The astronomical work Terra machinis mota (1658) imagines a dialogue between

text: Galileo

text: Paul Guldin

text: , and

text: Marin Mersenne

text: on various intellectual problems of

text: cosmology

text: geography

text: astronomy

text: and

text: geodesy

text: .  For example, they discuss how to determine the Earth's dimensions, floating bodies, the phenomena of capillarity, and also describe the experiment on the

text: vacuum

text: made by

text: Otto von Guericke

text: in 1654.  The work is remarkable for the fact that it represents Galileo in a positive light, in a Jesuit work, only 25 years after

text: Galileo's condemnation

text: by the Church.

text: Major advances in the 17th century were made by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton. In 1609 and 1619 Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion. (McCarthy & Seidelmann, 2009, p. 26) In 1627, Kepler used the observations of Tycho Brahe and Waltherus to produce the most accurate tables up to that time, the Rudolphine Tables. He evaluated the mean tropical year as 365 solar days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds (365.24219 days). (Meeus & Savoie, 1992, p. 41)

text: Major advances in the 17th century were made by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: and

text: Isaac Newton

text: . In 1609 and 1619 Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion. (McCarthy & Seidelmann, 2009, p. 26) In 1627, Kepler used the observations of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: and Waltherus to produce the most accurate tables up to that time, the

text: Rudolphine Tables

text: . He evaluated the mean tropical year as 365 solar days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds (365.24219 days). (Meeus & Savoie, 1992, p. 41)

text: However, Kepler's "area-time principle" did not facilitate easy calculation of planetary positions.  Kepler could divide up the orbit into an arbitrary number of parts, compute the planet's position for each one of these, and then refer all questions to a table, but he could not determine the position of the planet at each and every individual moment because the speed of the planet was always changing.  This paradox, referred to as the "Kepler problem," prompted the development of calculus.

text: However, Kepler's "area-time principle" did not facilitate easy calculation of planetary positions.  Kepler could divide up the orbit into an arbitrary number of parts, compute the planet's position for each one of these, and then refer all questions to a table, but he could not determine the position of the planet at each and every individual moment because the speed of the planet was always changing.  This paradox, referred to as the "

text: Kepler problem

text: ," prompted the development of

text: calculus

text: An often overlooked dimension in the history of science, the patronage system and the realities that existed within such a system played an important role in the lives of many of science’s icons and heroes. The history of astronomy in particular is filled with examples demonstrating the relationship between patron and client, including that of Galileo Galilei and his ties to the Medici family. Many historians have begun to examine the importance of examining scientific history through this relatively forgotten lens. Dr. Robert Smith, in an article examining patronage in the early history of NASA, begins with the assertion that “the history of space astronomy is usually written from the perspective of the remarkable scientific findings garnered by space astronomers and the ways these findings have enriched and guided new views of the universe.”  But, as Barker and Goldstein ensure, “following the groundbreaking work of Robert Westman and Richard S. Westfall, historians of astronomy and historians of science in general have come to appreciate the importance of patronage in understanding the development of science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.”  As crucial as the many developments and findings of science’s heroes are to the historiography of science, many historians, like Nicholas Jardine, Mario Biagioli, Richard Westfall and others, have sought to bring to light the issues of patronage within this discourse, and their works have looked to enrich the understandings of many of science’s heroes, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Tycho Brahe amongst others. Patronage cannot provide the lone solution to understanding the social history of the Scientific Revolution, as some figures in the movement “were not sustained by patronage, and it is not yet clear how many were so supported.”  Despite this, patronage “was perhaps the most pervasive institution of preindustrial society.” Richard Westfall concludes:

text: An often overlooked dimension in the

text: history of science

text: , the patronage system and the realities that existed within such a system played an important role in the lives of many of science’s icons and heroes. The history of astronomy in particular is filled with examples demonstrating the relationship between patron and client, including that of

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and his ties to the

text: Medici

text: family. Many historians have begun to examine the importance of examining scientific history through this relatively forgotten lens. Dr. Robert Smith, in an article examining patronage in the early history of

text: NASA

text: , begins with the assertion that “the history of space astronomy is usually written from the perspective of the remarkable scientific findings garnered by space astronomers and the ways these findings have enriched and guided new views of the universe.”  But, as Barker and

text: Goldstein

text: ensure, “following the groundbreaking work of Robert Westman and

text: Richard S. Westfall

text: , historians of astronomy and historians of science in general have come to appreciate the importance of patronage in understanding the development of

text: science

text: during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.”  As crucial as the many developments and findings of science’s heroes are to the historiography of science, many historians, like Nicholas Jardine, Mario Biagioli, Richard Westfall and others, have sought to bring to light the issues of patronage within this discourse, and their works have looked to enrich the understandings of many of science’s heroes, including Galileo Galilei,

text: Johannes Kepler

text: , and

text: Tycho Brahe

text: amongst others. Patronage cannot provide the lone solution to understanding the social history of the

text: Scientific Revolution

text: , as some figures in the movement “were not sustained by patronage, and it is not yet clear how many were so supported.”  Despite this, patronage “was perhaps the most pervasive institution of preindustrial society.” Richard Westfall concludes:

text: Big History examines the past using numerous time scales, from the Big Bang to modernity, unlike conventional history courses which typically begin with the introduction of farming and civilization, or with the beginning of written records. It explores common themes and patterns. Courses generally do not focus on humans until more than halfway through, and, unlike conventional history courses, there is not much focus on kingdoms or civilizations or wars or national borders. If conventional history focuses on human civilization with humankind at the center, Big History focuses on the universe and shows how humankind fits within this framework and places human history in the wider context of the universe's history. Unlike conventional history, Big History tends to go rapidly through detailed historical eras such as the Renaissance or Ancient Egypt. It draws on the latest findings from biology, astronomy, geology, climatology, prehistory, archaeology, anthropology, evolutionary biology, chemistry, economics, cosmology, natural history, and population and environmental studies as well as standard history. One teacher explained:

text: Big History examines the past using numerous

text: time scale

text: s, from the

text: Big Bang

text: to

text: modernity

text: , unlike conventional history courses which typically begin with the introduction of farming and civilization, or with the beginning of written records. It explores common

text: themes

text: and

text: pattern

text: s. Courses generally do not focus on humans until more than halfway through, and, unlike conventional history courses, there is not much focus on kingdoms or civilizations or wars or national borders. If conventional history focuses on human civilization with humankind at the center, Big History focuses on the universe and shows how humankind fits within this framework and places human history in the wider context of the universe's history. Unlike conventional history, Big History tends to go rapidly through detailed historical eras such as the

text: Renaissance

text: or

text: Ancient Egypt

text: . It draws on the latest findings from

text: biology

text: astronomy

text: geology

text: climatology

text: prehistory

text: archaeology

text: anthropology

text: evolutionary biology

text: chemistry

text: economics

text: cosmology

text: natural history

text: , and

text: population

text: and

text: environmental studies

text: as well as standard history. One teacher explained:

text: Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler's third law was published in 1619. The first law was "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci."

text: Johannes Kepler

text: Tycho Brahe

text: . Kepler's third law was published in 1619. The first law was "The

text: orbit

text: of every

text: planet

text: is an

text: ellipse

text: with the Sun at one of the two

text: foci

text: Hesiod ( or ;  Hēsíodos) was a Greek poet generally thought by scholars to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer. He is generally regarded as the first written poet in the Western tradition to regard himself as an individual persona with an active role to play in his subject. Ancient authors credited Hesiod and Homer with establishing Greek religious customs. Modern scholars refer to him as a major source on Greek mythology, farming techniques, early economic thought (he is sometimes considered history's first economist), archaic Greek astronomy and ancient time-keeping.

text: Hesiod ( or ;  Hēsíodos) was a

text: Greek

text: poet generally thought by scholars to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as

text: Homer

text: . He is generally regarded as the first written poet in the Western tradition to regard himself as an individual persona with an active role to play in his subject. Ancient authors credited Hesiod and Homer with establishing Greek religious customs. Modern scholars refer to him as a major source on

text: Greek mythology

text: farming

text: techniques, early

text: economic

text: thought (he is sometimes considered history's first economist), archaic Greek

text: astronomy

text: and

entity_section: Timekeeping devices of early civilizations

text: ancient time-keeping

text: In classical Greece, astronomy was a branch of mathematics; astronomers sought to create geometrical models that could imitate the appearances of celestial motions. This tradition began with the Pythagoreans, who placed astronomy among the four mathematical arts (along with arithmetic, geometry, and music). The study of number comprising the four arts was later called the Quadrivium.

text: In

text: classical Greece

text: , astronomy was a branch of

text: mathematics

text: ; astronomers sought to create geometrical models that could imitate the appearances of celestial motions. This tradition began with the

text: Pythagoreans

text: , who placed astronomy among the four mathematical arts (along with

text: arithmetic

text: geometry

text: , and

text: music

text: ). The study of

text: number

text: comprising the four arts was later called the

text: Quadrivium

text: Isaac Newton’s statement of the four rules revolutionised the investigation of phenomena. With these rules, Newton could in principle begin to address all of the world’s present unsolved mysteries.  He was able to use his new analytical method to replace that of Aristotle, and he was able to use his method to tweak and update Galileo’s experimental method. The re-creation of Galileo's method has never been significantly changed and in its substance, scientists use it today.

text: Isaac Newton’s statement of the four rules revolutionised the investigation of phenomena. With these rules, Newton could in principle begin to address all of the world’s present unsolved mysteries.  He was able to use his new analytical method to replace that of Aristotle, and he was able to use his method to tweak and update

text: Galileo

text: ’s experimental method. The re-creation of Galileo's method has never been significantly changed and in its substance, scientists use it today.

text: Kepler, in a very important step, also questions the assumption that the planets move around the center of their orbit at a uniform rate.  He finds that computing critical measurements based upon the Sun's actual position in the sky, instead of the Sun's "mean" position injects a significant degree of uncertainty into the models, opening the path for further investigations. The idea that the planets do not move at a uniform rate, but at a speed that varies as their distance from the Sun, was completely revolutionary and would become his second law (discovered before his first). Kepler, in his calculations leading to his second law, made multiple mathematical errors, which luckily cancelled each other out “as if by miracle.”

text: Kepler, in a very important step, also questions the assumption that the planets move around the center of their orbit at a uniform rate.  He finds that computing critical measurements based upon the Sun's actual position in the sky, instead of the Sun's

text: "mean" position

text: injects a significant degree of uncertainty into the models, opening the path for further investigations. The idea that the planets do not move at a uniform rate, but at a speed that varies as their distance from the Sun, was completely revolutionary and would become his second law (discovered before his first). Kepler, in his calculations leading to his second law, made multiple mathematical errors, which luckily cancelled each other out “as if by miracle.”

text: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific is a monthly scientific journal which publishes astronomy research and review papers, instrumentation papers and dissertation summaries.

text: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific is a monthly

text: scientific journal

text: which publishes

text: astronomy

text: research and review papers, instrumentation papers and dissertation summaries.

text: Galileo's conjecture was merely that — a conjecture. So was Kepler's cosmology. But each conjecture increased the credibility of the other, and together, they changed the prevailing perceptions of the scientific community. Later, Newton showed that Kepler's three laws could all be derived from a single theory of motion and planetary motion. Newton solidified and unified the paradigm shift that Galileo and Kepler had initiated.

text: Galileo's conjecture was merely that — a conjecture. So was Kepler's cosmology. But each conjecture increased the credibility of the other, and together, they changed the prevailing perceptions of the scientific community. Later,

text: Newton

text: showed that Kepler's three laws could all be derived from a single theory of motion and planetary motion. Newton solidified and unified the paradigm shift that Galileo and Kepler had initiated.

text: It appeared by this reasoning as though a "set" (Galileo did not use the terminology) which is naturally smaller than the "set" of which it is a part (since it does not contain all the members) is in some sense the same "size". Galileo found no way around this problem:

text: Years later, Carl Sagan reported how Condon described one encounter with a loyalty review board. A board member stated his concern: "Dr. Condon, it says here that you have been at the forefront of a revolutionary movement in physics called...quantum mechanics. It strikes this hearing that if you could be at the forefront of one revolutionary movement...you could be at the forefront of another". Condon said he replied: "I believe in Archimedes' Principle, formulated in the third century B.C. I believe in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, discovered in the seventeenth century. I believe in Newton's laws...." and continued with a catalog of scientists from earlier centuries, including the Bernoulli, Fourier, Ampère, Boltzmann, and Maxwell. He once said privately: "I join every organization that seems to have noble goals. I don't ask whether it contains Communists".

