text: Laidler was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, who described him "as one of the twentieth-century pioneers in the remarkable progress made in chemical kinetics leading to the development of transition state theory which provides the modern kinetic theory. Laidler's work includes seminal contributions in several areas of the field: gas phase reactions; kinetic aspects of reactivity of electronically excited molecules and construction of potential energy surfaces for such processes; development of treatments for kinetics and mechanisms for surface reactions and solution reactions, introducing modern concepts of solvation through dielectric polarization effects in the treatment of ionic redox reactions and of reactions producing or consuming ions; gas phase free-radical reactions involving pyrolysis and other thermal decomposition processes; and … the kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions."

text: Laidler was a Fellow of the

entity_name: Royal Society of Canada

text: Royal Society of Canada

text: , who described him "as one of the twentieth-century pioneers in the remarkable progress made in

entity_name: Chemical kinetics

text: chemical kinetics

text: leading to the development of

entity_name: Transition state theory

text: transition state theory

text: which provides the modern kinetic theory. Laidler's work includes seminal contributions in several areas of the field: gas phase reactions; kinetic aspects of

entity_name: Reactivity (chemistry)

text: reactivity

text: of electronically

entity_name: Excited state

text: excited

text: molecules and construction of

entity_name: Potential energy surface

text: potential energy surface

text: s for such processes; development of treatments for kinetics and

entity_name: Reaction mechanism

text: mechanisms

text: for

entity_name: Reactions on surfaces

text: surface reactions

text: and

entity_name: Solution

text: solution

text: reactions, introducing modern concepts of

entity_name: Solvation

text: solvation

text: through

entity_name: Dielectric

entity_section: Dielectric polarization

text: dielectric polarization

text: effects in the treatment of ionic

entity_name: Redox

text: redox

text: reactions and of reactions producing or consuming ions; gas phase

entity_name: Radical (chemistry)

text: free-radical

text: reactions involving

entity_name: Pyrolysis

text: pyrolysis

text: and other

entity_name: Thermal decomposition

text: thermal decomposition

text: processes; and … the kinetics of

entity_name: Enzyme catalysis

text: enzyme-catalyzed

text: reactions."

method: UNH-ecn

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text: The caramelization reactions are also sensitive to the chemical environment. By controlling the level of acidity (pH), the reaction rate (or the temperature at which the reaction occurs readily) can be altered. The rate of caramelization is generally lowest at near-neutral acidity (pH around 7), and accelerated under both acidic (especially pH below 3) and basic (especially pH above 9) conditions.

text: The caramelization reactions are also sensitive to the chemical environment. By controlling the level of acidity (

entity_name: PH

text: pH

text: ), the reaction rate (or the temperature at which the reaction occurs readily) can be altered. The rate of caramelization is generally lowest at near-neutral acidity (pH around 7), and accelerated under both acidic (especially pH below 3) and basic (especially pH above 9) conditions.

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answers: accelerated under both acidic (especially pH below 3) and basic (especially pH above 9) conditions

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answers: By controlling the level of acidity (pH), the reaction rate (or the temperature at which the reaction occurs readily) can be altered

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: By controlling the level of acidity (pH), the reaction rate

text: In quantum information theory, a quantum catalyst is a special ancillary quantum state whose presence enables certain local transformations that would otherwise by impossible.

text: In

entity_name: Quantum information

text: quantum information theory

text: , a quantum catalyst is a special

entity_name: Ancilla bit

text: ancillary

text: quantum state whose presence enables certain local transformations that would otherwise by impossible.

method: dangnt-nlp

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text: When a powder reacts chemically with a liquid or gas at the surface of its particles, the specific surface is directly related to its rate of reaction.  The measurement is therefore important in the manufacture of many processed materials.  It is universally used in the cement industry as a gauge of product fineness which is directly related to such properties as speed of setting and rate of strength development.

text: When a powder reacts chemically with a liquid or gas at the surface of its particles, the specific surface is directly related to its rate of reaction.  The measurement is therefore important in the manufacture of many processed materials.  It is universally used in the

entity_name: Cement

text: cement

text: industry as a gauge of product fineness which is directly related to such properties as speed of setting and rate of strength development.

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text: The study of how substituents affect the reactivity of a molecule or the rate of reactions is of significant interest to chemists. Substituents can exert an effect through both steric and electronic interactions, the latter of which include resonance and inductive effects. The polarizability of molecule can also be affected. Most substituent effects are analyzed through linear free energy relationships (LFERs). The most common of these is the Hammett Plot Analysis. This analysis compares the effect of various substituents on the ionization of benzoic acid with their impact on diverse chemical systems. The parameters of the Hammett plots are sigma (σ) and rho (ρ). The value of σ indicates the acidity of substituted benzoic acid relative to the unsubstituted form. A positive σ value indicates the compound is more acidic, while a negative value indicates that the substituted version is less acidic. The ρ value is a measure of the sensitivity of the reaction to the change in substituent, but only measures inductive effects. Therefore, two new scales were produced that evaluate the stabilization of localized charge through resonance. One is σ, which concerns substituents that stabilize positive charges via resonance, and the other is σ which is for groups that stabilize negative charges via resonance. Hammett analysis can be used to help elucidate the possible mechanisms of a reaction. For example, if it is predicted that the transition state structure has a build-up of negative charge relative to the ground state structure, then electron-donating groups would be expected to increase the rate of the reaction.

text: The study of how substituents affect the reactivity of a molecule or the rate of reactions is of significant interest to chemists. Substituents can exert an effect through both

entity_name: Steric effects

text: steric

text: and electronic interactions, the latter of which include

entity_name: Resonance

text: resonance

text: and

entity_name: Inductive effect

text: inductive effects

text: . The

entity_name: Polarizability

text: polarizability

text: of molecule can also be affected. Most substituent effects are analyzed through

entity_name: Free-energy relationship

text: linear free energy relationships

text: (LFERs). The most common of these is the

entity_name: Hammett equation

text: Hammett Plot Analysis

text: . This analysis compares the effect of various substituents on the ionization of

entity_name: Benzoic acid

text: benzoic acid

text: with their impact on diverse chemical systems. The parameters of the Hammett plots are sigma (σ) and rho (ρ). The value of σ indicates the acidity of substituted benzoic acid relative to the unsubstituted form. A positive σ value indicates the compound is more acidic, while a negative value indicates that the substituted version is less acidic. The ρ value is a measure of the sensitivity of the reaction to the change in substituent, but only measures inductive effects. Therefore, two new scales were produced that evaluate the stabilization of localized charge through resonance. One is σ, which concerns substituents that stabilize positive charges via resonance, and the other is σ which is for groups that stabilize negative charges via resonance.

text: Hammett analysis

text: can be used to help elucidate the possible mechanisms of a reaction. For example, if it is predicted that the

entity_name: Transition state

text: transition state

text: structure has a build-up of negative charge relative to the ground state structure, then

entity_name: Polar effect

text: electron-donating groups

text: would be expected to increase the rate of the reaction.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

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answers: polarizability of molecule

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answers: Hammett analysis can be used to help elucidate the possible mechanisms

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answers: Hammett analysis can be used to help elucidate the possible mechanisms of a reaction

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answers: Substituents can exert an effect through both steric and electronic interactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Hammett analysis can be used to help elucidate the possible mechanisms

text: Because of the higher Coulomb barrier, the temperatures required for H + He fusion are much higher than those of conventional D-T fusion. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction (H + H) does produce a neutron. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D-He reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore, fusion using D-3He fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction.

text: Because of the higher

entity_name: Coulomb barrier

text: Coulomb barrier

text: , the temperatures required for H + He fusion are much higher than those of conventional

text: D-T fusion

text: . Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction (H + H) does produce a

entity_name: Neutron

text: neutron

text: . Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D-He reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore, fusion using D-3He fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction.

method: UNH-qee

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answers: Because of the higher Coulomb barrier

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answers: reaction rates vary with temperature

text: In a chemical reaction, reactants collide to form a transition state, the enthalpic maximum in a reaction coordinate diagram, which proceeds to the product.  Normally, reactants form products of lesser chemical energy.  The difference in energy between reactants and products, represented as

text: In a chemical reaction, reactants collide to form a

text: transition state

text: , the

entity_name: Enthalpy

text: enthalpic

text: maximum in a reaction coordinate diagram, which proceeds to the product.  Normally, reactants form products of lesser chemical energy.  The difference in energy between reactants and products, represented as

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answers: Enthalpy

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text: The kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the rate equation for the overall reaction) are explained in terms of the energy needed for the conversion of the reactants to the proposed transition states (molecular states that corresponds to  maxima on the reaction coordinates, and to saddle points on the  potential energy surface for the reaction).

text: The kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the

entity_name: Rate equation

text: rate equation

text: for the overall reaction) are explained in terms of the energy needed for the conversion of the reactants to the proposed transition states (molecular states that corresponds to  maxima on the

entity_name: Reaction coordinate

text: reaction coordinates

text: , and to

entity_name: Saddle point

text: saddle point

text: s on the

text: potential energy surface

text: for the reaction).

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answers: The kinetics

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answers: The kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the rate equation for the overall reaction) are explained in terms of the energy needed

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answers: The kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps

text: The solid-state reaction route is the most widely used method for the preparation of polycrystalline solids from a mixture of solid starting materials. Solids do not react together at room temperature over normal time scales and it is necessary to heat them to much higher temperatures, often to 1000 to 1500 °C in order for the reaction to occur at an appreciable rate. The factors on which the feasibility and rate of a solid state reaction depend include, reaction conditions, structural properties of the reactants, surface area of the solids, their reactivity and the thermodynamic free energy change associated with the reaction.

text: The solid-state reaction route is the most widely used method for the preparation of

entity_name: Crystallite

text: polycrystalline

entity_name: Solid

text: solid

text: s from a mixture of solid starting materials. Solids do not

entity_name: Chemical reaction

text: react

text: together at room temperature over normal time scales and it is necessary to heat them to much higher temperatures, often to 1000 to 1500 °C in order for the reaction to occur at an appreciable rate. The factors on which the feasibility and rate of a solid state reaction depend include, reaction conditions, structural properties of the reactants,

entity_name: Surface area

text: surface area

text: of the solids, their

text: reactivity

text: and the

entity_name: Thermodynamic free energy

text: thermodynamic free energy

text: change associated with the reaction.

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answers: the thermodynamic free energy change associated with the reaction

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answers: Solids do not react together at room temperature over normal time scales and it is necessary to heat them to much higher temperatures

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is necessary to heat them to much higher temperatures

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: their reactivity and the thermodynamic free energy change associated with the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Solids do not react together at room temperature over normal time scales and it is necessary to heat them to much higher temperatures

text: Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA are first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, and etc.  DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes are RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in living cells.

entity_name: Deoxyribozyme

text: Deoxyribozyme

text: s, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA are first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called

entity_name: In vitro

text: in vitro

text: selection or

entity_name: Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment

text: systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment

text: (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, and etc.  DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes are RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in living cells.

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answers: DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Deoxyribozymes

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions

text: The graph for these equations is a sigmoid curve, which is typical for autocatalytic reactions: these chemical reactions proceed slowly at the start (the induction period) because there is little catalyst present, the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases and then it again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases. If the concentration of a reactant or product in an experiment follows a sigmoid curve, the reaction may be autocatalytic.

text: The graph for these equations is a

entity_name: Sigmoid function

text: sigmoid curve

text: , which is typical for autocatalytic reactions: these chemical reactions proceed slowly at the start (the

entity_name: Induction period

text: induction period

text: ) because there is little catalyst present, the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases and then it again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases. If the concentration of a reactant or product in an experiment follows a sigmoid curve, the reaction may be autocatalytic.

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answers: the amount of catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Autocatalytic reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The graph for these equations is a sigmoid curve

text: When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware.

text: When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a

text: solution

text: ; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often

entity_name: Laboratory glassware

text: laboratory glassware

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answers: exposure to some form of energy

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answers: It results in some energy exchange

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answers: It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment

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answers: It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It results in some energy exchange between the constituents

text: In an industrial hydrodesulfurization unit, such as in a refinery, the hydrodesulfurization reaction takes place in a fixed-bed reactor at elevated temperatures ranging from 300 to 400 °C and elevated pressures ranging from 30 to 130 atmospheres of absolute pressure, typically in the presence of a catalyst consisting of an alumina base impregnated with cobalt and molybdenum (usually called a CoMo catalyst).  Occasionally, a combination of nickel and molybdenum (called NiMo) is used, in addition to the CoMo catalyst, for specific difficult-to-treat feed stocks, such as those containing a high level of chemically bound nitrogen.

text: In an industrial hydrodesulfurization unit, such as in a refinery, the hydrodesulfurization reaction takes place in a fixed-bed

entity_name: Chemical reactor

text: reactor

text: at elevated

entity_name: Temperature

text: temperatures

text: ranging from 300 to 400 °C and elevated

entity_name: Pressure

text: pressures

text: ranging from 30 to 130

entity_name: Atmosphere (unit)

text: atmosphere

text: s of absolute pressure, typically in the presence of a

text: catalyst

text: consisting of an

entity_name: Aluminium oxide

text: alumina

text: base impregnated with

entity_name: Cobalt

text: cobalt

text: and

entity_name: Molybdenum

text: molybdenum

text: (usually called a CoMo catalyst).  Occasionally, a combination of

entity_name: Nickel

text: nickel

text: and

text: molybdenum

text: (called NiMo) is used, in addition to the CoMo catalyst, for specific difficult-to-treat feed stocks, such as those containing a high level of chemically bound nitrogen.

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answers: elevated temperatures

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answers: usually called a CoMo catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: elevated temperatures

text: Diffusion-controlled (or diffusion-limited) reactions are reactions that occur so quickly that the reaction rate is the rate of transport of the reactants through the reaction medium (usually a solution).  As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react.  The process of chemical reaction can be considered as involving the diffusion of reactants until they encounter each other in the right stoichiometry and form an activated complex which can form the product species. The observed rate of chemical reactions is, generally speaking, the rate of the slowest or "rate determining" step. In diffusion controlled reactions the formation of products from the activated complex is much faster than the diffusion of reactants and thus the rate is governed by collision frequency.

text: Diffusion-controlled (or diffusion-limited)

text: reactions

text: are reactions that occur so quickly that the reaction rate is the rate of transport of the reactants through the reaction medium (usually a solution).  As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react.  The process of chemical reaction can be considered as involving the diffusion of reactants until they encounter each other in the right stoichiometry and form an activated complex which can form the product species. The observed rate of chemical reactions is, generally speaking, the rate of the slowest or "rate determining" step. In diffusion controlled reactions the formation of products from the

entity_name: Activated complex

text: activated complex

text: is much faster than the diffusion of reactants and thus the rate is governed by

entity_name: Collision frequency

text: collision frequency

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answers: collision frequency

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: As quickly as the reactants encounter each other, they react

text: In this sequence the carbons are numbered clockwise from 1–6 starting with the 1 carbon at 12 o'clock, which is bonded to the chloride. Since the nitro group is an activator toward nucleophilic substitution, and a meta director, it allows the benzene carbon to which it is bonded to have a negative charge. In the Meisenheimer complex, the nonbonded electrons of the carbanion become bonded to the aromatic pi system which allows the ipso carbon to temporarily bond with the hydroxyl group (-OH).  In order to return to a lower energy state, either the hydroxyl group leaves, or the chloride leaves.  In solution both processes happen.  A small percentage of the intermediate loses the chloride to become the product (2,4-dinitrophenol), while the rest return to the reactant.  Since 2,4-dinitrophenol is in a lower energy state it will not return to form the reactant, so after some time has passed, the reaction reaches chemical equilibrium that favors the 2,4-dinitrophenol.

text: In this sequence the carbons are numbered clockwise from 1–6 starting with the 1 carbon at 12 o'clock, which is bonded to the chloride. Since the

text: nitro

text: group is an activator toward nucleophilic substitution, and a meta director, it allows the benzene carbon to which it is bonded to have a negative charge. In the

text: Meisenheimer complex

text: , the nonbonded electrons of the

text: carbanion

text: become bonded to the aromatic pi system which allows the

text: ipso

text: carbon to temporarily bond with the

text: hydroxyl

text: group (-OH).  In order to return to a lower energy state, either the hydroxyl group leaves, or the chloride leaves.  In solution both processes happen.  A small percentage of the intermediate loses the chloride to become the product (2,4-dinitrophenol), while the rest return to the reactant.  Since 2,4-dinitrophenol is in a lower energy state it will not return to form the reactant, so after some time has passed, the reaction reaches

text: chemical equilibrium

text: that favors the 2,4-dinitrophenol.

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answers: It will not return to form the reactant

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answers: It will not return to form the reactant

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answers: the nitro group is an activator toward nucleophilic substitution, and a meta director

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The nonbonded electrons of the carbanion become bonded to the aromatic pi system

text: A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a second chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the interacting compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described asAB + CD --> AC + BD, where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms; and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds.

text: A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a second chemical compound via a

text: chemical reaction

text: . In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the interacting compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described asAB + CD --> AC + BD, where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms; and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds.

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answers: bonds between atoms

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: bonds between atoms are broken in both of the interacting compounds

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: The resulting solution is called hydrochloric acid and is a strong acid. The acid dissociation or ionization constant, K, is large, which means HCl dissociates or ionizes practically completely in water. Even in the absence of water, hydrogen chloride can still act as an acid. For example, hydrogen chloride can dissolve in certain other solvents such as methanol, protonate molecules or ions, and serve as an acid-catalyst for chemical reactions where anhydrous (water-free) conditions are desired.

text: The resulting solution is called

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and is a

text: strong acid

text: . The

text: acid dissociation

text: or ionization constant, K, is large, which means HCl dissociates or ionizes practically completely in water. Even in the absence of water, hydrogen chloride can still act as an acid. For example, hydrogen chloride can dissolve in certain other solvents such as

text: methanol

text: protonate

text: molecules or ions, and serve as an acid-

text: catalyst

text: for chemical reactions where anhydrous (water-free) conditions are desired.

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answers: The acid dissociation or ionization constant

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answers: hydrogen chloride can dissolve in certain other solvents

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The acid dissociation or ionization constant, K

text: Like carbon, lithium is also a good energy conductor.  It's also already in use in commercial lithium-ion batteries.  Lithium makes a good energy conductor because it allows ions to transfer faster than other elements and is also able to hold on to that energy longer.  Research has shown that coating a phosphate particle with a layer of LiFePO4(Lithium iron Phosphate) allows for an even faster rate of ion transferral.  Lithium iron phosphate was made by solid-state reaction using Li2CO3(lithium carbonate), FeC2O4(Iron(II) Oxalate), and NH4H2PO4(ammonium dihydrogen phosphate).  The compounds were then placed in acetone and ball-milled(grinding materials together in a special cylindrical device) before being heated at 350 °C for 10 hours and then being allowed to cool to room temperature  The mixture was then pelletized under 10,000 pounds of pressure before being heated again at 600 °C for 10 hours under argon.  Each nanoball created measured around 50 nm(nanometers) in diameter.  Under normal circumstances, electrochemical systems (eg, batteries) can only achieve high power rates with supercapacitors.  Supercapacitors achieve a high power rate by storing energy through surface adsorption reactions of charged species on an electrode.  However, this results in low energy density. Instead of just storing charge on the surface of a material, Lithium iron phosphate can achieve a high power rate and high energy density by storing charge in the bulk of itself (the interior of the carbon nanoballs).  This is possible because lithium iron phosphate has high lithium bulk mobility. Creating a fast ion-conducting surface phase through controlled off-stoichiometry (controlling the mole to mole ratio of the reactants and products in the molecular equation) enabled an ultrafast discharge rate.

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answers: ion transferral

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The compounds were then placed in acetone and ball-milled

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's also already in use in commercial lithium-ion batteries

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: LiFePO4 allows for an even faster rate of ion transferral

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The compounds were then placed in acetone and ball-milled

text: Calcium is reactive and relatively soft for a metal.  Although harder than lead, it can be cut with a knife with difficulty. It is a silvery metallic element that can be extracted by electrolysis from a fused salt like calcium chloride. When exposed to the air, it rapidly forms a gray-white coating of calcium oxide and calcium nitride. In bulk form (typically as chips or "turnings"), the metal is somewhat difficult to ignite, more difficult even than magnesium chips; but, when lit, the metal burns in air with a brilliant high-intensity orange-red light. Calcium metal reacts with water, producing hydrogen gas at a moderate rate without generating much heat, making it useful for generating hydrogen. In powdered form, however, the reaction with water is extremely rapid, as the increased surface area of the powder accelerates the reaction. Part of the reason for the slowness of the calcium–water reaction is a partial passivation (chemically protective coating) of insoluble white calcium hydroxide; in acidic solutions, where this compound is more soluble, calcium reacts vigorously.

text: Calcium is reactive and relatively soft for a metal.  Although harder than

text: lead

text: , it can be cut with a knife with difficulty. It is a silvery metallic element that can be extracted by

text: electrolysis

text: from a fused

text: salt

text: like

text: calcium chloride

text: . When exposed to the air, it rapidly forms a gray-white coating of

text: calcium oxide

text: and

text: calcium nitride

text: . In bulk form (typically as chips or "turnings"), the metal is somewhat difficult to ignite, more difficult even than magnesium chips; but, when lit, the metal burns in air with a brilliant high-intensity orange-red light. Calcium metal reacts with

text: water

text: , producing hydrogen gas at a moderate rate without generating much heat, making it useful for generating hydrogen. In powdered form, however, the reaction with water is extremely rapid, as the increased surface area of the powder accelerates the reaction. Part of the reason for the slowness of the calcium–water reaction is a partial

text: passivation

text: (chemically protective coating) of insoluble white

text: calcium hydroxide

text: ; in acidic solutions, where this compound is more soluble, calcium reacts vigorously.

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answers: increased surface area of the powder

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answers: acidic solutions

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answers: Calcium metal reacts with water, producing hydrogen gas at a moderate rate without generating much heat

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answers: the increased surface area of the powder accelerates the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Acidic solutions, where this compound is more soluble, calcium reacts vigorously

text: Units and fluid systems in the plant including all vessels, piping, tubing, valves, pumps, compressors, and other equipment must be rated or designed to be able to withstand the entire range of pressures, temperatures, and other conditions which they could possibly encounter, including any appropriate safety factors.  All such units and equipment should also be checked for materials compatibility to ensure they can withstand long-term exposure to the chemicals they will come in contact with.  Any closed system in a plant which has a means of pressurizing possibly beyond the rating of its equipment, such as heating, exothermic reactions, or certain pumps or compressors, should have an appropriately sized pressure relief valve included to prevent overpressurization for safety.  Frequently all of these parameters (temperatures, pressures, flow, etc.) are exhaustively analyzed in combination through a Hazop or fault tree analysis, to ensure that the plant has no known risk of serious hazard.

text: Units and fluid systems in the plant including all vessels, piping, tubing, valves, pumps, compressors, and other equipment must be rated or designed to be able to withstand the entire range of pressures, temperatures, and other conditions which they could possibly encounter, including any appropriate

text: safety factor

text: s.  All such units and equipment should also be checked for

text: materials compatibility

text: to ensure they can withstand long-term exposure to the chemicals they will come in contact with.  Any closed system in a plant which has a means of pressurizing possibly beyond the rating of its equipment, such as heating, exothermic reactions, or certain pumps or compressors, should have an appropriately sized pressure

text: relief valve

text: included to prevent overpressurization for safety.  Frequently all of these parameters (temperatures, pressures, flow, etc.) are exhaustively analyzed in combination through a

text: Hazop

text: or

text: fault tree analysis

text: , to ensure that the plant has no known risk of serious hazard.

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answers: exothermic reactions

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answers: exothermic reactions

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answers: should have an appropriately sized pressure relief valve included to prevent overpressurization for safety

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answers: exothermic reactions

text: Capsule-based systems have in common that healing agents are encapsulated into suitable microstructures that rupture upon crack formation and lead to a follow up process in order to restore the materials´properties. If the walls of the capsule are created too thick, they may not fracture when the crack approaches, but if they are too thin, they may rupture prematurely. In order for this process to happen at room temperature, and for the reactants to remain in a monomeric state within the capsule, a catalyst is also imbedded into the thermoset. The catalyst lowers the energy barrier of the reaction and allows the monomer to polymerize without the addition of heat. The capsules (often made of wax) around the monomer and the catalyst are important to maintain separation until the crack facilitates the reaction.In the capsule-catalyst system, the  encapsulated healing agent is released into the polymer matrix and reacts with the catalyst, already present in the matrix. There are many challenges in designing this type of material. First, the reactivity of the catalyst must be maintained even after it is enclosed in wax. Additionally, the monomer must flow at a sufficient rate (have low enough viscosity) to cover the entire crack before it is polymerized, or full healing capacity will not be reached. Finally, the catalyst must quickly dissolve into the monomer in order to react efficiently and prevent the crack from spreading further.

text: Capsule-based systems have in common that healing agents are encapsulated into suitable microstructures that rupture upon crack formation and lead to a follow up process in order to restore the materials´properties. If the walls of the capsule are created too thick, they may not fracture when the crack approaches, but if they are too thin, they may rupture prematurely. In order for this process to happen at room

text: temperature

text: , and for the reactants to remain in a monomeric state within the capsule, a

text: catalyst

text: is also imbedded into the thermoset. The catalyst lowers the

text: energy barrier

text: of the

text: reaction

text: and allows the monomer to polymerize without the addition of heat. The capsules (often made of

text: wax

text: ) around the monomer and the catalyst are important to maintain separation until the crack facilitates the reaction.In the capsule-catalyst system, the  encapsulated healing agent is released into the polymer matrix and reacts with the catalyst, already present in the matrix. There are many challenges in designing this type of material. First, the reactivity of the

text: catalyst

text: must be maintained even after it is enclosed in wax. Additionally, the monomer must flow at a sufficient rate (have low enough

text: viscosity

text: ) to cover the entire crack before it is polymerized, or full healing capacity will not be reached. Finally, the catalyst must quickly dissolve into the monomer in order to react efficiently and prevent the crack from spreading further.

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answers: If the walls of the capsule are created too thick

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answers: The catalyst lowers the energy barrier of the reaction

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: The catalyst lowers the energy barrier of the reaction

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answers: The catalyst lowers the energy barrier

text: In chemical kinetics, the order of reaction with respect to a given substance (such as reactant, catalyst or product) is defined as the index, or exponent, to which its concentration term in the rate equation is raised. For the typical rate equation of form

text: In

text: chemical kinetics

text: , the order of reaction with respect to a given substance (such as

text: reactant

text: catalyst

text: or

text: product

text: ) is defined as the

text: index

text: , or exponent, to which its

text: concentration

text: term in the

text: rate equation

text: is raised. For the typical rate equation of form

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answers: reactant, catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants.

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: its concentration term in the rate equation is raised

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: concentration term in the rate equation

text: TST is used primarily  to understand qualitatively how chemical reactions take place. TST has been less successful in its original goal of calculating absolute reaction rate constants because the calculation of absolute reaction rates requires precise knowledge of potential energy surfaces, but it has been successful in calculating the standard enthalpy of activation (ΔH), the standard entropy of activation (ΔS), and the standard Gibbs energy of activation (ΔG) for a particular reaction if its rate constant has been experimentally determined.  (The  notation refers to the value of interest at the transition state.)

text: TST is used primarily  to understand qualitatively how chemical reactions take place. TST has been less successful in its original goal of calculating absolute reaction rate constants because the calculation of absolute reaction rates requires precise knowledge of potential energy surfaces, but it has been successful in calculating the standard

text: enthalpy

text: of activation (ΔH), the standard

text: entropy of activation

text: (ΔS), and the standard

text: Gibbs energy

text: of activation (ΔG) for a particular reaction if its rate constant has been experimentally determined.  (The  notation refers to the value of interest at the transition state.)