text: Years later,

text: Carl Sagan

text: reported how Condon described one encounter with a loyalty review board. A board member stated his concern: "Dr. Condon, it says here that you have been at the forefront of a revolutionary movement in physics called...quantum mechanics. It strikes this hearing that if you could be at the forefront of one revolutionary movement...you could be at the forefront of another". Condon said he replied: "I believe in Archimedes' Principle, formulated in the third century B.C. I believe in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, discovered in the seventeenth century. I believe in Newton's laws...." and continued with a catalog of scientists from earlier centuries, including the

text: Bernoulli

text: Fourier

text: Ampère

text: Boltzmann

text: , and

text: Maxwell

text: . He once said privately: "I join every organization that seems to have noble goals. I don't ask whether it contains Communists".

text: The problem with SBS continued, On June 14, it was announced that Big Bang is banned from appearing on Inkigayo, according to SBS the reason was that G-Dragon and T.O.P didn't appear on the show when Big Bang won the first place on May 24, only three members were able to show. YG representative said the members didn't show up due to the shooting of a music video. The winners of the show on June 14 was not announced in the same day, the results came the next day, the winner was Big Bang.

text: Nielsen published several books and articles on astronomy and the history of astronomy in Denmark. In 1944 he published a major work on the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer (1644-1710). Nielsen's publication record includes:

text: Nielsen published several books and articles on astronomy and the history of astronomy in Denmark. In 1944 he published a major work on the Danish astronomer

text: Ole Rømer

text: (1644-1710). Nielsen's publication record includes:

text: His daughter Kuini Liliha married High Chief Boki, and inherited Boki's position of Royal Governor of Oahu after Boki's disappearance at sea in 1829. Liliha was suspected of organizing a rebellion in 1830, and Hoapili was sent to peacefully relieve her of her duties.In 1831 he donated land to be used for the Lanhainaluna seminary founded by Lorrin Andrews. This school would produce some of the important historians of the time, such as Samuel Kamakau and David Malo. Hoapili was consulted as an expert in astronomy and ancient Hawaiian mythology for the first book published on Hawaiian history. Hoapili selected a promising assistant to become educated as a teacher for Hawaii island.

text: His daughter

text: Kuini Liliha

text: married

text: High Chief Boki

text: , and inherited Boki's position of

text: Royal Governor of Oahu

text: after Boki's disappearance at sea in 1829. Liliha was suspected of organizing a rebellion in 1830, and Hoapili was sent to peacefully relieve her of her duties.In 1831 he donated land to be used for the Lanhainaluna seminary founded by

text: Lorrin Andrews

text: . This school would produce some of the important historians of the time, such as

text: Samuel Kamakau

text: and

text: David Malo

text: . Hoapili was consulted as an expert in astronomy and ancient

text: Hawaiian mythology

text: for the first book published on Hawaiian history. Hoapili selected a promising assistant to become educated as a teacher for

text: Hawaii island

text: His translations of Euclid on geometry and Ptolemy on astronomy,  if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's De interpretation and Categories with commentaries.  These were widely used during the Middle Ages.

text: His translations of

text: Euclid

text: on geometry and

text: Ptolemy

text: on astronomy,  if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's De interpretation and Categories with commentaries.  These were widely used during the Middle Ages.

text: On the August 1, 2007, edition of the Don and Mike Show, a WJFK-FM radio program out of Washington, D.C., McKellar announced plans that the producers of How I Met Your Mother were planning to bring her back for a recurring role (she guest-starred on the show in late 2005 in "The Pineapple Incident" and again in early 2007 in "Third Wheel"). She also made an appearance on the show The Big Bang Theory, in the episode "The Psychic Vortex".

text: On the August 1, 2007, edition of the

text: Don and Mike Show

text: , a

text: WJFK-FM

text: radio program out of Washington, D.C., McKellar announced plans that the producers of

text: How I Met Your Mother

text: were planning to bring her back for a recurring role (she guest-starred on the show in late 2005 in "

text: The Pineapple Incident

text: " and again in early 2007 in "

text: Third Wheel

text: "). She also made an appearance on the show

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: , in the episode "The Psychic Vortex".

text: In the 10th century Kamo no Tadayuki (賀茂忠行) and his son Kamo no Yasunori made great advancements in onmyōdō, astronomy and calendar science, and from among their students emerged Abe no Seimei, who displayed superior skills in the divining arts of onmyōdō, by which he gained an uncommon amount of trust from the court society. Tadayuki and Yasunori passed on their skills in astronomy to Seimei while their advances in calendar-making went to Yasunori's son. From the end of the Heian period into the Middle Ages, astronomy and calendar science were completely subsumed into onmyōdō, and the Abe and Kamo families came to dominate the art.

text: In the 10th century

text: Kamo no Tadayuki

text: (賀茂忠行) and his son

text: Kamo no Yasunori

text: made great advancements in onmyōdō, astronomy and calendar science, and from among their students emerged

text: Abe no Seimei

text: , who displayed superior skills in the divining arts of onmyōdō, by which he gained an uncommon amount of trust from the court society. Tadayuki and Yasunori passed on their skills in astronomy to Seimei while their advances in calendar-making went to Yasunori's son. From the end of the Heian period into the Middle Ages, astronomy and calendar science were completely subsumed into onmyōdō, and the Abe and Kamo families came to dominate the art.

text: James Bradley FRS (March 1693 – 13 July 1762) was an English astronomer and served as Astronomer Royal from 1742, succeeding Edmond Halley. He is best known for two fundamental discoveries in astronomy, the aberration of light (1725–1728), and the nutation of the Earth's axis (1728–1748).  These discoveries were called "the most brilliant and useful of the century" by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, historian of astronomy, mathematical astronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), because "It is to these two discoveries by Bradley that we owe the exactness of modern astronomy. .... This double service assures to their discoverer the most distinguished place (after Hipparchus and Kepler) above the greatest astronomers of all ages and all countries."

text: James Bradley

text: FRS

text: (March 1693 – 13 July 1762) was an English

text: astronomer

text: and served as

text: Astronomer Royal

text: from 1742, succeeding

text: Edmond Halley

text: . He is best known for two fundamental discoveries in astronomy, the

text: aberration of light

text: (1725–1728), and the

text: nutation of the Earth's axis

text: (1728–1748).  These discoveries were called "the most brilliant and useful of the century" by

text: Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre

text: , historian of astronomy, mathematical astronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), because "It is to these two discoveries by Bradley that we owe the exactness of modern astronomy. .... This double service assures to their discoverer the most distinguished place (after

text: Hipparchus

text: and

text: Kepler

text: ) above the greatest astronomers of all ages and all countries."

text: In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of Mars, the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the Astronomia nova, which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619 Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement.

text: In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of

text: Mars

text: , the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the

text: Astronomia nova

text: , which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619 Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement.

text: Galileo Galilei was a scientist who performed many quantitative experiments addressing many topics. Using several different methods, Galileo was able to accurately measure time. Previously, most scientists had used distance to describe falling bodies using geometry, which had been used and trusted since Euclid. Galileo himself used geometrical methods to express his results. Galileo's successes were aided by the development of a new mathematics as well as cleverly designed experiments and equipment. At that time, another kind of mathematics was being developed—algebra. Algebra allowed arithmetical calculations to become as sophisticated as geometric ones. Algebra also allowed the discoveries of scientists such as Galileo—as well as later scientists like Newton, Maxwell and Einstein—to be later summarized by mathematical equations. These equations described physical relationships in a precise, self-consistent manner.

text: Galileo Galilei

text: was a scientist who performed many quantitative experiments addressing many topics. Using several different methods, Galileo was able to accurately measure time. Previously, most scientists had used distance to describe falling bodies using

text: geometry

text: , which had been used and trusted since

text: Euclid

text: . Galileo himself used geometrical methods to express his results. Galileo's successes were aided by the development of a new mathematics as well as cleverly designed experiments and equipment. At that time, another kind of mathematics was being developed—

text: algebra

text: . Algebra allowed arithmetical calculations to become as sophisticated as geometric ones. Algebra also allowed the discoveries of scientists such as Galileo—as well as later scientists like

text: Newton

text: Maxwell

text: and

text: Einstein

text: —to be later summarized by mathematical

text: equations

text: . These equations described physical relationships in a precise, self-consistent manner.

text: Kalniranjan is son of satpurusha and father of Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu. The name of Kalniranjan's wife is AddhaMahamaya.Niranjan is name of KalaPurusha, who is the Supreme Creator of (Srishti) with help of Maya (Ashtangi).Satpurusha made the world. In Christianity Satpurusha is God, in Islam Satpurusha is Allah. As per the Big Bang Theory, there was nothing in the Universe. A big explosion occurred, which was the epoch. This explosion is the desire of Satpurusha, who made himself from one to several, thereby creating the Universe.

text: Kalniranjan is son of satpurusha and father of Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu. The name of Kalniranjan's wife is Addha

text: Mahamaya

text: .Niranjan is name of Kala

text: Purusha

text: , who is the Supreme Creator of (

text: Srishti

text: ) with help of Maya (Ashtangi).Satpurusha made the world. In Christianity Satpurusha is God, in Islam Satpurusha is

text: Allah

text: . As per the Big Bang Theory, there was nothing in the Universe. A big explosion occurred, which was the epoch. This explosion is the desire of Satpurusha, who made himself from one to several, thereby creating the Universe.

text: He was the leading writer of popular astronomy among the professional astronomers in Sweden from the 1930s and onwards. He also often appeared in the Swedish national radio with programs on popular astronomy and the history of science. He made generations of Swedes fascinated and interested in astronomy.

text: Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe of the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, and Newton.

text: Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe of the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by

text: Pythagoras

text: Plato

text: Galileo

text: , and

text: Newton

text: |-id=888| 216888 Sankovich ||  || Anatoly Sankovich (born 1960), an amateur astronomer and telescope maker. |-id=897| 216897 Golubev ||  || Golubev Vladimir Aleksandrovich (born 1940), on the astronomy faculty at Vitebsk State University, is a well-known astronomy popularizer and publicist in Belarus. |}

text: 216888 Sankovich

text: ||  || Anatoly Sankovich (born 1960), an amateur astronomer and telescope maker. |-id=897|

text: 216897 Golubev

text: ||  || Golubev Vladimir Aleksandrovich (born 1940), on the astronomy faculty at

text: Vitebsk State University

text: , is a well-known astronomy popularizer and publicist in

text: Belarus

text: The Galileo affair, in which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy, is often considered a defining moment in the history of the relationship between religion and science.

text: The

text: Galileo affair

text: , in which

text: Galileo Galilei

text: came into conflict with the

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: over his support of

text: Copernican astronomy

text: , is often considered a defining moment in the history of the

text: Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Kepler's Supernova (Supernova 1604, which he observed and described) and the Kepler Solids, a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him, and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing.

text: Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: Kepler's Supernova

text: (Supernova 1604, which he observed and described) and the

text: Kepler Solids

text: , a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him, and the

text: Kepler conjecture

text: on

text: sphere packing

text: The read-through for "The Big Bang" took place on 13 January 2010 in the Upper Boat Studios. The episode was filmed in the sixth production block along with "The Pandorica Opens". The Doctor visits previous episodes as he is being erased from history; these scenes, taking place in "Flesh and Stone" and "The Lodger", were filmed with their respective episodes. The first scenes filmed for "The Big Bang" were shot in the TARDIS set, including the very last scene. The beginning of the episode, in which the fez-wearing Doctor from the future confronts Rory, was filmed on 5 February 2010 at Margam Country Park, Port Talbot. As it was filmed near the end of production of the series, "The Big Bang" had a smaller effects budget than other episodes, but this was compensated with cinematic lighting. The TARDIS appears in the time vortex during the ending credits, an idea of director Toby Haynes.

text: The

text: read-through

text: for "The Big Bang" took place on 13 January 2010 in the

text: Upper Boat Studios

text: . The episode was filmed in the sixth

text: production block

text: along with "

text: The Pandorica Opens

text: ". The Doctor visits previous episodes as he is being erased from history; these scenes, taking place in "

text: Flesh and Stone

text: " and "

text: The Lodger

text: ", were filmed with their respective episodes. The first scenes filmed for "The Big Bang" were shot in the

text: TARDIS

text: set, including the very last scene. The beginning of the episode, in which the fez-wearing Doctor from the future confronts Rory, was filmed on 5 February 2010 at

text: Margam Country Park

text: Port Talbot

text: . As it was filmed near the end of production of the series, "The Big Bang" had a smaller effects budget than other episodes, but this was compensated with cinematic lighting. The TARDIS appears in the

text: time vortex

text: during the ending credits, an idea of director

text: Toby Haynes

text: The institution was founded in 1749, but was preceded by an observatory built by astronomy professor Anders Spole (the grandfather of Anders Celsius) in 1672, which was destroyed at the Battle of Lund in 1676.  The now old observatory from 1867 is located in a cultural-heritage protected observatory park just outside the medieval city boundaries.  The current Lund Observatory location is in a new building on the northern campus of Lund University, inaugurated in 2001.  The history of astronomy in Lund through five centuries is told in the book Lundaögon mot stjärnorna

text: The institution was founded in 1749, but was preceded by an observatory built by astronomy professor

text: Anders Spole

text: (the grandfather of

text: Anders Celsius

text: ) in 1672, which was destroyed at the

text: Battle of Lund

text: in 1676.  The now old observatory from 1867 is located in a cultural-heritage protected observatory park just outside the medieval city boundaries.  The current Lund Observatory location is in a new building on the northern campus of

text: Lund University

text: , inaugurated in 2001.  The history of astronomy in Lund through five centuries is told in the book Lundaögon mot stjärnorna

text: Visible-light astronomy encompasses a wide variety of observations via telescopes that are sensitive in the range of visible light (optical telescopes).  It includes imaging, where a picture of some sort is made of the object; photometry, where the amount of light coming from an object is measured, spectroscopy, where the distribution of that light with respect to its wavelength is measured, and polarimetry where the polarisation state of that light is measured.  An example of spectroscopy is the study of spectral lines to understand of what kind of matter light is going through. Visible astronomy also includes looking up at night (skygazing).  Visible-light astronomy is part of optical astronomy, and differs from astronomies based on invisible types of light in the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, such as radio waves, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, X-ray waves and gamma-ray waves.

text: Visible-light astronomy encompasses a wide variety of

text: observation

text: s via

text: telescope

text: s that are sensitive in the range of

text: visible light

text: optical telescope

text: s).  It includes imaging, where a picture of some sort is made of the object;

text: photometry

text: , where the amount of light coming from an object is measured,

text: spectroscopy

text: , where the distribution of that light with respect to its

text: wavelength

text: is measured, and

text: polarimetry

text: where the

text: polarisation

text: state of that light is measured.  An example of

text: spectroscopy

text: is the study of

text: spectral line

text: s to understand of what kind of

text: matter

text: light is going through. Visible astronomy also includes looking up at night (

text: skygazing

text: ).  Visible-light astronomy is part of optical astronomy, and differs from astronomies based on invisible types of light in the

text: electromagnetic radiation spectrum

text: , such as

text: radio waves

text: infrared waves

text: ultraviolet waves

text: X-ray waves

text: and

text: gamma-ray waves

text: In astronomy, a syzygy (; from the Ancient Greek σύζυγος suzugos meaning, "yoked together") is a straight-line configuration of three celestial bodies in a gravitational system.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , a syzygy (; from the

text: Ancient Greek

text: σύζυγος suzugos meaning, "yoked together") is a straight-line configuration of three

text: celestial bodies

text: in a gravitational system.

text: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Latin for Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), often referred to as simply the Principia, is a work in three books by Isaac Newton, in Latin, first published 5 July 1687. After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton also published two further editions, in 1713 and 1726. The Principia states Newton's laws of motion, forming the foundation of classical mechanics; Newton's law of universal gravitation; and a derivation of Kepler's laws of planetary motion (which Kepler first obtained empirically). The Principia is "justly regarded as one of the most important works in the history of science".

text: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (

text: Latin

text: for Mathematical Principles of

text: Natural Philosophy

text: ), often referred to as simply the Principia, is a work in three books by

text: Isaac Newton

text: , in Latin, first published 5 July 1687. After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton also published two further editions, in 1713 and 1726. The Principia states

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: , forming the foundation of

text: classical mechanics

text: Newton's law of universal gravitation

text: ; and a derivation of

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: (which

text: Kepler

text: first obtained

text: empirically

text: ). The Principia is "justly regarded as one of the most important works in the history of science".

text: In the early Joseon period, the Islamic calendar served as a basis for calendar reform owing to its superior accuracy over the existing Chinese-based calendars. A Korean translation of the Huihui Lifa "Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy", a text combining Chinese astronomy with the zij works of Jamal al-Din, was studied during the time of Sejong the Great in the 15th century. The tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy survived in Korea up until the early 19th century.

text: In the early

text: Joseon

text: period, the

text: Islamic calendar

text: Huihui Lifa

text: "Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy", a text combining

text: Chinese astronomy

text: with the

text: zij

text: works of

text: Jamal al-Din

text: , was studied during the time of

text: Sejong the Great

text: Sagredo added a scale to Galileo's thermoscope to enable the quantitative measurement of temperature, and produced more convenient portable thermometers. Sagredo also discussed with Galileo the possibility of a telescope using a mirror (a reflecting telescope).  Galileo honoured him after his death by making him one of the characters in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems discussing the Copernican and the  Ptolemaic theories of astronomy.

text: Sagredo added a scale to Galileo's

text: thermoscope

text: to enable the quantitative measurement of

text: temperature

text: , and produced more convenient portable

text: thermometer

text: s. Sagredo also discussed with Galileo the possibility of a telescope using a mirror (a

text: reflecting telescope

text: ).  Galileo honoured him after his death by making him one of the characters in

text: discussing the

text: Copernican

text: and the

text: Ptolemaic

text: theories of astronomy.

text: Possibly his most significant contribution to the history of science was his defense of Galileo's experiments as documented in his published Two New Sciences and in his manuscript notes.  Drake showed how the complex interaction of experimental measurement and mathematical analysis led Galileo to his law of falling bodies. This refuted Alexandre Koyré's claim that experiment played no significant part in Galileo's thought.

text: Possibly his most significant contribution to the

text: history of science

text: was his defense of Galileo's experiments as documented in his published

text: Two New Sciences

text: and in his manuscript notes.  Drake showed how the complex interaction of

text: experimental measurement

text: and mathematical analysis led Galileo to his

text: law of falling bodies

text: . This refuted

text: Alexandre Koyré's

text: claim that experiment played no significant part in Galileo's thought.

text: The Big Bang Theory is an American situation comedy created, produced, and written by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady. The show premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007, and the tenth season premiered on September 19, 2016.

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: is an American situation comedy created, produced, and written by

text: Chuck Lorre

text: and

text: Bill Prady

text: . The show

text: premiered

text: on CBS on September 24, 2007, and the

text: tenth season

text: premiered on September 19, 2016.

text: 2 Detroit Diesel 16V92 main engines.

text: 2 Detroit Diesel 16V92 main engines.

text: "Taps" originates from the Dutch taptoe, meaning "close the (beer) taps (and send the troops back to camp)".  An alternative explanation, however, is that it carried over from a term already in use before the American Civil War.  Three single, slow drum beats were struck after the sounding of the Tattoo or "Extinguish Lights".  This signal was known as the "Drum Taps", "The Taps", or simply as "Taps" in soldier's slang.

text: "Taps" originates from the Dutch

text: taptoe

text: , meaning "close the (beer) taps (and send the troops back to camp)".  An alternative explanation, however, is that it carried over from a term already in use before the American Civil War.  Three single, slow drum beats were struck after the sounding of the Tattoo or "Extinguish Lights".  This signal was known as the "Drum Taps", "The Taps", or simply as "Taps" in soldier's slang.

text: The album's release went largely unnoticed at the time. However, the single "Boston" was used during an episode of the CW series One Tree Hill in 2006 and propelled the band into national prominence. As a result, the song was used in several other MTV and VH1 shows, and Augustana was selected as a "You Oughta Know" band by VH1. The album was then selectively re-released September 12, 2006. "Boston" continued to be used on television into 2007, including in episodes of the series Scrubs, Shark, and The Big Bang Theory.

text: The album's release went largely unnoticed at the time. However, the single "

text: Boston

text: " was used during an episode of the

text: CW

text: series

text: One Tree Hill

text: in 2006 and propelled the band into national prominence. As a result, the song was used in several other

text: MTV

text: and

text: shows, and Augustana was selected as a "You Oughta Know" band by VH1. The album was then selectively re-released September 12, 2006. "Boston" continued to be used on television into 2007, including in episodes of the series

text: Scrubs

text: Shark

text: , and

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: is convex-valued. Similarly to above, if

text: Not surprisingly, the S&M overtones of the video caused controversy. Devo was cut from a January 30, 1981, appearance on the television show The Midnight Special hosted by Lily Tomlin. After viewing the video Tomlin deemed it offensive to women, and according to Gerald Casale, "She promptly cancelled us off the special, she said she wouldn't go on if Devo was on her show." Despite this, "Whip It" received heavy rotation on MTV after its introduction in 1981.

text: Not surprisingly, the

text: S&M

text: overtones of the video caused controversy. Devo was cut from a January 30, 1981, appearance on the television show

text: The Midnight Special

text: hosted by

text: Lily Tomlin

text: . After viewing the video Tomlin deemed it offensive to women, and according to Gerald Casale, "She promptly cancelled us off the special, she said she wouldn't go on if Devo was on her show." Despite this, "Whip It" received heavy rotation on

text: MTV

text: after its introduction in 1981.

text: On October 25, 2007, Cedar Fair renamed the park California's Great America. For the 2008 season, the park saw the addition of a Huss Rides top spin ride called FireFall, a new ice show in the "Great America Theatre" (formerly The Paramount Theatre), and the addition of the Halloween Haunt event to the park.

text: On October 25, 2007, Cedar Fair renamed the park California's Great America. For the 2008 season, the park saw the addition of a

text: Huss Rides

text: top spin ride called FireFall, a new ice show in the "Great America Theatre" (formerly The Paramount Theatre), and the addition of the Halloween Haunt event to the park.

text: Horton appeared for the Worcestershire second team in minor counties cricket in 1950. He died in Worcester at the age of 83.

text: Horton appeared for the Worcestershire second team in

entity_name: Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket

text: minor counties

text: cricket in 1950. He died in

text: Worcester

text: at the age of 83.

text: "Start Talking Love"

text: "Start Talking Love"

text: Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure uses the term, "restoratory", for a group of six motions that restored or brought a question back before the assembly: Expunge, Ratify, Rescind, Reconsider, Reconsider and Enter, and Take from the table. These "restoratory" motions are quasi-main motions that restore the status quo of a question; that is, they bring a question back to its original status—as it was prior to the last vote on it.

entity_name: Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure

text: Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure

text: uses the term, "restoratory", for a group of six motions that restored or brought a question back before the assembly: Expunge, Ratify, Rescind, Reconsider, Reconsider and Enter, and Take from the table. These "restoratory" motions are quasi-main motions that restore the status quo of a question; that is, they bring a question back to its original status—as it was prior to the last vote on it.

text: In June 2016, the Wrestling Observer reported that Mackle had signed with WWE to perform on their NXT brand. Various websites then reported that he is due to start in October. WhatCulture confirmed Mackle to be an NXT recruit. On October 19, 2016, it was announced by WWE that Mackle had signed a developmental contract with the company and had arrived at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida. On November 4, Mackle appeared on a NXT house show and cut a promo. On November 11, at a house show in St. Augustine, Florida, Mackle made his in-ring debut, under the O'Connor ring name, defeating Rich Swann. He then defeated Kishan Raftar on November 12 in Cocoa Beach. After a few more house shows, O'Connor would simply be known under the ring name, Damo.

text: In June 2016, the Wrestling Observer reported that Mackle had signed with WWE to perform on their

text: NXT

text: brand. Various websites then reported that he is due to start in October. WhatCulture confirmed Mackle to be an NXT recruit. On October 19, 2016, it was announced by WWE that Mackle had signed a developmental contract with the company and had arrived at the

text: WWE Performance Center

text: in

text: Orlando, Florida

text: . On November 4, Mackle appeared on a NXT

text: house show

text: and cut a promo. On November 11, at a house show in

text: St. Augustine, Florida

text: , Mackle made his in-ring debut, under the O'Connor ring name, defeating

text: Rich Swann

text: . He then defeated Kishan Raftar on November 12 in

text: Cocoa Beach

text: . After a few more house shows, O'Connor would simply be known under the ring name, Damo.

text: Badenoch and his wife emigrated to Canada in January 1910, reuniting with other members of the Badenoch family in Indian Head, Saskatchewan. He returned to Britain with his family in 1913 and the following year, after the outbreak of the First World War, enlisted as a private in the 1st (Western Ontario) Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. He was posted to France with his regiment in February 1915 and saw action at St. Julien and Kitcheners' Wood. Badenoch was killed on 15 June 1915 during the Second Action of Givenchy. He is commemorated on the Vimy Memorial.