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answers: potential energy surfaces

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: enthalpy of activation

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: TST

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The notation refers to the value of interest at the transition state

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gibbs energy

text: If a chemical reaction causes the release of heat, and the reaction itself happens faster at higher temperatures, then there is a high likelihood of positive feedback. If the heat produced is not removed from the reactants fast enough, thermal runaway can occur and very quickly lead to a chemical explosion.

text: If a chemical reaction causes

text: the release of heat

text: , and the reaction itself

text: happens faster

text: at higher temperatures, then there is a high likelihood of positive feedback. If the heat produced is not removed from the reactants fast enough,

text: thermal runaway

text: can occur and very quickly lead to a chemical

text: explosion

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answers: higher temperatures

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: positive feedback

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: thermal runaway

text: Hydrodealkylation is a chemical reaction that often involves reacting an aromatic hydrocarbon, such as toluene, in the presence of hydrogen gas to form a simpler aromatic hydrocarbon devoid of functional groups. An example is the conversion of 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene to xylene. This chemical process usually occurs at high temperature, at high pressure, or in the presence of a catalyst. These are predominantly transition metals, such as chromium or molybdenum.

text: Hydrodealkylation is a chemical reaction that often involves reacting an

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: , such as

text: toluene

text: , in the presence of

text: hydrogen

text: gas to form a simpler aromatic hydrocarbon devoid of

text: functional group

text: s. An example is the conversion of

text: to

text: xylene

text: . This chemical process usually occurs at high temperature, at high pressure, or in the presence of a

text: catalyst

text: . These are predominantly

text: transition metal

text: s, such as

text: chromium

text: or

text: molybdenum

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answers: high temperature, at high pressure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: This chemical process usually occurs at high temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Hydrodealkylation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: predominantly transition metals

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: This chemical process usually occurs at high temperature

text: A chemical reaction takes place only when the reacting particles collide. However, not all collisions are effective in causing the reaction. Products are formed only when the colliding particles possess a certain minimum energy called threshold energy. As a rule of thumb, reaction rates for many reactions double for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature, For a given reaction, the ratio of its rate constant at a higher temperature to its rate constant at a lower temperature is known as its temperature coefficient (Q).  Q is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are 10 °C apart.

text: A chemical reaction takes place only when the reacting particles collide. However, not all collisions are effective in causing the reaction. Products are formed only when the colliding particles possess a certain minimum energy called threshold energy. As a

text: rule of thumb

text: , reaction rates for many reactions double for every 10 degrees

text: Celsius

text: increase in temperature, For a given reaction, the ratio of its rate constant at a higher temperature to its rate constant at a lower temperature is known as its temperature coefficient (Q).

text: Q

text: is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are 10 °C apart.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: double for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: its temperature coefficient (Q) is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are 10 °C apart

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactions double for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature

text: In a long partnership, Harcourt and William Esson studied the rates of chemical reactions.  Among the processes they investigated was the acid-catalyzed iodine clock reaction (iodide and hydrogen peroxide).  Their work showed that the reaction's changing rate was proportional to the concentration of reactants present. This result was later formalized by Guldberg and Waage as the law of mass action.  Harcourt and Esson also studied the reaction between oxalic acid and potassium permanganate.

text: In a long partnership, Harcourt and William Esson studied the rates of chemical reactions.  Among the processes they investigated was the acid-catalyzed

text: iodine clock reaction

text: (iodide and hydrogen peroxide).  Their work showed that the reaction's changing rate was proportional to the concentration of reactants present. This result was later formalized by Guldberg and Waage as the

text: law of mass action

text: .  Harcourt and Esson also studied the reaction between oxalic acid and potassium permanganate.

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answers: acid-catalyzed iodine clock reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the reaction's changing rate was proportional to the concentration of reactants present

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answers: The reaction's changing rate

text: Reactions can increase or decrease their rates with pressure, depending on the value of ΔV. As an example of the possible magnitude of the pressure effect, some organic reactions were shown to double the reaction rate when the pressure was increased from atmospheric (0.1 MPa) to 50 MPa (which gives ΔV = −0.025 L/mol).

text: Reactions can increase or decrease their rates with pressure, depending on the value of ΔV. As an example of the possible magnitude of the pressure effect, some organic reactions were shown to double the reaction rate when the pressure was increased from atmospheric (0.1 MPa) to 50 MPa (which gives ΔV = −0.025 L/mol).

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answers: It can increase or decrease their rates with pressure

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answers: increase or decrease their rates with pressure

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Reactions can increase or decrease their rates

text: Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes.

text: Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the

text: platinum group

text: metals and other transition metals, which are used in

text: hydrogenation

text: s,

text: catalytic reforming

text: and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as

text: nitric acid

text: and

text: ammonia

text: . Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of

text: carbonyl

text: s, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes.

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answers: Heterogeneous catalysts

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answers: Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Heterogeneous catalysts

text: The Q temperature coefficient is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10 °C. There are many examples where the Q is used, one being the calculation of the nerve conduction velocity and another being calculating the contraction velocity of muscle fibres. It can also be applied to chemical reactions and many other systems.

text: The Q temperature coefficient is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the

text: temperature

text: by 10 °C. There are many examples where the Q is used, one being the calculation of the

text: nerve conduction velocity

text: and another being calculating the contraction velocity of

text: muscle fibre

text: s. It can also be applied to

text: chemical reaction

text: s and many other systems.

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: increase the temperature by 10 °C

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The Q temperature coefficient

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: It can also be applied to chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The Q temperature coefficient

text: Kinetically, catalytic reactions are typical chemical reactions; i.e. the reaction rate depends on the frequency of contact of the reactants in the rate-determining step.  Usually, the catalyst participates in this slowest step, and rates are limited by amount of catalyst and its "activity".  In heterogeneous catalysis, the diffusion of reagents to the surface and diffusion of products from the surface can be rate determining. A nanomaterial-based catalyst is an example of a heterogeneous catalyst. Analogous events associated with substrate binding and product dissociation apply to homogeneous catalysts.

text: Kinetically

text: , catalytic reactions are typical

text: chemical reactions

text: ; i.e. the reaction rate depends on the frequency of contact of the reactants in the rate-determining step.  Usually, the catalyst participates in this slowest step, and rates are limited by amount of catalyst and its "activity".  In

text: heterogeneous catalysis

text: , the diffusion of reagents to the surface and diffusion of products from the surface can be rate determining. A

text: nanomaterial-based catalyst

text: is an example of a heterogeneous catalyst. Analogous events associated with

text: substrate

text: binding and product dissociation apply to homogeneous catalysts.

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answers: reaction rate depends on the frequency of contact of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Usually, the catalyst participates in this slowest step

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The reaction rate depends on the frequency of contact of the reactants

text: Enzymes  are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions. The molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.

text: Enzymes  are

text: macromolecular

text: biological

text: catalyst

text: s. Enzymes accelerate, or

text: catalyze

text: chemical reactions

text: . The molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called

text: substrates

text: and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called

text: products

text: . Almost all

text: metabolic processes

text: in the

text: cell

text: need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which

text: metabolic pathway

text: s occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.

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answers: Enzymes accelerate

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answers: Enzymes accelerate

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Enzymes accelerate

text: Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity. Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH.

text: Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the

text: rate of a reaction

text: by lowering its

text: activation energy

text: . Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is

text: orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase

text: , which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the

text: equilibrium

text: of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules:

text: inhibitors

text: are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and

text: activators

text: are molecules that increase activity. Many

text: drug

text: s and

text: poison

text: s are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal

text: temperature

text: and

text: pH

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answers: lowering its activation energy

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answers: enzymes

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answers: An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature

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answers: enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature

text: Finally, aconitase is thought to be associated with diabetes. Although the exact connection is still being determined, multiple theories exist. In a study of organs from mice with alloxan diabetes (experimentally induced diabetes) and genetic diabetes, lower aconitase activity was found to decrease the rates of metabolic reactions involving citrate, pyruvate, and malate. In addition, citrate concentration was observed to be unusually high. Since these abnormal data were found in diabetic mice, the study concluded that low aconitase activity is likely correlated with genetic and alloxan diabetes. Another theory is that, in diabetic hearts, accelerated phosphorylation of heart aconitase by protein kinase C causes aconitase to speed up the final step of its reverse reaction relative to its forward reaction.  That is, it converts isocitrate back to cis-aconitate more rapidly than usual, but the forward reaction proceeds at the usual rate. This imbalance may contribute to disrupted metabolism in diabetics.

text: Finally, aconitase is thought to be associated with

text: diabetes

text: . Although the exact connection is still being determined, multiple theories exist. In a study of organs from mice with alloxan diabetes (experimentally induced diabetes) and genetic diabetes, lower aconitase activity was found to decrease the rates of metabolic reactions involving citrate, pyruvate, and malate. In addition, citrate concentration was observed to be unusually high. Since these abnormal data were found in diabetic mice, the study concluded that low aconitase activity is likely correlated with genetic and alloxan diabetes. Another theory is that, in diabetic hearts, accelerated phosphorylation of heart aconitase by protein kinase C causes aconitase to speed up the final step of its reverse reaction relative to its forward reaction.  That is, it converts isocitrate back to cis-aconitate more rapidly than usual, but the forward reaction proceeds at the usual rate. This imbalance may contribute to disrupted metabolism in diabetics.

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answers: It converts isocitrate back to cis-aconitate more rapidly than usual, but the forward reaction proceeds at the usual rate

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answers: The exact connection is still being determined

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answers: It converts isocitrate back to cis-aconitate more rapidly than usual, but the forward reaction proceeds at the usual rate

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answers: accelerated phosphorylation of heart aconitase

text: In 1989 it was demonstrated how light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform image processing. This led to an upsurge in the field of chemical computing.Andrew Adamatzky at the University of the West of England has demonstrated simple logic gates using reaction-diffusion processes. Furthermore, he has theoretically shown how a hypothetical "2 medium" modelled as a cellular automaton can perform computation.  Adamatzky was inspired by a theoretical article on computation by using balls on a billiard table to transfer this principle to the BZ-chemicals and replace the billiard balls with waves: if two waves meet in the solution, they create a third wave which is registered as a 1. He has tested the theory in practice and is working to produce some thousand chemical versions of logic gates to create a chemical pocket calculator.One of the problems with the present version of this technology is the speed of the waves; they only spread at a rate of a few millimeters per minute. According to Adamatzky, this problem can be eliminated by placing the gates very close to each other, to make sure the signals are transferred quickly. Another possibility could be new chemical reactions where waves propagate much faster.

text: In 1989 it was demonstrated how light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform

text: image processing

text: . This led to an upsurge in the field of chemical computing.

text: Andrew Adamatzky

text: at the

text: University of the West of England

text: has demonstrated simple logic gates using

text: reaction-diffusion

text: processes. Furthermore, he has theoretically shown how a hypothetical "2 medium" modelled as a

text: cellular automaton

text: can perform computation.  Adamatzky was inspired by a theoretical article on

text: computation by using balls on a billiard table

text: to transfer this principle to the BZ-chemicals and replace the billiard balls with waves: if two waves meet in the solution, they create a third wave which is registered as a 1. He has tested the theory in practice and is working to produce some thousand chemical versions of logic gates to create a chemical pocket calculator.One of the problems with the present version of this technology is the speed of the waves; they only spread at a rate of a few millimeters per minute. According to

text: Adamatzky

text: , this problem can be eliminated by placing the gates very close to each other, to make sure the signals are transferred quickly. Another possibility could be new chemical reactions where waves propagate much faster.

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answers: the gates very close to each other

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answers: according to Adamatzky

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Adamatzky

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform image processing

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform image processing

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work.  Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of

text: redox reaction

text: s in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work.  Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

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answers: Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy

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answers: The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gibbs free energy

text: These calculations are based on the assumption that all chemical reactions are in equilibrium. When a current flows in the circuit, equilibrium conditions are not achieved and the cell potential will usually be reduced by various mechanisms, such as the development of overpotentials. Also, since chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power, the electrolyte concentrations change and the cell voltage is reduced. A consequence of the temperature dependency of standard potentials is that the voltage produced by a galvanic cell is also temperature dependent.

text: These calculations are based on the assumption that all chemical reactions are in equilibrium. When a current flows in the circuit, equilibrium conditions are not achieved and the cell potential will usually be reduced by various mechanisms, such as the development of

text: overpotential

text: s. Also, since chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power, the electrolyte concentrations change and the cell voltage is reduced. A consequence of the temperature dependency of standard potentials is that the voltage produced by a galvanic cell is also temperature dependent.

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It depends on the temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Temperature

text: Those generated from primary amines are unstable to the extent that they have never been isolated and very rarely been observed directly. In a 2007 study a hemiaminal substructure trapped in the cavity of a host-guest complex was studied with a chemical half-life of 30 minutes. Because both amine and carbonyl group are isolated in a cavity, hemiaminal formation is favored due to a high forward reaction rate comparable to an intramolecular reaction and also due to restricted access of external base (another amine) to the same cavity which would favor elimination of water to the imine.

text: Those generated from primary amines are unstable to the extent that they have never been isolated and very rarely been observed directly. In a 2007 study a hemiaminal substructure trapped in the cavity of a

text: host-guest complex

text: was studied with a

text: chemical half-life

text: of 30 minutes. Because both amine and carbonyl group are isolated in a cavity, hemiaminal formation is favored due to a high forward

text: reaction rate

text: comparable to an

text: intramolecular

text: reaction and also due to restricted access of external base (another amine) to the same cavity which would favor

text: elimination

text: of water to the imine.

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answers: forward reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: forward reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: they have never been isolated and very rarely been observed directly

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: forward reaction rate

text: Acid staining is not a dyeing or pigment-base coloring systems, but a chemical reaction. A mixture of water, mineral salts and a slight amount of muriatic acid is applied to the concrete surface. This chemical reaction with the existing minerals (primarily lime) in the concrete over a period of one to four hours creates new earth tone colors on the concrete surface. The concrete surface is later scrubbed to remove excess stain and neutralized by a basic solution of ammonia and water or baking soda (less likely to cause whiting later) to help raise the ph level back to normal level. Due to inconsistencies in the surface level of concrete floor, acid staining creates a variegated or mottled appearance that is unique to each slab. The color penetration ranges from 1/16 to 1/32 of an inch. Older exterior concrete surfaces may not color as well as interior surfaces because the environment has leached or percolated out the mineral content.  As well, any exposed aggregate (rocks) in worn concrete will not accept staining.

text: Acid

text: staining is not a dyeing or pigment-base coloring systems, but a

text: chemical reaction

text: . A mixture of

text: water

text: mineral salt

text: s and a slight amount of muriatic acid is applied to the concrete surface. This chemical reaction with the existing

text: mineral

text: s (primarily lime) in the concrete over a period of one to four hours creates new earth tone colors on the concrete surface. The concrete surface is later scrubbed to remove excess stain and neutralized by a basic solution of

text: ammonia

text: and water or baking soda (less likely to cause whiting later) to help raise the ph level back to normal level. Due to inconsistencies in the surface level of concrete floor, acid staining creates a variegated or mottled appearance that is unique to each slab. The color penetration ranges from 1/16 to 1/32 of an inch. Older exterior concrete surfaces may not color as well as interior surfaces because the environment has

text: leached

text: or

text: percolated

text: out the mineral content.  As well, any exposed aggregate (rocks) in worn concrete will not accept staining.

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answers: existing minerals

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answers: This chemical reaction with the existing minerals

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: baking soda (less likely to cause whiting later) to help raise the ph level back to normal level

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: chemical reaction

text: Epoxy resins typically require a precise mix of two components which form a third chemical. Depending on the properties required, the ratio may be anything from 1:1 or over 10:1, but in every case they must be mixed exactly. The final product is then a precise thermo-setting plastic. Until they are mixed the two elements are relatively inert, although the 'hardeners' tend to be more chemically active and should be protected from the atmosphere and moisture. The rate of the reaction can be changed by using different hardeners, which may change the nature of the final product, or by controlling the temperature.

text: Epoxy resins typically require a precise mix of two components which form a third chemical. Depending on the properties required, the ratio may be anything from 1:1 or over 10:1, but in every case they must be mixed exactly. The final product is then a precise thermo-setting plastic. Until they are mixed the two elements are relatively inert, although the 'hardeners' tend to be more chemically active and should be protected from the atmosphere and moisture. The rate of the reaction can be changed by using different hardeners, which may change the nature of the final product, or by controlling the temperature.

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answers: temperature

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answers: The rate of the reaction

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answers: The rate of the reaction

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answers: The rate of the reaction can be changed by using different hardeners

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of the reaction

text: Chemical oxidative polymerization is a traditional and commonly used method for the polymerization of aniline in large quantities. When aniline is mixed with an oxidant in an acidic solution, polymerization will occur. The most important parameter to be controlled in this method for the synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers is the domination of homogeneous nucleation over heterogeneous nucleation. Homogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are formed spontaneously in solution while heterogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are grown on other species. In the early stages of this polymerization, only nanofibers are formed since there are no heteronuclei available for heterogeneous nucleation. However, if the reaction is left uncontrolled, heterogeneous nucleation will begin to dominate as the polyaniline will preferentially grow on existing particles, leading to irreversible agglomeration. The reaction can be made to favor homogeneous nucleation throughout by increasing reaction speed, temperature of the reaction, and allowing the reaction to proceed without stirring.

text: Chemical oxidative polymerization is a traditional and commonly used method for the polymerization of aniline in large quantities. When aniline is mixed with an oxidant in an acidic solution, polymerization will occur. The most important parameter to be controlled in this method for the synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers is the domination of

text: homogeneous

text: nucleation over heterogeneous

text: nucleation

text: . Homogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are formed spontaneously in solution while heterogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are grown on other species. In the early stages of this polymerization, only nanofibers are formed since there are no heteronuclei available for heterogeneous nucleation. However, if the reaction is left uncontrolled, heterogeneous nucleation will begin to dominate as the polyaniline will preferentially grow on existing particles, leading to irreversible agglomeration. The reaction can be made to favor homogeneous nucleation throughout by increasing reaction speed, temperature of the reaction, and allowing the reaction to proceed without stirring.

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answers: The reaction can be made to favor homogeneous nucleation throughout by increasing reaction speed, temperature of the reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The reaction can be made to favor homogeneous nucleation throughout by increasing reaction speed, temperature of the reaction, and allowing the reaction to proceed without stirring

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text: Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto, becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942, vice president in 1943, executive vice president in 1947, president in 1950, and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965. He subsequently  served as chairman of Monsanto's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968. He retired in 1970. In this time, Monsanto's annual sales grew from $34 million to $1.9 billion, and its expenditure on research from $6.2 million to 101.4 million. He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers. In studying the chemical reactions between alkenes and dienes, particularly in the presence of an aluminium chloride catalyst, he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride, which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions, including cracking, polymerization and dehydrogenation. This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941.

text: Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto, becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942, vice president in 1943, executive vice president in 1947, president in 1950, and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965. He subsequently  served as chairman of Monsanto's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968. He retired in 1970. In this time, Monsanto's annual sales grew from $34 million to $1.9 billion, and its expenditure on research from $6.2 million to 101.4 million. He researched the chemistry of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and

text: polymer

text: s. In studying the chemical reactions between

text: alkene

text: s and

text: diene

text: s, particularly in the presence of an

text: aluminium chloride

text: catalyst

text: , he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride, which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions, including

text: cracking

text: polymerization

text: and

text: dehydrogenation

text: . This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941.

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answers: chemical reactions

text: In S2 reactions, there are a few conditions that affect the rate of the reaction.  First of all, the 2 in S2 implies that there are two concentrations of substances that affect the rate of reaction: substrate and nucleophile.  The rate equation for this reaction would be Rate=k[Sub][Nuc].  For a S2 reaction, an aprotic solvent is best, such as acetone, DMF, or DMSO.  Aprotic solvents do not add protons (H+) ions into solution; if protons were present in S2 reactions, they would react with the nucleophile and severely limit the reaction rate.  Since this reaction occurs in one step, steric effects drive the reaction speed. In the intermediate step, the nucleophile is 180 degrees from the leaving group and the stereochemistry is inverted as the nucleophile bonds to make the product.  Also, because the intermediate is partially bonded to the nucleophile and leaving group, there is no time for the substrate to rearrange itself: the nucleophile will bond to the same carbon that the leaving group was attached to.  A final factor that affects reaction rate is nucleophilicity; the nucleophile must attack an atom other than a hydrogen.

text: In S2 reactions, there are a few conditions that affect the rate of the reaction.  First of all, the 2 in S2 implies that there are two concentrations of substances that affect the rate of reaction: substrate and nucleophile.  The rate equation for this reaction would be Rate=k[Sub][Nuc].  For a S2 reaction, an

text: aprotic solvent

text: is best, such as acetone, DMF, or DMSO.  Aprotic solvents do not add protons (H+) ions into solution; if protons were present in S2 reactions, they would react with the nucleophile and severely limit the reaction rate.  Since this reaction occurs in one step,

text: steric effects

text: drive the reaction speed. In the intermediate step, the nucleophile is 180 degrees from the leaving group and the stereochemistry is inverted as the nucleophile bonds to make the product.  Also, because the intermediate is partially bonded to the nucleophile and leaving group, there is no time for the substrate to rearrange itself: the nucleophile will bond to the same carbon that the leaving group was attached to.  A final factor that affects reaction rate is nucleophilicity; the nucleophile must attack an atom other than a hydrogen.

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answers: substrate and nucleophile

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Rate=k[Sub][Nuc]

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: For a S2 reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the nucleophile must attack an atom other than a hydrogen

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Rate=k[Sub][Nuc]

text: The concentration of reactants and products in autocatalytic reactions follow the logistic function.

text: The concentration of reactants and products in

text: autocatalytic reactions

text: follow the logistic function.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4243/429ee42694fe0dc6531955079c1dc858

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 2

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentration of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: autocatalytic reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: autocatalytic reactions follow the logistic function

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: Unoptimized reactions typically use 10-15 mol% of palladium.  In optimized reactions, catalyst loadings can be on the order of 0.1 mol % or below. Palladium nano clusters have been found to catalyze coupling reactions with catalyst loadings as low as parts per billion, however such systems typically do not maintain catalytic activity as long as well defined ligated catalysts. Many exotic ligands and chiral catalysts have been reported, but they are largely not available commercially, and do not find widespread use. Much work is being done on replacing the phosphine ligands with other classes, such as Arduengo-type carbene complexes, as the phosphine ligands are typically oxygen sensitive (easily oxidized) and must be handled under an inert atmosphere. Phosphines are labile, sometimes requiring additional ligand. For example, Pd(PPh) would be supplemented with PPh to keep the palladium coordinated despite loss of the labile phosphine ligands.

text: Unoptimized reactions typically use 10-15 mol% of palladium.  In optimized reactions, catalyst loadings can be on the order of 0.1 mol % or below. Palladium nano clusters have been found to catalyze coupling reactions with catalyst loadings as low as parts per billion, however such systems typically do not maintain catalytic activity as long as well defined ligated catalysts. Many exotic ligands and chiral catalysts have been reported, but they are largely not available commercially, and do not find widespread use. Much work is being done on replacing the phosphine ligands with other classes, such as Arduengo-type

text: carbene

text: complexes, as the phosphine ligands are typically oxygen sensitive (easily oxidized) and must be handled under an inert atmosphere. Phosphines are

text: labile

text: , sometimes requiring additional ligand. For example, Pd(PPh) would be supplemented with PPh to keep the palladium coordinated despite loss of the labile phosphine ligands.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: catalyst loadings

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Phosphines are labile, sometimes requiring additional ligand

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Phosphines are labile, sometimes requiring additional ligand

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Oxygen sensitive (easily oxidized)

text: In the related condensation reaction water is released from two different reactants.

text: In the related

text: condensation reaction

text: water is released from two different reactants.

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answers: warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: reactants have more energy

text: Glass and metal can bond together by purely mechanical means, which usually gives weaker joints, or by chemical interaction, where the oxide layer on the metal surface forms a strong bond with the glass. The acid-base reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the presence of metal oxides on the surface of metal. After complete dissolution of the surface oxides into the glass, further progress of interaction depends on the oxygen activity at the interface. The oxygen activity can be increased by diffusion of molecular oxygen through some defects like cracks. Also, reduction of the thermodynamically less stable components in the glass (and releasing the oxygen ions) can increase the oxygen activity at the interface. In other words, the redox reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the absence of metal oxides on the surface of metal.

text: Glass and metal can bond together by purely mechanical means, which usually gives weaker joints, or by chemical interaction, where the oxide layer on the metal surface forms a strong bond with the glass. The

text: acid-base reaction

text: s are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the presence of metal oxides on the surface of metal. After complete dissolution of the surface oxides into the glass, further progress of interaction depends on the oxygen

text: activity

text: at the interface. The oxygen

text: activity

text: can be increased by diffusion of

text: molecular oxygen

text: through some defects like cracks. Also, reduction of the thermodynamically less stable components in the glass (and releasing the oxygen ions) can increase the oxygen

text: activity

text: at the interface. In other words, the

text: redox

text: reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the absence of metal oxides on the surface of metal.

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answers: oxygen activity at the interface

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: After complete dissolution of the surface oxides into the glass, further progress of interaction depends on the oxygen activity at the interface

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The oxygen activity can be increased by diffusion of molecular oxygen through some defects like cracks

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The acid-base reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the presence of metal oxides on the surface of metal

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The oxygen activity can be increased by diffusion of molecular oxygen through some defects like cracks

text: The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid, adsorbed onto a porous support such as silica gel or diatomaceous earth. This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947. The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at  where a 1.0:0.6 ethylene to steam ratio is maintained. In the U.S., this process was used on an industrial scale by Union Carbide Corporation and others, but now only LyondellBasell uses it commercially.

text: The catalyst is most commonly

text: phosphoric acid

text: adsorbed

text: onto a porous support such as

text: silica gel

text: or

text: diatomaceous earth

text: . This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the

text: Shell Oil Company

text: in 1947. The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at  where a 1.0:0.6 ethylene to steam ratio is maintained. In the U.S., this process was used on an industrial scale by

text: Union Carbide Corporation

text: and others, but now only

text: LyondellBasell

text: uses it commercially.

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answers: high pressure steam

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answers: high pressure steam

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answers: The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid

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answers: high pressure steam

text: Beside high mechanical energy, higher cleaning temperatures are one of the most effective methods of improving the cleaning results in a parts washer. In general, a 10 to 15 °F (5 to 8 °C) rise doubles the chemical reaction of the detergent.  The increased chemical reaction between the greases and oils and the detergent delivers faster cleaning cycles and cleaner parts.  Additionally, all greases and oils exhibit a lower viscosity at higher temperatures. Cleaning solution temperatures of  and above softens or melts most oils and greases causing them to flow like water so they are easily removed resulting in faster cleaning, better results and cleaner parts. Many parts washers are not capable of maintaining this operating temperature due to the lack of amply heating systems.  Additionally, careful design is required of the pumping system so it can pull in and deliver cleaning solution at temperatures that approach boiling in the parts washer. All centrifugal pumps require a net positive suction head (NPSHr) in order to be able to pump solution.  As the temperature of the solution approaches the NPSHr, the pump stops pumping because the cleaning solution flashes to steam in the pump intake.  Careful design of the pump is required to minimize NPSHr and allow pumping of high temperature cleaning solution.

text: Beside high mechanical energy, higher cleaning temperatures are one of the most effective methods of improving the cleaning results in a parts washer. In general, a 10 to 15 °F (5 to 8 °C) rise doubles the

text: chemical reaction

text: of the detergent.  The increased chemical reaction between the greases and oils and the detergent delivers faster cleaning cycles and cleaner parts.  Additionally, all greases and oils exhibit a lower

text: viscosity

text: at higher temperatures. Cleaning solution temperatures of  and above softens or melts most oils and greases causing them to flow like water so they are easily removed resulting in faster cleaning, better results and cleaner parts. Many parts washers are not capable of maintaining this

text: operating temperature

text: due to the lack of amply heating systems.  Additionally, careful design is required of the pumping system so it can pull in and deliver cleaning solution at temperatures that approach boiling in the parts washer. All

text: centrifugal pump

text: s require a

text: net positive suction head

text: (NPSHr) in order to be able to pump solution.  As the temperature of the solution approaches the NPSHr, the pump stops pumping because the cleaning solution flashes to steam in the pump intake.  Careful design of the pump is required to minimize NPSHr and allow pumping of high temperature cleaning solution.

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answers: high mechanical energy

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answers: Chemical reaction between the greases and oils and the detergent delivers faster cleaning cycles and cleaner parts

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: all greases and oils exhibit a lower viscosity at higher temperatures

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Chemical reaction between the greases and oils and the detergent delivers faster cleaning cycles and cleaner parts

text: Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of  or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows Arrhenius behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE/kT) where q is electron charge and k is the Boltzmann constant. The activation energy (E) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be a minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a reaction is then said to be 'mass-transport-limited.' When a polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow.

text: Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of  or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows

text: Arrhenius

text: behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE/kT) where q is electron charge and k is the

text: Boltzmann constant

text: . The activation energy (E) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be a minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a reaction is then said to be 'mass-transport-limited.' When a polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow.

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answers: reactor geometry, and gas flow

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answers: The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature

text: Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Rudolph A. Marcus, starting in 1956, to explain the rates of electron transfer reactions – the rate at which an electron can move or jump from one chemical species (called the electron donor) to another (called the electron acceptor). It was originally formulated to address outer sphere electron transfer reactions, in which the two chemical species only change in their charge with an electron jumping (e.g. the oxidation of an ion like Fe/Fe), but do not undergo large structural changes. It was extended to include inner sphere electron transfer contributions, in which a change of distances or geometry in the solvation or coordination shells of the two chemical species is taken into account (the Fe-O distances in Fe(HO) and Fe(HO) are different).

text: Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by

text: Rudolph A. Marcus

text: , starting in 1956, to explain the

text: rates

text: of

text: electron transfer

text: reactions – the rate at which an

text: electron

text: can move or jump from one

text: chemical species

text: (called the

text: electron donor

text: ) to another (called the

text: electron acceptor

text: ). It was originally formulated to address

text: outer sphere electron transfer

text: reactions, in which the two chemical species only change in their

text: charge

text: with an electron jumping (e.g. the oxidation of an ion like Fe/Fe), but do not undergo large structural changes. It was extended to include

text: inner sphere electron transfer

text: contributions, in which a change of distances or geometry in the

text: solvation

text: or

text: coordination shells

text: of the two chemical species is taken into account (the Fe-O distances in Fe(HO) and Fe(HO) are different).