text: Badenoch and his wife emigrated to

text: Canada

text: in January 1910, reuniting with other members of the Badenoch family in

text: Indian Head, Saskatchewan

text: . He returned to Britain with his family in 1913 and the following year, after the outbreak of the

text: First World War

text: , enlisted as a

text: private

text: in the

text: 1st (Western Ontario) Battalion

text: of the

text: Canadian Expeditionary Force

text: . He was posted to France with his regiment in February 1915 and saw action at

text: St. Julien

text: and

text: Kitcheners' Wood

text: . Badenoch was killed on 15 June 1915 during the

text: Second Action of Givenchy

text: . He is commemorated on the

text: Vimy Memorial

text: Her name appeared extensively in the international press following the murder of Terre'Blanche on 3 April 2010. In an exclusive interview with the Daily Mail she revealed "I suppose at some level I always thought he would come to a very violent end. He lived a violent existence and I knew he wasn't going to die peacefully in bed. I think he knew it too." She also told the newspaper that she believed his murder was politically orchestrated. In 2012, Terre'Blanche's widow, Martie denied allegations of an affair between her late husband and Allan. Allan also reasserted that she believed affair allegations were orchestrated by South African intelligence services. Despite defending affair claims she made, Linda Shaw also agreed with Allan's assertion that intelligence services used the story to discredit Terre'Blanche and the far-right movement.

text: Her name appeared extensively in the international press following the murder of Terre'Blanche on 3 April 2010. In an exclusive interview with the

text: Daily Mail

text: she revealed "I suppose at some level I always thought he would come to a very violent end. He lived a violent existence and I knew he wasn't going to die peacefully in bed. I think he knew it too." She also told the newspaper that she believed his murder was politically orchestrated. In 2012, Terre'Blanche's widow, Martie denied allegations of an affair between her late husband and Allan. Allan also reasserted that she believed affair allegations were orchestrated by South African intelligence services. Despite defending affair claims she made, Linda Shaw also agreed with Allan's assertion that intelligence services used the story to discredit Terre'Blanche and the far-right movement.

text: Gregorio Morales represents a movement named quantum aesthetics that aims to look at human difficulties of all ages from a new perspective that solely derives from modern sciences such as particle physics, astronomy or psychology. In this way, Puerta del Sol (The Sun Door) (2002) is about love and genre violence. These themes are developed in a plot in which the boy representing the main character, faces the great assassin that he himself will be; and the adult murderer will face the little boy he was. These actions occur in a turbulent simultaneity of time and space. In Nómadas del Tiempo (Nomads of Time) (2005), Morales deals with the same problems, but this time inquires whether love is necessarily bound to age and space. He develops the story by having two couples travel to parallel dimensions, in which they change their ages and circumstances.

text: Gregorio Morales represents a movement named

text: quantum aesthetics

text: that aims to look at human difficulties of all ages from a new perspective that solely derives from modern sciences such as

text: particle physics

text: astronomy

text: or

text: psychology

text: . In this way, Puerta del Sol (The Sun Door) (2002) is about love and genre violence. These themes are developed in a plot in which the boy representing the main character, faces the great assassin that he himself will be; and the adult murderer will face the little boy he was. These actions occur in a turbulent simultaneity of time and space. In Nómadas del Tiempo (Nomads of Time) (2005), Morales deals with the same problems, but this time inquires whether love is necessarily bound to age and space. He develops the story by having two couples travel to parallel dimensions, in which they change their ages and circumstances.

text: In scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable, however common it might be, even if it requires the use of instrumentation to observe, record, or compile data concerning it. For example, in physics, a phenomenon may be described by a system of information related to matter, energy, or spacetime, such as Isaac Newton's observations of the moon's orbit and of gravity, or Galileo Galilei's observations of the motion of a pendulum.

text: In scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable, however common it might be, even if it requires the use of instrumentation to observe, record, or compile data concerning it. For example, in

text: physics

text: , a phenomenon may be described by a system of

text: information

text: related to

text: matter

text: energy

text: , or

text: spacetime

text: , such as

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's observations of the

text: moon

text: 's orbit and of

text: gravity

text: , or

text: Galileo Galilei

text: 's observations of the motion of a

text: pendulum

text: The DVJP was founded in 1988.

text: The DVJP was founded in 1988.

text: Östberg began his career with Östansbo IS, before signing a professional contract with Ludvika FK. He also played with IFK Norrköping, before moving to England to play with then Second Division club Stoke City. He never made it into the senior squad, however played a game for the Youth Team, which they lost 3–1 to Walsall. However Östberg became a victim of the new transfer laws regarding international players, and as a result had to be released by Stoke.

text: Östberg began his career with Östansbo IS, before signing a professional contract with

text: Ludvika FK

text: . He also played with

text: IFK Norrköping

text: , before moving to

text: England

text: to play with then

text: Second Division

text: club

text: Stoke City

text: . He never made it into the senior squad, however played a game for the Youth Team, which they lost 3–1 to

text: Walsall

text: . However Östberg became a victim of the new transfer laws regarding international players, and as a result had to be released by Stoke.

text: Lost in a Fairy Tale is the first collection of poems written in the English language in Yemen. It was published on March 19, 2011 which is Yemeni Journalism Day. Yet, the book signing ceremony was held at the Change Square in Sana'a on April 10, 2011. The collection wrote by the Yemeni journalist Raghda Gamal. The collection contains 33 poems across nine chapters which revolve around relationships, friendship, family, home, passion, frustration, grief and the inner thoughts of any Arab woman.

text: Lost in a Fairy Tale is the first collection of

text: poem

text: s written in the

text: English language

text: in

text: Yemen

text: . It was published on March 19, 2011 which is Yemeni Journalism Day. Yet, the book signing ceremony was held at the Change Square in

text: Sana'a

text: on April 10, 2011. The collection wrote by the Yemeni journalist

text: Raghda Gamal

text: . The collection contains 33 poems across nine chapters which revolve around relationships, friendship, family, home, passion, frustration, grief and the inner thoughts of any Arab woman.

text: Lightoller returned to the Primrose Hill for his third voyage. They arrived in Calcutta, India, where he passed his second mate's certificate. The cargo of coal caught fire while he was serving as third mate on board the windjammer Knight of St. Michael, and for his successful efforts in fighting the fire and saving the ship, Lightoller was promoted to second mate.

text: Lightoller returned to the Primrose Hill for his third voyage. They arrived in

text: Calcutta

text: India

text: , where he passed his

text: second mate

text: 's certificate. The cargo of coal caught fire while he was serving as

text: third mate

text: on board the

text: windjammer

text: Knight of St. Michael, and for his successful efforts in fighting the fire and saving the ship, Lightoller was promoted to second mate.

text: The Big Bang Theory.

text: The Big Bang Theory

text: The Supreme Court  established the judicial precedent for suspect classifications in the cases of Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81  and Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). The Supreme Court recognizes race, national origin, religion and alienage as suspect classes; it therefore analyzes any government action that discriminates against these classes under strict scrutiny.

text: The Supreme Court  established the judicial precedent for suspect classifications in the cases of

text: Hirabayashi v. United States

text: , 320 U.S. 81  and

text: Korematsu v. United States

text: , 323 U.S. 214 (1944). The Supreme Court recognizes

text: race

text: national origin

text: religion

text: and alienage as suspect classes; it therefore analyzes any government action that discriminates against these classes under

text: strict scrutiny

text: While Sakai, Nakanishi, and scientist Professor Miura are discussing the egg at a hotel, they discover Kumayama checking in. Kumayama meets with Jiro Torahata, the head of Happy Enterprises. They are unexpectedly confronted by tiny twin girls known as the Shobijin and try to capture them.  The Shobijin escape and meet with Sakai, Nakanishi and Professor Miura. They explain that the egg belongs to Mothra. If the egg hatches, the larva (though they have no quarrel with man) will still cause great damage looking for food. The trio agree to help.

text: While Sakai, Nakanishi, and scientist Professor Miura are discussing the egg at a hotel, they discover Kumayama checking in. Kumayama meets with Jiro Torahata, the head of Happy Enterprises. They are unexpectedly confronted by tiny twin girls known as the Shobijin and try to capture them.  The Shobijin escape and meet with Sakai, Nakanishi and Professor Miura. They explain that the egg belongs to

text: Mothra

text: . If the egg hatches, the larva (though they have no quarrel with man) will still cause great damage looking for food. The trio agree to help.

text: File:Roekelseskar.jpg|Hand censerFile:Brass Incense Burner.JPG|Brass incense burner at Jaffna museum, Sri Lanka.File:PaoAnGongCenser.jpg|A large censer in front of the Taipei Baoan temple

text: File:Roekelseskar.jpg|Hand censerFile:Brass Incense Burner.JPG|Brass incense burner at Jaffna museum, Sri Lanka.File:PaoAnGongCenser.jpg|A large censer in front of the

text: Taipei Baoan

text: temple

text: The fortress defended Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, and remained the strongest fortress protecting the city, withstanding artillery bombardments that lasted several months. The surrender of the fortress was one of the main clauses of the armistice signed by the Government of National Defense with Otto von Bismarck on 17 January 1871, allowing the Germans to occupy the strongest part of Paris' defences in exchange for shipments of food into the starving city.

text: The fortress defended Paris during the

text: Franco-Prussian War

text: , and remained the strongest fortress protecting the city, withstanding

text: artillery

text: bombardments that lasted several months. The surrender of the fortress was one of the main clauses of the

text: armistice

text: signed by the

text: Government of National Defense

text: with

text: Otto von Bismarck

text: on 17 January 1871, allowing the Germans to occupy the strongest part of Paris' defences in exchange for shipments of food into the starving city.

text: We all dance there, we all dance there

text: We all dance there, we all dance there

text: On March 13, 1996, a large part of the cathedral collapsed: four of the piers of the southern side of the nave, one of the four piers supporting the dome, the entire roof and vault of the nave, three quarters of the drum and the dome with the lantern, the roof of the south arm of the transept, with many of the cupolas and much of the roof of the right aisle.

text: On March 13, 1996, a large part of the cathedral collapsed: four of the piers of the southern side of the

text: nave

text: , one of the four piers supporting the dome, the entire

text: roof

text: and

text: vault

text: of the nave, three quarters of the drum and the dome with the lantern, the roof of the south arm of the

text: transept

text: , with many of the cupolas and much of the roof of the right aisle.

text: Additional office usage

text: Additional office usage

text: In 2008, Metamorphoses was named one of the top ten productions of the year by Lavender Magazine  and the set design for Killer Joe named among the best of 2008 by City Pages. In April 2009, Theatre Pro Rata produced David Hare's translation of Bertolt Brecht's The Life of Galileo, coinciding with the International Year of Astronomy and featuring a gender-blind cast led by Noë Tallen in the title role.

text: In 2008, Metamorphoses was named one of the top ten productions of the year by

text: Lavender Magazine

text: and the set design for Killer Joe named among the best of 2008 by

text: City Pages

text: . In April 2009, Theatre Pro Rata produced

text: David Hare

text: 's translation of

text: Bertolt Brecht

text: 's

text: The Life of Galileo

text: , coinciding with the

text: International Year of Astronomy

text: and featuring a gender-blind cast led by Noë Tallen in the title role.

text: The Aces were founded in 2007 into the PEI Junior C Hockey League. They won the league championship in their first season, finishing with only a single loss over the regular season and playoffs. They have been historically the most successful team in the league, winning six championships in their eight years.

text: In 1522, after the rebuilding of St. Peter ad Vincula, a tomb was built in the church covered by effigies of Cholmeley and his wife. The monument is one of the oldest in the chapel, where many famous people who were executed at the Tower are buried.  The alabaster effigies lie fenced in ironwork under the central arcade.

text: The idea for the song came from a kite-flying outing on Killiney Hill overlooking Dublin Bay that Bono attempted with his daughters.  The outing went quickly awry when the kite crashed and one of the girls asked to go home and play a video game. Guitarist the Edge assisted Bono in writing the lyrics and felt they were actually about Bono's emotionally-reserved father, Bob Hewson, who was dying of cancer at the time: "[Bono] couldn't see it, but I could." Bono recalled a similarly ill-fated kite-flying outing in his own childhood with his father in the County Dublin seaside towns of Skerries or Rush.

text: The idea for the song came from a

text: kite

text: -flying outing on

text: Killiney Hill

text: overlooking

text: Dublin Bay

text: that

text: Bono

text: attempted with his daughters.  The outing went quickly awry when the kite crashed and one of the girls asked to go home and play a

text: video game

text: . Guitarist

text: the Edge

text: assisted Bono in writing the lyrics and felt they were actually about Bono's emotionally-reserved father,

text: Bob Hewson

text: , who was dying of cancer at the time: "[Bono] couldn't see it, but I could." Bono recalled a similarly ill-fated kite-flying outing in his own childhood with his father in the

text: County Dublin

text: seaside towns of

text: Skerries

text: or

text: Rush

text: In 2015, Christmas Jumper Day took place on Friday, 18 December.

text: Indigenous Peoples of the Americas were very well organized and survived off the lands which were tied to their Hereditary Chief Names.  Each House would have a Hereditary Chief Name and with the out line of their Traditional Territory and Shared Territories.  The House Group was responsible for their Homeland and took care of their own families and communities.  Laws governing what took place on the land were decided by the Hereditary Chief in Meetings.