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answers: The rate at which an electron can move

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Marcus theory

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate at which an electron can move or jump from one chemical species (called the electron donor) to another

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate at which an electron can move or jump

text: is the probability that any given collision will result in a reaction. It can be seen that either increasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy (for example through the use of catalysts) will result in an increase in rate of reaction.

text: is the probability that any given collision will result in a reaction. It can be seen that either increasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy (for example through the use of

text: catalyst

text: s) will result in an increase in rate of reaction.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: activation energy

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: increase in rate of reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The probability that any given collision will result in a reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: decreasing the activation energy (for example through the use of catalysts) will result in an increase in rate of reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: increase in rate of reaction

text: is the density of primary ions in absence of reactant molecules in the buffer gas,  is the reaction rate constant and  is the average time the ions need to pass the reaction region. With a PTR-MS instrument the number of product and of primary ions can be measured, the reaction rate constant can be found in literature for most substances and the reaction time can be derived from the set instrument parameters. Therefore the absolute concentration of trace constituents

text: is the density of primary ions in absence of reactant molecules in the buffer gas,  is the

text: reaction rate constant

text: and  is the average time the ions need to pass the reaction region. With a PTR-MS instrument the number of product and of primary ions can be measured, the reaction rate constant can be found in literature for most substances and the reaction time can be derived from the set instrument parameters. Therefore the absolute

text: concentration

text: of trace constituents

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answers: is the density of primary ions in absence of reactant molecules

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster.

text: As described above, same-excess experiments are conducted with two or more experiments holding the excess, (e) constant while changing the absolute concentrations of the substrates (in this case, the catalyst is also treated as a substrate.) Note that this construction causes the number of equivalents and therefore the mole percentage of each reagent/catalyst to differ between reactions. These experiments enable one to artificially "enter" the reaction at any point, as the initial concentrations of one experiment (the intercepting reaction) are chosen to map directly onto the anticipated concentrations at some intermediate time, t, in another (the parent reaction). One would expect the reaction progress, described by the rate vs. substrate concentration plots detailed above, to map directly onto each other from that interception point onward. This will hold true, however, only if the rate of the reaction is not altered by changes to the active substrate/catalyst concentration (such as by catalyst activation, catalyst deactivation, or product inhibition) before that interception.

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answers: active substrate/catalyst concentration

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answers: It will hold true if the rate of the reaction is not altered by changes to the active substrate/catalyst concentration

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answers: It does not say.

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answers: catalyst activation, catalyst deactivation, or product inhibition

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of the reaction is not altered by changes to the active substrate/catalyst concentration

text: Products are the species formed from chemical reactions. During a chemical reaction reactants are transformed into products after passing through a high energy transition state. This process results in the consumption of the reactants.  It can be a spontaneous reaction or mediated by catalysts which lower the energy of the transition state, and by solvents which provide the chemical environment necessary for the reaction to take place. When represented in chemical equations products are by convention drawn on the right-hand side, even in the case of reversible reactions. The properties of products such as their energies help determine several characteristics of a chemical reaction such as whether the reaction is exergonic or endergonic. Additionally the properties of a product can make it easier to extract and purify following a chemical reaction, especially if the product has a different state of matter than the reactants. Reactants are molecular materials used to create chemical reactions. The atoms aren't created or destroyed. The materials are reactive and reactants are rearranging during a chemical reaction. Here is an example of reactants: CH4 + O2. A non-example is CO2 + H2O or "energy".

text: Products are the species formed from

text: chemical reaction

text: s. During a chemical reaction

text: reactants

text: are transformed into products after passing through a high energy

text: transition state

text: . This process results in the consumption of the reactants.  It can be a

text: spontaneous reaction

text: or mediated by

text: catalyst

text: s which lower the energy of the transition state, and by

text: solvent

text: s which provide the chemical environment necessary for the reaction to take place. When represented in

text: chemical equation

text: s products are by convention drawn on the right-hand side, even in the case of

text: reversible reaction

text: s. The properties of products such as their energies help determine several characteristics of a chemical reaction such as whether the reaction is

text: exergonic

text: or

text: endergonic

text: . Additionally the properties of a product can make it easier to extract and purify following a chemical reaction, especially if the product has a different

text: state of matter

text: than the reactants. Reactants are molecular materials used to create chemical reactions. The atoms aren't created or destroyed. The materials are reactive and reactants are rearranging during a chemical reaction. Here is an example of reactants: CH4 + O2. A non-example is CO2 + H2O or "energy".

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answers: It can be a spontaneous reaction or mediated by catalysts

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answers: It can be a spontaneous reaction or mediated by catalysts which lower the energy of the transition state

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: lower the energy of the transition state

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: high energy transition state

text: Reactions generally accelerate when heat is applied. Where a reaction is exothermic, the rate of the reaction may initially be low. As the reaction proceeds, heat is generated, and the rate of reaction increases. This type of reaction often exhibits an induction period as well.

text: Reactions generally accelerate when heat is applied. Where a reaction is

text: exothermic

text: , the rate of the reaction may initially be low. As the reaction proceeds, heat is generated, and the rate of reaction increases. This type of reaction often exhibits an induction period as well.

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answers: heat

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answers: accelerate when heat is applied

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answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: heat is generated, and the rate of reaction increases

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of reaction increases

text: A large fraction of the rocket engines in use today are chemical rockets; that is, they obtain the energy needed to generate thrust by chemical reactions to create a hot gas that is expanded to produce thrust. A significant limitation of chemical propulsion is that it has a relatively low specific impulse (Isp), which is the ratio of the thrust produced to the mass of propellant needed at a certain rate of flow.

text: A large fraction of the

text: rocket engine

text: s in use today are

text: chemical rockets

text: ; that is, they obtain the energy needed to generate thrust by

text: chemical reactions

text: to create a hot gas that is expanded to produce

text: thrust

text: . A significant limitation of

text: chemical propulsion

text: is that it has a relatively low

text: specific impulse

text: (Isp), which is the

text: ratio

text: of the thrust produced to the

text: mass of propellant

text: needed at a certain

text: rate of flow

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answers: mass of propellant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: gas that is expanded to produce thrust

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: create a hot gas that is expanded to produce thrust

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: gas that is expanded

text: The initial amounts of reactants determine the distance from chemical equilibrium of the system. The greater the initial concentrations the further the system is from equilibrium. As the initial concentration increases, an abrupt change in order occurs. This abrupt change is known as phase transition. At the phase transition, fluctuations in macroscopic quantities, such as chemical concentrations, increase as the system oscillates between the more ordered state (lower entropy, such as ice) and the more disordered state (higher entropy, such as liquid water). Also, at the phase transition, macroscopic equations, such as the rate equations, fail. Rate equations can be derived from microscopic considerations. The derivations typically rely on a mean field theory approximation to microscopic dynamical equations. Mean field theory breaks down in the presence of large fluctuations (see Mean field theory article for a discussion).  Therefore, since large fluctuations occur in the neighborhood of a phase transition, macroscopic equations, such as rate equations, fail. As the initial concentration increases further, the system settles into an ordered state in which fluctuations are again small. (see Prigogine reference)

text: The initial amounts of reactants determine the distance from chemical equilibrium of the system. The greater the initial concentrations the further the system is from equilibrium. As the initial concentration increases, an abrupt change in

text: order

text: occurs. This abrupt change is known as

text: phase transition

text: . At the phase transition, fluctuations in macroscopic quantities, such as chemical concentrations, increase as the system oscillates between the more ordered state (lower entropy, such as ice) and the more disordered state (higher entropy, such as liquid water). Also, at the phase transition, macroscopic equations, such as the rate equations, fail. Rate equations can be derived from microscopic considerations. The derivations typically rely on a

text: mean field theory

text: approximation to microscopic dynamical equations. Mean field theory breaks down in the presence of large fluctuations (see

text: Mean field theory

text: article for a discussion).  Therefore, since large fluctuations occur in the neighborhood of a phase transition, macroscopic equations, such as rate equations, fail. As the initial concentration increases further, the system settles into an ordered state in which fluctuations are again small. (see Prigogine reference)

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: initial amounts of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: As the initial concentration increases, an abrupt change in order occurs

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: As the initial concentration increases, an abrupt change in order occurs

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the greater the initial concentrations the further the system is from equilibrium

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: As the initial concentration increases

text: Carbohydrates are reactants in many organic reactions. For example:

text: Carbohydrates are reactants in many

text: organic reaction

text: s. For example:

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answers: carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Carbohydrates

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Carbohydrates are reactants in many organic reactions.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Carbohydrates are reactants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Carbs

text: A mixture of fuel and air ignites when the concentration and temperature of reactants is sufficiently high. The concentration and/or temperature can be increased in several different ways:

text: A mixture of fuel and air ignites when the concentration and temperature of reactants is sufficiently high. The concentration and/or temperature can be increased in several different ways:

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answers: The concentration and/or temperature can be increased in several different ways

text: Although Chapman took a keen interest in his students, research was his main priority. Chapman had a particular interest in the photochemical reaction of hydrogen and chlorine, establishing that minute traces of impurities caused unexpected consequences.  He suggested the steady state hypothesis in 1913.  He discovered that the interruption of light by a rotating sector caused the rate of the reaction to vary with the frequency of the sector and, in 1926, he was the first to apply this theory to measure the 'mean life' of a reaction intermediate.  Other areas of interest were the theory of detonation in gases (the subject of an important paper that Chapman published in 1899, with reliable calculations of detonation speeds; the theory is still known as the Chapman-Jouget treatment) and the distribution of ions at a charged surface (with the name of the Gouy-Chapman layer being given to the surface layer that he envisaged).

text: Although Chapman took a keen interest in his students, research was his main priority. Chapman had a particular interest in the

text: photochemical

text: reaction of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: chlorine

text: , establishing that minute traces of impurities caused unexpected consequences.  He suggested the

text: steady state

text: hypothesis in 1913.  He discovered that the interruption of light by a rotating sector caused the rate of the reaction to vary with the frequency of the sector and, in 1926, he was the first to apply this theory to measure the 'mean life' of a reaction intermediate.  Other areas of interest were the theory of detonation in gases (the subject of an important paper that Chapman published in 1899, with reliable calculations of detonation speeds; the theory is still known as the Chapman-Jouget treatment) and the distribution of ions at a charged surface (with the name of the Gouy-Chapman layer being given to the surface layer that he envisaged).

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text: The liquid feed (at the bottom left in the diagram) is pumped up to the reaction pressure (5–45 atm) and is joined by a stream of hydrogen-rich recycle gas. The resulting liquid–gas mixture is preheated by flowing through a heat exchanger. The preheated feed mixture is then totally vaporized and heated to the reaction temperature (495–520 °C) before the vaporized reactants enter the first reactor. As the vaporized reactants flow through the fixed bed of catalyst in the reactor, the major reaction is the dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics (as described earlier herein) which is highly endothermic and results in a large temperature decrease between the inlet and outlet of the reactor. To maintain the required reaction temperature and the rate of reaction, the vaporized stream is reheated in the second fired heater before it flows through the second reactor. The temperature again decreases across the second reactor and the vaporized stream must again be reheated in the third fired heater before it flows through the third reactor. As the vaporized stream proceeds through the three reactors, the reaction rates decrease and the reactors therefore become larger.  At the same time, the amount of reheat required between the reactors becomes smaller. Usually, three reactors are all that is required to provide the desired performance of the catalytic reforming unit.

text: The liquid feed (at the bottom left in the diagram) is pumped up to the reaction pressure (5–45 atm) and is joined by a stream of hydrogen-rich recycle gas. The resulting liquid–gas mixture is preheated by flowing through a

text: heat exchanger

text: . The preheated feed mixture is then totally

text: vaporized

text: and heated to the reaction temperature (495–520 °C) before the vaporized reactants enter the first reactor. As the vaporized reactants flow through the fixed bed of catalyst in the reactor, the major reaction is the dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics (as described earlier herein) which is highly

text: endothermic

text: and results in a large temperature decrease between the inlet and outlet of the reactor. To maintain the required reaction temperature and the rate of reaction, the vaporized stream is reheated in the second fired heater before it flows through the second reactor. The temperature again decreases across the second reactor and the vaporized stream must again be reheated in the third fired heater before it flows through the third reactor. As the vaporized stream proceeds through the three reactors, the reaction rates decrease and the reactors therefore become larger.  At the same time, the amount of reheat required between the reactors becomes smaller. Usually, three reactors are all that is required to provide the desired performance of the catalytic reforming unit.

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answers: as described earlier herein which is highly endothermic

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answers: It is highly endothermic

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answers: As the vaporized reactants flow through the fixed bed of catalyst in the reactor

text: The velocities of cricket bowlers vary between . In professional cricket, a bowler in the 40–60 mph range would be said to be a slow bowler, in the 60–80 mph range a medium pace bowler, and a bowler 80 mph+ a fast bowler. In the amateur game, these distinctions would be approximately 10 mph slower. Many professional fast bowlers are able to reach speeds of over 85 mph, with a handful of bowlers in the world able to bowl at 95 mph+. The ability to react to a cricket ball travelling at 85 mph is a skill that only professional and high level amateur cricketers possess. The pace of a bowler not only challenges the reaction speed of the batsman, but also his physical courage. Fast bowlers are able to exploit this by bowling bouncers, either regularly or as an occasional surprise delivery.

text: The velocities of cricket bowlers vary between . In professional cricket, a bowler in the 40–60 mph range would be said to be a slow bowler, in the 60–80 mph range a medium pace bowler, and a bowler 80 mph+ a fast bowler. In the amateur game, these distinctions would be approximately 10 mph slower. Many professional fast bowlers are able to reach speeds of over 85 mph, with a handful of bowlers in the world able to bowl at 95 mph+. The ability to react to a cricket ball travelling at 85 mph is a skill that only professional and high level amateur cricketers possess. The pace of a bowler not only challenges the reaction speed of the batsman, but also his physical courage. Fast bowlers are able to exploit this by bowling bouncers, either regularly or as an occasional surprise delivery.

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answers: Fast bowlers are able to exploit this by bowling bouncers

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answers: bouncers, either regularly or as an occasional surprise delivery

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answers: The ability to react to a cricket ball travelling at 85 mph

text: The experimental determination of reaction rates involves measuring how the concentrations of reactants or products change over time. For example, the concentration of a reactant can be measured by spectrophotometry at a wavelength where no other reactant or product in the system absorbs light.

text: The experimental determination of reaction rates involves measuring how the concentrations of reactants or products change over time. For example, the concentration of a reactant can be measured by

text: spectrophotometry

text: at a wavelength where no other reactant or product in the system absorbs light.

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answers: concentrations of reactants or products

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The experimental determination of reaction rates

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the concentration of a reactant can be measured by spectrophotometry at a wavelength where no other reactant or product in the system absorbs light

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The experimental determination of reaction rates

text: Gillespie's original derivation of the SSA began by considering how chemical reactions actually occur in a well-stirred dilute gas.  Reasoning from physics (and not by heuristically extrapolating deterministic reaction rates to a stochastic context), he showed that the probability that a specific reaction will occur in the next very small time dt could be written as an explicit function of the current species populations multiplied by dt.  From that result he deduced, using only the laws of probability, an exact formula for the joint probability density function p(τ,j) of the {time τ to the next reaction event} and the {index j of that reaction}.  The SSA consists of first generating random values for τ and j according to p(τ,j), and then actualizing the next reaction accordingly.  The generating step of the SSA can be accomplished using any of several different methods, and Gillespie's original paper presented two:  the "direct method", which follows from a straightforward application of the well known Monte Carlo inversion method for generating random numbers; and the "first-reaction method", which is less straightforward but mathematically equivalent.  Later workers derived additional methods for generating random numbers according to Gillespie's function p(τ,j) which offer computational advantages in various specific situations. Gillespie's original derivation of the SSA applied only to a well-stirred dilute gas.  It was widely assumed/hoped that the SSA would also apply when the reactant molecules are solute molecules in a well-stirred dilute solution, a case more appropriate to cellular chemistry.  In fact it does, but that was not definitively established until 2009.  The SSA is one component of stochastic chemical kinetics, a field that Gillespie played a major role in developing and clarifying through his later publications.

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answers: stochastic context

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answers: It was widely assumed/hoped that the SSA would also apply when the reactant molecules are solute molecules in a well-stirred dilute solution

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answers: Gillespie's original derivation of the SSA

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answers: the probability that a specific reaction will occur in the next very small time dt could be written as an explicit function of the current species populations multiplied by dt

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gillespie's original derivation of the SSA

text: The rate expressions given in the 1864 paper could not be integrated, so they were simplified as follows. The chemical force was assumed to be directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the reactants.

text: The rate expressions given in the 1864 paper could not be integrated, so they were simplified as follows. The chemical force was assumed to be directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the reactants.

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answers: active masses of the reactants

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answers: The chemical force

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The chemical force

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The chemical force was assumed to be directly proportional

text: 1. Single step reaction between the reactants excluding the intermediate steps.

text: 1. Single step reaction between the reactants excluding the intermediate steps.

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answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Single step reaction between the reactants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy

text: Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for catalytic reforming, which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery naphthas with low octane ratings into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium. The olefin metathesis is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally ReO on alumina is used for this process. Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to chemical poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.

text: Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for

text: catalytic reforming

text: , which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery

text: naphthas

text: with low

text: octane rating

text: s into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium. The

text: olefin metathesis

text: is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally ReO on

text: alumina

text: is used for this process. Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to

text: chemical poisoning

text: from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.

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answers: catalytic reforming

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Rhenium catalysts

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to chemical poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The olefin metathesis

text: The uncatalyzed reaction is rather slow, and a high X is not readily attained.  In the presence of a catalyst, there is an acceleration of the rate, and the kinetic expression is altered to

text: The uncatalyzed reaction is rather slow, and a high X is not readily attained.  In the presence of a catalyst, there is an acceleration of the rate, and the kinetic expression is altered to

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 5

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: In the presence of a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: uncatalyzed reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: acceleration of the rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Acceleration of the rate

text: The equilibrium expression above is a function of the concentrations [A], [B] etc. of the chemical species in equilibrium. The equilibrium constant value can be determined if any one of these concentrations can be measured. The general procedure is that the concentration in question is measured for a series of solutions with known analytical concentrations of the reactants. Typically, a titration is performed with one or more reactants in the titration vessel and one or more reactants in the burette. Knowing the analytical concentrations of reactants initially in the reaction vessel and in the burette, all analytical concentrations can be derived as a function of the volume (or mass) of titrant added.

text: The equilibrium expression above is a function of the

text: concentration

text: s [A], [B] etc. of the chemical species in equilibrium. The equilibrium constant value can be determined if any one of these concentrations can be measured. The general procedure is that the concentration in question is measured for a series of solutions with known

text: analytical concentration

text: s of the reactants. Typically, a

text: titration

text: is performed with one or more reactants in the titration vessel and one or more reactants in the burette. Knowing the analytical concentrations of reactants initially in the reaction vessel and in the burette, all analytical concentrations can be derived as a function of the volume (or mass) of titrant added.

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answers: concentrations [A], [B] etc

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answers: The equilibrium expression above is a function of the concentrations [A], [B] etc. of the chemical species in equilibrium

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answers: Reactants have more energy and move faster.

text: Depending on the concentration of the reactant the rate changes:

text: Depending on the concentration of the reactant the rate changes:

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answers: concentration

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answers: Depending on the concentration of the reactant

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: depending on the concentration

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answers: When reactants have more energy, they move faster.

text: Packed bed reactors can be used in chemical reaction. These reactors are tubular and are filled with solid catalyst particles, most often used to catalyze gas reactions. The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst. The advantage of using a packed bed reactor is the higher conversion per weight of catalyst than other catalytic reactors. The conversion is based on the amount of the solid catalyst rather than the volume of the reactor.

text: Packed bed reactors can be used in chemical reaction. These reactors are tubular and are filled with solid catalyst particles, most often used to catalyze gas reactions. The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the

text: catalyst

text: . The advantage of using a packed bed reactor is the higher conversion per weight of catalyst than other catalytic reactors. The conversion is based on the amount of the solid catalyst rather than the volume of the reactor.

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answers: volume of the reactor

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answers: The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst

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answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst

text: Compared to basic chemical vapour deposition, in ALE (ALD), chemical reactants are pulsed alternatively in a reaction chamber and then chemisorb in a saturating manner on the surface of the substrate, forming a chemisorbed monolayer. This is clever because the reaction is easy to set up and it does not require many restrictions over the reactants, allowing the use of a wide range of materials.

text: Compared to basic

text: chemical vapour deposition

text: , in ALE (ALD), chemical reactants are pulsed alternatively in a reaction chamber and then chemisorb in a saturating manner on the surface of the substrate, forming a chemisorbed monolayer. This is clever because the reaction is easy to set up and it does not require many restrictions over the reactants, allowing the use of a wide range of materials.

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answers: restrictions over the reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It does not require many restrictions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chemisorb

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: chemisorbed monolayer

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Pulsed alternatively

text: A modification of canonical variational transition state theory in which, for energies below the threshold energy, the position of the dividing surface is taken to be that of the microcanonical threshold energy. This forces the contributions to rate constants to be zero if they are below the threshold energy. A compromise dividing surface is then chosen so as to minimize the contributions to the rate constant made by reactants having higher energies.

text: A modification of canonical variational transition state theory in which, for energies below the threshold energy, the position of the dividing surface is taken to be that of the microcanonical threshold energy. This forces the contributions to rate constants to be zero if they are below the threshold energy. A compromise dividing surface is then chosen so as to minimize the contributions to the rate constant made by reactants having higher energies.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: higher energies

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: higher energies

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: This forces the contributions to rate constants

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: This forces the contributions to rate constants to be zero if they are below the threshold energy

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: A compromise dividing surface is then chosen

text: The olefin feed to an alkylation unit generally originates from a FCCU and contains butene, isobutene, and possibly propene and/or amylenes. The olefin feed is also likely to contain diluents (such as propane, n-butane, and n-pentane), noncondensables (such as ethane and hydrogen) and contaminants. Diluants in principle have no effect on the reaction of alkylation but occupy a portion of the reactor and can influence the yield of secondary reactions of polymerisation and of undesired organofluorine side products. Incondensable are from a chemical perspective similar to diluents but they do not condense at the pressure and temperature of the process, and therefore they concentrate to a point that must be vented. Contaminants are compounds that react with and/or dilute the sulfuric acid catalyst. They increase acid consumption and contribute to produce undesirable reaction products and increase polymer formation. Common contaminants are water, methanol and ethanol.

text: The olefin feed to an alkylation unit generally originates from a FCCU and contains

text: butene

text: isobutene

text: , and possibly

text: propene

text: and/or

text: amylene

text: s. The olefin feed is also likely to contain diluents (such as

text: propane

text: n-butane

text: , and

text: n-pentane

text: ), noncondensables (such as ethane and hydrogen) and contaminants. Diluants in principle have no effect on the reaction of alkylation but occupy a portion of the reactor and can influence the yield of secondary reactions of polymerisation and of undesired organofluorine side products. Incondensable are from a chemical perspective similar to diluents but they do not condense at the pressure and temperature of the process, and therefore they concentrate to a point that must be vented. Contaminants are compounds that react with and/or dilute the sulfuric acid catalyst. They increase acid consumption and contribute to produce undesirable reaction products and increase polymer formation. Common contaminants are

text: water

text: methanol

text: and

text: ethanol

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answers: diluents

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answers: Incondensable

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answers: Contaminants

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answers: Diluants in principle have no effect on the reaction

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answers: Incondensable

text: In addition to simply slowing the reaction, a change in catalyst resting state over the course of the reaction may result in competing paths or processes. Multiple mechanisms may be present to access the product, in which case the order in catalyst or substrate may change depending on the conditions or point in the reaction. A particularly useful probe for changes in reaction mechanism involves examination of the normalized reaction rate vs. catalyst loading at multiple, fixed conversion points. Note that the normalized reaction rate:

text: In addition to simply slowing the reaction, a change in catalyst resting state over the course of the reaction may result in competing paths or processes. Multiple mechanisms may be present to access the product, in which case the order in catalyst or substrate may change depending on the conditions or point in the reaction. A particularly useful probe for changes in reaction mechanism involves examination of the normalized reaction rate vs. catalyst loading at multiple, fixed conversion points. Note that the normalized reaction rate:

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answers: vs. catalyst loading

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answers: vs. catalyst loading

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answers: order in catalyst or substrate may change depending on the conditions or point in the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: normalized reaction rate vs. catalyst loading

text: An electrocatalyst is a catalyst that participates in electrochemical reactions.  Catalyst materials modify and increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.  Electrocatalysts are a specific form of catalysts that function at electrode surfaces or may be the electrode surface itself.  An electrocatalyst can be heterogeneous such as a platinum surface or nanoparticles,  or homogeneous like a coordination complex or enzyme.  The electrocatalyst assists in transferring electrons between the electrode and reactants, and/or facilitates an intermediate chemical transformation described by an overall half-reaction.

text: An electrocatalyst is a

text: catalyst

text: that participates in

text: electrochemical reactions

text: .  Catalyst materials modify and increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.  Electrocatalysts are a specific form of catalysts that function at

text: electrode

text: surfaces or may be the electrode surface itself.  An electrocatalyst can be

text: heterogeneous

text: such as a platinum surface or

text: nanoparticles

text: ,  or

text: homogeneous

text: like a

text: coordination complex

text: or

text: enzyme

text: .  The electrocatalyst assists in transferring electrons between the electrode and reactants, and/or facilitates an intermediate chemical transformation described by an overall

text: half-reaction

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text: Part of the reason for the importance of this particular piece in Eliot's body of work is the position it holds as successor to an earlier (and probably better known) effort at defining the critical endeavour, Tradition and the Individual Talent. In that earlier piece (first published in 1919), Eliot made famous use of a metaphor drawn from chemistry to describe the process of "depersonalization" that Eliot claimed to be a necessary condition of poetic creation. In this analogy, Eliot compares the poet him- or herself to a catalyst, whose presence causes "feelings" and "emotions" to react with one another and combine in ways not possible without the poet's mind.

text: Part of the reason for the importance of this particular piece in Eliot's body of work is the position it holds as successor to an earlier (and probably better known) effort at defining the critical endeavour,

text: Tradition and the Individual Talent

text: . In that earlier piece (first published in 1919), Eliot made famous use of a

text: metaphor

text: drawn from

text: chemistry

text: to describe the process of "depersonalization" that Eliot claimed to be a necessary condition of poetic creation. In this analogy, Eliot compares the poet him- or herself to a

text: catalyst

text: , whose presence causes "feelings" and "emotions" to react with one another and combine in ways not possible without the poet's

text: mind

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answers: depersonalization

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answers: "feelings" and "emotions

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answers: Eliot made famous use of a metaphor drawn from chemistry

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answers: presence causes "feelings" and "emotions" to react with one another and combine in ways not possible without the poet's mind

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: When performing kinetic or thermodynamic studies, it is often useful to have one or more reactants in abundance, as it allows their concentrations to be treated as constants (or parameters) rather than as variables.

text: When performing

text: kinetic

text: or

text: thermodynamic

text: studies, it is often useful to have one or more reactants in abundance, as it allows their concentrations to be treated as

text: constant

text: s (or

text: parameter

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentrations

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: it is often useful to have one or more reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: reactants in abundance

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: it is often useful to have one or more reactants in abundance

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: When performing kinetic or thermodynamic studies

text: In some cases, a highly active catalyst can lead to undesirable secondary reactions with desired product.  In some of these cases, the addition of a small amount of a catalyst poison increase the yield of the desired product by lower the catalyst activity. For example, in the classical "Rosenmund reduction" of an acyl chloride to the corresponding aldehyde, the palladium catalyst (over barium sulfate or calcium carbonate) is intentionally poisoned by the addition of sulfur or quinoline in order to lower the catalyst activity and thereby prevent further reduction of the aldehyde product to yield a primary alcohol.  In the case of Lindlar's catalyst, palladium is poisoned with a lead salt to allow reduction of an alkyne to the corresponding alkene while preventing reduction of the alkene product to the corresponding alkane.

text: In some cases, a highly active catalyst can lead to undesirable secondary reactions with desired product.  In some of these cases, the addition of a small amount of a catalyst poison increase the yield of the desired product by lower the catalyst activity. For example, in the classical "

text: Rosenmund reduction

text: " of an

text: acyl chloride

text: to the corresponding

text: aldehyde

text: , the

text: palladium

text: catalyst (over

text: barium sulfate

text: or

text: calcium carbonate

text: ) is intentionally poisoned by the addition of

text: sulfur

text: or

text: quinoline

text: in order to lower the catalyst activity and thereby prevent further reduction of the aldehyde product to yield a primary alcohol.  In the case of

text: Lindlar's catalyst

text: palladium

text: is poisoned with a

text: lead

text: salt to allow reduction of an alkyne to the corresponding alkene while preventing reduction of the alkene product to the corresponding alkane.

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: catalyst activity

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: highly active catalyst can lead to undesirable secondary reactions with desired product

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Sulfur or quinoline

text: stoichiometric coefficient.  The reaction rate, r, is generally dependent on the reactant concentration and the rate constant (k). The rate constant can be determined by using a known empirical reaction rates that is adjusted for temperature using the Arrhenius temperature dependence.  Generally, as the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs. Residence time,

text: stoichiometric coefficient

text: .  The reaction rate, r, is generally dependent on the reactant concentration and the rate constant (k). The rate constant can be determined by using a known empirical reaction rates that is adjusted for temperature using the

text: Arrhenius temperature dependence

text: .  Generally, as the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs.

text: Residence time

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answers: Generally, as the temperature increases so does the rate

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: As the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs.

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The reaction rate, r, is generally dependent on the reactant concentration and the rate constant (k).

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: as the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: As the temperature increases so does the rate at which the reaction occurs.

text: is the net mass production rate in chemical reactions,

text: is the net mass production rate in chemical reactions,

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text: Typical catalysts are noble metals, Ni or Ni alloys. In addition, a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst.

text: Typical catalysts are noble metals, Ni or Ni alloys. In addition, a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst.

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text: Many techniques have been developed to measure the rates of radical reactions. The two possible ways to measure the reaction rates are direct and indirect approaches. Direct approaches such as the rotating sector method have restrictions that hinder their expansion or application to the wide variety of types of radical reactions of chemical interest. In addition, direct methods such as flash photolysis and pulse radiolysis require a relatively large amount of time and expensive equipment. With an indirect approach, one can still obtain relative or absolute rate constants without the need for instruments or equipment beyond those normally needed for the reaction being studied.

text: Many techniques have been developed to measure the rates of radical reactions. The two possible ways to measure the reaction rates are direct and indirect approaches. Direct approaches such as the

text: rotating sector method

text: have restrictions that hinder their expansion or application to the wide variety of types of radical reactions of chemical interest. In addition, direct methods such as

text: flash photolysis

text: and

text: pulse radiolysis

text: require a relatively large amount of time and expensive equipment. With an indirect approach, one can still obtain relative or absolute rate constants without the need for instruments or equipment beyond those normally needed for the reaction being studied.

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answers: time and expensive equipment

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answers: The two possible ways to measure the reaction rates are direct and indirect

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Direct approaches such as the rotating sector method

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: With an indirect approach, one can still obtain relative or absolute rate constants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Radical reactions have more energy and move faster.

text: The Gattermann reaction, (also known as the Gattermann aldehyde synthesis)  is a chemical reaction in which aromatic compounds are formylated by hydrogen cyanide in the presence of a Friedel–Crafts catalyst (e.g. AlCl). It is named for the German chemist Ludwig Gattermann and is similar to the Friedel-Crafts reaction.

text: The Gattermann reaction, (also known as the Gattermann aldehyde synthesis)  is a chemical reaction in which aromatic compounds are

text: formylated

text: by

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: in the presence of a

text: Friedel–Crafts

text: catalyst (e.g.

text: AlCl

text: ). It is named for the German chemist

text: Ludwig Gattermann

text: and is similar to the

text: Friedel-Crafts reaction

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answers: AlCl

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answers: The Gattermann reaction

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answers: Friedel–Crafts reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: AlCl

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The Friedel–Crafts reaction

text: Raphael D. Levine is known for his contributions in the modern theory of chemically reactive collisions and unimolecular reactions. He has played a major role in the application of the principles of quantum mechanics to the description of physical change in a reaction from a microscopic point of view, introducing many new concepts and terms which became standard to this area. His major works include the quantum theory of absolute rates, the first quantal treatment of molecular photodissociation, elucidation of the role of resonances in reactive molecular collisions, the theory of collision- induced dissociation, and the foundations of dynamical stereochemistry.

text: Raphael D. Levine is known for his contributions in the modern theory of chemically reactive collisions and unimolecular reactions. He has played a major role in the application of the principles of quantum mechanics to the description of physical change in a reaction from a microscopic point of view, introducing many new concepts and terms which became standard to this area. His major works include the quantum theory of absolute rates, the first quantal treatment of molecular photodissociation, elucidation of the role of resonances in reactive molecular collisions, the theory of collision- induced dissociation, and the foundations of dynamical stereochemistry.

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answers: physical change in a reaction

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: chemically reactive collisions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chemically reactive collisions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: reaction from a microscopic point of view

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answers: reaction

text: Van 't Hoff studied chemical dynamics and published in 1884 his famous "Etudes de dynamique chimique". In 1901 he was awarded by the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions". After van 't Hoff, chemical kinetics deals with the experimental determination of reaction rates from which rate laws and rate constants are derived. Relatively simple rate laws exist for zero order reactions (for which reaction rates are independent of concentration), first order reactions, and second order reactions, and can be derived for others. Elementary reactions follow the law of mass action, but the rate law of stepwise reactions has to be derived by combining the rate laws of the various elementary steps, and can become rather complex. In consecutive reactions, the rate-determining step often determines the kinetics. In consecutive first order reactions, a steady state approximation can simplify the rate law. The activation energy for a reaction is experimentally determined through the Arrhenius equation and the Eyring equation. The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants, the temperature at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any catalysts are present in the reaction.

text: Van 't Hoff

text: studied chemical dynamics and published in 1884 his famous "Etudes de dynamique chimique". In 1901 he was awarded by the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions". After van 't Hoff, chemical kinetics deals with the experimental determination of

text: reaction rate

text: s from which

text: rate law

text: s and

text: rate constants

text: are derived. Relatively simple

text: rate law

text: s exist for

text: zero order reactions

text: (for which reaction rates are independent of concentration),

text: first order reaction

text: s, and

text: second order reaction

text: s, and can be derived for others.

text: Elementary reaction

text: s follow the

text: law of mass action

text: , but the rate law of

text: stepwise reaction

text: s has to be derived by combining the rate laws of the various elementary steps, and can become rather complex. In consecutive reactions, the

text: rate-determining step

text: often determines the kinetics. In consecutive first order reactions, a

text: steady state

text: approximation can simplify the

text: rate law

text: . The

text: activation energy

text: for a reaction is experimentally determined through the

text: Arrhenius equation

text: and the

text: Eyring equation

text: . The main factors that influence the

text: reaction rate

text: include: the

text: physical state

text: of the reactants, the

text: concentrations

text: of the reactants, the

text: temperature

text: at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any

text: catalysts

text: are present in the reaction.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: If any catalysts are present in the reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: whether or not any catalysts are present

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: the temperature at which the reaction occurs

text: In its most commonly used form, the Damköhler number relates the reaction timescale to the convection time scale, flow rate, through the reactor for continuous (plug flow or stirred tank) or semibatch chemical processes:

text: In its most commonly used form, the Damköhler number relates the reaction timescale to the

text: convection

text: time scale,

text: flow rate

text: , through the reactor for continuous (

text: plug flow

text: or

text: stirred tank

text: ) or

text: semibatch

text: chemical processes:

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answers: flow rate

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Damköhler number

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Damköhler number relates the reaction timescale to the convection time scale, flow rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Damköhler number

text: The reactions are due to collisions of reactant species. The frequency with which the molecules or ions collide depends upon their concentrations. The more crowded the molecules are, the more likely they are to collide and react with one another. Thus, an increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate, while a decrease in the concentrations will usually have a reverse effect. For example, combustion will occur more rapidly in pure oxygen than in air (21% oxygen).

text: The reactions are due to collisions of reactant species. The frequency with which the molecules or ions collide depends upon their

text: concentration

text: s. The more crowded the molecules are, the more likely they are to collide and react with one another. Thus, an increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate, while a decrease in the concentrations will usually have a reverse effect. For example,

text: combustion

text: will occur more rapidly in pure oxygen than in air (21% oxygen).

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answers: increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: An increase in the concentrations of reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate, while a decrease in the concentrations will usually have a reverse effect

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate

text: Two aspects are involved in the initial formulation of the law: 1) the equilibrium aspect, concerning the composition of a reaction mixture at equilibrium and 2) the kinetic aspect concerning the rate equations for elementary reactions. Both aspects stem from the research performed by Cato M. Guldberg and Peter Waage between 1864 and 1879 in which equilibrium constants were derived by using kinetic data and the rate equation which they had proposed. Guldberg and Waage also recognized that chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process in which rates of reaction for the forward and backward reactions must be equal at chemical equilibrium. In order to derive the expression of the equilibrium constant appealing to kinetics, the expression of the rate equation must be used. The expression of the rate equations was rediscovered later independently by Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff.

text: Two aspects are involved in the initial formulation of the law: 1) the equilibrium aspect, concerning the composition of a

text: reaction

text: mixture at

text: equilibrium

text: and 2) the

text: kinetic

text: aspect concerning the

text: rate equation

text: s for

text: elementary reaction

text: s. Both aspects stem from the research performed by

text: Cato M. Guldberg

text: and

text: Peter Waage

text: between 1864 and 1879 in which equilibrium constants were derived by using kinetic data and the rate equation which they had proposed. Guldberg and Waage also recognized that chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process in which

text: rates of reaction

text: for the forward and backward reactions must be equal at

text: chemical equilibrium

text: . In order to derive the expression of the equilibrium constant appealing to kinetics, the expression of the rate equation must be used. The expression of the rate equations was rediscovered later independently by

text: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff

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answers: Guldberg and Waage

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answers: rates of reaction for the forward and backward reactions must be equal at chemical equilibrium

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answers: rate equations for elementary reactions

text: In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor ethat is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

text: In the context of

text: chemistry

text: , energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be

text: exergonic

text: if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of

text: endergonic

text: reactions the situation is the reverse.

text: Chemical reaction

text: s are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the

text: activation energy

text: . The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor ethat is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the

text: Arrhenius equation

text: .The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

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answers: The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction

text: In 1956 Flanigen began working on molecular sieves. Molecular sieves are crystal compounds with molecular sized pores that can filter or separate very complex substances. Edith Flanigen is best known as the inventor of zeolite Y, a specific molecular sieve. Zeolite Y was a certain type of molecular sieve that could refine petroleum. Zeolite Y surpassed Zeolite X before it. When refining "crude oil", or petroleum, it must be separated into all of its different parts, or fractions. Gasoline is one of the many fractions that come from refining petroleum. Flanigen's zeolites are used as catalysts, or a substance that enhances chemical reactions. Zeolite Y is a catalyst that enhances the amount of gasoline fractioned from petroleum, making refining petroleum safer and more productive.

text: In 1956 Flanigen began working on

text: molecular sieves

text: Molecular sieves

text: are crystal compounds with molecular sized pores that can filter or separate very complex substances. Edith Flanigen is best known as the inventor of

text: zeolite Y

text: , a specific molecular sieve.

text: Zeolite Y

text: was a certain type of molecular sieve that could refine petroleum.

text: Zeolite Y

text: surpassed

text: Zeolite X

text: before it. When refining "

text: crude oil

text: ", or petroleum, it must be separated into all of its different parts, or

text: fractions

text: . Gasoline is one of the many fractions that come from

text: refining petroleum

text: . Flanigen's

text: zeolites

text: are used as

text: catalysts

text: , or a substance that enhances chemical reactions.

text: Zeolite Y

text: is a catalyst that enhances the amount of gasoline fractioned from petroleum, making refining petroleum safer and more productive.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: catalysts

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Zeolites

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Zeolites

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: a substance that enhances chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Zeolite Y

text: A chemical reaction can be defined by two important parameters- the Gibbs free energy associated with a chemical transformation and the rate of such a transformation. These parameters are independent of each other. While free energy change describes the stability of products relative to reactants, the rate of any reaction is defined by the energy of the transition state relative to the starting material. Depending on these parameters, a reaction can be favorable or unfavorable, fast or slow and reversible or irreversible, as shown in figure 8.

text: A chemical reaction can be defined by two important parameters- the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: associated with a chemical transformation and the rate of such a transformation. These parameters are independent of each other. While free energy change describes the stability of products relative to reactants, the rate of any reaction is defined by the energy of the transition state relative to the starting material. Depending on these parameters, a reaction can be favorable or unfavorable, fast or slow and reversible or irreversible, as shown in figure 8.

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answers: energy of the transition state

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Gibbs free energy

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The Gibbs free energy associated with a chemical transformation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: energy of the transition state relative to the starting material

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of any reaction is defined by the energy of the transition state relative to the starting material

text: Inner sphere or bonded electron transfer is a redox chemical reaction that proceeds via a covalent linkage—a strong electronic interaction—between the oxidant and the reductant reactants.  In Inner Sphere (IS) electron transfer (ET), a  ligand bridges the two metal redox centers during the electron transfer event.  Inner  sphere reactions are inhibited by large ligands, which prevent the formation of the crucial bridged intermediate. Thus, IS ET is rare in biological systems, where redox sites are often shielded by bulky proteins.  Inner sphere ET is usually used to describe reactions involving transition metal complexes and most of this article is written from this perspective.  However, redox centers can consist of organic groups rather than metal centers.

text: Inner sphere or bonded electron transfer is a

text: redox

text: chemical reaction that proceeds via a

text: covalent

text: linkage—a strong electronic interaction—between the oxidant and the reductant reactants.  In Inner Sphere (IS) electron transfer (ET), a

text: ligand

text: bridges the two metal redox centers during the electron transfer event.  Inner  sphere reactions are inhibited by large ligands, which prevent the formation of the crucial bridged intermediate. Thus, IS ET is rare in biological systems, where redox sites are often shielded by bulky proteins.  Inner sphere ET is usually used to describe reactions involving transition metal complexes and most of this article is written from this perspective.  However, redox centers can consist of organic groups rather than metal centers.

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answers: redox centers can consist of organic groups rather than metal centers

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answers: oxidant and the reductant reactants

text: A first-order reaction is a reaction that proceeds at a rate that depends linearly on only one reactant concentration.

text: A first-order reaction is a

text: reaction

text: that proceeds at a rate that depends linearly on only one

text: reactant

text: concentration.

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answers: one reactant concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: A first-order reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: depends linearly on only one reactant concentration

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It depends linearly on only one reactant concentration.

text: Reaction wheels are usually implemented as special electric motors, mounted along at least three directions: for example along the x, y and z axes provides no redundancy; while mounting four along tetrahedral axes provides redundancy. Changes in speed  (in either direction) are controlled electronically by computer. The strength of the materials used in a reaction wheel determine the speed at which the wheel would come apart, and therefore how much angular momentum it can store.

text: Reaction wheels are usually implemented as special

text: electric motor

text: s, mounted along at least three directions: for example along the x, y and z axes provides no redundancy; while mounting four along tetrahedral axes provides redundancy. Changes in speed  (in either direction) are controlled electronically by computer. The strength of the materials used in a reaction wheel determine the speed at which the wheel would come apart, and therefore how much

text: angular momentum

text: it can store.

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: Reaction wheels

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answers: Reaction wheels are usually implemented as special electric motors

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Reaction wheels are usually implemented as special electric motors

text: Generally speaking,  anything that increases the rate of a process is a "catalyst", a term derived from Greek καταλύειν, meaning "to annul," or "to untie," or "to pick up."  The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame and described in a 1794 book, based on her novel work in oxidation-reduction experiments. The term catalysis was later used by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1835 to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction. Fulhame, who predated Berzelius, did work with water as opposed to metals in her reduction experiments. Other 18th century chemists who worked in catalysis were Eilhard Mitscherlich who referred to it as contact processes, and Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner who spoke of contact action. He developed Döbereiner's lamp, a lighter based on hydrogen and a platinum sponge, which became a commercial success in the 1820s that lives on today. Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. In the 1880s, Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of acids and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases. For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

text: Generally speaking,  anything that increases the rate of a process is a "catalyst", a term derived from

text: Greek

text: καταλύειν

text: , meaning "to annul," or "to untie," or "to pick up."  The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist

text: Elizabeth Fulhame

text: and described in a 1794 book, based on her novel work in oxidation-reduction experiments. The term catalysis was later used by

text: Jöns Jakob Berzelius

text: in 1835 to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction.

text: Fulhame

text: , who predated Berzelius, did work with water as opposed to metals in her reduction experiments. Other 18th century chemists who worked in catalysis were

text: Eilhard Mitscherlich

text: who referred to it as contact processes, and

text: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner

text: who spoke of contact action. He developed

text: Döbereiner's lamp

text: , a

text: lighter

text: based on

text: hydrogen

text: and a

text: platinum

text: sponge, which became a commercial success in the 1820s that lives on today.

text: Humphry Davy

text: discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. In the 1880s,

text: Wilhelm Ostwald

text: at

text: Leipzig University

text: started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of

text: acid

text: s and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases. For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

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answers: Anything that increases the rate of a process is a "catalyst"

text: is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half of

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text: In heterogeneous catalysis, the reactants diffuse to the catalyst surface and adsorb onto it, via the formation of chemical bonds.  After reaction, the products desorb from the surface and diffuse away.  Understanding the transport phenomena and surface chemistry such as dispersion is important.  If diffusion rates are not taken into account, the reaction rates for various reactions on surfaces depend solely on the rate constants and reactant concentrations.For solid heterogeneous catalysts, the surface area of the catalyst is critical since it determines the availability of catalytic sites.  Surface areas can be large, for example some mesoporous silicates have areas of 1000 m/g. The most common approach to maximizing surface area is by the use of catalyst supports, which are the materials over which the catalysts are spread.

text: In heterogeneous catalysis, the reactants

text: diffuse

text: to the catalyst surface and

text: adsorb

text: onto it, via the formation of chemical bonds.  After reaction, the products desorb from the surface and diffuse away.  Understanding the transport phenomena and

text: surface chemistry

text: such as

text: dispersion

text: is important.  If diffusion rates are not taken into account, the reaction rates for various

text: reactions on surfaces

text: depend solely on the rate constants and reactant concentrations.For solid heterogeneous catalysts, the surface area of the catalyst is critical since it determines the availability of catalytic sites.  Surface areas can be large, for example some

text: mesoporous silicates

text: have areas of 1000 m/g. The most common approach to maximizing surface area is by the use of

text: catalyst support

text: s, which are the materials over which the catalysts are spread.

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answers: rate constants and reactant concentrations

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It depends solely on the rate constants and reactant concentrations

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It depends solely on the rate constants and reactant concentrations

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the surface area of the catalyst is critical since it determines the availability of catalytic sites

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants diffuse to the catalyst surface

text: Since the reaction timescale is determined by the reaction rate, the exact formula for the Damköhler number varies according to the rate law equation. For a general chemical reaction A → B of nth order, the Damköhler number for a convective flow system is defined as:

text: Since the reaction timescale is determined by the reaction rate, the exact formula for the Damköhler number varies according to the rate law equation. For a general chemical reaction A → B of nth

text: order

text: , the Damköhler number for a convective flow system is defined as:

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: the reaction timescale

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Damköhler number

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The reaction timescale is determined by the reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Damköhler number varies according to the rate law equation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The reaction timescale is determined by the reaction rate

text: When more than one reactant participates in a reaction, the yield is usually calculated based on the amount of the limiting reactant, whose amount is less than stoichiometrically equivalent (or just equivalent) to the amounts of all other reactants present. Other reagents present in amounts greater than required to react with all the limiting reagent present are considered excess. As a result, the yield should not be automatically taken as a measure for reaction efficiency.

text: When more than one reactant participates in a reaction, the yield is usually calculated based on the amount of the

text: limiting reactant

text: , whose amount is less than

text: stoichiometrically

text: equivalent (or just equivalent) to the amounts of all other reactants present. Other reagents present in amounts greater than required to react with all the limiting reagent present are considered excess. As a result, the yield should not be automatically taken as a measure for reaction efficiency.

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answers: the amount of the limiting reactant

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: Other reagents present in amounts greater than required

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answers: the yield should not be automatically taken as a measure for reaction efficiency

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s.  The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.

text: The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid

text: catalyst

text: interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s.  The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.

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answers: electron density

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answers: It would not normally be available to it

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answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: gaseous feedstock

text: Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie" to "Rien ne se perd, rien ne se crée, tout se transforme." ("Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed."). Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). (See An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass)

text: Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly

text: quantitative chemical experiments

text: . He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no

text: gas

text: es could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of

text: conservation of mass

text: . In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his "

text: Traité Élémentaire de Chimie

text: " to "Rien ne se perd, rien ne se crée, tout se transforme." ("Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed.").

text: Mikhail Lomonosov

text: (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include

text: Jean Rey

text: Joseph Black

text: (1728–1799), and

text: Henry Cavendish

text: (1731–1810). (See An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass)

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answers: reactants and products

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answers: Lavoisier's experiments

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is taught as Lavoisier's Law

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: matter can change its state in a chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Lavoisier's experiments

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text: Yup tutors are familiar with, and can thoroughly explain, every math concept covered by the Common Core up to AP Calculus Level AB including questions in

text: Algebra

text: , Basic

text: Calculus

text: Geometry

text: Pre-algebra

text: , and

text: Trigonometry

text: . Yup also offers support in Physics up to the

text: AP Physics level 1

text: and

text: specifically:

text: Kinematics

text: , Force and Mechanics,

text: Gravitation

text: and

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text: Fluid Mechanics

text: Thermodynamics

text: and

text: Kinetic Theory

text: , Waves and Optics, and

text: Electromagnetism

text: . Additionally, Yup tutors can help students with Chemistry up to

text: AP Chemistry

text: . These topics include: Structure of Matter, Bonding and

text: Intermolecular Forces

text: Chemical Reactions

text: and

text: Stoichiometry

text: , Kinetics and Reaction Rates, and

text: Chemical Equilibrium.

text: Additionally, Yup offers homework resources on its website. These resources offer definitions of important topics, sample problems and explanations and videos.

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: Kinetics and Reaction Rates

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Thermodynamics

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Thermodynamics

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Thermodynamics

text: The reaction of MDI and polyol takes place at higher temperatures compared with the reaction temperature for the manufacture of PUR. At these elevated temperatures and in the presence of specific catalysts, MDI will first react with itself, producing a stiff, ring molecule, which is a reactive intermediate (a tri-isocyanate isocyanurate compound). Remaining MDI and the tri-isocyanate react with polyol to form a complex poly(urethane-isocyanurate) polymer (hence the use of the abbreviation PUI as an alternative to PIR), which is foamed in the presence of a suitable blowing agent. This isocyanurate polymer has a relatively strong molecular structure, because of the combination of strong chemical bonds, the ring structure of isocyanurate and high cross link density, each contributing to the greater stiffness than found in comparable polyurethanes. The greater bond strength also means these are more difficult to break, and as a result a PIR foam is chemically and thermally more stable: breakdown of isocyanurate bonds is reported to start above 200°C, compared with urethane at 100 to 110°C.

text: The reaction of MDI and polyol takes place at higher temperatures compared with the reaction temperature for the manufacture of PUR. At these elevated temperatures and in the presence of specific catalysts, MDI will first react with itself, producing a stiff, ring molecule, which is a reactive intermediate (a tri-isocyanate isocyanurate compound). Remaining MDI and the tri-isocyanate react with polyol to form a complex poly(urethane-isocyanurate) polymer (hence the use of the abbreviation PUI as an alternative to PIR), which is foamed in the presence of a suitable blowing agent. This

text: isocyanurate

text: polymer has a relatively strong molecular structure, because of the combination of strong chemical bonds, the ring structure of isocyanurate and high cross link density, each contributing to the greater stiffness than found in comparable polyurethanes. The greater bond strength also means these are more difficult to break, and as a result a PIR foam is chemically and thermally more stable: breakdown of isocyanurate bonds is reported to start above 200°C, compared with urethane at 100 to 110°C.

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answers: specific catalysts

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answers: breakdown of isocyanurate bonds is reported to start above 200°C

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: MDI will first react with itself

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: At these elevated temperatures

text: If the same hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by imidazole, the rate equation becomes r = k[imidazole][CHCOOCH]. The rate is first-order in one reactant (ethyl acetate), and also first-order in imidazole which as a catalyst does not appear in the overall chemical equation.

text: If the same hydrolysis reaction is

text: catalyzed

text: by

text: imidazole

text: , the rate equation becomes r = k[imidazole][CHCOOCH]. The rate is first-order in one reactant (ethyl acetate), and also first-order in imidazole which as a catalyst does not appear in the overall chemical equation.

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answers: The rate is first-order

text: For the subsequent reaction at high temperatures, it is necessary to choose a suitable container material which is chemically inert to the reactants under the heating conditions used. The noble metals, platinum and gold, are usually suitable. Containers may be crucibles or boats made from foil. For low temperature reactions, other metals like Nickel (below 600–700C) can be used.

text: For the subsequent reaction at high temperatures, it is necessary to choose a suitable container material which is

text: chemically inert

text: to the

text: reactant

text: s under the heating conditions used. The

text: noble metals

text: platinum

text: and

text: gold

text: , are usually suitable. Containers may be

text: crucible

text: s or boats made from foil. For low temperature reactions, other metals like

text: Nickel

text: (below 600–700C) can be used.

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answers: high temperatures

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answers: high temperature reactions

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answers: The noble metals, platinum and gold, are usually suitable

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: chemically inert to the reactants under the heating conditions used

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: high temperature reactions

text: Chemical King is a mutant with the power to act as a human catalyst.  He can speed up or slow down any chemical reaction; for example, he can cause iron to rapidly rust, or even burst into flames from rapid oxidation.  His powers can affect the chemical reactions in the human body, rendering an opponent unconscious from shock, but take several seconds and can only focus on a single opponent at a time. Late in his career, Chemical King displayed the ability to change energy reaction rates as well, causing batteries to drain of power and force fields to decay. As the final act before his death, he used his powers to alter and absorb vast amounts of radiation capable of paralyzing Superboy.

text: Chemical King is a mutant with the power to act as a human catalyst.  He can speed up or slow down any chemical reaction; for example, he can cause iron to rapidly rust, or even burst into flames from rapid oxidation.  His powers can affect the chemical reactions in the human body, rendering an opponent unconscious from shock, but take several seconds and can only focus on a single opponent at a time. Late in his career, Chemical King displayed the ability to change energy reaction rates as well, causing batteries to drain of power and force fields to decay. As the final act before his death, he used his powers to alter and absorb vast amounts of radiation capable of paralyzing

text: Superboy

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answers: He can speed up or slow down any chemical reaction

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answers: rapid oxidation

text: The surface area is typically determined via a BET measurement using a gas that will be preferentially adsorbed on metallic surfaces, such as hydrogen. Using this type of measurement, almost all the exposed area in a particle of the catalyst has been shown to have Ni on its surface. Since Ni is the active metal of the catalyst, a large Ni surface area implies a large surface is available for reactions to occur simultaneously, which is reflected in an increased catalyst activity. Commercially available Raney nickel has an average Ni surface area of 100 m per gram of catalyst.

text: The surface area is typically determined via a BET measurement using a gas that will be preferentially adsorbed on metallic surfaces, such as

text: hydrogen

text: . Using this type of measurement, almost all the exposed area in a particle of the catalyst has been shown to have Ni on its surface. Since Ni is the active metal of the catalyst, a large Ni surface area implies a large surface is available for reactions to occur simultaneously, which is reflected in an increased catalyst activity. Commercially available Raney nickel has an average Ni surface area of 100 m per gram of catalyst.

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answers: catalyst activity

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answers: BET measurement using a gas that will be preferentially adsorbed on metallic surfaces, such as hydrogen

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answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: large Ni surface area implies a large surface is available for reactions to occur simultaneously, which is reflected in an increased catalyst activity

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: BET measurement

text: The speed at which reactions takes place is studied by reaction kinetics. The rate depends on various parameters, such as:

text: The speed at which reactions takes place is studied by

text: reaction kinetics

text: . The rate depends on various parameters, such as:

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answers: kinetics

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answers: The rate depends on various parameters

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The rate depends on various parameters

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Temperature

text: Temperature usually has a major effect on the rate of a chemical reaction. Molecules at a higher temperature have more thermal energy. Although collision frequency is greater at higher temperatures, this alone contributes only a very small proportion to the increase in rate of reaction. Much more important is the fact that the proportion of reactant molecules with sufficient energy to react (energy greater than activation energy: E > E) is significantly higher and is explained in detail by the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies.

text: Temperature

text: usually has a major effect on the rate of a chemical reaction. Molecules at a higher temperature have more

text: thermal energy

text: . Although collision frequency is greater at higher temperatures, this alone contributes only a very small proportion to the increase in rate of reaction. Much more important is the fact that the proportion of reactant molecules with sufficient energy to react (energy greater than

text: activation energy

text: : E > E) is significantly higher and is explained in detail by the

text: Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

text: of molecular energies.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: Temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: higher temperature has more thermal energy

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: energy greater than activation energy: E > E

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Collision frequency is greater at higher temperatures

text: Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club gave the season a B+ rating. He described Raj as the "weak link of the show" as he has not "[evolved] like the rest of the cast" and is "trapped in season one mode". Sava gave high ratings to episodes where Raj did not feature prominently, such as "The Pulled Groin Extrapolation" or "The Russian Rocket Reaction" and described "The Wiggly Finger Catalyst" (an episode focusing on Raj) as "one of the series' worst", giving it a D+ rating. Sava's favorite relationship on the series is between Amy and Penny.

text: Oliver Sava of

text: The A.V. Club

text: gave the season a B+ rating. He described Raj as the "weak link of the show" as he has not "[evolved] like the rest of the cast" and is "trapped in season one mode". Sava gave high ratings to episodes where Raj did not feature prominently, such as "

text: The Pulled Groin Extrapolation

text: " or "

text: The Russian Rocket Reaction

text: " and described "

text: The Wiggly Finger Catalyst

text: " (an episode focusing on Raj) as "one of the series' worst", giving it a D+ rating. Sava's favorite relationship on the series is between Amy and Penny.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: The Russian Rocket Reaction

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The Russian Rocket Reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The Wiggly Finger Catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: one of the series' worst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The Russian Rocket Reaction

text: Cycloadditions with reactants that are liquids at room temperature are best performed by simply mixing the two reactants without solvent. If one of the reactants is gaseous, it is more convenient to use a solvent. Although polar solvents and catalysts accelerate the cycloaddition, they are not of general utility since they also accelerate dimerization. The progress of the reaction can be estimated by disappearance of the characteristic yellow color of the ketene, by loss of the band at about 2100 cm in the infrared spectrum, or by H NMR spectroscopy. Ketene, monoalkylketenes, and dimethylketene are usually allowed to react at or below room temperature, whereas the higher molecular weight ketenes can be heated to temperatures above 100°. The ketene is usually used in excess when dimerization is a major side reaction. The success of the reaction is often determined by the relative rates of cycloaddition and dimerization of the ketene.

text: Cycloadditions with reactants that are liquids at room temperature are best performed by simply mixing the two reactants without solvent. If one of the reactants is gaseous, it is more convenient to use a solvent. Although polar solvents and catalysts accelerate the cycloaddition, they are not of general utility since they also accelerate dimerization. The progress of the reaction can be estimated by disappearance of the characteristic yellow color of the ketene, by loss of the band at about 2100 cm in the infrared spectrum, or by H NMR spectroscopy. Ketene, monoalkylketenes, and dimethylketene are usually allowed to react at or below room temperature, whereas the higher molecular weight ketenes can be heated to temperatures above 100°. The ketene is usually used in excess when dimerization is a major side reaction. The success of the reaction is often determined by the relative rates of cycloaddition and dimerization of the ketene.