text: Linda Katherine Zwordling (Andrea Anders) is in the testing department at Veridian. Originally from Wisconsin where she used to work in cheese-making, she seems to desire a relationship with Ted, but is frustrated by his "one office affair" rule (though this is finally resolved in the series finale). She refuses to compromise her principles and is often the team's moral center. She always speaks her mind, and doesn't seem to mind offending people. She is often seen engaged in minor acts of rebellion against the company which she rationalizes as necessary to keep her sane, such as a recurring joke in the first two episodes of season 1 involving her stealing coffee creamer packages from the company coffee machines. She also finds herself, against her will, looking to Veronica as a mentor.

text: Linda Katherine Zwordling (

text: Andrea Anders

text: ) is in the testing department at Veridian. Originally from Wisconsin where she used to work in cheese-making, she seems to desire a relationship with Ted, but is frustrated by his "one office affair" rule (though this is finally resolved in the series finale). She refuses to compromise her principles and is often the team's moral center. She always speaks her mind, and doesn't seem to mind offending people. She is often seen engaged in minor acts of rebellion against the company which she rationalizes as necessary to keep her sane, such as a recurring joke in the first two episodes of season 1 involving her stealing coffee creamer packages from the company coffee machines. She also finds herself, against her will, looking to Veronica as a mentor.

text: Meanwhile, Judson Fletcher, a drunkard and a womanizer still pursued Peggy Ashford McLean, the wife of his friend Seth McLean, whom he had courted before her marriage. Judson lived with his father on Sermon Hill, a large tobacco plantation on the Rappahannock River in northern Virginia. During a great rebellion of slaves Peggy was raped, Seth killed; Angus Fletcher, opposed to Judson's defense of black slaves (and his accusation of white violence that caused it) and his way of life, and put his son out of house.

text: Meanwhile, Judson Fletcher, a drunkard and a womanizer still pursued Peggy Ashford McLean, the wife of his friend Seth McLean, whom he had courted before her marriage. Judson lived with his father on Sermon Hill, a large tobacco plantation on the

text: Rappahannock River

text: in northern

text: Virginia

text: . During a great rebellion of slaves Peggy was raped, Seth killed; Angus Fletcher, opposed to Judson's defense of black slaves (and his accusation of white violence that caused it) and his way of life, and put his son out of house.

text: Specific events hosted by Wilson have supported prostate cancer, David Foster Foundation Right to Play, Little Warriors, Boomer's Legacy, 777 Run for Sight and Dare to Care and the Veterans' Food Bank. He is helping out the Tomorrow Project, a large research project to discover more about the causes of cancer and related prevention techniques. He is active on funding research into the issue of domestic abuse and has funded the Wilson Centre for Domestic Abuse Studies at the Calgary Counselling Centre. He is a supporter of the Canadian Olympic Swim Team. He also supports the sport of volleyball through the Rally Pointe volleyball centre in Calgary. He is a strong mental health advocate and supporter of programs that treatment of eating disorders.

text: Specific events hosted by Wilson have supported prostate cancer,

text: David Foster Foundation

text: Right to Play, Little Warriors, Boomer's Legacy, 777 Run for Sight and Dare to Care and the Veterans' Food Bank. He is helping out the Tomorrow Project, a large research project to discover more about the causes of cancer and related prevention techniques. He is active on funding research into the issue of domestic abuse and has funded the

text: Wilson Centre for Domestic Abuse Studies

text: at the

text: Calgary Counselling Centre

text: . He is a supporter of the Canadian Olympic Swim Team. He also supports the sport of

text: volleyball

text: through the Rally Pointe volleyball centre in

text: Calgary

text: . He is a strong mental health advocate and supporter of programs that treatment of eating disorders.

text: USC did well in the 2007 draft; ten players were taken overall, the most of any school, and a school-record seven players were selected in the first two rounds, beating the previous record of five (1968 and 2006) and the most in the first round. The first round selections were Ellis (seventh, New Orleans Saints), Rivers (ninth, Cincinnati Bengals), Baker (21st, Atlanta Falcons) and Jackson (28th, Seattle Seahawks); the second round picks were Rachal (39th, San Francisco 49ers), Davis (48th, Washington Redskins) and Thomas (63rd, New York Giants); the fifth round selections were Booty (137th, Minnesota Vikings) and Williams (155th, Jacksonville Jaguars); in the seventh round Washington was selected 213th by the Jacksonville Jaguars.  Radovich signed as an undrafted free agent with the Minnesota Vikings; Spanos signed with the Miami Dolphins.

text: USC did well in the 2007 draft; ten players were taken overall, the most of any school, and a school-record seven players were selected in the first two rounds, beating the previous record of five (1968 and 2006) and the most in the first round. The first round selections were Ellis (seventh,

text: New Orleans Saints

text: ), Rivers (ninth,

text: Cincinnati Bengals

text: ), Baker (21st,

text: Atlanta Falcons

text: ) and Jackson (28th,

text: Seattle Seahawks

text: ); the second round picks were Rachal (39th,

text: San Francisco 49ers

text: ), Davis (48th,

text: Washington Redskins

text: ) and Thomas (63rd,

text: New York Giants

text: ); the fifth round selections were Booty (137th,

text: Minnesota Vikings

text: ) and Williams (155th,

text: Jacksonville Jaguars

text: ); in the seventh round Washington was selected 213th by the Jacksonville Jaguars.  Radovich signed as an

text: undrafted free agent

text: with the Minnesota Vikings; Spanos signed with the

text: Miami Dolphins

text: When Doom unmasked no one was really surprised to see Ron Simmons and Butch Reed underneath the black hoods, they had both been on WCW television shortly before Doom debuted and they were the only two African-American wrestlers in the federation that had the same massive physical appearance. Freed of the masks and now under management of former referee "The Godfather" Teddy Long, Doom began to prosper. Being free to use their full move sets and not trying to hide who they were, Doom earned another shot at the Steiner Brothers.

text: When Doom unmasked no one was really surprised to see Ron Simmons and Butch Reed underneath the black hoods, they had both been on WCW television shortly before Doom debuted and they were the only two African-American wrestlers in the federation that had the same massive physical appearance. Freed of the masks and now under management of former referee "The Godfather"

text: Teddy Long

text: , Doom began to prosper. Being free to use their full move sets and not trying to hide who they were, Doom earned another shot at the Steiner Brothers.

text: This paradox is explained by the fact that the Big Bang theory also involves the expansion of space, which can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via redshift. More specifically, the extreme levels of radiation from the Big Bang have been redshifted to microwave wavelengths (1100 times the length of its original wavelength) as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus forms the cosmic microwave background radiation. This explains the relatively low light densities present in most of our sky despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and quasars, but the diminution is minor, since the most distant galaxies and quasars have redshifts of only around 5 to 8.6.

text: This paradox is explained by the fact that the Big Bang theory also involves the expansion of space, which can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via

text: redshift

text: . More specifically, the extreme levels of radiation from the

text: Big Bang

text: have been redshifted to microwave wavelengths (1100 times the length of its original wavelength) as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus forms the

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: . This explains the relatively low light densities present in most of our sky despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and

text: quasar

text: s, but the diminution is minor, since

entity_name: List of the most distant astronomical objects

text: the most distant galaxies and quasars

text: have redshifts of only around 5 to 8.6.

text: Champagnole is a commune in the Jura department in Franche-Comté in eastern France.

text: Champagnole is a

text: commune

text: in the

text: Jura

text: department

text: in

text: Franche-Comté

text: in eastern

text: France

text: Saenius was probably the son of a senator of the same name who had achieved no high offices. Saenius was considered to be one of the men who owed their career completely to Octavianus and whom Octavian could use as a tool for his own purposes. In 30 BC, Saenius was appointed consul suffectus. During his time in office he issued the Lex Saenia, which regulated the adlection of plebeians to the patriciate by means of a lex curiata (or law passed by the Curiate Assembly). He also intervened in protecting Junia Secunda, who was accused by Gaius Maecenas of being involved in the conspiracy led by her son, Lepidus the Younger, against Octavianus.

text: Saenius was probably the son of a senator of the same name who had achieved no high offices. Saenius was considered to be one of the men who owed their career completely to

text: Octavianus

text: and whom Octavian could use as a tool for his own purposes. In 30 BC, Saenius was appointed

text: consul suffectus

text: . During his time in office he issued the

text: Lex Saenia

text: , which regulated the

text: adlection

text: of

text: plebeian

text: s to the

text: patriciate

text: by means of a lex curiata (or law passed by the

text: Curiate Assembly

text: ). He also intervened in protecting

text: Junia Secunda

text: , who was accused by

text: Gaius Maecenas

text: of being involved in the conspiracy led by her son,

text: Lepidus the Younger

text: , against Octavianus.

text: George Martin was away so his assistant Chris Thomas produced the session. His memory is that the song was mostly Paul's: "Paul was the first one in, and he was playing the 'Birthday' riff. Eventually the others arrived, by which time Paul had literally written the song, right there in the studio." Everyone in the studio sang in the chorus and it was 5 am by the time the final mono mix was completed.

text: George Martin was away so his assistant

text: Chris Thomas

text: produced the session. His memory is that the song was mostly Paul's: "Paul was the first one in, and he was playing the 'Birthday' riff. Eventually the others arrived, by which time Paul had literally written the song, right there in the studio." Everyone in the studio sang in the chorus and it was 5 am by the time the final

text: mono

text: mix was completed.

text: High Halstow Halt was a Halt between Cliffe and Sharnal Street stations on the Hundred of Hoo Railway. It was opened in July 1906 and closed to passengers on 4 December 1961. The halt was 1¾ miles from Cliffe station.

text: High Halstow Halt was a Halt between Cliffe and Sharnal Street stations on the

text: Hundred of Hoo Railway

text: . It was opened in July 1906 and closed to passengers on 4 December 1961. The halt was 1¾ miles from Cliffe station.

text: CUP SEVENTH V EIGHTH FINAL:

text: CUP SEVENTH V EIGHTH FINAL:

text: With the consolidation of many ITV companies throughout the 1990s, continuity was often shared between regions as a cost-cutting measure, with the Granada plc companies sharing a continuity announcer (but with different logos) from the late 1990s until all ITV Plc regions shared the same continuity from 2002 onwards. UTV and STV still continue with separate continuity most of the time, with Channel Television occasionally showing its own pre-recorded continuity in place of the network ITV1 branded material.

text: With the consolidation of many ITV companies throughout the 1990s, continuity was often shared between regions as a cost-cutting measure, with the

text: Granada plc

text: companies sharing a continuity announcer (but with different logos) from the late 1990s until all ITV Plc regions shared the same continuity from 2002 onwards.

text: UTV

text: and

text: STV

text: still continue with separate continuity most of the time, with Channel Television occasionally showing its own pre-recorded continuity in place of the network

text: branded material.

text: The Allmusic review by Lindsay Planer noted "The trademark brash and stylistic covers run the gamut from the robust and harmonically intense opener "Dancing in the Dark," to the equally complex structure of the hauntingly gorgeous "Sophisticated Lady." There is also a remake of the Kenton classic "Eager Beaver," which had been his first significant hit back in 1943. Particularly notable is the exhilarating and slightly tropical rendering of "Temptation," which is awash in the chic 'space age bachelor pad' vibe of heavily provocative percussion".

text: The

text: Allmusic

text: review by Lindsay Planer noted "The trademark brash and stylistic covers run the gamut from the robust and harmonically intense opener "Dancing in the Dark," to the equally complex structure of the hauntingly gorgeous "Sophisticated Lady." There is also a remake of the Kenton classic "Eager Beaver," which had been his first significant hit back in 1943. Particularly notable is the exhilarating and slightly tropical rendering of "Temptation," which is awash in the chic 'space age bachelor pad' vibe of heavily provocative percussion".

text: Pole made his Major League debut on August 3, 1973, starting the second game of a doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles. He surrendered six runs in 3⅔ innings pitched and received the loss, as the Orioles won 8–2. He remained with the team, and spent the next four seasons moving between the rotation and the bullpen for the Red Sox.

text: Pole made his Major League debut on August 3, 1973, starting the second game of a

text: doubleheader

text: against the

text: Baltimore Orioles

text: . He surrendered six runs in 3⅔ innings pitched and received the loss, as the Orioles won 8–2. He remained with the team, and spent the next four seasons moving between the rotation and the bullpen for the Red Sox.

text: Twi (pronounced ) or Asante Twi, is spoken by 6–9 million Ashanti people as a first language and second language.  Twi (or Asante Twi) is a common name for two former literary dialects of the Akan language, Asante (Ashanti) and Akuapem, which are mutually intelligible. There are about 9 million Twi speakers, mainly in Ashanti Region. Akuapem Twi was the first Akan dialect to be used for Bible translation, and became the prestige dialect as a result.

text: Twi (pronounced ) or Asante Twi, is spoken by 6–9 million

text: Ashanti people

text: as a

text: first language

text: and

text: second language

text: .  Twi (or Asante Twi) is a common name for two former literary dialects of the

text: Akan language

text: Asante

text: (Ashanti) and

text: Akuapem

text: , which are mutually intelligible. There are about 9 million Twi speakers, mainly in

text: Ashanti Region

text: . Akuapem Twi was the first Akan dialect to be used for Bible translation, and became the prestige dialect as a result.

text: De sphaera mundi (Latin title meaning On the Sphere of the World, sometimes rendered The Sphere of the Cosmos; the Latin title is also given as Tractatus de sphaera, Textus de sphaera, or simply De sphaera) is a medieval introduction to the basic elements of astronomy written by Johannes de Sacrobosco (John of Holywood) c. 1230. Based heavily on Ptolemy's Almagest, and drawing additional ideas from Islamic astronomy, it was one of the most influential works of pre-Copernican astronomy in Europe.

text: De sphaera mundi (

text: Latin

text: title meaning On the Sphere of the World, sometimes rendered The Sphere of the Cosmos; the Latin title is also given as Tractatus de sphaera, Textus de sphaera, or simply De sphaera) is a

text: medieval

text: introduction to the basic elements of

text: astronomy

text: written by

text: Johannes de Sacrobosco

text: (John of Holywood) c. 1230. Based heavily on

text: Ptolemy

text: 's

text: Almagest

text: , and drawing additional ideas from

text: Islamic astronomy

text: , it was one of the most influential works of pre-

text: Copernican

text: astronomy in Europe.

text: At the corner of Beaver Lane, while making his rounds at around 10:30 p.m. on 3 January 1804, Girdler met one of the armed citizens patrolling the area, 29-year-old excise officer Francis Smith. Armed with a shotgun, Smith told Girdler he was going to look for the supposed ghost. Girdler agreed that he would join Smith after he had called the hour at 11:00 p.m., and that they would "take [the ghost] if possible." They then went their separate ways.

text: At the corner of Beaver Lane, while making his rounds at around 10:30 p.m. on 3 January 1804, Girdler met one of the armed citizens patrolling the area, 29-year-old

text: excise

text: officer Francis Smith. Armed with a

text: shotgun

text: , Smith told Girdler he was going to look for the supposed ghost. Girdler agreed that he would join Smith after he had called the hour at 11:00 p.m., and that they would "take [the ghost] if possible." They then went their separate ways.

text: A Bott–Samelson variety Z can be constructed as

text: A string of subsequent appointees of Hisham were defeated by Suluk, who in 728 took Bukhara and later on still inflicted  tactical defeats such as the Battle of the Defile upon the Arabs. The Turgesh state was at its apex, controlling Sogdiana and the Ferghana Valley. By 732, two large Arab expeditions to Samarkand managed, if with heavy losses, to reestablish Caliphal authority in the area; Suluk renounced his ambitions over Samarkand and abandoned Bukhara, withdrawing north.

text: A string of subsequent appointees of Hisham were defeated by Suluk, who in 728 took

text: Bukhara

text: and later on still inflicted  tactical defeats such as the

text: Battle of the Defile

text: upon the Arabs. The Turgesh state was at its apex, controlling Sogdiana and the

text: Ferghana Valley

text: . By 732, two large Arab expeditions to Samarkand managed, if with heavy losses, to reestablish Caliphal authority in the area; Suluk renounced his ambitions over Samarkand and abandoned Bukhara, withdrawing north.

text: Rice Stadium replaced Rice Field (now Rice Track/Soccer Stadium), which had a total capacity of less than 37,000, in 1950. The new stadium was subsidized by the City of Houston, and it was designed by Hermon Lloyd & W.B. Morgan and Milton McGinty and built by Brown and Root. In addition to Rice, the University of Houston football team played at Rice Stadium from 1951 to 1965, and the Bluebonnet Bowl was played there from 1959 to 1967 and again in 1985 and 1986. The Houston Oilers also played in the stadium from 1965 to 1967. In 1974, Rice Stadium hosted Super Bowl VIII, in which the Miami Dolphins beat the Minnesota Vikings 24–7. It was the first Super Bowl played in Houston, and it would be 30 years later that the Super Bowl would return to Houston, which was played at Reliant Stadium.

text: Rice Stadium replaced

text: Rice Field

text: (now

text: Rice Track/Soccer Stadium

text: ), which had a total capacity of less than 37,000, in 1950. The new stadium was subsidized by the City of Houston, and it was designed by Hermon Lloyd & W.B. Morgan and Milton McGinty and built by

text: Brown and Root

text: . In addition to Rice, the

text: University of Houston

text: football team

text: played at Rice Stadium from 1951 to 1965, and the

text: Bluebonnet Bowl

text: was played there from 1959 to 1967 and again in 1985 and 1986. The

text: Houston Oilers

text: also played in the stadium from 1965 to 1967. In 1974, Rice Stadium hosted

text: Super Bowl VIII

text: , in which the

text: Miami Dolphins

text: beat the

text: Minnesota Vikings

text: 24–7. It was the first Super Bowl played in Houston, and it would be 30 years later that the Super Bowl would return to Houston, which was played at Reliant Stadium.

text: Britannia G-AOVT came off lease on 10 March 1975, and was retired by Monarch. It was preserved at the Imperial War Museum, Duxford. In May, European Ferries announced that they had decided to withdraw from the aviation business by the end of October. Vanguard G-AYRN was sold to Europe Air Service and delivered to Perpignan on 29 August. This was followed by the sale of Vanguards G-AXNT, G-AXOY and G-AZRE. G-AXOY made the last passenger flight of a Vanguard in the United Kingdom on 26 October 1975, a one-hour pleasure flight from Luton. The goodwill and assets of Invicta were purchased in December 1975 by Universal Air Transport Sales Ltd, whose chairman was Hugh Kennard. An agreement was made with IAS Cargo Airlines for Invicta to lease two Britannias.

text: Britannia G-AOVT came off lease on 10 March 1975, and was retired by Monarch. It was preserved at the

text: Imperial War Museum

text: Duxford

text: . In May, European Ferries announced that they had decided to withdraw from the aviation business by the end of October. Vanguard G-AYRN was sold to

text: Europe Air Service

text: and delivered to

text: Perpignan

text: on 29 August. This was followed by the sale of Vanguards G-AXNT, G-AXOY and G-AZRE. G-AXOY made the last passenger flight of a Vanguard in the United Kingdom on 26 October 1975, a one-hour pleasure flight from Luton. The goodwill and assets of Invicta were purchased in December 1975 by Universal Air Transport Sales Ltd, whose chairman was Hugh Kennard. An agreement was made with

text: IAS Cargo Airlines

text: for Invicta to lease two Britannias.

text: The town is characteristic of the bastides in the area - central village square with the town hall a main feature, with the village shops clustered along the four sides of the square. Wide arched pavements allow dining out of doors in the summer, when music is piped around the square. The town convent (now the town hall and cinema) and church steeples are lit up at night. The town is also home to many restaurants, including "Le Monde A L'Envers" (The World Upside Down), run by London chef Victoria Heath. A reference book ("The fabulous destiny of Marciac : from the dream of the founders to the passion for jazz") displays (in French) the story of the city, from its foundation in 1298 to the birth and the development of its famous jazz festival.

text: The town is characteristic of the

text: bastides

text: in the area - central village square with the town hall a main feature, with the village shops clustered along the four sides of the square. Wide arched pavements allow dining out of doors in the summer, when music is piped around the square. The town convent (now the town hall and cinema) and church steeples are lit up at night. The town is also home to many restaurants, including "Le Monde A L'Envers" (The World Upside Down), run by London chef Victoria Heath. A reference book ("The fabulous destiny of Marciac : from the dream of the founders to the passion for jazz") displays (in French) the story of the city, from its foundation in 1298 to the birth and the development of its famous jazz festival.

text: In addition to Dabbs' career as a singer, he has also co-written several songs with other artists. Trent's songwriting credits include Ingrid Michaelson's single, "Girls Chase Boys" released Feb. 2014. He has written several songs that have been on ABC's 'Nashville' including the songs “Undermine” and "Don't Put Dirt On My Grave Just Yet" that were both recorded by Hayden Panettiere and "Shine" that was recorded and released by Sam Palladio

text: In addition to Dabbs' career as a singer, he has also co-written several songs with other artists. Trent's songwriting credits include

text: Ingrid Michaelson

text: 's single, "

text: Girls Chase Boys

text: " released Feb. 2014. He has written several songs that have been on ABC's '

text: Nashville

text: ' including the songs “Undermine” and "Don't Put Dirt On My Grave Just Yet" that were both recorded by

text: Hayden Panettiere

text: and "Shine" that was recorded and released by

text: Sam Palladio

text: Pablo Zarnicki (born 12 November 1972 Bulnes) an Argentine chess player.

text: Pablo Zarnicki (born 12 November 1972

text: Bulnes

text: ) an

text: Argentine

text: chess

text: player.

text: The only work of Geminus to survive is his Introduction to the Phenomena (), often just called the Isagoge.  This introductory astronomy book, based on the works of earlier astronomers such as Hipparchus, was intended to teach astronomy for beginning students in the subject. In it, Geminus describes the zodiac and the motion of the Sun; the constellations; the celestial sphere; days and nights; the risings and settings of the zodiacal signs; luni-solar periods and their application to calendars; phases of the Moon; eclipses; star phases; terrestrial zones and geographical places; and the foolishness of making weather predictions by the stars.

text: The only work of Geminus to survive is his Introduction to the Phenomena (), often just called the Isagoge.  This introductory astronomy book, based on the works of earlier astronomers such as

text: Hipparchus

text: , was intended to teach astronomy for beginning students in the subject. In it, Geminus describes the

text: zodiac

text: and the motion of the

text: Sun

text: ; the

text: constellation

text: s; the

text: celestial sphere

text: ; days and nights; the risings and settings of the zodiacal signs; luni-solar periods and their application to

text: calendars

text: phases of the Moon

text: eclipses

text: ; star phases; terrestrial zones and geographical places; and the foolishness of making weather predictions by the stars.

text: Wycliffe is a major squash-playing school, due to their recent and previous success in the squash court. Among other options, pupils may choose squash as either a games option or an extra-curricular activity. Other sports played at Wycliffe include riding, fencing, shooting, rugby, polo, rowing, tennis, hockey, cricket, rowing, football, volleyball, gym, cross country, badminton, hockey, netball, tennis, rounders, and athletics. Since 1935, Wycliffe's boathouse is located on the Gloucester-Sharpness Canal with around 30 km of still training water.

text: Wycliffe is a major

text: squash

text: -playing school, due to their recent and previous success in the squash court. Among other options, pupils may choose squash as either a games option or an extra-curricular activity. Other sports played at Wycliffe include riding, fencing, shooting, rugby, polo, rowing, tennis, hockey, cricket, rowing, football, volleyball, gym, cross country, badminton, hockey, netball, tennis, rounders, and athletics. Since 1935, Wycliffe's boathouse is located on the Gloucester-Sharpness Canal with around 30 km of still training water.

text: In the East, in 956 the stratēgos Basil Hexamilites inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tarsos fleet, opening the way for another grand expedition to recover Crete. It was entrusted to Nikephoros Phokas, who in 960 set out with a fleet of 100 dromons, 200 chelandia, and 308 transports, carrying an overall force of 77,000 men, to subdue the island. The conquest of Crete removed the direct threat to the Aegean, Byzantium's naval heartland, while Phokas' subsequent operations led to the recovery of Cilicia (in 963), Cyprus (in 968), and the northern Syrian coast (in 969). These conquests removed the threat of the once mighty Muslim Syrian fleets, effectively re-establishing Byzantine dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, so that Nikephoros Phokas could boast to Liutprand of Cremona with the words "I alone command the sea". A few raids and naval clashes occurred as antagonism with the Fatimids mounted in the late 990s, but peaceful relations were restored soon after, and the Eastern Mediterranean remained relatively calm for several decades to come.

text: In the East, in 956 the stratēgos

text: Basil Hexamilites

text: inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tarsos fleet, opening the way for another grand expedition to recover Crete. It was entrusted to

text: Nikephoros Phokas

text: , who in 960 set out with a fleet of 100 dromons, 200 chelandia, and 308 transports, carrying an overall force of 77,000 men, to subdue the island. The conquest of Crete removed the direct threat to the Aegean, Byzantium's naval heartland, while Phokas' subsequent operations led to the recovery of Cilicia (in 963), Cyprus (in 968), and the northern Syrian coast (in 969). These conquests removed the threat of the once mighty Muslim Syrian fleets, effectively re-establishing Byzantine dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, so that Nikephoros Phokas could boast to

text: Liutprand of Cremona

text: with the words "I alone command the sea". A few raids and naval clashes occurred as antagonism with the Fatimids mounted in the late 990s, but peaceful relations were restored soon after, and the Eastern Mediterranean remained relatively calm for several decades to come.