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answers: polar solvents and catalysts

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answers: polar solvents and catalysts accelerate the cycloaddition

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answers: they are not of general utility since they also accelerate dimerization

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answers: The progress of the reaction can be estimated by disappearance of the characteristic yellow color of the ketene

text: Chemical ionization was developed in the 1960s. Ionization of sample (analyte) is achieved by interaction of its molecules with reagent ions. The analyte is ionized by ion-molecule reactions during collisions in the source. The process may involve transfer of an electron, a proton or other charged species between the reactants. This is a less energetic procedure than electron ionization and the ions produced are, for example, protonated molecules:  [M + H]. These ions are often relatively stable, tending not to fragment as readily as ions produced by electron ionization.

text: Chemical ionization was developed in the 1960s. Ionization of sample (analyte) is achieved by interaction of its molecules with reagent ions. The analyte is ionized by ion-molecule reactions during collisions in the source. The process may involve transfer of an electron, a proton or other charged species between the reactants. This is a less energetic procedure than

text: electron ionization

text: and the ions produced are, for example, protonated molecules:  [M + H]. These ions are often relatively stable, tending not to fragment as readily as ions produced by

text: electron ionization

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answers: reagent ions

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answers: The analyte is ionized

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answers: protonated molecules: [M + H]

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answers: This is a less energetic procedure

text: Chemical oxidation is one half of a redox reaction, which results in the loss of electrons. One of the reactants in the reaction becomes oxidized, or loses electrons, while the other reactant becomes reduced, or gains electrons. In ISCO, oxidizing compounds, compounds that give electrons away to other compounds in a reaction, are used to change the contaminants into harmless compounds. The in situ in ISCO is just Latin for "in place", signifying that ISCO is a chemical oxidation reaction that occurs at the site of the contamination.

text: Chemical oxidation is one half of a

text: redox

text: reaction, which results in the loss of electrons. One of the reactants in the reaction becomes oxidized, or loses electrons, while the other reactant becomes reduced, or gains electrons. In ISCO, oxidizing compounds, compounds that give electrons away to other compounds in a reaction, are used to change the contaminants into harmless compounds. The

text: in situ

text: in ISCO is just Latin for "in place", signifying that ISCO is a chemical oxidation reaction that occurs at the site of the contamination.

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answers: the site of the contamination

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answers: The in situ in ISCO

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answers: Chemical oxidation

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: chemical oxidation reaction

text: A lo-fi music video for the song, shot on VHS, was helmed by German feature director Wolfgang Becker and cinematographed by Jürgen Jürges. It was released onto YouTube on 20 March 2013. Nick Knight of Promo News wrote: "It’s a wonderfully absurd comedy exploring a dynamic of crumbling love and trust between the members of Travis, the catalyst being the presence of another guy who happens to be played with a certain level of menace by the director himself."

text: A lo-fi music video for the song, shot on

text: VHS

text: , was helmed by German feature director

text: Wolfgang Becker

text: and cinematographed by

text: Jürgen Jürges

text: . It was released onto

text: YouTube

text: on 20 March 2013. Nick Knight of Promo News wrote: "It’s a wonderfully absurd comedy exploring a dynamic of crumbling love and trust between the members of Travis, the catalyst being the presence of another guy who happens to be played with a certain level of menace by the director himself."

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answers: It was released onto YouTube

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answers: It was released onto YouTube on 20 March 2013

text: A number of common processes fractionate hydrogen isotopes to produce the isotope variations found in nature. Common physical processes include precipitation and evaporation.  Chemical reactions also have the potential to heavily influence the partitioning of heavy and light isotopes between pools. The rate of a chemical reaction depends in part on the energies of the chemical bonds being formed and broken in the reaction. Since different isotopes have different masses, the bond energies are different between different isotopologues of a chemical species. This will result in a difference in the rate of a reaction for the different isotopologues, resulting in a fractionation of the different isotopes between the reactant and product in a chemical reaction. This is known as the kinetic isotope effect. A classic example of such an isotope effect is the D/H ratio difference in the equilibrium between HO and H which can have an alpha value of as much as 3-4.

text: A number of common processes fractionate hydrogen isotopes to produce the isotope variations found in nature. Common physical processes include precipitation and evaporation.  Chemical reactions also have the potential to heavily influence the partitioning of heavy and light isotopes between pools. The rate of a chemical reaction depends in part on the energies of the chemical bonds being formed and broken in the reaction. Since different isotopes have different masses, the bond energies are different between different

text: isotopologues

text: of a chemical species. This will result in a difference in the rate of a reaction for the different isotopologues, resulting in a fractionation of the different isotopes between the reactant and product in a chemical reaction. This is known as the kinetic isotope effect. A classic example of such an isotope effect is the D/H ratio difference in the equilibrium between HO and H which can have an alpha value of as much as 3-4.

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answers: energies of the chemical bonds

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answers: The rate of a chemical reaction depends in part on the energies of the chemical bonds

text: Decomposition of reagents isbimolecular (second-order reaction rate), so low amounts of oxone and catalyst are used.

text: Decomposition of reagents isbimolecular (

text: second-order reaction

text: rate), so low amounts of oxone and catalyst are used.

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text: Silica aerogels are typically synthesized by using a sol-gel process. The first step is the creation of a colloidal suspension of solid particles known as a "sol". The precursors are a liquid alcohol such as ethanol which is mixed with a silicon alkoxide, such as tetramethoxysilane (TMOS), tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), and polyethoxydisiloxane (PEDS) (earlier work used sodium silicates). The solution of silica is mixed with a catalyst and allowed to gel during a hydrolysis reaction which forms particles of silicon dioxide. The oxide suspension begins to undergo condensation reactions which result in the creation of metal oxide bridges (either M–O–M, "oxo" bridges or M–OH–M, "ol" bridges) linking the dispersed colloidal particles.  These reactions generally have moderately slow reaction rates, and as a result either acidic or basic catalysts are used to improve the processing speed. Basic catalysts tend to produce more transparent aerogels and minimize the shrinkage during the drying process and also strengthen it to prevent pore collapse during drying.

text: Silica aerogels are typically synthesized by using a sol-gel process. The first step is the creation of a

text: colloidal

text: suspension

text: of solid particles known as a "sol". The precursors are a liquid

text: alcohol

text: such as ethanol which is mixed with a silicon

text: alkoxide

text: , such as tetramethoxysilane (TMOS), tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), and polyethoxydisiloxane (PEDS) (earlier work used sodium silicates). The solution of silica is mixed with a catalyst and allowed to gel during a

text: hydrolysis

text: reaction which forms particles of silicon dioxide. The oxide suspension begins to undergo

text: condensation reaction

text: s which result in the creation of metal oxide bridges (either

text: M–O–M, "oxo" bridges

text: or M–OH–M, "

text: ol

text: " bridges) linking the dispersed colloidal particles.  These reactions generally have moderately slow reaction rates, and as a result either acidic or basic

text: catalyst

text: s are used to improve the processing speed. Basic catalysts tend to produce more transparent aerogels and minimize the shrinkage during the drying process and also strengthen it to prevent pore collapse during drying.

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answers: acidic or basic catalysts

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answers: basic catalysts are used to improve the processing speed

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Basic catalysts

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Basic catalysts tend to produce more transparent aerogels

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: basic catalysts are used to improve the processing speed

text: Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds.   The basic organic chemistry reaction types are addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions, rearrangement reactions, photochemical reactions and redox reactions. In organic synthesis, organic reactions are used in the construction of new organic molecules. The production of many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, fabrics depend on organic reactions.

text: Organic reactions are

text: chemical reaction

text: s involving

text: organic compound

text: s.   The basic

text: organic chemistry

text: reaction types are

text: addition reaction

text: s,

text: elimination reaction

text: s,

text: substitution reaction

text: s,

text: pericyclic reaction

text: s,

text: rearrangement reaction

text: s,

text: photochemical reactions

text: and

text: redox reactions

text: . In

text: organic synthesis

text: , organic reactions are used in the construction of new organic molecules. The production of many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, fabrics depend on organic reactions.

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answers: photochemical reactions

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answers: photochemical reactions and redox reactions

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answers: Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds

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answers: organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds

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answers: photochemical reactions and redox reactions

text: Hoffmann first proposed a mechanism for the MBH reaction. The first reaction step involves 1,4-addition of the catalytic tertiary amine to the activated alkene to generate the zwitterionic aza-enolate. In the second step, this enolate adds to an aldehyde via an aldol addition. The third step involves intramolecular proton shift, which subsequently generates the final MBH adduct and releases the catalyst via E2 or E1cb elimination in the last step. Hill and Isaacs performed kinetic experiments to probe the mechanistic details. The rate of reaction between acrylonitrile and acetaldehyde was first order in concentrations of acrylonitrile, acetaldehyde, and DABCO. Hill and Isaacs proposed that the aldol addition step, which involves all three reactants, thus is the rate determining step. That they did not observe kinetic isotope effect using α-deutrated acrylonitrile also supported this statement.

text: Hoffmann first proposed a mechanism for the MBH reaction. The first reaction step involves 1,4-addition of the catalytic tertiary amine to the activated alkene to generate the zwitterionic aza-enolate. In the second step, this enolate adds to an aldehyde via an aldol addition. The third step involves intramolecular proton shift, which subsequently generates the final MBH adduct and releases the catalyst via E2 or E1cb elimination in the last step. Hill and Isaacs performed kinetic experiments to probe the mechanistic details. The rate of reaction between acrylonitrile and acetaldehyde was first order in concentrations of acrylonitrile, acetaldehyde, and DABCO. Hill and Isaacs proposed that the aldol addition step, which involves all three reactants, thus is the rate determining step. That they did not observe kinetic isotope effect using α-deutrated acrylonitrile also supported this statement.

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answers: aldol addition

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answers: Hill and Isaacs proposed that the aldol addition step

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answers: Hill and Isaacs

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answers: releases the catalyst via E2 or E1cb elimination in the last step

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answers: The third step involves intramolecular proton shift

text: Cyclisation carried out with a diyne and a separate alkyne affords greater control as well as high atom economy.  Using commercially available cyclopentadienylcobalt dicarbonyl, CpCo(CO), as catalyst, bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene (BTMSA) will react with a diyne-1,2-disubstituted benzene to form an anthroquinone aromatic system as shown below:  Benzyne, generated in situ from a bezene ring bearing ortho-distributed triflate and trimethylsilyl substituents, can be used to generate an aryne in place of an acetylene and combined with a suitable diyne. Such a benzene derivative reacts with 1,7-octadiyne in the presence of a suitable catalyst to generate a naphthalene system.  This is an example of a hexadehydro Diels-Alder reaction.

text: Cyclisation carried out with a

text: diyne

text: and a separate alkyne affords greater control as well as high

text: atom economy

text: .  Using commercially available

text: cyclopentadienylcobalt dicarbonyl

text: , CpCo(CO), as catalyst,

text: bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene

text: (BTMSA) will react with a diyne-1,2-disubstituted benzene to form an

text: anthroquinone

text: aromatic system as shown below:

text: Benzyne

text: , generated in situ from a bezene ring bearing

text: ortho

text: -distributed

text: triflate

text: and

text: trimethylsilyl

text: substituents, can be used to generate an

text: aryne

text: in place of an acetylene and combined with a suitable diyne. Such a benzene derivative reacts with 1,7-octadiyne in the presence of a suitable catalyst to generate a naphthalene system.  This is an example of a

text: hexadehydro Diels-Alder reaction

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answers: catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: CpCo(CO)

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: CpCo(CO)

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answers: CpCo(CO) is catalyst

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answers: CpCo(CO)

text: The transition metals and their compounds are known for their homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic activity. This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple oxidation states and to form complexes. Vanadium(V) oxide (in the contact process), finely divided iron (in the Haber process), and nickel (in catalytic hydrogenation) are some of the examples. Catalysts at a solid surface (nanomaterial-based catalysts) involve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms of the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilize 3d and 4s electrons for bonding). This has the effect of increasing the concentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening of the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowered). Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states, they become more effective as catalysts.

text: The transition metals and their compounds are known for their homogeneous and heterogeneous

text: catalytic

text: activity. This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple oxidation states and to form complexes.

text: Vanadium

text: (V) oxide (in the

text: contact process

text: ), finely divided

text: iron

text: (in the

text: Haber process

text: ), and

text: nickel

text: (in

text: catalytic hydrogenation

text: ) are some of the examples. Catalysts at a solid surface (

text: nanomaterial-based catalyst

text: s) involve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms of the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilize 3d and 4s electrons for bonding). This has the effect of increasing the concentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening of the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowered). Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states, they become more effective as

text: catalysts

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answers: activation energy

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answers: activation energy is lowered

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answers: This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple oxidation states

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the activation energy is lowered

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: activation energy is lowered

text: A chemical mechanism is a theoretical conjecture that tries to describe in detail what takes place at each stage of an overall chemical reaction. The detailed steps of a reaction are not observable in most cases. The conjectured mechanism is chosen because it is thermodynamically  feasible, and has experimental support in isolated intermediates (see next section) or other quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the reaction. It also describes each reactive intermediate, activated complex, and transition state, and which bonds are broken (and in what order), and which bonds are formed (and in what order). A complete mechanism must also explain the reason for the reactants and catalyst used, the stereochemistry observed in reactants and products, all products formed and the amount of each.

text: A chemical mechanism is a theoretical conjecture that tries to describe in detail what takes place at each stage of an overall chemical reaction. The detailed steps of a reaction are not observable in most cases. The conjectured mechanism is chosen because it is thermodynamically  feasible, and has experimental support in isolated intermediates (see next section) or other quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the reaction. It also describes each

text: reactive intermediate

text: activated complex

text: , and

text: transition state

text: , and which bonds are broken (and in what order), and which bonds are formed (and in what order). A complete mechanism must also explain the reason for the

text: reactant

text: s and

text: catalyst

text: used, the

text: stereochemistry

text: observed in reactants and products, all

text: product

text: s formed and the amount of each.

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answers: thermodynamically feasible

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It also describes each reactive intermediate, activated complex

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The detailed steps of a reaction are not observable in most cases

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: A complete mechanism must also explain the reason for the reactants and catalyst used

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: thermodynamically feasible

text: Initially, iodide is low and process B generates free iodine, which gradually accumulates. Meanwhile, process A slowly generates the intermediate iodide ion out of the free iodine at an increasing rate proportional to its (i.e. I) concentration. At a certain point, this overwhelms process B, stopping the production of more free iodine, which is still being consumed by process A. Thus, eventually the concentration of free iodine (and thus iodide) falls low enough for process B to start up again and the cycle repeats as long as the original reactants hold out.

text: Initially, iodide is low and process B generates free iodine, which gradually accumulates. Meanwhile, process A slowly generates the intermediate iodide ion out of the free iodine at an increasing rate proportional to its (i.e. I) concentration. At a certain point, this overwhelms process B, stopping the production of more free iodine, which is still being consumed by process A. Thus, eventually the concentration of free iodine (and thus iodide) falls low enough for process B to start up again and the cycle repeats as long as the original reactants hold out.

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answers: I) concentration

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the cycle repeats as long as the original reactants hold out

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: process B generates free iodine

text: This model is used when turbulent mixing of the constituents has to be taken into consideration. The k/Ɛ turbulent time scale is used to calculate the reaction rate. A comparison between the turbulent dissipation rates of the fuel, oxidant and products is done and the minimum amongst all is taken as the rate of the reaction. The transport equations for the mass fractions of the constituents are solved using this rate of reaction. Apart from this a mean enthalpy equation is also solved and temperature, density and viscosity are calculated accordingly. The model can also be implemented when finite rate kinetically controlled reaction is to be simulated. In such situation while deciding the rate of the reaction the Arrhenius kinetic rate expression is also taken into account and the rate of reaction is taken as minimum amongst the turbulent dissipation rates of all the constituents and the Arrhenius kinetic rate expression. Since turbulent mixing governs the characteristics of this model, there exists a limit to the quality of the combustion simulation depending upon the type of the turbulent model implemented to represent the flow. The model can also be modified to account for mixing of fine structures during the turbulent reaction. This modification of the model results in the eddy dissipation model which consider the mass fraction of fine structures in its calculations.

text: This model is used when

text: turbulent mixing

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answers: turbulent mixing of the constituents

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answers: The Arrhenius kinetic rate expression

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The Arrhenius kinetic rate expression

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Since turbulent mixing governs the characteristics of this model, there exists a limit to the quality of the combustion simulation depending upon the type of the turbulent model implemented to represent the flow

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The Arrhenius kinetic rate expression

text: The SPMD can be deployed in areas with low rates of flow or even in deep water areas. To ensure the safety and correct deployment of the SPMD within deep areas, it is important to attach the device to an anchor as well as a flotation device. To retrieve SPMDs from the field, a boat or a diver may be required, depending on the depth of the canister. An SPMD can concentrate chemicals from the water as well as the sediments in the water column, therefore it is important to know the composition of the sediment and benthic surface before deployment. To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources, anchoring the SPMD at certain depths (e.g. higher for muddy sediments in aquatic systems) can be very beneficial.

text: The SPMD can be deployed in areas with low rates of flow or even in deep water areas. To ensure the safety and correct deployment of the SPMD within deep areas, it is important to attach the device to an anchor as well as a flotation device. To retrieve SPMDs from the field, a boat or a diver may be required, depending on the depth of the canister. An SPMD can concentrate chemicals from the water as well as the sediments in the water column, therefore it is important to know the composition of the sediment and benthic surface before deployment. To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources, anchoring the SPMD at certain depths (e.g. higher for muddy sediments in aquatic systems) can be very beneficial.

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answers: composition of the sediment

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answers: To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources, anchoring the SPMD at certain depths

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answers: An SPMD can concentrate chemicals from the water as well as the sediments in the water column

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answers: Rates of flow

text: In specific acid catalysis, protonated solvent is the catalyst.  The reaction rate is proportional to the concentration of the protonated solvent molecules SH. The acid catalyst itself (AH) only contributes to the rate acceleration by shifting the chemical equilibrium between solvent S and AH in favor of the SH species.  This kind of catalysis is common for strong acids in polar solvents, such as water.

text: In specific acid catalysis, protonated solvent is the catalyst.  The

text: reaction rate

text: is proportional to the

text: concentration

text: of the protonated solvent molecules SH. The acid catalyst itself (AH) only contributes to the rate acceleration by shifting the

text: chemical equilibrium

text: between solvent S and AH in favor of the SH species.  This kind of catalysis is common for strong acids in polar solvents, such as water.

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answers: concentration of the protonated solvent molecules SH

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answers: The acid catalyst itself (AH) only contributes to the rate acceleration

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: protonated solvent is the catalyst

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answers: protonated solvent molecules SH

text: In aquatic sediments, a number of reactions can transform the chemicals released by the creosote preservatives into more dangerous chemicals. Most creosote preservative compounds have hazards associated with them before they are transformed. Cresol (m-,p-, and o-), phenol, guaiacol, and xylenol (1,3,4- and 1,3,5-) all are acute aquatic hazards prior to going through chemical reactions with the sediments. Alkylation reactions allows for the compounds to transition into more toxic compounds with the addition of R-groups to the major compounds found in creosote preservatives. Compounds formed through alkylation include: 3,4-dimethylphenol, 2,3-dimethylphenol, and 2,5-dimethylphenol, which are all listed as acute environmental hazards.  Biodegradation controls the rate at which the sediment holds the chemicals, and the amount of reactions that are able to take place. The biodegradation process can take place under many different conditions, and vary depending on the compounds that are released. Oxidation-reduction reactions allow for the compounds to be broken down into new forms of more toxic molecules. Studies have shown oxidation-reduction reactions of creosote preservative compounds included compounds that are listed as environmental hazards, such as p-benzoquinone in the oxidation of phenol. Not only are the initial compounds in creosote hazardous to the environment, but the byproducts of the chemical reactions are environmental hazardous as well.

text: In aquatic sediments, a number of reactions can transform the chemicals released by the creosote preservatives into more dangerous chemicals. Most creosote preservative compounds have hazards associated with them before they are transformed.

text: Cresol

text: (m-,p-, and o-),

text: phenol

text: guaiacol

text: , and

text: xylenol

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answers: Biodegradation

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answers: Alkylation reactions allows for the compounds to transition into more toxic compounds with the addition of R-groups

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Alkylation reactions

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answers: Most creosote preservative compounds have hazards associated with them before they are transformed

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Alkylation reactions allows for the compounds to transition into more toxic compounds

text: Which reactions do occur and how fast is the subject of chemical kinetics, another branch of physical chemistry. A key idea in chemical kinetics is that for reactants to react and form products, most chemical species must go through transition states which are higher in energy than either the reactants or the products and serve as a barrier to reaction. In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction. A second is that most chemical reactions occur as a sequence of elementary reactions, each with its own transition state. Key questions in kinetics include how the rate of reaction depends on temperature and on the concentrations of reactants and catalysts in the reaction mixture, as well as how catalysts and reaction conditions can be engineered to optimize the reaction rate.

text: Which reactions do occur and how fast is the subject of

text: chemical kinetics

text: , another branch of physical chemistry. A key idea in chemical kinetics is that for

text: reactants

text: to react and form

text: products

text: , most chemical species must go through

text: transition state

text: s which are higher in

text: energy

text: than either the reactants or the products and serve as a barrier to reaction. In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction. A second is that most chemical reactions occur as a sequence of

text: elementary reaction

text: s, each with its own transition state. Key questions in kinetics include how the rate of reaction depends on temperature and on the concentrations of reactants and

text: catalysts

text: in the reaction mixture, as well as how catalysts and reaction conditions can be engineered to optimize the reaction rate.

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: in general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The higher the barrier, the slower the reaction

text: Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide was first created in trace elements by an electrolysis reaction using aqueous solutions containing trifluoroacetate ion. This was one of the byproducts Frédéric Swarts got when performing trifluoromethylation reactions.[1] Later it was discovered that Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide had some unusual properties. This began a search for a more economical production of Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide. This was at first done by Porter and Cady. This reaction had a conversion rate of around  20-30% at normal pressure. They increased the conversion using an autoclave. This increased the yield to around 90% which helped procuring the chemical.

text: Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide was first created in trace elements by an electrolysis reaction using aqueous solutions containing trifluoroacetate ion. This was one of the byproducts Frédéric Swarts got when performing trifluoromethylation reactions.[1] Later it was discovered that Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide had some unusual properties. This began a search for a more economical production of Bis(trifluoromethyl)peroxide. This was at first done by Porter and Cady. This reaction had a conversion rate of around  20-30% at normal pressure. They increased the conversion using an autoclave. This increased the yield to around 90% which helped procuring the chemical.

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answers: 4

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answers: normal pressure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: This reaction had a conversion rate of around 20-30% at normal pressure

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: This was at first done by Porter and Cady

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: This reaction had a conversion rate of around 20-30% at normal pressure

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Autoclave

text: Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperatures are the same. This change in energy can be estimated from the bond energies of the various chemical bonds in the reactants and products. It can also be calculated from

text: Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperatures are the same. This change in energy can be estimated from the

text: bond energies

text: of the various chemical bonds in the reactants and products. It can also be calculated from

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answers: initial and final temperatures

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants

answers: NDQ_016530

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: bond energies of the various chemical bonds in the reactants and products

text: One of the earliest papers on the NH molecule was in 1976 by Richard M. Crutcher and William D. Watson. They were still trying to pinpoint the absorption line for NH. There was already an already theoretical upper limit of 0.3mÅ (30 fm), but they needed a more exact figure. They thought that NH should normally be produced on grains (directly or indirectly) at about the same rate per atom as OH (hydroxyl) and possibly CH (methine). However, its formation by gas phase reactions was extremely slow and could be neglected in comparison with the possible rate for surface reactions. The presence or absence of NH at a certain abundance level could then be interpreted as evidence concerning the importance of surface reactions. Their hope was to find the abundance ratio between NH and OH. They were unable to find the absorption line for NH. Therefore, the observations were inconclusive.

text: One of the earliest papers on the NH molecule was in 1976 by Richard M. Crutcher and William D. Watson. They were still trying to pinpoint the

text: absorption line

text: for NH. There was already an already theoretical upper limit of 0.3mÅ (30

text: fm

text: ), but they needed a more exact figure. They thought that NH should normally be produced on grains (directly or indirectly) at about the same rate per atom as OH (

text: hydroxyl

text: ) and possibly CH (

text: methine

text: ). However, its formation by gas phase reactions was extremely slow and could be neglected in comparison with the possible rate for surface reactions. The presence or absence of NH at a certain abundance level could then be interpreted as evidence concerning the importance of surface reactions. Their hope was to find the abundance ratio between NH and OH. They were unable to find the absorption line for NH. Therefore, the observations were inconclusive.

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answers: surface reactions

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The presence or absence of NH at a certain abundance level could then be interpreted as evidence concerning the importance of surface reactions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Richard M. Crutcher and William D. Watson

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: its formation by gas phase reactions was extremely slow and could be neglected in comparison with the possible rate for surface reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: surface reactions

text: When the reactants are dissolved in a medium of high ionic strength the quotient of activity coefficients may be taken to be constant. In that case the concentration quotient, K,

text: When the reactants are

text: dissolved

text: in a medium of high

text: ionic strength

text: the quotient of

text: activity coefficient

text: s may be taken to be constant. In that case the concentration quotient, K,

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answers: ionic strength

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: high ionic strength

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: is constant.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: activity coefficients may be taken to be constant

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: high ionic strength

text: Imiquimod is a topical immune-enhancing agent licensed for the treatment of genital warts. Imiquimod stimulates the immune system through the release and up-regulation of cytokines. Treatment with Imiquimod cream applied 2–3 times per week for 12 to 16 weeks was found to result in complete resolution of AKs in 50% of people, compared to 5% of controls. The Imiquimod 3.75% cream has been validated in a treatment regimen consisting of daily application to entire face and scalp for two 2-week treatment cycles, with a complete clearance rate of 36%. While the clearance rate observed with the Imiquimod 3.75% cream was lower than that observed with the 5% cream (36 and 50 percent, respectively), there are lower reported rates of adverse reactions with the 3.75% cream: 19% of individuals using Imiquimod 3.75% cream reported adverse reactions including local erythema, scabbing, and flaking at the application site, while nearly a third of individuals using the 5% cream reported the same types of reactions with Imiquimod treatment. However, it is ultimately difficult to compare the efficacy of the different strength creams directly, as current study data varies in methodology (e.g. duration and frequency of treatment, and amount of skin surface area covered).

text: Imiquimod

text: is a topical immune-enhancing agent licensed for the treatment of genital warts. Imiquimod stimulates the

text: immune system

text: through the release and up-regulation of

text: cytokines

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answers: Imiquimod 3.75% cream

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answers: It is ultimately difficult to compare the efficacy of the different strength creams directly, as current study data varies in methodology

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answers: Imiquimod stimulates the immune system through the release and up-regulation of cytokines

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It is ultimately difficult to compare the efficacy of the different strength creams directly

text: One key difference between the intercepting reaction and the parent reaction described above is the presence of some amount of product in the parent reaction at the interception point. Product inhibition has long been known to influence catalyst efficiency of many systems, and in the case of same-excess experiments, it prevents the intercepting and parent reactions from overlaying. While same-excess experiments as described above cannot attribute catalyst deactivation to any particular cause, product inhibition can be probed by further experiments in which some initial amount of product is added to the intercepting reaction (designed to mimic the amount of product expected to be present in the parent reaction at the same substrate concentration.) A perfect overlay of the rate vs. substrate concentration plots under same-excess-same product conditions indicates that product inhibition does occur under the reaction conditions used. While the failure of the rate vs. substrate concentration plots to overlay under same-excess-same product conditions does not preclude product inhibition, it does, at least, indicate that other catalyst deactivation paths must also be active.