text: "Amaltheia was placed amongst the stars as the constellation Capra—the group of stars surrounding Capella on the arm (ôlenê) of Auriga the Charioteer." Capra simply means "she-goat" and the star-name Capella is the "little goat", but some modern readers confuse her with the male sea-goat of the Zodiac, Capricorn, who bears no relation to Amalthea, no connection in a Greek or Latin literary source nor any ritual or inscription to join the two. Hyginus describes this catasterism in the Poetic Astronomy, in speaking of Auriga, the Charioteer:

text: "Amaltheia was placed amongst the stars as the constellation Capra—the group of stars surrounding

text: Capella

text: on the arm (ôlenê) of

text: Auriga the Charioteer

text: ." Capra simply means "she-goat" and the star-name Capella is the "little goat", but some modern readers confuse her with the male sea-goat of the

text: Zodiac

text: Capricorn

text: , who bears no relation to Amalthea, no connection in a Greek or Latin literary source nor any ritual or inscription to join the two.

text: Hyginus

text: describes this

text: catasterism

text: in the Poetic Astronomy, in speaking of Auriga, the Charioteer:

text: The sixth book of de Magnete was devoted to cosmology. He dismissed the prevailing Ptolemaic model of the universe, in which the planets and stars are organized in a series of concentric shells rotating about the Earth, on the grounds that the speeds involved would be absurdly large ("there cannot be diurnal motion of infinity"). Instead, the Earth was rotating about its own axis. In place of the concentric shells, he proposed that the heavenly bodies interacted with each other and Earth through magnetic forces. Magnetism maintained the Earths position and made it rotate, while the magnetic attraction of the Moon drove the tides. Some obscure reasoning led to the peculiar conclusion that a terella, if freely suspended, would orient itself in the same direction as the Earth and rotate daily.  Both Kepler and Galileo would adopt Gilbert's idea of magnetic attraction between heavenly bodies, but Newton's law of universal gravitation would render it obsolete.

text: The sixth book of de Magnete was devoted to

text: cosmology

text: . He dismissed the prevailing

text: Ptolemaic model

text: of the universe, in which the planets and stars are organized in a series of concentric shells rotating about the Earth, on the grounds that the speeds involved would be absurdly large ("there cannot be

text: diurnal

text: motion of infinity"). Instead, the Earth was rotating about its own axis. In place of the concentric shells, he proposed that the heavenly bodies interacted with each other and Earth through magnetic forces. Magnetism maintained the Earths position and made it rotate, while the magnetic attraction of the

text: Moon

text: drove the

text: tides

text: . Some obscure reasoning led to the peculiar conclusion that a terella, if freely suspended, would orient itself in the same direction as the Earth and rotate daily.  Both

text: Kepler

text: and

text: Galileo

text: would adopt Gilbert's idea of magnetic attraction between heavenly bodies, but

text: Newton's law of universal gravitation

text: would render it obsolete.

text: Following the Asian value system, where the woman is the guiding light and pillar of the household, the spouse also represents family values and is taken as a motherly figure.

text: For the third defense of his title, Newton faced Liam McGeary on February 27, 2015 in the main event at Bellator 134. He lost the back-and-forth fight via unanimous decision, during the course of the fight, Newton was nearly submitted in the first and third rounds with two triangle chokes, even being rocked at one point in the fourth round. Days after the fight, it was revealed that Newton had tested positive for Marijuana and was subsequently issued a three month suspension by the Mohegan Tribe Department of Athletic Regulations.

text: For the third defense of his title, Newton faced

text: Liam McGeary

text: on February 27, 2015 in the main event at

text: Bellator 134

text: . He lost the back-and-forth fight via unanimous decision, during the course of the fight, Newton was nearly submitted in the first and third rounds with two triangle chokes, even being rocked at one point in the fourth round. Days after the fight, it was revealed that Newton had tested positive for

text: Marijuana

text: and was subsequently issued a three month suspension by the Mohegan Tribe Department of Athletic Regulations.

text: Australian Film Awards 1987

text: Australian Film Awards 1987

text: Although other zoos in the region made extensive use of New Deal funds to upgrade their facilities, only one notable addition was made to the Denver Zoo between 1918 and 1950. Monkey Island was built in 1937 using funds from the Works Progress Administration. Mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton funded the zoo very little, and it was in poorly maintained condition when Mayor Quigg Newton was elected in 1947. Newton hired DeBoer, the architect involved with the zoo's design forty years before, to plan a rebirth. Starting with the 1950 overhaul of Monkey Island, the zoo has steadily added to and improved its exhibits.

text: Although other zoos in the region made extensive use of New Deal funds to upgrade their facilities, only one notable addition was made to the Denver Zoo between 1918 and 1950. Monkey Island was built in 1937 using funds from the

text: Works Progress Administration

text: . Mayor

text: Benjamin F. Stapleton

text: funded the zoo very little, and it was in poorly maintained condition when Mayor Quigg Newton was elected in 1947. Newton hired DeBoer, the architect involved with the zoo's design forty years before, to plan a rebirth. Starting with the 1950 overhaul of Monkey Island, the zoo has steadily added to and improved its exhibits.

text: In 1936, as a general strike was underway in the country to demand a renegotiation of the French role in Syria, Quwatli was appointed the Bloc's vice president of internal affairs, but was not part of the treaty negotiation committee which led talks with the French in Paris in March. A new treaty was established by the end of the month, although the French did not ratify it. Between then and fall, Quwatli spearheaded efforts to unify nationalists ranks in Syria, convincing LNA leader Sabri al-Asali to join the Bloc's highest governing body. By enlisting the support of many prominent pan-Arabists like himself, Quwatli strengthened his position within the Bloc, particularly in regards to his chief nationalist rival Jamil Mardam Bey.

text: In 1936, as a

text: general strike

text: was underway in the country to demand a renegotiation of the French role in Syria, Quwatli was appointed the Bloc's vice president of internal affairs, but was not part of the treaty negotiation committee which led talks with the French in Paris in March. A

text: new treaty

text: was established by the end of the month, although the French did not ratify it. Between then and fall, Quwatli spearheaded efforts to unify nationalists ranks in Syria, convincing LNA leader

text: Sabri al-Asali

text: to join the Bloc's highest governing body. By enlisting the support of many prominent pan-Arabists like himself, Quwatli strengthened his position within the Bloc, particularly in regards to his chief nationalist rival

text: Jamil Mardam Bey

text: Terrain:volcanic with mountainous interiors

text: This was the initial roll-out for digital television using the DVB-T system. The transmitter frequencies and power outputs were chosen not to interfere with the UHF TV channels, but to be received with the same aerial-group. The QAM constellations and number of carriers were changed around 2002 after the collapse of ITV Digital as the service was taken over by the Freeview consortium.

text: This was the initial roll-out for digital television using the

text: DVB-T

text: system. The transmitter frequencies and power outputs were chosen not to interfere with the UHF TV channels, but to be received with the same aerial-group. The QAM constellations and number of carriers were changed around 2002 after the collapse of

text: ITV Digital

text: as the service was taken over by the

text: Freeview

text: consortium.

text: The grounds for the estate at Margam Country Park was then used for the placement of "Foamhenge", a lightweight replica of Stonehenge for "The Pandorica Opens". Several other scenes from "The Pandorica Opens" and "The Big Bang" were also filmed there during the first few days of February 2010. The Pandorica chamber was filmed on set in the Upper Boat Studios, the largest set ever built there. Additional scenes in "The Big Bang" were filmed in Brangwyn Hall and Miskin Manor. "Amy's Choice" was partially filmed in Skenfrith, Wales to represent "Upper Leadworth".

text: The grounds for the estate at Margam Country Park was then used for the placement of "Foamhenge", a lightweight replica of

text: Stonehenge

text: for "The Pandorica Opens". Several other scenes from "The Pandorica Opens" and "The Big Bang" were also filmed there during the first few days of February 2010. The Pandorica chamber was filmed on set in the

text: Upper Boat Studios

text: , the largest set ever built there. Additional scenes in "The Big Bang" were filmed in

text: Brangwyn Hall

text: and

text: Miskin Manor

text: . "Amy's Choice" was partially filmed in

text: Skenfrith

text: , Wales to represent "Upper Leadworth".

text: The police then made a connection between Hall's car and the registration number of a vehicle noted by a suspicious antiques dealer in Newcastle under Lyme, to whom two men had offered silver and china at a price well below its true value. The police traced the car to the Scott-Elliots' address in London and found the apartment robbed of many valuables and spattered with blood. This also linked with the murder of Coggle, whose body had already been found and who had been previously registered as a housekeeper for the Scott-Elliots. The police had evidence that three men (including a drugged Scott-Elliot) and a woman had stayed at a Scottish hotel for one night, but the following night only two men – Hall and Kitto – returned.

text: The police then made a connection between Hall's car and the registration number of a vehicle noted by a suspicious antiques dealer in

text: Newcastle under Lyme

text: , to whom two men had offered silver and china at a price well below its true value. The police traced the car to the Scott-Elliots' address in London and found the apartment robbed of many valuables and spattered with blood. This also linked with the murder of Coggle, whose body had already been found and who had been previously registered as a housekeeper for the Scott-Elliots. The police had evidence that three men (including a drugged Scott-Elliot) and a woman had stayed at a Scottish hotel for one night, but the following night only two men – Hall and Kitto – returned.

text: The 506th's battalions were so exhausted that instead of attacking through the hedgerows, they shifted to the left to follow the road from Vierville. Company D, as it had the day before, raced unopposed to Dead Man's Corner and from there up the road toward Saint Côme-du-Mont. The 1st/401st, unable to overrun German positions in front of them, attempted to flank them on its right. The effect was, that after destroying the German defenders at les Droueries who had held up the division for two days, the 3rd/501st in the center was pinched out of the attack.

text: On June 1, 1996, Harrelson was arrested in Lee County, Kentucky, after he symbolically planted four hemp seeds to challenge the state law which did not distinguish between industrial hemp and marijuana. Harrelson had arrived in the county with his attorney, former Kentucky Governor Louie B. Nunn, an agent and a camera crew from CNN. While at a local hotel, Harrelson phoned the county sheriff, Junior Kilburn, to advise him of his intentions. Kilburn and deputy sheriff Danny Towsend arrived at the location where Harrelson informed them he would be. With the cameras rolling, Harrelson planted the hemp seeds into the ground. Once planted, Kilburn placed Harrelson under arrest for cultivating marijuana and booked him into the county jail. He was released on $200 bail the same day. He later signed autographs and posed for photos with deputies. He was acquitted of those charges with the help of Nunn after just 25 minutes.

text: On June 1, 1996, Harrelson was arrested in

text: Lee County, Kentucky

text: , after he symbolically planted four hemp seeds to challenge the state law which did not distinguish between industrial hemp and marijuana. Harrelson had arrived in the county with his attorney, former Kentucky Governor

text: Louie B. Nunn

text: , an agent and a camera crew from

text: CNN

text: . While at a local hotel, Harrelson phoned the county sheriff, Junior Kilburn, to advise him of his intentions. Kilburn and deputy sheriff Danny Towsend arrived at the location where Harrelson informed them he would be. With the cameras rolling, Harrelson planted the hemp seeds into the ground. Once planted, Kilburn placed Harrelson under arrest for cultivating marijuana and booked him into the county jail. He was released on $200 bail the same day. He later signed autographs and posed for photos with deputies. He was acquitted of those charges with the help of Nunn after just 25 minutes.

text: Final credits always showed panoramic views over a gigantic city of the future, and never featured any music; only the throb of some industrial machinery, sounding like a gigantic pump or a steam engine, beat in rhythm. The male characters from the planet Venus (Slim for example) presented obvious androgyne features (in contrast to the rustic, virile Martians). Thus the style of the entire series created an extremely eerie atmosphere, that remains rarely matched even by the best adult science-fiction on screen.

text: Final credits always showed panoramic views over a gigantic city of the future, and never featured any music; only the throb of some industrial machinery, sounding like a gigantic pump or a steam engine, beat in rhythm. The male characters from the planet Venus (Slim for example) presented obvious

text: androgyne

text: features (in contrast to the rustic,

text: virile

text: Martians). Thus the style of the entire series created an extremely eerie atmosphere, that remains rarely matched even by the best adult science-fiction on screen.

text: In March 2013 the band released their first full-length LP Partner In Crime on the Detroit-based New Fortune Records. After the release of the album, the band toured more consistently and appeared in bars, clubs, theaters and festivals across the United States, including The CMA Music Festival in Nashville, Tennessee, the Bearded Lady Motorcycle Freakshow in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and the Common Ground Music Festival in Lansing, Michigan. In November 2013 the band embarked on their longest tour to date, playing up and down the East Coast of the United States, hitting most of the major cities including Brooklyn, New York, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Boston, Massachusetts, and Washington D.C.