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answers: substrate concentration

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answers: It does, at least

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answers: It does not

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Product inhibition has long been known to influence catalyst efficiency of many systems

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The interception reaction

text: At first sight this looks like an exponential multiplied by a factor that is linear in temperature. However, one must remember that free energy is itself a temperature dependent quantity. The free energy of activation is the difference of an enthalpy term and an entropy term multiplied by the absolute temperature. When all of the details are worked out one ends up with an expression that again takes the form of an Arrhenius exponential multiplied by a slowly varying function of T. The precise form of the temperature dependence depends upon the reaction, and can be calculated using formulas from statistical mechanics involving the partition functions of the reactants and of the activated complex.

text: At first sight this looks like an exponential multiplied by a factor that is linear in temperature. However, one must remember that free energy is itself a temperature dependent quantity. The free energy of activation is the difference of an enthalpy term and an entropy term multiplied by the absolute temperature. When all of the details are worked out one ends up with an expression that again takes the form of an Arrhenius exponential multiplied by a slowly varying function of T. The precise form of the temperature dependence depends upon the reaction, and can be calculated using formulas from

text: statistical mechanics

text: involving the partition functions of the reactants and of the activated complex.

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answers: The precise form of the temperature dependence depends upon the reaction

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answers: The free energy of activation

text: Eliminating mining eliminates mine safety issues.  Compared to traditional coal mining and processing, the underground coal gasification eliminates surface damage and solid waste discharge, and reduces sulfur dioxide () and nitrogen oxide () emissions.  For comparison, the ash content of UCG syngas is estimated to be approximately 10 mg/m³ compared to smoke from traditional coal burning where ash content may be up to 70 mg/m³. However, UCG operations cannot be controlled as precisely as surface gasifiers. Variables include the rate of water influx, the distribution of reactants in the gasification zone, and the growth rate of the cavity. These can only be estimated from temperature measurements, and analyzing product gas quality and quantity.

text: Eliminating mining eliminates mine safety issues.  Compared to traditional coal mining and processing, the underground coal gasification eliminates surface damage and solid waste discharge, and reduces

text: sulfur dioxide

text: () and

text: nitrogen oxide

text: () emissions.  For comparison, the ash content of UCG syngas is estimated to be approximately 10 mg/m³ compared to smoke from traditional coal burning where ash content may be up to 70 mg/m³. However, UCG operations cannot be controlled as precisely as surface gasifiers. Variables include the rate of water influx, the distribution of reactants in the gasification zone, and the growth rate of the cavity. These can only be estimated from temperature measurements, and analyzing product gas quality and quantity.

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answers: temperature measurements, and analyzing product gas quality and quantity

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: temperature measurements, and analyzing product gas quality and quantity

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: However, UCG operations cannot be controlled as precisely as surface gasifiers

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Temperature

text: Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum and mineral ores. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.

text: Chemical reactions are central to

text: chemical engineering

text: where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as

text: petroleum

text: and mineral

text: ore

text: s. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste.

text: Catalyst

text: s are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its

text: reaction rate

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answers: energy inputs and waste

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Catalysts

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalysts

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible

text: Increase in temperature can speed up the desired reaction, but also speed up the decomposition of reagents and starting materials.  However, pressure can speed up the desired reaction and only impacts decomposition when it involves the release of a gas or a reaction with a gas in the vessel. When the desired reaction is accelerated, competing reactions are minimized.  Pressure generally enables faster reactions with cleaner reaction profiles.

text: Increase in temperature can speed up the desired reaction, but also speed up the

text: decomposition

text: of

text: reagent

text: s and

text: starting materials

text: .  However, pressure can speed up the desired reaction and only impacts decomposition when it involves the release of a gas or a reaction with a gas in the vessel. When the desired reaction is accelerated, competing reactions are minimized.  Pressure generally enables faster reactions with cleaner reaction profiles.

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Increase in temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Increase in temperature can speed up the desired reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Pressure generally enables faster reactions with cleaner reaction profiles

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Increase in temperature

text: The initial aqueous solution contains hydrogen peroxide, an iodate, divalent manganese (Mn) as catalyst, a strong chemically unreactive acid (sulphuric acid (HSO) or perchloric acid (HClO) are good), and an organic compound with an active ("enolic") hydrogen atom attached to carbon which will slowly reduce free iodine (I) to iodide (I). (Malonic acid (CH(COOH)) is excellent for that purpose.) Starch is optionally added as an indicator to show the abrupt increase in iodide ion concentration as a sudden change from amber (free iodine) to dark blue (the "iodine-starch complex", which requires both iodine and iodide.)Recently it has been shown, however, that the starch is not only a simple indicator for iodine in the reaction. In the presence of starch the number of oscillations are higher and the period times are longer compared to the starch-free mixtures. It was also found that the iodine consumption segment within one period of oscillation is also significantly longer in the starch containing mixtures. This suggests that the starch probably acts as a reservoir for the iodine and iodide due to the starch-triiodide equilibrium, thereby modifying the kinetics of the steps in which iodine and iodide are involved. In the same study, a method was presented for minimizing the environmental impact of the reaction mixture before its disposal. The residual mixture contains iodinated malonic acid, inorganic acid, manganous catalysts, unreacted iodate and hydrogen peroxide. After the oscillations cease, the iodomalonic acid decomposes and iodine is produced. The rate of decomposition depends on the conditions. All of the components present in the residual mixture are of environmental concern: Iodate, iodine and hydrogen peroxide are strong oxidants, the acid is corrosive and manganese has been suggested to cause neurological disorders (citation needed). A simple method has been developed employing thiosulfate and carbonate – two inexpensive salts – to remove all oxidants, neutralize the acidity and recover the manganous ion in the form of manganese dioxide. The reaction is "poisoned" by chloride (Cl) ion, which must therefore be avoided, and will oscillate under a fairly wide range of initial concentrations. For recipes suitable for demonstration purposes, see Shakhashiri or Preparations in the external links.

text: The initial aqueous solution contains hydrogen peroxide, an iodate, divalent

text: manganese

text: (Mn) as

text: catalyst

text: , a strong chemically unreactive acid (

text: sulphuric acid

text: (HSO) or

text: perchloric acid

text: (HClO) are good), and an organic compound with an active

text: ("enolic")

text: hydrogen atom attached to carbon which will slowly

text: reduce

text: free iodine (I) to

text: iodide

text: (I). (

text: Malonic acid

text: (CH(COOH)) is excellent for that purpose.) Starch is optionally added as an indicator to show the abrupt increase in iodide ion concentration as a sudden change from amber (free iodine) to dark blue (the

text: "iodine-starch complex"

text: Preparations

text: in the external links.

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answers: conditions

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answers: hydrogen peroxide, an iodate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Divalent manganese as catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: divalent manganese (Mn) as catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: hydrogen peroxide, divalent manganese (Mn) as catalyst, a strong chemically unreactive acid

text: There are several forms of biofuel, often manufactured using sedimentation, centrifugation, and filtration. The fats and oils are turned into esters while separating the glycerin. At the end of the process, the glycerin settles and the biofuel floats. The process through which the glycerin is separated from the biodiesel is known as transesterification. Glycerin is another by-product from Jatropha oil processing that can add value to the crop. Transesterification is a simple chemical reaction that neutralizes the free fatty acids present in any fatty substances in Jatropha. A chemical exchange takes place between the alkoxy groups of an ester compound by an alcohol. Usually, methanol and ethanol are used for the purpose. The reaction occurs by the presence of a catalyst, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda and potassium hydroxide (KOH), which forms fatty esters (e.g., methyl or ethyl esters), commonly known as biodiesel. It takes approximately 10% of methyl alcohol by weight of the fatty substance to start the transesterification process.

text: There are several forms of biofuel, often manufactured using

text: sedimentation

text: centrifugation

text: , and

text: filtration

text: . The fats and oils are turned into esters while separating the

text: glycerin

text: . At the end of the process, the glycerin settles and the biofuel floats. The process through which the glycerin is separated from the biodiesel is known as

text: transesterification

text: . Glycerin is another by-product from Jatropha oil processing that can add value to the crop. Transesterification is a simple chemical reaction that neutralizes the free fatty acids present in any fatty substances in Jatropha. A chemical exchange takes place between the

text: alkoxy

text: groups of an ester compound by an alcohol. Usually,

text: methanol

text: and

text: ethanol

text: are used for the purpose. The reaction occurs by the presence of a

text: catalyst

text: , usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda and potassium hydroxide (KOH), which forms fatty esters (e.g., methyl or ethyl esters), commonly known as

text: biodiesel

text: . It takes approximately 10% of methyl alcohol by weight of the fatty substance to start the transesterification process.

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answers: presence of a catalyst

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answers: It takes approximately 10% of methyl alcohol by weight

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Transesterification

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda and potassium hydroxide

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The reaction occurs by the presence of a catalyst

text: The poisoning reaction should be viewed like any other chemical reaction between a gas phase reactant and the solid surface, where the poisoned sites are distributed throughout the catalyst pore structure as a function of poison diffusion into the catalyst and the rate of the poisoning reaction. At the two extremes, this gives rise to two scenarios. First, when the poisoning reaction rate is slow relative to the rate of diffusion, the poison will be evenly distributed throughout the catalyst and will result in homogeneous poisoning of the catalyst. Conversely, if the reaction rate is fast compared to the rate of diffusion, a poisoned shell will form on the exterior layers of the catalyst, a situation known as "pore-mouth" poisoning, and the rate of catalytic reaction may become limited by the rate of diffusion through the inactive shell.

text: The poisoning reaction should be viewed like any other chemical reaction between a gas phase reactant and the solid surface, where the poisoned sites are distributed throughout the catalyst pore structure as a function of poison diffusion into the catalyst and the rate of the poisoning reaction. At the two extremes, this gives rise to two scenarios. First, when the poisoning reaction rate is slow relative to the rate of diffusion, the poison will be evenly distributed throughout the catalyst and will result in

text: homogeneous

text: poisoning of the catalyst. Conversely, if the reaction rate is fast compared to the rate of diffusion, a poisoned shell will form on the exterior layers of the catalyst, a situation known as "pore-mouth" poisoning, and the rate of catalytic reaction may become limited by the rate of diffusion through the inactive shell.

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answers: poison diffusion

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answers: If the reaction rate is fast compared to the rate of diffusion

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The poisoning reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: poisoned sites are distributed throughout the catalyst pore structure

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: At the two extremes, this gives rise to two scenarios

text: The rule is very easy to apply in one's head while driving: simply divide your speed (MPH) by 10 and again by 2, then add 1. That's it! If one is going sixty mph, divide by ten to get 6, then divide by two to get 3; adding a one-second reaction time, we get that you can generally stop beyond 4 seconds of distance ahead. Drivers that require additional perception-reaction time, such as novices, elderly, or those in complex or adverse environments can benefit by adding additional seconds.

text: The rule is very easy to apply in one's head while driving: simply divide your speed (MPH) by 10 and again by 2, then add 1. That's it! If one is going sixty mph, divide by ten to get 6, then divide by two to get 3; adding a one-second reaction time, we get that you can generally stop beyond 4 seconds of distance ahead. Drivers that require additional perception-reaction time, such as novices, elderly, or those in complex or adverse environments can benefit by adding additional seconds.

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: novices, elderly

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: If one is going sixty mph, divide by ten to get 6, then divide by two to get 3

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Add one-second reaction time

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: you can generally stop beyond 4 seconds of distance ahead

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: If one is going sixty mph

text: These high concentrations of macromolecules occupy a large proportion of the volume of the cell, which reduces the volume of solvent that is available for other macromolecules. This excluded volume effect increases the effective concentration of macromolecules (increasing their chemical activity), which in turn alters the rates and equilibrium constants of their reactions. In particular this effect alters dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as when multiple proteins come together to form protein complexes, or when DNA-binding proteins bind to their targets in the genome. Crowding may also affect enzyme reactions involving small molecules if the reaction involves a large change in the shape of the enzyme.

text: These high concentrations of macromolecules occupy a large proportion of the volume of the cell, which reduces the volume of solvent that is available for other macromolecules. This

text: excluded volume

text: effect increases the effective concentration of macromolecules (increasing their

text: chemical activity

text: ), which in turn alters the

text: rates

text: and

text: equilibrium constant

text: s of their reactions. In particular this effect alters

text: dissociation constant

text: s by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as when multiple proteins come together to form

text: protein complex

text: es, or when

text: DNA-binding protein

text: s bind to their targets in the

text: genome

text: . Crowding may also affect enzyme reactions involving small molecules if the reaction involves a large change in the shape of the enzyme.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: high concentrations of macromolecules

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: increases the effective concentration of macromolecules

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: high concentrations of macromolecules

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: increases the effective concentration of macromolecules

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: increases the effective concentration of macromolecules

text: In the Shiina esterification performed under basic conditions, asymmetric synthesis is realized using chiral nucleophilic catalysts. First, in the presence of a chiral nucleophilic catalyst, by the action of an appropriate carboxylic acid anhydride on a racemic aliphatic carboxylic acid, the corresponding MA is produced, resulting in the kinetic resolution of the racemic aliphatic carboxylic acid after having been subjected to reaction with achiral alcohol. Using this method, optically active carboxylic acids and optically active carboxylic acid esters can be obtained. It is also possible to realize the kinetic resolution of racemic alcohols by modifying the compositions of the reactants, i.e., by forming MA through reactions between achiral carboxylic acid and the appropriate carboxylic acid anhydride; then, by activating the racemic alcohols using the MA, optically active alcohols and optically active carboxylic acid esters can be obtained.

text: In the Shiina esterification performed under basic conditions, asymmetric synthesis is realized using chiral nucleophilic catalysts. First, in the presence of a chiral nucleophilic catalyst, by the action of an appropriate carboxylic acid anhydride on a racemic aliphatic carboxylic acid, the corresponding MA is produced, resulting in the kinetic resolution of the racemic aliphatic carboxylic acid after having been subjected to reaction with achiral alcohol. Using this method, optically active carboxylic acids and optically active carboxylic acid esters can be obtained. It is also possible to realize the kinetic resolution of racemic alcohols by modifying the compositions of the reactants, i.e., by forming MA through reactions between achiral carboxylic acid and the appropriate carboxylic acid anhydride; then, by activating the racemic alcohols using the MA, optically active alcohols and optically active carboxylic acid esters can be obtained.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: chiral nucleophilic catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: basic conditions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is also possible

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: chiral nucleophilic catalysts

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: basic conditions

text: , the concentration of the reactant should be kept at a low level in order to maximize selectivity. This can be accomplished using a semibatch reactor.

text: , the concentration of the reactant should be kept at a low level in order to maximize selectivity. This can be accomplished using a semibatch reactor.

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answers: concentration of the reactant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: concentration of the reactant should be kept at a low level

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answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: The GEBIK and GEBIF equations are the most generalized approach to describe isotopic effects in any chemical, catalytic reaction and biochemical reactions because they can describe isotopic effects in equilibrium reactions, kinetic chemical reactions and kinetic biochemical reactions. In the latter two cases, they can describe both stationary and non-stationary fractionation (i.e., variable and inverse fractionation). In general, isotopic effects depend on the number of reactants and on the number of combinations resulting from the number of substitutions in all reactants and products. Describing with accuracy isotopic effects, however, depends also on the specific rate law used to describe the chemical or biochemical reaction that produces isotopic effects. Normally, regardless of whether a reaction is purely chemical or whether it involves some enzyme of biological nature, the equations used to describe isotopic effects base on first-order kinetics. This approach systematically leads to isotopic effects that can be described by means of the Rayleigh equation. In this case, isotopic effects will always be expressed as a constant, hence will not be able to describe isotopic effects in reactions where fractionation and enrichment are variable or inverse during the course of a reaction. Most chemical reactions do not follow first-order kinetics; neither biochemical reactions can normally be described with first-order kinetics. To properly describe isotopic effects in chemical or biochemical reactions, different approaches must be employed such as the use of Michaelis–Menten reaction order (for chemical reactions) or coupled Michaelis–Menten and Monod reaction orders (for biochemical reactions). However, conversely to Michaelis–Menten kinetics, GEBIK and GEBIF equations are solved under the hypothesis of non-steady state. This characteristic allows GEBIK and GEBIF to capture transient isotopic effects.

text: The GEBIK and GEBIF equations are the most generalized approach to describe isotopic effects in any

text: chemical

text: catalytic reaction

text: and

text: biochemical

text: reactions because they can describe isotopic effects in equilibrium reactions, kinetic chemical reactions and kinetic biochemical reactions. In the latter two cases, they can describe both stationary and non-stationary fractionation (i.e., variable and inverse fractionation). In general, isotopic effects depend on the number of reactants and on the number of combinations resulting from the number of substitutions in all reactants and products. Describing with accuracy isotopic effects, however, depends also on the specific

text: rate law

text: used to describe the chemical or biochemical reaction that produces isotopic effects. Normally, regardless of whether a reaction is purely chemical or whether it involves some

text: enzyme

text: of biological nature, the equations used to describe isotopic effects base on first-order kinetics. This approach systematically leads to isotopic effects that can be described by means of the Rayleigh equation. In this case, isotopic effects will always be expressed as a constant, hence will not be able to describe isotopic effects in reactions where fractionation and enrichment are variable or inverse during the course of a reaction. Most chemical reactions do not follow first-order kinetics; neither biochemical reactions can normally be described with first-order kinetics. To properly describe isotopic effects in chemical or biochemical reactions, different approaches must be employed such as the use of

text: Michaelis–Menten

text: reaction order (for chemical reactions) or coupled Michaelis–Menten and Monod reaction orders (for biochemical reactions). However, conversely to Michaelis–Menten kinetics, GEBIK and GEBIF equations are solved under the hypothesis of non-steady state. This characteristic allows GEBIK and GEBIF to capture transient isotopic effects.

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answers: number of reactants and on the number of combinations

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: GEBIK and GEBIF equations are solved under the hypothesis of non-steady state

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: In general, isotopic effects depend on the number of reactants and on the number of combinations resulting from the number of substitutions in all reactants and products

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: GEBIK and GEBIF equations are solved under the hypothesis of non-steady state

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: In general, isotopic effects depend on the number of reactants

text: PCET is thought to be pervasive in redox reactions that appear to be net hydrogenations and dehydrogenations. Relevant examples include water oxidation in photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and oxygen reduction in many pathways for respiration. Inorganic chemists often study simple reactions to test this mechanism, one example being the comproportionation of a Ru(II) aquo and a Ru(IV) oxo reactants: cis-[(bipy)(py)Ru(O)] + cis-[(bipy)(py)Ru(OH)] → 2cis-[(bipy)(py)Ru(OH)]PCET is also often invoked in electrochemical reactions where reduction is coupled to protonation or where oxidation is coupled to deprotonation.

text: PCET is thought to be pervasive in redox reactions that appear to be net hydrogenations and dehydrogenations. Relevant examples include water oxidation in

text: photosynthesis

text: nitrogen fixation

text: and oxygen reduction in many pathways for

text: respiration

text: . Inorganic chemists often study simple reactions to test this mechanism, one example being the

text: comproportionation

text: of a Ru(II) aquo and a Ru(IV) oxo reactants: cis-[(

text: bipy

text: )(py)Ru(O)] + cis-[(bipy)(py)Ru(OH)] → 2cis-[(bipy)(py)Ru(OH)]PCET is also often invoked in electrochemical reactions where reduction is coupled to protonation or where oxidation is coupled to deprotonation.

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answers: net hydrogenations and dehydrogenations

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: PCET

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: PCET

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: PCET is also often invoked in electrochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: PCET

text: In addition to the active metal the catalysts typically contain a number of "promoters," including potassium and copper. Group 1 alkali metals, including potassium, are a poison for cobalt catalysts but are promoters for iron catalysts. Catalysts are supported on high-surface-area binders/supports such as silica, alumina, or zeolites. Promotors also have an important influence on activity. Alkali metal oxides and copper are common promotors, but the formulation depends on the primary metal, iron vs cobalt. Alkali oxides on cobalt catalysts generally cause activity to drop severely even with very low alkali loadings. C and CO selectivity increase while methane and C–C selectivity decrease. In addition, the alkene to alkane ratio increases.

text: In addition to the active metal the catalysts typically contain a number of "promoters," including potassium and copper. Group 1 alkali metals, including potassium, are a poison for cobalt catalysts but are promoters for iron catalysts. Catalysts are supported on high-surface-area binders/supports such as

text: silica

text: alumina

text: , or

text: zeolites

text: . Promotors also have an important influence on activity. Alkali metal oxides and copper are common promotors, but the formulation depends on the primary metal, iron vs cobalt. Alkali oxides on cobalt catalysts generally cause activity to drop severely even with very low alkali loadings. C and CO selectivity increase while methane and C–C selectivity decrease. In addition, the alkene to alkane ratio increases.

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answers: promoters

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Promotors also have an important influence on activity

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Alkali metal oxides and copper are common promotors

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Promotors also have an important influence on activity

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Promotors also have an important influence on activity

text: For endothermic reactions, the type of surface determines the type of energy which is most effective in bringing about reaction. Translational energy of the reactants is most effective at inducing reactions with an attractive surface, while vibrational excitation is more effective for reactions with a repulsive surface. As an example of the latter case, the reaction F + HCl(v=1) → Cl + HF is about five times faster than F + HCl(v=0) → Cl + HF for the same total energy of HCl.

text: For

text: endothermic reactions

text: , the type of surface determines the type of energy which is most effective in bringing about reaction. Translational energy of the reactants is most effective at inducing reactions with an attractive surface, while vibrational excitation is more effective for reactions with a repulsive surface. As an example of the latter case, the reaction F + HCl(v=1) → Cl + HF is about five times faster than F + HCl(v=0) → Cl + HF for the same total energy of HCl.

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answers: the type of surface determines the type of energy which is most effective

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: F + HCl(v=1)  Cl + HF

text: In enzymology, a cyclomaltodextrinase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

text: In

text: enzymology

text: , a cyclomaltodextrinase () is an

text: enzyme

text: that

text: catalyzes

text: the

text: chemical reaction

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answers: Warm reactants have more energy and move faster

text: Examples of reactions that are first order with respect to the reactant:

text: Examples of reactions that are first order with respect to the reactant:

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answers: reactants

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answers: Warm reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: first order with respect to the reactant

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: are reactions that are first order with respect to the reactant

text: This definition is a special case of the concept of chain length in chemical kinetics. For any chemical chain reaction, the chain length is defined as the average number of times that the closed cycle of chain propagation steps is repeated. It is equal to the rate of the overall reaction divided by the rate of the initiation step in which the chain carriers are formed.<ref>"Chain Length." IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology. 2005-2014.

text: This definition is a special case of the concept of chain length in

text: chemical kinetics

text: . For any

text: chemical chain reaction

text: , the chain length is defined as the average number of times that the closed cycle of

text: chain propagation

text: steps is repeated. It is equal to the

text: rate

text: of the overall reaction divided by the rate of the

text: initiation

text: step in which the chain carriers are formed.<ref>"Chain Length." IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology. 2005-2014.

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answers: the rate of the initiation step

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: For any chemical chain reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chain propagation steps is repeated

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: chain length is defined as the average number of times that the closed cycle of chain propagation steps is repeated

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It is equal to the rate of the overall reaction

text: The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is exothermic (ΔH is negative, puts energy out), heat is included as a product, and, when the reaction is endothermic (ΔH is positive, takes energy in), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.

text: The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is

text: exothermic

text: (ΔH is negative, puts energy out), heat is included as a product, and, when the reaction is

text: endothermic

text: (ΔH is positive, takes energy in), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: When the reaction is exothermic ( H is negative, puts energy out), heat is included as a product

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: When the reaction is endothermic ( H is positive, takes energy in), heat is included as a reactant

text: The order of a reaction for each reactant can be estimated from the variation in initial rate with the concentration of that reactant, using the natural logarithm of the typical rate equation

text: The order of a reaction for each reactant can be estimated from the variation in initial rate with the concentration of that reactant, using the

text: natural logarithm

text: of the typical rate equation

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answers: concentration of that reactant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The order of a reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The order of a reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: can be estimated from the variation in initial rate with the concentration of that reactant

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The order of a reaction

text: are the internal energy of the reactants and products respectively. In the constant volume adiabatic flame temperature case, the volume of the system is held constant hence there is no work occurring,

text: are the internal energy of the reactants and products respectively. In the constant volume adiabatic flame temperature case, the volume of the system is held constant hence there is no work occurring,

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 3

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answers: 3

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answers: volume of the system

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: no work

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: there is no work occurring

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: Conjugated enynes have also been used for benzannulation reactions catalyzed by cobalt. This type of benzannulation involves a [4+2] cycloaddition followed by a 1,3-hydrogen shift. In dichloromethane, the symmetrical benzannulation products are yielded but in tetrahydrofuran (THF), unsymmetrical benzannulation products were obtained with good regioselectivity.  These reactions utilize  1,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane (dppp) substituted cobalt catalyst in the presence of powdered zinc and zinc iodide for a solvent dependent benzannulation reaction (Scheme 11). In dichloromethane the ratio of A:B is 78:22 with an overall combined yield of 90% and in THF the ratio has switched to 7:93 (A:B) with a combined yield of 85%.

text: Conjugated

text: enyne

text: s have also been used for benzannulation reactions catalyzed by

text: cobalt

text: . This type of benzannulation involves a [4+2] cycloaddition followed by a 1,3-hydrogen shift. In

text: dichloromethane

text: , the symmetrical benzannulation products are yielded but in

text: tetrahydrofuran

text: (THF), unsymmetrical benzannulation products were obtained with good regioselectivity.  These reactions utilize

text: (dppp) substituted cobalt catalyst in the presence of powdered

text: zinc

text: and

text: zinc iodide

text: for a solvent dependent benzannulation reaction (Scheme 11). In dichloromethane the ratio of A:B is 78:22 with an overall combined yield of 90% and in THF the ratio has switched to 7:93 (A:B) with a combined yield of 85%.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: solvent

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: [4+2] cycloaddition followed by a 1,3-hydrogen shift

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: cobalt

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: [4+2] cycloaddition followed by a 1,3-hydrogen shift

text: For example, in chemical kinetics, it has been observed that ultrasound can greatly enhance chemical reactivity in a number of systems by as much as a million-fold; effectively acting as a catalyst by exciting the atomic and molecular modes of the system (such as the vibrational, rotational, and translational modes). In addition, in reactions that use solids, ultrasound breaks up the solid pieces from the energy released from the bubbles created by cavitation collapsing through them. This gives the solid reactant a larger surface area for the reaction to proceed over, increasing the observed rate of reaction.

text: For example, in

text: chemical kinetics

text: , it has been observed that ultrasound can greatly enhance chemical reactivity in a number of systems by as much as a million-fold; effectively acting as a catalyst by exciting the atomic and molecular modes of the system (such as the vibrational, rotational, and translational modes). In addition, in reactions that use solids, ultrasound breaks up the solid pieces from the energy released from the bubbles created by cavitation collapsing through them. This gives the solid reactant a larger surface area for the reaction to proceed over, increasing the observed rate of reaction.

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answers: vibrational, rotational, and translational modes

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answers: effectively acting as a catalyst

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answers: increase the observed rate of reaction

text: It is easiest to describe the flux of metabolites through a pathway by considering the reaction steps individually. The flux of the metabolites through each reaction (J) is the rate of the forward reaction (Vf), less that of the reverse reaction (Vr).

text: It is easiest to describe the flux of metabolites through a pathway by considering the reaction steps individually. The flux of the metabolites through each reaction (J) is the rate of the forward reaction (Vf), less that of the reverse reaction (Vr).

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answers: forward reaction (Vf), less that of the reverse reaction

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It is easiest to describe the flux of metabolites through a pathway

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: It is easiest to describe the flux of metabolites through a pathway by considering the reaction steps individually

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The flux of the metabolites through each reaction (J) is the rate of the forward reaction

text: A concentration cell is a limited form of a galvanic cell that has two equivalent half-cells of the same composition differing only in concentrations. One can calculate the potential developed by such a cell using the Nernst Equation. A concentration cell produces a small voltage as it attempts to reach chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the concentration of reactant in both half-cells are equal.  Because an order of magnitude concentration difference produces less than 60 millivolts at room temperature, concentration cells are not typically used for energy storage.

text: A concentration cell is a limited form of a

text: galvanic cell

text: that has two equivalent

text: half-cell

text: s of the same composition differing only in concentrations. One can calculate the potential developed by such a cell using the

text: Nernst Equation

text: . A concentration cell produces a small

text: voltage

text: as it attempts to reach

text: chemical equilibrium

text: , which occurs when the concentration of reactant in both half-cells are equal.  Because an order of magnitude concentration difference produces less than 60 millivolts at room temperature, concentration cells are not typically used for energy storage.

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answers: concentrations

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answers: Because an order of magnitude concentration difference produces less than 60 millivolts

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answers: It attempts to reach chemical equilibrium

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answers: concentration cell produces a small voltage as it attempts to reach chemical equilibrium

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answers: The concentration of reactant in both half-cells are equal

text: In electrochemistry, concentration polarization denotes the part of the polarization of an electrolytic cell resulting from changes in the electrolyte concentration due to the passage of current through the electrode/solution interface. Here polarization is understood as the shift of the Electrochemical potential difference across the cell from its equilibrium value. When the term is used in this sense, it is equivalent to “concentration overpotential”. The cause of the changes in concentration (emergence of concentration gradients in the solution adjacent to the electrode surface) is the difference in the rate of electrochemical reaction at the electrode and the rate of ion migration in the solution from/to the surface. When a chemical species participating in an electrochemical electrode reaction is in short supply, the concentration of this species at the surface decreases causing diffusion, which is added to the migration transport towards the surface in order to maintain the balance of consumption and delivery of that species.

text: In

text: electrochemistry

text: , concentration polarization denotes the part of the

text: polarization

text: of an

text: electrolytic cell

text: resulting from changes in the electrolyte concentration due to the passage of current through the electrode/solution interface. Here polarization is understood as the shift of the

text: Electrochemical potential

text: difference across the cell from its equilibrium value. When the term is used in this sense, it is equivalent to “

text: concentration overpotential

text: ”. The cause of the changes in concentration (emergence of concentration gradients in the solution adjacent to the electrode surface) is the difference in the rate of electrochemical reaction at the electrode and the rate of ion migration in the solution from/to the surface. When a chemical species participating in an electrochemical electrode reaction is in short supply, the concentration of this species at the surface decreases causing diffusion, which is added to the migration transport towards the surface in order to maintain the balance of consumption and delivery of that species.

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answers: short supply

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answers: concentration overpotential

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answers: concentration polarization

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: When the term is used in this sense, it is equivalent to “concentration overpotential”

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The cause of the changes in concentration

text: At a modified electrode, an oxidation-reduction substance accomplishes electrocatalysis by transferring electrons from the electrode to a reactant, or a reaction substrate.

text: At a modified electrode, an

text: oxidation-reduction

text: substance accomplishes

text: electrocatalysis

text: by transferring electrons from the electrode to a reactant, or a reaction

text: substrate

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answers: electrocatalysis

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answers: oxidation-reduction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: no

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: by transferring electrons from the electrode to a reactant, or a reaction substrate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: oxidation

text: The rate equation shows the detailed dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of reactants and other species present. Different mathematical forms are possible depending on the reaction mechanism. The actual rate equation for a given reaction is determined experimentally and provides information about the reaction mechanism.

text: The

text: rate equation

text: shows the detailed dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of reactants and other species present. Different mathematical forms are possible depending on the

text: reaction mechanism

text: . The actual rate equation for a given reaction is determined experimentally and provides information about the reaction mechanism.

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answers: concentrations of reactants

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answers: It depends on the reaction mechanism

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answers: The actual rate equation for a given reaction

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answers: is determined experimentally and provides information about the reaction mechanism

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answers: It depends on the reaction mechanism

text: In chemistry, J. H. van't Hoff (1884) came up with the idea that equilibrium has dynamical nature and is a result of the balance between the forward and backward reaction rates. He did not study reaction mechanisms with many elementary reactions and could not formulate the principle of detailed balance for complex reactions. In 1901, Rudolf Wegscheider introduced the principle of detailed balance for complex chemical reactions. He found that for a complex reaction the principle of detailed balance implies important and non-trivial relations between reaction rate constants for different reactions. In particular, he demonstrated that the irreversible cycles of reaction are impossible and for the reversible cycles the product of constants of the forward reactions (in the "clockwise" direction) is equal to the product of constants of the reverse reactions (in the "anticlockwise" direction). Lars Onsager (1931) used these relations in his well known work, without direct citation but with the following remark:

text: In chemistry,

text: J. H. van't Hoff

text: (1884) came up with the idea that equilibrium has dynamical nature and is a result of the balance between the forward and backward reaction rates. He did not study reaction mechanisms with many elementary reactions and could not formulate the principle of detailed balance for complex reactions. In 1901,

text: Rudolf Wegscheider

text: introduced the principle of detailed balance for complex chemical reactions. He found that for a complex reaction the principle of detailed balance implies important and non-trivial relations between reaction rate constants for different reactions. In particular, he demonstrated that the irreversible cycles of reaction are impossible and for the reversible cycles the product of constants of the forward reactions (in the "clockwise" direction) is equal to the product of constants of the reverse reactions (in the "anticlockwise" direction).

text: Lars Onsager

text: (1931) used these relations in his well known work, without direct citation but with the following remark:

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answers: forward and backward reaction rates

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answers: Wegscheider introduced the principle of detailed balance for complex chemical reactions

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answers: J. H. van't Hoff (1884)

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answers: the irreversible cycles of reaction are impossible

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Rudolf Wegscheider introduced the principle of detailed balance for complex chemical reactions

text: J. W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value (assuming the reaction is carried out at constant temperature and pressure). What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate (a measure of the extent of reaction that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes, signalling a stationary point. This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy (or energy change) and corresponds to the difference between the chemical potentials of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture. This criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy (or Helmholtz energy at constant volume reactions) is the "driving force" for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached. The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the reaction by the equation

text: J. W. Gibbs

text: suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: of the system is at its minimum value (assuming the reaction is carried out at constant temperature and pressure). What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to

text: reaction coordinate

text: (a measure of the

text: extent of reaction

text: that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes, signalling a

text: stationary point

text: . This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy (or energy change) and corresponds to the difference between the

text: chemical potential

text: s of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture. This criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy (or

text: Helmholtz energy

text: at constant volume reactions) is the "driving force" for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached. The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard

text: Gibbs free energy

text: change for the reaction by the equation

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answers: temperature and pressure

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answers: Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: J. W. Gibbs

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the reaction by the equation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value

text: PEMFCs are built out of membrane electrode assemblies (MEA) which include the electrodes, electrolyte, catalyst, and gas diffusion layers. An ink of catalyst, carbon, and electrode are sprayed or painted onto the solid electrolyte and carbon paper is hot pressed on either side to protect the inside of the cell and also act as electrodes. The pivotal part of the cell is the triple phase boundary (TPB) where the electrolyte, catalyst, and reactants mix and thus where the cell reactions actually occur. Importantly, the membrane must not be electrically conductive so the half reactions do not mix. Operating temperatures above 100 °C are desired  so the water byproduct becomes steam and water management becomes less critical in cell design.

text: PEMFCs are built out of

text: membrane electrode assemblies

text: (MEA) which include the electrodes, electrolyte, catalyst, and gas diffusion layers. An ink of catalyst, carbon, and electrode are sprayed or painted onto the solid electrolyte and carbon paper is hot pressed on either side to protect the inside of the cell and also act as electrodes. The pivotal part of the cell is the triple phase boundary (TPB) where the electrolyte, catalyst, and reactants mix and thus where the cell reactions actually occur. Importantly, the membrane must not be electrically conductive so the half reactions do not mix. Operating temperatures above 100 °C are desired  so the water byproduct becomes steam and water management becomes less critical in cell design.

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answers: operating temperatures

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answers: Operating temperatures above 100 °C

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Operating temperatures above 100 °C

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: An ink of catalyst, carbon, and electrode

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Operating temperatures above 100 °C

text: Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor

text: Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the

text: activation energy

text: . The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor

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answers: activation energy

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: At given temperature T

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T)

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: activation energy

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: activation energy

text: Regardless of the equation format, the heat of formation of a compound at any temperature is ΔH° at 298.15 K, plus the sum of the heat content parameters of the products minus the sum of the heat content parameters of the reactants. The C equation is obtained by taking the derivative of the heat content equation.

text: Regardless of the equation format, the heat of formation of a compound at any temperature is ΔH° at 298.15 K, plus the sum of the heat content parameters of the products minus the sum of the heat content parameters of the reactants. The C equation is obtained by taking the derivative of the heat content equation.

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answers: heat content parameters of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The C equation is obtained by taking the derivative of the heat content equation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: H° at 298.15 K

text: Potential energy surfaces for chemical reactions can be classified as attractive or repulsive by comparing the extensions of the bond lengths in the activated complex relative to those of the reactants and products. For a reaction of type A + B—C → A—B + C, the bond length extension for the newly formed A—B bond is defined as R* = R − R, where R is the A—B bond length in the transition state and R in the product molecule. Similarly for the bond which is broken in the reaction, R* = R − R, where R refers to the reactant molecule.

text: Potential energy surfaces for chemical reactions can be classified as attractive or repulsive by comparing the extensions of the bond lengths in the activated complex relative to those of the reactants and products. For a reaction of type A + B—C → A—B + C, the bond length extension for the newly formed A—B bond is defined as R* = R − R, where R is the A—B bond length in the transition state and R in the product molecule. Similarly for the bond which is broken in the reaction, R* = R − R, where R refers to the reactant molecule.

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answers: 3

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: bond lengths in the activated complex relative to those of the reactants and products

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: R* = R  R

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Potential energy surfaces for chemical reactions can be classified as attractive or repulsive

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Potential energy surfaces for chemical reactions can be classified as attractive or repulsive

text: The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant is also an important factor of the rate of change. When reactants are in the same phase, as in aqueous solution, thermal motion brings them into contact. However, when they are in different phases, the reaction is limited to the interface between the reactants. Reaction can occur only at their area of contact; in the case of a liquid and a gas, at the surface of the liquid. Vigorous shaking and stirring may be needed to bring the reaction to completion. This means that the more finely divided a solid or liquid reactant the greater its surface area per unit volume and the more contact it with the other reactant, thus the faster the reaction. To make an analogy, for example, when one starts a fire, one uses wood chips and small branches — one does not start with large logs right away. In organic chemistry, on water reactions are the exception to the rule that homogeneous reactions take place faster than heterogeneous reactions.

text: The

text: physical state

text: solid

text: liquid

text: , or

text: gas

text: ) of a reactant is also an important factor of the rate of change. When reactants are in the same

text: phase

text: , as in

text: aqueous

text: solution

text: , thermal motion brings them into contact. However, when they are in different phases, the reaction is limited to the interface between the reactants. Reaction can occur only at their area of contact; in the case of a liquid and a gas, at the surface of the liquid. Vigorous shaking and stirring may be needed to bring the reaction to completion. This means that the more finely divided a solid or liquid reactant the greater its

text: surface area

text: per unit

text: volume

text: and the more contact it with the other reactant, thus the faster the reaction. To make an analogy, for example, when one starts a fire, one uses wood chips and small branches — one does not start with large logs right away. In organic chemistry,

text: on water reaction

text: s are the exception to the rule that homogeneous reactions take place faster than heterogeneous reactions.

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answers: the physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: When reactants are in the same phase, as in aqueous solution, thermal motion brings them into contact

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Vigorous shaking and stirring may be needed

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant is also an important factor of the rate of change

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant

text: In chemistry, dynamic stereochemistry studies the effect of stereochemistry on the reaction rate of a chemical reaction. Stereochemistry is involved in:

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , dynamic stereochemistry studies the effect of

text: stereochemistry

text: on the

text: reaction rate

text: of a

text: chemical reaction

text: . Stereochemistry is involved in:

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answers: stereochemistry

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answers: dynamic stereochemistry

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answers: dynamic stereochemistry

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: a chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: dynamic stereochemistry

text: In the presence of 10-20 % chiral catalyst, 80–90% ee is achievable.

text: In the presence of 10-20 % chiral catalyst, 80–90%

text: ee

text: is achievable.

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answers: 80–90%

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answers: chiral catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 10-20 %

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 80–90% ee is achievable

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: ee

text: Some enzymes can carry out thousands of chemical reactions each second. However, RuBisCO is slow, being able to fix only 3-10 carbon dioxide molecules each second per molecule of enzyme.  The reaction catalyzed by RuBisCO is, thus, the primary rate-limiting factor of the Calvin cycle during the day. Nevertheless, under most conditions, and when light is not otherwise limiting photosynthesis, the speed of RuBisCO responds positively to increasing carbon dioxide concentration.However, our descriptive knowledge will become more usable when we can translate them into quantitative models that can enable us to calculate the outcome of the reaction under a given condition.  Since RubisCO reacts with RuBP (ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate) first to produces enediol and next with  that after some intermediate changes produces PGA (3-phosphoglycerate), a biochemical model is developed   to represent the  effects of  these steps quantitatively. Since carboxylation or fixation of  is possible only after the synthesis of enediol, thus it is suggested that the role of RubisCO is to produce enediol that is carboxylase and oxygenase (EnCO). Accordingly, RubisCO is called enolase-phosphglycerase (EPGase) since it is neither carboxylase nor oxygenase.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: carbon dioxide concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: when light is not otherwise limiting photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The reaction catalyzed by RuBisCO is, thus, the primary rate-limiting factor of the Calvin cycle during the day

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the speed of RuBisCO responds positively to increasing carbon dioxide concentration

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: When light is not otherwise limiting photosynthesis

text: Hollow spheres and porous particles (e.g. glass shells/spheres, epoxide shells, PVDC shells, fly ash, vermiculite, other reticulated materials) are mixed and dispersed in the liquid reactants, which are then shaped into a solid polymer part containing a network of voids.

text: Hollow spheres and porous particles (e.g. glass shells/spheres, epoxide shells, PVDC shells,

text: fly ash

text: vermiculite

text: , other reticulated materials) are mixed and dispersed in the liquid reactants, which are then shaped into a solid polymer part containing a network of voids.

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

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answers: 3

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: liquid reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: liquid reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Hollow spheres and porous particles

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: liquid reactants

text: As noted above, variants that deviate from this template are known; what designates a Nazarov cyclization in particular is the generation of the pentadienyl cation followed by electrocyclic ring closure to an oxyallyl cation. In order to achieve this transformation, the molecule must be in the s-trans/s-trans conformation, placing the vinyl groups in an appropriate orientation. The propensity of the system to enter this conformation dramatically influences reaction rate, with α-substituted substrates having an increased population of the requisite conformer due to allylic strain. Coordination of an electron donating α-substituent by the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation.

text: As noted above, variants that deviate from this template are known; what designates a Nazarov cyclization in particular is the generation of the pentadienyl

text: cation

text: followed by electrocyclic ring closure to an oxyallyl cation. In order to achieve this transformation, the molecule must be in the s-trans/s-trans

text: conformation

text: , placing the

text: vinyl

text: groups in an appropriate orientation. The propensity of the system to enter this conformation dramatically influences

text: reaction rate

text: , with α-substituted substrates having an increased population of the requisite

text: conformer

text: due to

text: allylic strain

text: . Coordination of an electron donating α-substituent by the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation.

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answers: propensity of the system to enter this conformation

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: -substituted substrates

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reaction rate

text: The mechanisms of chemical reactions can be investigated by observing how the kinetics of a reaction is changed by making an isotopic modification of a substrate, known as the kinetic isotope effect. This is now a standard method in organic chemistry. Briefly, replacing normal hydrogen (protons) by deuterium within a molecule causes the molecular vibrational frequency of X-H (for example C-H, N-H and O-H) bonds to decrease, which leads to a decrease in vibrational zero-point energy. This can lead to a decrease in the reaction rate if the rate-determining step involves breaking a bond between hydrogen and another atom. Thus, if the reaction changes in rate when protons are replaced by deuteriums, it is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate.

text: The mechanisms of chemical reactions can be investigated by observing how the kinetics of a reaction is changed by making an isotopic modification of a substrate, known as the

text: kinetic isotope effect

text: . This is now a standard method in

text: organic chemistry

text: . Briefly, replacing normal hydrogen (

text: protons

text: ) by

text: deuterium

text: within a molecule causes the

text: molecular vibration

text: al frequency of X-H (for example C-H, N-H and O-H) bonds to decrease, which leads to a decrease in vibrational

text: zero-point energy

text: . This can lead to a decrease in the reaction rate if the rate-determining step involves breaking a bond between hydrogen and another atom. Thus, if the reaction changes in rate when protons are replaced by deuteriums, it is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: isotopic modification of a substrate

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: it is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: vibrational zero-point energy

text: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing -NO, -ONO and -NHNO groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitroglycerin, TNT, HMX, PETN, nitrocellulose).

text: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive

text: entropy

text: change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in

text: chemical bonds

text: . The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing

text: -NO

text: -ONO

text: and

text: -NHNO

text: groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g.,

text: nitroglycerin

text: TNT

text: HMX

text: PETN

text: nitrocellulose

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answers: thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly

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answers: exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change

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answers: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction

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answers: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat)

text: The water gas shift reaction is a moderately exothermic reversible reaction. Therefore with increasing temperature the reaction rate increases but the conversion of reactants to products becomes less favorable. Due to its exothermic nature, high carbon monoxide conversion is thermodynamically favored at low temperatures. Despite the thermodynamic favorability at low temperatures, the reaction is kinetically favored at high temperatures. The water-gas shift reaction is sensitive to temperature, with the tendency to shift towards reactants as temperature increases due to Le Chatelier's principle. Over the temperature range 600 – 2000 K, the logarithm of the equilibrium constant for the WGSR is given by the following equation:

text: The water gas shift reaction is a moderately

text: exothermic

text: reversible reaction. Therefore with increasing temperature the reaction rate increases but the conversion of reactants to products becomes less favorable. Due to its exothermic nature, high carbon monoxide conversion is

entity_name: Thermodynamic versus kinetic reaction control

text: thermodynamically

text: favored at low temperatures. Despite the thermodynamic favorability at low temperatures, the reaction is

text: kinetically

text: favored at high temperatures. The water-gas shift reaction is

text: sensitive to temperature

text: , with the tendency to shift towards reactants as temperature increases due to

text: Le Chatelier's principle

text: . Over the temperature range 600 – 2000 K, the logarithm of the equilibrium constant for the WGSR is given by the following equation:

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answers: temperature

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answers: The reaction is kinetically favored at high temperatures.

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answers: Le Chatelier's principle

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answers: The water-gas shift reaction is sensitive to temperature

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answers: The reaction is kinetically favored at high temperatures.

text: Stoichiometry rests upon the very basic laws that help to understand it better, i.e., law of conservation of mass, the law of definite proportions (i.e., the law of constant composition), the law of multiple proportions and the law of reciprocal proportions. In general, chemical reactions combine in definite ratios of chemicals. Since chemical reactions can neither create nor destroy matter, nor transmute one element into another, the amount of each element must be the same throughout the overall reaction. For example, the number of atoms of a given element X on the reactant side must equal the number of atoms of that element on the product side, whether or not all of those atoms are actually involved in a reaction.

text: Stoichiometry rests upon the very basic laws that help to understand it better, i.e.,

text: law of conservation of mass

text: , the

text: law of definite proportions

text: (i.e., the

text: law of constant composition

text: ), the

text: law of multiple proportions

text: and the

text: law of reciprocal proportions

text: . In general, chemical reactions combine in definite ratios of chemicals. Since chemical reactions can neither create nor destroy matter, nor

text: transmute

text: one element into another, the amount of each element must be the same throughout the overall reaction. For example, the number of atoms of a given element X on the reactant side must equal the number of atoms of that element on the product side, whether or not all of those atoms are actually involved in a reaction.

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text: The binding and inactivation steps of this reaction are investigated by incubating the enzyme with inhibitor and assaying the amount of activity remaining over time. The activity will be decreased in a time-dependent manner, usually following exponential decay. Fitting these data to a rate equation gives the rate of inactivation at this concentration of inhibitor. This is done at several different concentrations of inhibitor. If a reversible EI complex is involved the inactivation rate will be saturable and fitting this curve will give k and K.

text: The binding and inactivation steps of this reaction are investigated by incubating the enzyme with inhibitor and assaying the amount of activity remaining over time. The activity will be decreased in a time-dependent manner, usually following

text: exponential decay

text: . Fitting these data to a

text: rate equation

text: gives the rate of inactivation at this concentration of inhibitor. This is done at several different concentrations of inhibitor. If a reversible EI complex is involved the inactivation rate will be saturable and fitting this curve will give k and K.

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text: The rate law or rate equation for a chemical reaction is an equation that links the reaction rate with concentrations or pressures of reactants and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial reaction orders). For many reactions the rate is given by a power law such as

text: The rate law or rate equation for a

text: chemical reaction

text: is an equation that links the

text: reaction rate

text: with concentrations or pressures of reactants and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial

text: reaction order

text: s). For many reactions the rate is given by a power law such as

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate law

text: Superheated water, along with supercritical water, has been used to oxidise hazardous material in the wet oxidation process. Organic compounds are rapidly oxidised without the production of toxic materials sometimes produced by combustion. However, when the oxygen levels are lower, organic compounds can be quite stable in superheated water. As the concentration of hydronium () and hydroxide () ions are 100 times larger than in water at 25 °C, superheated water can act as a stronger acid and a stronger base, and many different types of reaction can be carried out. An example of a selective reaction is oxidation of ethylbenzene to acetophenone, with no evidence of formation of phenylethanoic acid, or of pyrolysis products. Several different types of reaction in which water was behaving as reactant, catalyst and solvent were described by Katritzky et al.Triglycerides can be hydrolysed to free fatty acids and glycerol by superheated water at 275 °C,which can be the first in a two-stage process to make biodiesel.Superheated water can be used to chemically convert organic material into fuel products. This is known by several terms, including direct hydrothermal liquefaction, and hydrous pyrolysis. A few commercial scale applications exist. Thermal depolymerization or thermal conversion (TCC) uses superheated water at about 250 °C to convert turkey waste into a light fuel oil and is said to process 200 tons of low grade waste into fuel oil a day.The initial product from the hydrolysis reaction is de-watered and further processed by dry cracking at 500 °C. The “SlurryCarb” process operated by EnerTech uses similar technology to decarboxylate wet solid biowaste, which can then be physically dewatered and used as a solid fuel called E-Fuel. The plant at Rialto is said to be able to process 683 tons of waste per day.The HTU or Hydro Thermal Upgrading process appears similar to the first stage of the TCC process.  A demonstration plant is due to start up in The Netherlands said to be capable of processing 64 tons of biomass (dry basis) per day into oil.

text: Superheated water, along with

text: supercritical water

text: , has been used to oxidise hazardous material in the wet oxidation process. Organic compounds are rapidly

text: oxidised

text: without the production of toxic materials sometimes produced by combustion. However, when the oxygen levels are lower, organic compounds can be quite stable in superheated water. As the concentration of

text: hydronium

text: () and

text: hydroxide

text: () ions are 100 times larger than in water at 25 °C, superheated water can act as a stronger

text: acid

text: and a stronger

text: base

text: , and many different types of reaction can be carried out. An example of a selective reaction is oxidation of

text: ethylbenzene

text: to

text: acetophenone

text: , with no evidence of formation of phenylethanoic acid, or of

text: pyrolysis

text: products. Several different types of reaction in which water was behaving as reactant, catalyst and solvent were described by Katritzky et al.

text: Triglycerides

text: can be hydrolysed to

text: free fatty acids

text: and

text: glycerol

text: by superheated water at 275 °C,which can be the first in a two-stage process to make

text: biodiesel

text: .Superheated water can be used to chemically convert organic material into fuel products. This is known by several terms, including direct hydrothermal liquefaction, and

text: hydrous pyrolysis

text: . A few commercial scale applications exist.

text: Thermal depolymerization

text: or thermal conversion (TCC) uses superheated water at about 250 °C to convert turkey waste into a light

text: fuel oil

text: and is said to process 200 tons of low grade waste into fuel oil a day.The initial product from the hydrolysis reaction is de-watered and further processed by dry cracking at 500 °C. The “SlurryCarb” process operated by EnerTech uses similar technology to decarboxylate wet solid biowaste, which can then be physically dewatered and used as a solid fuel called E-Fuel. The plant at

text: Rialto

text: is said to be able to process 683 tons of waste per day.The HTU or Hydro Thermal Upgrading process appears similar to the first stage of the TCC process.  A demonstration plant is due to start up in The Netherlands said to be capable of processing 64 tons of biomass (

text: dry basis

text: ) per day into oil.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: oxygen levels are lower, organic compounds can be quite stable in superheated water

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Hydrothermal liquefaction, and hydrous pyrolysis

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Superheated water at 275 °C

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Several different types of reaction in which water was behaving as reactant, catalyst and solvent

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Superheated water can act as a stronger acid and a stronger base, and many different types of reaction can be carried out.

text: In a prototypical ALD process, a substrate is exposed to two reactants A and B in a sequential, non-overlapping way. In contrast to other techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), where thin film growth proceeds on a steady-state fashion, in ALD each reactant reacts with the surface in a self-limited way: the reactant molecules can react only with a finite number of reactive sites on the surface. Once all those sites have been consumed in the reactor, the growth stops. The remaining reactant molecules are flushed away and only then reactant B is inserted into the reactor. By alternating exposures of A and B, a thin film is deposited. This process is shown in the side figure. Consequently, when describing an ALD process one refers to both dose times (the time a surface is being exposed to a precursor) and purge times (the time left in between doses for the precursor to evacuate the chamber) for each precursor. The dose-purge-dose-purge sequence of a binary ALD process constitutes an ALD cycle. Also, rather than using the concept of growth rate, ALD processes are described in terms of their growth per cycle.

text: In a prototypical ALD process, a substrate is exposed to two reactants A and B in a sequential, non-overlapping way. In contrast to other techniques such as

text: chemical vapor deposition

text: (CVD), where thin film growth proceeds on a steady-state fashion, in ALD each reactant reacts with the surface in a self-limited way: the reactant molecules can react only with a finite number of reactive sites on the surface. Once all those sites have been consumed in the reactor, the growth stops. The remaining reactant molecules are flushed away and only then reactant B is inserted into the reactor. By alternating exposures of A and B, a thin film is deposited. This process is shown in the side figure. Consequently, when describing an ALD process one refers to both dose times (the time a surface is being exposed to a precursor) and purge times (the time left in between doses for the precursor to evacuate the chamber) for each precursor. The dose-purge-dose-purge sequence of a binary ALD process constitutes an ALD cycle. Also, rather than using the concept of growth rate, ALD processes are described in terms of their growth per cycle.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: time a surface is being exposed to a precursor

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: In contrast to other techniques such as chemical vapor deposition

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The reactant molecules can react only with a finite number of reactive sites on the surface

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: ALD processes are described in terms of their growth per cycle

text: The solvent used in substitution reactions inherently determines the nucleophilicity of the nucleophile; this fact has become increasingly more apparent as more reactions are performed in the gas phase. As such, solvent conditions significantly affect the performance of a reaction with certain solvent conditions favoring one reaction mechanism over another.  For S1 reactions the solvent's ability to stabilize the intermediate carbocation is of direct importance to its viability as a suitable solvent.  The ability of polar solvents to increase the rate of S1 reactions is a result of the polar solvent's solvating the reactant intermediate species, i.e., the carbocation, thereby decreasing the intermediate energy relative to the starting material.  The following table shows the relative solvolysis rates of tert-butyl chloride with acetic acid (CHCOH), methanol (CHOH), and water (HO).

text: The solvent used in

text: substitution reactions

text: inherently determines the nucleophilicity of the

text: nucleophile

text: ; this fact has become increasingly more apparent as more reactions are performed in the gas phase. As such, solvent conditions significantly affect the performance of a reaction with certain solvent conditions favoring one reaction mechanism over another.  For

text: S1 reactions

text: the solvent's ability to stabilize the intermediate

text: carbocation

text: is of direct importance to its viability as a suitable solvent.  The ability of polar solvents to increase the rate of S1 reactions is a result of the polar solvent's solvating the reactant intermediate species, i.e., the carbocation, thereby decreasing the intermediate energy relative to the starting material.  The following table shows the relative solvolysis rates of tert-butyl chloride with acetic acid (CHCOH), methanol (CHOH), and water (HO).

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text: In principle, the time evolution of the reactant and product concentrations can be determined from the set of simultaneous rate equations for the individual steps of the mechanism, one for each step. However the analytical solution of these differential equations is not always easy, and in some cases numerical integration may even be required. The hypothesis of a single rate-determining step can greatly simplify the mathematics. In the simplest case the initial step is the slowest, and the overall rate is just the rate of the first step.

text: In principle, the time evolution of the reactant and product concentrations can be determined from the set of simultaneous rate equations for the individual steps of the mechanism, one for each step. However the analytical solution of these

text: differential equation

text: s is not always easy, and in some cases

entity_name: Numerical methods for ordinary differential equations

text: numerical integration

text: may even be required. The hypothesis of a single rate-determining step can greatly simplify the mathematics. In the simplest case the initial step is the slowest, and the overall rate is just the rate of the first step.

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answers: product concentrations

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answers: In the simplest case the initial step is the slowest

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The hypothesis of a single rate-determining step can greatly simplify the mathematics

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: one for each step

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answers: In the simplest case the initial step is the slowest

text: The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g., in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry.

text: The simplest

text: inorganic reaction

text: is

text: double displacement

text: when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In

text: redox reaction

text: s one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of

text: electron

text: s. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g., in

text: batteries

text: , a key concept in

text: electrochemistry

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: The net result is an exchange of electrons

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The net result is an exchange of electrons

text: As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly. For example, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants:

text: As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly. For example,

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants:

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answers: concentration of its reactants

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answers: In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction

text: In the previous examples the rate determining step was one of the sequential chemical reactions leading to a product. The rate-determining step can also be the transport of reactants to where they can interact and form the product. This case is referred to as diffusion control and, in general, occurs when the formation of product from the activated complex is very rapid and thus the provision of the supply of reactants is rate determining.

text: In the previous examples the rate determining step was one of the sequential chemical reactions leading to a product. The rate-determining step can also be the transport of reactants to where they can interact and form the product. This case is referred to as

text: diffusion control

text: and, in general, occurs when the formation of product from the activated complex is very rapid and thus the provision of the supply of reactants is rate determining.