text: In March 2013 the band released their first full-length LP Partner In Crime on the Detroit-based New Fortune Records. After the release of the album, the band toured more consistently and appeared in bars, clubs, theaters and festivals across the United States, including The

text: CMA Music Festival

text: in

text: Nashville, Tennessee

text: , the Bearded Lady Motorcycle Freakshow in

text: Minneapolis, Minnesota

text: , and the

text: Common Ground Music Festival

text: in

text: Lansing, Michigan

text: . In November 2013 the band embarked on their longest tour to date, playing up and down the East Coast of the United States, hitting most of the major cities including

text: Brooklyn, New York

text: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

text: Boston, Massachusetts

text: , and

text: Washington D.C.

text: Winner: Charlie Major

text: Winner:

text: Charlie Major

text: is surface area,

text: is surface area,

text: The station has four distinct groups of tracks, giving a total of 26 tracks:

text: The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and government. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the ninth century, and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine, which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.

text: The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and

text: government

text: . This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the ninth century, and in locations such as

text: Worcester

text: the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on

text: doctrine

text: , which was addressed by the

text: Synod of Whitby

text: in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.

text: In October 2010, Bang Gang was released as CD and download. After several gigs in Switzerland, Pueblo Criminal was invited for a small tour of Düsseldorf and Bochum in November 2010. At the beginning of December 2010, the formation played at Eulachhalle in Winterthur as a support act for Ska-P. On the 7th of December, the CD release party of Bang Gang took place at the Mascotte club in Zurich, where the band won the "4th Band-Cover-Contest" two months later.

text: In October 2010, Bang Gang was released as CD and download. After several gigs in

text: Switzerland

text: , Pueblo Criminal was invited for a small tour of

text: Düsseldorf

text: and

text: Bochum

text: in November 2010. At the beginning of December 2010, the formation played at

text: Eulachhalle

text: in

text: Winterthur

text: as a support act for

text: Ska-P

text: . On the 7th of December, the CD release party of Bang Gang took place at the Mascotte club in

text: Zurich

text: , where the band won the "4th Band-Cover-Contest" two months later.

text: In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating that the planet was farther away. Ptolemy, a Greek living in Alexandria, attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection Almagest, which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries. Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE. In the fifth century CE, the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars. In the East Asian cultures, Mars is traditionally referred to as the "fire star" (火星), based on the Five elements.

text: In the fourth century BCE,

text: Aristotle

text: noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an

text: occultation

text: , indicating that the planet was farther away.

text: Ptolemy

text: , a Greek living in

text: Alexandria

text: , attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection

text: Almagest

text: , which became the authoritative treatise on

text: Western astronomy

text: for the next fourteen centuries. Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by

text: Chinese astronomers

text: by no later than the fourth century BCE. In the fifth century CE, the

text: Indian astronomical

text: text

text: Surya Siddhanta

text: estimated the diameter of Mars. In the

text: East Asian

text: cultures, Mars is traditionally referred to as the "fire star" (火星), based on the

text: Five elements

text: At the insistence of Aristotle, Eudemus wrote histories of Greek mathematics and astronomy. Though only fragments of these have survived, included in the works of later authors, their value is immense. It is only because later authors used Eudemus's writings that we still are informed about the early history and development of Greek science. In his historical writings Eudemus showed how the purely practically oriented knowledge and skills that earlier peoples such as the Egyptians and the Babylonians had known, were by the Greeks given a theoretical basis, and built into a coherent and comprehensive philosophical building.

text: Particularly during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th centuries) the Islamic world experienced development in astronomy. These developments were mostly written in Arabic and took place from North Africa to Central Asia, Al-Andalus, and later in the Far East and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with Islamic characteristics. These included ancient Greek astronomy, Sassanid, and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon. In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on Byzantine and European astronomy (see Latin translations of the 12th century) as well as Chinese astronomy and Malian astronomy.

text: Particularly during the

text: Islamic Golden Age

text: (8th–15th centuries) the

text: Islamic world

text: experienced development in astronomy. These developments were mostly written in Arabic and took place from North Africa to Central Asia,

text: Al-Andalus

text: , and later in the

text: Far East

text: and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other

text: Islamic science

text: s in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with

text: Islam

text: ic characteristics. These included ancient Greek astronomy,

text: Sassanid

text: , and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon. In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on

text: Byzantine

text: and

text: European

text: astronomy (see

text: Latin translations of the 12th century

text: ) as well as Chinese astronomy and

text: Malian astronomy

text: Prof. Patrick Thaddeus (the Robert Wheeler Willson Professor of Applied Astronomy, Emeritus, Harvard University; Senior Space Scientist, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory), continues to lead the Millimeter-Wave group. Tom Dame (Radio Astronomer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Lecturer on Astronomy, Harvard University) has coordinated telescope observations over the last decade. Sam Palmer (Electronics Engineer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Lecturer on Astronomy, Harvard University) continues to maintain the telescope hardware.

text: Prof.

text: Patrick Thaddeus

text: (the Robert Wheeler Willson Professor of Applied Astronomy,

text: Emeritus

text: Harvard University

text: ; Senior Space Scientist,

text: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

text: ), continues to lead the Millimeter-Wave group.

text: Tom Dame

text: (Radio Astronomer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Lecturer on Astronomy, Harvard University) has coordinated telescope observations over the last decade. Sam Palmer (Electronics Engineer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Lecturer on Astronomy, Harvard University) continues to maintain the telescope hardware.

text: Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the 9th century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually conquered by the Danes, who set up Anglo-Saxon puppet rulers in each kingdom. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the Great Heathen Army, which was supposedly led by Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, and Guthrum. This Danish army first arrived in Britain in 865 in East Anglia. After conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city of York (Jorvik) and establish the kingdom of Jorvik. The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of Northumbria and to take all but the western portion of Mercia. The remaining kingdom of Wessex was the only kingdom of the Heptarchy left. Alfred the Great managed to maintain his kingdom of Wessex and push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the threat of the Danes following his famous victory over them at the Battle of Ethandun in 878. Alfred re-established Anglo-Saxon rule over the western half of Mercia, and the Danelaw was established which separated Mercia into halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes.

text: Britain

text: experienced a great influx of

text: Viking

text: peoples in the 9th century as the

text: Viking Age

text: continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the

text: Heptarchy

text: were gradually conquered by the Danes, who set up Anglo-Saxon puppet rulers in each kingdom. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the

text: Great Heathen Army

text: , which was supposedly led by

text: Ivar the Boneless

text: Halfdan Ragnarsson

text: , and

text: Guthrum

text: . This Danish army first arrived in Britain in

text: in

text: East Anglia

text: . After conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city of

text: York

text: Jorvik

text: ) and establish the kingdom of

text: Jorvik

text: . The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of

text: Northumbria

text: and to take all but the western portion of

text: Mercia

text: . The remaining kingdom of

text: Wessex

text: was the only kingdom of the

text: Heptarchy

text: left.

text: Alfred the Great

text: managed to maintain his kingdom of

text: Wessex

text: and push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the threat of the Danes following his famous victory over them at the

text: Battle of Ethandun

text: in

text: . Alfred re-established

text: Anglo-Saxon

text: rule over the western half of

text: Mercia

text: , and the

text: Danelaw

text: was established which separated

text: Mercia

text: into halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes.

text: Bowdoin may have met Benjamin Franklin as early as 1743, and the two became frequent collaborators and correspondents on scientific subjects.  During his Harvard years, he was educated in the sciences by John Winthrop, and developed an interest in electricity and astronomy.  In 1750 Bowdoin traveled to Philadelphia to meet with Franklin.  Bowdoin was interested in Franklin's experiments on electricity, and Franklin solicited his advice on papers he prepared for submission to the Royal Society.  Through the offices of Franklin, some of Bowdoin's letters were read to the Society.  Bowdoin was instrumental in gaining support in the provincial assembly for an expedition to Newfoundland to observe the 1761 transit of Venus across the sun, and in the same year published a treatise suggesting improvements to the telescope.  In 1785 he published a series of memoirs arguing against Isaac Newton's theory that light was transmitted by "corpuscles", citing both natural observations and Scripture.

text: Bowdoin may have met

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: as early as 1743, and the two became frequent collaborators and correspondents on scientific subjects.  During his Harvard years, he was educated in the sciences by

text: John Winthrop

text: , and developed an interest in electricity and astronomy.  In 1750 Bowdoin traveled to

text: Philadelphia

text: to meet with Franklin.  Bowdoin was interested in Franklin's experiments on electricity, and Franklin solicited his advice on papers he prepared for submission to the

text: Royal Society

text: .  Through the offices of Franklin, some of Bowdoin's letters were read to the Society.  Bowdoin was instrumental in gaining support in the provincial assembly for an expedition to Newfoundland to observe the 1761

text: transit

text: of

text: Venus

text: across the sun, and in the same year published a

text: treatise

text: suggesting improvements to the

text: telescope

text: .  In 1785 he published a series of memoirs arguing against

text: Isaac Newton

text: 's theory that light was transmitted by "corpuscles", citing both natural observations and

text: Scripture

text: Mesoamerican ancient civilizations included the Olmecs and Mayans. Between 2000 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form and many matured into advanced Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purépecha, "Toltec" and Aztec, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations' progress included pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology.

text: Mesoamerican ancient civilizations included the

text: Olmec

text: s and

text: Maya

text: ns. Between 2000 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form and many matured into advanced

text: Mesoamerica

text: n civilizations such as the: Olmec,

text: Izapa

text: Teotihuacan

text: , Maya,

text: Zapotec

text: Mixtec

text: Huastec

text: Purépecha

text: Toltec

text: " and

text: Aztec

text: , which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations' progress included pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology.

text: The constituency was created as a result of the Report of the Boundary Commission in 1917, when it was recommended to be called "Manchester Newton Heath". However, when the Representation of the People Bill to give effect to the Commission's recommendations was debated in Parliament, the Government accepted an amendment to change the name to Clayton. The new constituency came into effect at the 1918 general election. Although Parliament had altered the recommended name, it retained the recommended boundaries, and was defined as consisting of three municipal wards of the county borough of Manchester, namely Beswick, Bradford and Newton Heath.

text: The constituency was created as a result of the Report of the Boundary Commission in 1917, when it was recommended to be called "Manchester Newton Heath". However, when the

text: Representation of the People Bill

text: to give effect to the Commission's recommendations was debated in Parliament, the Government accepted an amendment to change the name to Clayton. The new constituency came into effect at the

text: 1918 general election

text: . Although Parliament had altered the recommended name, it retained the recommended boundaries, and was defined as consisting of three municipal

text: wards

text: of the

text: county borough

text: of

text: Manchester

text: , namely

text: Beswick

text: Bradford

text: and

text: Newton Heath

text: Halley's Comet in 1607 turned Harriot's attention towards astronomy.  In early 1609 he bought a "Dutch trunke" (telescope), invented in 1608, and his observations were amongst the first uses of a telescope for astronomy. Harriot is now credited as the first astronomer to draw an astronomical object after viewing it through a telescope: he drew a map of the Moon on 26 July 1609, preceding Galileo by several months. He also observed sunspots in December 1610.

text: Halley's Comet

text: in 1607 turned Harriot's attention towards astronomy.  In early 1609 he bought a "Dutch trunke" (telescope), invented in 1608, and his observations were amongst the first uses of a telescope for astronomy. Harriot is now credited as the first astronomer to draw an astronomical object after viewing it through a telescope: he drew a map of the

text: Moon

text: on 26 July 1609, preceding

text: Galileo

text: by several months. He also observed

text: sunspot

text: s in December 1610.

text: With the threat of conscription into the Tsar's army looming — possibly a penal battalion — Jogiches escaped to Zurich, Switzerland. He brought with him during his furtive departure a considerable sum of money, including both personal and donated funds earmarked for the publication and distribution of socialist literature. A few months after his arrival in Zurich, the 23-year old Jogiches met a fellow 20-year old ethnic Jewish political émigré from Tsarist autocracy, Rosa Luxemburg. The pair fell in love and became both close political allies and personal companions.

text: With the threat of

text: conscription

text: into the Tsar's army looming — possibly a penal battalion — Jogiches escaped to

text: Zurich

text: Switzerland

text: . He brought with him during his furtive departure a considerable sum of money, including both personal and donated funds earmarked for the publication and distribution of socialist literature. A few months after his arrival in Zurich, the 23-year old Jogiches met a fellow 20-year old ethnic Jewish political émigré from

text: Tsarist autocracy

text: Rosa Luxemburg

text: . The pair fell in love and became both close political allies and personal companions.