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answers: the transport of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Diffusion control

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate determining step was one of the sequential chemical reactions leading to a product

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate-determining step can also be the transport

text: The units of the pre-exponential factor  are identical to those of the rate constant and will vary depending on the order of the reaction. If the reaction is first order it has the units: s, and for that reason it is often called the frequency factor or attempt frequency of the reaction. Most simply,  is the number of collisions that result in a reaction per second,  is the number of collisions (leading to a reaction or not) per second occurring with the proper orientation to react and

text: The units of the pre-exponential factor  are identical to those of the rate constant and will vary depending on the order of the reaction. If the reaction is first order it has the units:

text: s

text: , and for that reason it is often called the

text: frequency

text: factor or attempt frequency of the reaction. Most simply,  is the number of collisions that result in a reaction per second,  is the number of collisions (leading to a reaction or not) per second occurring with the proper orientation to react and

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answers: If the reaction is first order it has the units: s

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answers: It is the number of collisions that result in a reaction

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answers: The units of the pre-exponential factor are identical to those of the rate constant

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answers: pre-exponential factor

text: Chemical propulsion systems use a chemical reaction to produce a high-pressure, high-temperature gas that accelerates out of a nozzle. Chemical propellant can be liquid, solid or a hybrid of both. Liquid propellants can be a monopropellant passed through a catalyst, or bipropellant which combusts an oxidizer and a fuel. The benefits of monopropellants are relatively low-complexity/high-thrust output, low power requirements, and high reliability. Monopropellant motors tend to have high thrust while remaining comparatively simple, which also provides high reliability. These motors are practical for CubeSats due to their low power requirements and because their simplicity allows them to be very small. Small hydrazine fueled motors have been developed, but may require a waiver to fly due to restrictions on hazardous chemicals set forth in the CubeSat Design Specification. Safer chemical propellants which would not require hazardous chemical waivers are being developed, such as AF-M315 (hydroxylammonium nitrate) for which motors are being or have been designed. A "Water Electrolysis Thruster" is technically a chemical propulsion system, as it burns hydrogen and oxygen which it generates by on-orbit electrolysis of water.

text: Chemical propulsion

text: systems use a chemical reaction to produce a high-pressure, high-temperature gas that accelerates out of a

text: nozzle

text: . Chemical propellant can be liquid, solid or a hybrid of both. Liquid propellants can be a

text: monopropellant

text: passed through a

text: catalyst

text: , or

text: bipropellant

text: which

text: combusts

text: an

text: oxidizer

text: and a

text: fuel

text: . The benefits of

text: monopropellants

text: are relatively low-complexity/high-thrust output, low power requirements, and high reliability. Monopropellant motors tend to have high thrust while remaining comparatively simple, which also provides high reliability. These motors are practical for CubeSats due to their low power requirements and because their simplicity allows them to be very small. Small

text: hydrazine

text: fueled motors have been developed, but may require a waiver to fly due to restrictions on hazardous chemicals set forth in the CubeSat Design Specification. Safer chemical propellants which would not require hazardous chemical waivers are being developed, such as AF-M315 (

text: hydroxylammonium nitrate

text: ) for which motors are being or have been designed. A "Water Electrolysis Thruster" is technically a chemical propulsion system, as it burns

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: which it generates by on-orbit

text: electrolysis of water

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answers: high-pressure

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

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answers: Chemical propellant can be liquid, solid or a hybrid of both

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answers: Liquid propellants can be a monopropellant

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answers: high-temperature

text: Although catalytic reactors are often implemented as plug flow reactors, their analysis requires more complicated treatment. The rate of a catalytic reaction is proportional to the amount of catalyst the reagents contact, as well as the concentration of the reactants. With a solid phase catalyst and fluid phase reagents, this is proportional to the exposed area, efficiency of diffusion of reagents in and products out, and efficacy of mixing. Perfect mixing usually cannot be assumed. Furthermore, a catalytic reaction pathway often occurs in multiple steps with intermediates that are chemically bound to the catalyst; and as the chemical binding to the catalyst is also a chemical reaction, it may affect the kinetics. Catalytic reactions often display the so-called falsified kinetics, i.e. the apparent kinetics differ from elementary chemical kinetics due to physical transport effects.

text: Although

text: catalytic

text: reactors are often implemented as plug flow reactors, their analysis requires more complicated treatment. The rate of a catalytic reaction is proportional to the amount of catalyst the reagents contact, as well as the concentration of the reactants. With a solid phase catalyst and fluid phase reagents, this is proportional to the exposed area, efficiency of diffusion of reagents in and products out, and efficacy of mixing. Perfect mixing usually cannot be assumed. Furthermore, a catalytic reaction pathway often occurs in multiple steps with intermediates that are chemically bound to the catalyst; and as the chemical binding to the catalyst is also a chemical reaction, it may affect the kinetics. Catalytic reactions often display the so-called falsified kinetics, i.e. the apparent kinetics differ from elementary chemical kinetics due to physical transport effects.

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text: Far from equilibrium, the forward and reverse reaction rates no longer balance and the concentration of reactants and products is no longer constant. For every forward reaction

text: Far from equilibrium, the forward and reverse reaction rates no longer balance and the concentration of reactants and products is no longer constant. For every forward reaction

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text: Beryllium oxide (BeO), also known as beryllia, is an inorganic compound with the formula BeO. This colourless solid is a notable electrical insulator with a higher thermal conductivity than any other non-metal except diamond, and exceeds that of most metals. As an amorphous solid, beryllium oxide is white. Its high melting point leads to its use as a refractory. It occurs in nature as the mineral bromellite. Historically and in materials science, beryllium oxide was called glucina or glucinium oxide. Formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen releases the highest energy per mass of reactants for any chemical reaction, close to 24 MJ/kg.

text: Beryllium

text: oxide (BeO), also known as beryllia, is an

text: inorganic compound

text: with the

text: formula

text: BeO. This colourless solid is a notable electrical insulator with a higher thermal conductivity than any other non-metal except

text: diamond

text: , and exceeds that of most metals. As an amorphous solid, beryllium oxide is white. Its high melting point leads to its use as a

text: refractory

text: . It occurs in nature as the mineral

text: bromellite

text: . Historically and in materials science, beryllium oxide was called glucina or glucinium oxide. Formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen releases

text: the highest energy per mass of reactants

text: for any chemical reaction, close to 24 MJ/kg.

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answers: high melting point

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Beryllium oxide

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen releases the highest energy per mass of reactants for any chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen

text: The kinetic isotope effect is the difference in the rate of a chemical reaction when an atom in one of the reactants is replaced by one of its isotopes.

text: The

text: kinetic isotope effect

text: is the difference in the rate of a chemical reaction when an atom in one of the reactants is replaced by one of its

text: isotope

text: s.

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answers: isotopes

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The kinetic isotope effect

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: kinetic isotope effect

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The kinetic isotope effect

text: is the reactant concentration at the particle surface, and

text: is the reactant concentration at the particle surface, and

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: NDQ_016524

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answers: NDQ_016529

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answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentration of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: reactant temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: is the reactant concentration at the particle surface

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: is the reactant concentration

text: Catalysts are widely used in various chemical reactions. The activity, stability, selectivity, and regeneration ability are the most important properties to be considered in catalyst design.

text: Catalysts

text: are widely used in various

text: chemical reaction

text: s. The activity, stability, selectivity, and regeneration ability are the most important properties to be considered in catalyst design.

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answers: Catalysts

text: Consider a coupled set of two autocatalytic reactions in which the concentration of one of the reactants A is much larger than its equilibrium value. In this case the forward reaction rate is so much larger than the reverse rates that we can neglect the reverse rates.

text: Consider a coupled set of two autocatalytic reactions in which the concentration of one of the reactants A is much larger than its equilibrium value. In this case the forward reaction rate is so much larger than the reverse rates that we can neglect the reverse rates.

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answers: NDQ_016530

answers: autocatalytic reactions

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answers: forward reaction rate

text: Her contributions to surface science include discovery of collision induced processes at surfaces, in which an energetic, neutral, noble gas atom impinges on a surface pre-covered with an adsorbate, causing a reaction to occur between the surface and the adsorbate.  The reactions observed include dissociation, desorption, and absorption into the bulk of the substrate.  In addition, she discovered that electron energy loss spectroscopy can be used to detect species absorbed in the bulk of a substrate, and can be used to differentiate between bulk and surface species.  This paved the way for her discovery that hydrogen atoms absorbed in the bulk of a nickel sample are the key reactant in the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Another major discovery involved the reaction of fluorine molecules with a silicon surface (a reaction that is key to semiconductor device etching), in which the silicon surface abstracts a fluorine atom from the incident fluorine molecule, and the remaining fluorine atom scatters into the gas phase.  This is the reverse of the Eley-Rideal mechanism, one of the fundamental mechanism of gas-surface chemical reactions.

text: Her contributions to

text: surface science

text: include discovery of collision induced processes at surfaces, in which an energetic, neutral, noble gas atom impinges on a surface pre-covered with an adsorbate, causing a reaction to occur between the surface and the adsorbate.  The reactions observed include dissociation, desorption, and absorption into the bulk of the substrate.  In addition, she discovered that

text: electron energy loss spectroscopy

text: can be used to detect species absorbed in the bulk of a substrate, and can be used to differentiate between bulk and surface species.  This paved the way for her discovery that hydrogen atoms absorbed in the bulk of a nickel sample are the key reactant in the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Another major discovery involved the reaction of fluorine molecules with a silicon surface (a reaction that is key to semiconductor device etching), in which the silicon surface abstracts a fluorine atom from the incident fluorine molecule, and the remaining fluorine atom scatters into the gas phase.  This is the reverse of the

text: Eley-Rideal

text: mechanism, one of the fundamental mechanism of gas-surface chemical reactions.

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: energetic, neutral, noble gas atom

text: Physical organic chemistry, a term coined by Louis Hammett in 1940, refers to a discipline of organic chemistry that focuses on the relationship between chemical structures and reactivity, in particular, applying experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of organic molecules. Specific focal points of study include the rates of organic reactions, the relative chemical stabilities of the starting materials, reactive intermediates, transition states, and products of chemical reactions, and non-covalent aspects of solvation and molecular interactions that influence chemical reactivity. Such studies provide theoretical and practical frameworks to understand how changes in structure in solution or solid-state contexts impact reaction mechanism and rate for each organic reaction of interest. Physical organic chemists use theoretical and experimental approaches work to understand these foundational problems in organic chemistry, including classical and statistical thermodynamic calculations, quantum mechanical theory and computational chemistry, as well as experimental spectroscopy (e.g., NMR), spectrometry (e.g., MS), and crystallography approaches. The field therefore has applications to a wide variety of more specialized fields, including electro- and photochemistry, polymer and supramolecular chemistry, and bioorganic chemistry, enzymology, and chemical biology, as well as to commercial enterprises involving process chemistry, chemical engineering, materials science and nanotechnology, and drug discovery.

text: Physical organic chemistry, a term coined by

text: Louis Hammett

text: in 1940, refers to a discipline of

text: organic chemistry

text: that focuses on the relationship between

text: chemical structure

text: s and

text: reactivity

text: , in particular, applying experimental tools of

text: physical chemistry

text: to the study of

text: organic molecules

text: . Specific focal points of study include the

text: rates

text: of

text: organic reactions

text: , the relative

text: chemical stabilities

text: of the starting materials,

text: reactive intermediate

text: s,

text: transition state

text: s, and products of

text: chemical reaction

text: s, and non-covalent aspects of

text: solvation

text: and

text: molecular interaction

text: s that influence chemical reactivity. Such studies provide theoretical and practical frameworks to understand how changes in structure in solution or solid-state contexts impact

text: reaction mechanism

text: and

text: rate

text: for each

text: organic reaction

text: of interest. Physical organic chemists use theoretical and experimental approaches work to understand these foundational problems in

text: organic chemistry

text: , including classical and statistical

text: thermodynamic

text: calculations,

text: quantum mechanical theory

text: and

text: computational chemistry

text: , as well as experimental

text: spectroscopy

text: (e.g.,

text: NMR

text: spectrometry

text: (e.g.,

text: MS

text: ), and

text: crystallography

text: approaches. The field therefore has applications to a wide variety of more specialized fields, including

text: electro-

text: and

text: photochemistry

text: polymer

text: and

text: supramolecular chemistry

text: , and

text: bioorganic chemistry

text: enzymology

text: , and

text: chemical biology

text: , as well as to commercial enterprises involving

text: process chemistry

text: chemical engineering

text: materials science

text: and

text: nanotechnology

text: , and

text: drug discovery

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: changes in structure in solution or solid-state contexts

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Physical organic chemistry

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Physical organic chemistry

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: changes in structure in solution or solid-state contexts impact reaction mechanism and rate for each organic reaction of interest

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: thermodynamic calculations

text: In organic chemistry, an electron donating group (EDG) or electron releasing group (ERG) is an atom or functional group that donates some of its electron density into a conjugated π system via resonance or inductive effects, thus making the π system more nucleophilic.  When attached to a benzene molecule, an electron donating group makes it more likely to participate in electrophilic substitution reactions. Benzene itself will normally undergo substitutions by electrophiles, but additional substituents can alter the reaction rate or products by electronically or sterically affecting the interaction of the two reactants. EDGs are often known as activating groups.

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: , an electron donating group (EDG) or electron releasing group (ERG) is an atom or

text: functional group

text: that donates some of its

text: electron density

text: into a

text: conjugated π system

text: via

text: resonance

text: or

text: inductive effect

text: s, thus making the π system more

text: nucleophilic

text: .  When attached to a

text: benzene

text: molecule

text: , an electron donating group makes it more likely to participate in

text: electrophilic substitution reaction

text: s. Benzene itself will normally undergo

text: substitutions

text: by

text: electrophile

text: s, but additional

text: substituent

text: s can alter the

text: reaction rate

text: or

text: products

text: by

text: electronically

text: or

text: sterically

text: affecting the interaction of the two

text: reactant

text: s. EDGs are often known as activating groups.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: additional substituents

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: When attached to a benzene

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: EDGs

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: EDGs are often known as activating groups

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: EDGs are often known as activating groups

text: The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed from the reactants.

text: The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed from the reactants.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: nearly all the reactants are consumed

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: near all the reactants are consumed

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction

text: Because most deoxyribozymes suffer from product inhibition and thus exhibit single-turnover behavior, it is sometimes argued that deoxyribozymes do not exhibit "true" catalytic behavior since they cannot undergo multiple-turnover catalysis like most biological enzymes. However, the general definition of a catalyst requires only that the substance speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction (i.e. it is not permanently chemically altered and can be recycled). Thus, by this definition, single-turnover deoxyribozymes are indeed catalysts. Furthermore, many endogenous enzymes (both proteins and ribozymes) also exhibit single-turnover behavior, and so the exclusion of deoxyribozymes from the rank of "catalyst" simply because it does not feature multiple-turnover behavior seems unjustified.

text: Because most deoxyribozymes suffer from

text: product inhibition

text: and thus exhibit single-

text: turnover

text: behavior, it is sometimes argued that deoxyribozymes do not exhibit "true" catalytic behavior since they cannot undergo multiple-turnover catalysis like most biological

text: enzyme

text: s. However, the general definition of a

text: catalyst

text: requires only that the substance speeds up the

text: rate

text: of a

text: chemical reaction

text: without being consumed by the reaction (i.e. it is not permanently chemically altered and can be recycled). Thus, by this definition, single-turnover deoxyribozymes are indeed catalysts. Furthermore, many

text: endogenous

text: enzyme

text: s (both

text: protein

text: s and

text: ribozyme

text: s) also exhibit single-turnover behavior, and so the exclusion of deoxyribozymes from the rank of "catalyst" simply because it does not feature multiple-turnover behavior seems unjustified.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: product inhibition

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It is not permanently chemically altered and can be recycled

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not feature multiple-turnover behavior

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: by this definition, single-turnover deoxyribozymes are indeed catalysts

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It is not permanently chemically altered and can be recycled

text: In chemical kinetics a reaction rate constant or reaction rate coefficient, k, quantifies the rate of a chemical reaction.

text: In

text: chemical kinetics

text: a reaction rate constant or reaction rate coefficient, k, quantifies the rate of a

text: chemical reaction

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answers: The rate of a chemical reaction

text: For faster reactions, the time required to mix the reactants and bring them to a specified temperature may be comparable or longer than the half-life of the reaction. Special methods to start fast reactions without slow mixing step include

text: For faster reactions, the time required to mix the reactants and bring them to a specified temperature may be comparable or longer than the

text: half-life

text: of the reaction. Special methods to start fast reactions without slow mixing step include

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answers: bringing them to a specified temperature

text: Catalysis () is the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of an additional substance called a catalyst ().  In most cases, reactions occur faster with a catalyst because they require less activation energy. Furthermore since they are not consumed in the catalyzed reaction, catalysts can continue to act repeatedly. Often only tiny amounts are required in principle.

text: Catalysis () is the increase in the

text: rate

text: of a

text: chemical reaction

text: due to the participation of an additional substance called a catalyst ().  In most cases, reactions occur faster with a catalyst because they require less

text: activation energy

text: . Furthermore since they are not consumed in the catalyzed reaction, catalysts can continue to act repeatedly. Often only tiny amounts are required in principle.

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answers: activation energy

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answers: Because they require less activation energy

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answers: Catalysis

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answers: they require less activation energy

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Catalyzed reaction

text: The number of physically-independent reactions can be even greater than the number of chemical components, and depends on the various reaction mechanisms. For example, there may be two (or more) reaction paths for the isomerism above. The reaction may occur by itself, but faster and with different intermediates, in the presence of a catalyst.

text: The number of physically-independent reactions can be even greater than the number of chemical components, and depends on the various reaction mechanisms. For example, there may be two (or more) reaction paths for the isomerism above. The reaction may occur by itself, but faster and with different intermediates, in the presence of a catalyst.

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answers: In the presence of a catalyst

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answers: It does not say.

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answers: The reaction may occur by itself, but faster

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The reaction may occur by itself, but faster

text: Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age.

text: Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds.

text: Nitroglycerin

text: e is notorious. Old

text: explosives

text: are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives.

text: Rubber

text: products also degrade as

text: sulphur

text: bonds

text: induced during

text: vulcanization

text: revert; this is why old

text: rubber band

text: s and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age.

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answers: high temperatures

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answers: reactions are accelerated by high temperatures

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answers: reactions are accelerated by high temperatures

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactions are accelerated by high temperatures

text: For example, in an aqueous buffer solution the reaction rate for reactants R depends on the pH of the system but not on the concentrations of different acids.

text: For example, in an aqueous

text: buffer solution

text: the reaction rate for reactants R depends on the

text: pH

text: of the system but not on the

text: concentration

text: s of different acids.

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answers: pH of the system

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answers: The reaction rate for reactants R depends on the pH

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answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: pH of the system but not on the concentrations of different acids

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: pH of the system

text: In physical organic chemistry, a free-energy relationship or Gibbs energy relation  relates the logarithm of a reaction rate constant or equilibrium constant for one series of reactions with the logarithm of the rate or equilibrium constant for a related series of reactions. Establishing free-energy relationships helps in the understanding of the reaction mechanism for a chemical reaction and allows the prediction of reaction rates and equilibrium constants.

text: In

text: physical organic chemistry

text: , a free-energy relationship or Gibbs energy relation  relates the

text: logarithm

text: of a

text: reaction rate constant

text: or

text: equilibrium constant

text: for one series of reactions with the logarithm of the rate or equilibrium constant for a related series of reactions. Establishing free-energy relationships helps in the understanding of the

text: reaction mechanism

text: for a

text: chemical reaction

text: and allows the prediction of reaction rates and equilibrium constants.

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answers: free-energy

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answers: Gibbs energy relation

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Gibbs energy relation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: allows the prediction of reaction rates and equilibrium constants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gibbs energy relation

text: The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature. Wine expert Karen MacNeil, recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55 °F (13 °C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69 °F (20 °C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120 °F (49 °C) for a few hours and not be damaged. However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The ultra-violet rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the free radicals that can develop in the wine and result in premature oxidation.

text: The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature. Wine expert

text: Karen MacNeil

text: , recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55 °F (13 °C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69 °F (20 °C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the

text: University of California, Davis

text: believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120 °F (49 °C) for a few hours and not be damaged. However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The

text: ultra-violet

text: rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the

text: free radicals

text: that can develop in the wine and result in

text: premature oxidation

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature

text: The same is true, up to a point, of the chemical reactions of living things. They are usually catalyzed by enzymes which change reaction rates, but with no variation in catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce speed up at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to break down, or denature, so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is why high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro-organisms: 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels.

text: The same is true, up to a point, of the chemical reactions of living things. They are usually catalyzed by

text: enzyme

text: s which change reaction rates, but with no variation in catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the case of

text: bacteria

text: and

text: fungi

text: , the reactions needed to feed and reproduce speed up at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to break down, or

text: denature

text: , so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is why high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro-organisms: 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: enzymes

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: In the case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce speed up at higher temperatures

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: bacteria and fungi

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: They are usually catalyzed by enzymes which change reaction rates

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro-organisms: 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies

text: Many intermediates are short-lived and highly reactive, thus having a low concentration in the reaction mixture. As is always the case when discussing chemical kinetics, definitions like fast/slow short/long-lived are relative, and depend on the relative rates of all the reactions involved. Species that are short-lived in one reaction mechanism, can be considered stable in others and molecular entities that are intermediates in some mechanisms can be stable enough to be detected, identified, isolated or used as reactants in (or be the products of) other reactions. Reaction intermediates are often free radicals or unstable ions. Oxidizing radicals (OOH and OH) found in combustion reactions are so reactive that a high temperature is required to constantly produce them, in order to compensate their disappearance, or the combustion reaction will cease.

text: Many intermediates are short-lived and highly reactive, thus having a low concentration in the reaction mixture. As is always the case when discussing

text: chemical kinetics

text: , definitions like fast/slow short/long-lived are relative, and depend on the relative

text: rates

text: of all the reactions involved. Species that are short-lived in one

text: reaction mechanism

text: , can be considered stable in others and molecular entities that are intermediates in some mechanisms can be stable enough to be

text: detected

text: identified

text: , isolated or used as reactants in (or be the products of) other reactions. Reaction intermediates are often

text: free radical

text: s or unstable ions. Oxidizing radicals (OOH and OH) found in combustion reactions are so reactive that a high temperature is required to constantly produce them, in order to compensate their disappearance, or the combustion reaction will cease.

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answers: low concentration in the reaction mixture

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answers: As is always the case

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Oxidizing radicals (OOH and OH)

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Species that are short-lived in one reaction mechanism, can be considered stable in others

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Oxidizing radicals (OOH and OH) found in combustion reactions are so reactive that a high temperature is required

text: Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids. However, some strong acids are able to act as bases. Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the hydroxonium (HO) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. A reaction between an acid and base is called neutralization. In a neutralization reaction, an aqueous solution of a base reacts with an aqueous solution of an acid to produce a solution of water and salt in which the salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous solution is saturated with a given salt solute, any additional such salt precipitates out of the solution.

text: Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of

text: acid

text: s. However, some strong acids are able to act as bases. Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the

text: hydroxonium

text: (HO) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. A reaction between an acid and base is called

text: neutralization

text: . In a neutralization reaction, an aqueous solution of a base reacts with an aqueous solution of an acid to produce a solution of

text: water

text: and

text: salt

text: in which the salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous solution is

text: saturated

text: with a given salt

text: solute

text: , any additional such salt

text: precipitate

text: s out of the solution.

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answers: HO concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids. However, some strong acids are able to act as bases

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: bases reduce this concentration

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The effect of an acid is to increase the hydroxonium (HO) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration

text: When looking at chemical surfaces, many researchers seems to agree on that the surface of the Cu/AlO/ZnO is most similar to the Cu(111) surface.  Since copper is the main catalyst and the active phase in the LTS catalyst, many experiments has been done with copper. In the figure given here experiments has been done on Cu(110) and Cu(111). The figure shows Arrhenius plot derived from reaction rates. It can be seen from the figure that Cu(110) shows a faster reaction rate and a lower activation energy. This can be due to the fact that Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110).

text: When looking at chemical surfaces, many researchers seems to agree on that the surface of the Cu/AlO/ZnO is most similar to the Cu(111) surface.  Since copper is the main catalyst and the active phase in the LTS catalyst, many experiments has been done with copper. In the figure given here experiments has been done on Cu(110) and Cu(111). The figure shows Arrhenius plot derived from reaction rates. It can be seen from the figure that Cu(110) shows a faster reaction rate and a lower activation energy. This can be due to the fact that Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110).

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answers: Cu(111) is more closely packed

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110)

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110)

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110)

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Cu(111) is more closely packed than Cu(110)

text: Chemical systems cannot oscillate about a position of final equilibrium because such an oscillation would violate the second law of thermodynamics. For a thermodynamic system which is not at equilibrium, this law requires that the system approach equilibrium and not recede from it. For a closed system at constant temperature and pressure, the thermodynamic requirement is that the Gibbs free energy must decrease continuously and not oscillate. However it is possible that the concentrations of some reaction intermediates oscillate, and also that the rate of formation of products oscillates.

text: Chemical systems cannot oscillate about a position of final

text: equilibrium

text: because such an oscillation would violate the

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: . For a

text: thermodynamic system

text: which is not at equilibrium, this law requires that the system approach equilibrium and not recede from it. For a closed system at constant temperature and pressure, the thermodynamic requirement is that the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: must decrease continuously and not oscillate. However it is possible that the concentrations of some

text: reaction intermediate

text: s oscillate, and also that the rate of formation of products oscillates.

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answers: temperature and pressure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It is possible that the concentrations of some reaction intermediates oscillate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Gibbs free energy must decrease continuously and not oscillate

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The concentrations of some reaction intermediates oscillate, and also that the rate of formation of products oscillates

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Gibbs free energy must decrease continuously and not oscillate

text: Another set of important questions in chemistry concerns what kind of reactions can happen spontaneously and which properties are possible for a given chemical mixture. This is studied in chemical thermodynamics, which sets limits on quantities like how far a reaction can proceed, or how much energy can be converted into work in an internal combustion engine, and which provides links between properties like the thermal expansion coefficient and rate of change of entropy with pressure for a gas or a liquid. It can frequently be used to assess whether a reactor or engine design is feasible, or to check the validity of experimental data. To a limited extent, quasi-equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics can describe irreversible changes. However, classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium and reversible changes and not what actually does happen, or how fast, away from equilibrium.

text: Another set of important questions in chemistry concerns what kind of reactions can happen spontaneously and which properties are possible for a given chemical mixture. This is studied in

text: chemical thermodynamics

text: , which sets limits on quantities like how far a reaction can proceed, or how much energy can be converted into work in an

text: internal combustion engine

text: , and which provides links between properties like the

text: thermal expansion coefficient

text: and rate of change of

text: entropy

text: with

text: pressure

text: for a

text: gas

text: or a

text: liquid

text: . It can frequently be used to assess whether a reactor or engine design is feasible, or to check the validity of experimental data. To a limited extent,

text: quasi-equilibrium

text: and

text: non-equilibrium thermodynamics

text: can describe irreversible changes. However, classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in

text: equilibrium

text: and

text: reversible changes

text: and not what actually does happen, or how fast, away from equilibrium.

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answers: chemical thermodynamics

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: thermal expansion coefficient and rate of change of entropy

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium and reversible changes

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: chemical thermodynamics

text: Since the oxidation of aluminum is exothermic, these reactions can operate under mild temperatures and pressures, providing a stable and compact source of hydrogen. This chemical reduction process is specially suitable for back-up, remote or marine applications.  While the passivation of aluminum would normally slow this reaction considerably, its negative effects can be minimized by changing several experimental parameters such as temperature, alkali concentration, physical form of the aluminum, and solution composition.

text: Since the oxidation of aluminum is exothermic, these reactions can operate under mild temperatures and pressures, providing a stable and compact source of hydrogen. This

text: chemical reduction

text: process is specially suitable for back-up, remote or marine applications.  While the

text: passivation

text: of aluminum would normally slow this reaction considerably, its negative effects can be minimized by changing several experimental parameters such as temperature, alkali concentration, physical form of the aluminum, and solution composition.

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answers: 4

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Exothermic reactions can operate under mild temperatures and pressures

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The oxidation of aluminum

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: its negative effects can be minimized by changing several experimental parameters

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: exothermic

text: It was furthermore found that the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the hydroxylic solvent and on the cation in the alkoxide catalyst. The presence of crown ether in the reaction medium can increase the reactivity of the hydrazone anion 1 by dissociating the ion pair and therefore enhance the reaction rate. The final step of the Wolff–Kishner reduction is the collapse of the diimide anion 2 in the presence of a proton source to give the hydrocarbon via loss of dinitrogen. Taber showed experimental evidence for the intermediacy of a sp-hybridized carbanion 3 during this last step, distinguishing it from a mechanism in which dinitrogen is lost by a free-radical pathway. The overall driving force of the reaction is the evolution of nitrogen gas from the reaction mixture.

text: It was furthermore found that the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the hydroxylic solvent and on the cation in the alkoxide catalyst. The presence of

text: crown ether

text: in the reaction medium can increase the reactivity of the hydrazone anion 1 by dissociating the ion pair and therefore enhance the reaction rate. The final step of the Wolff–Kishner reduction is the collapse of the diimide anion 2 in the presence of a proton source to give the hydrocarbon via loss of dinitrogen. Taber showed experimental evidence for the intermediacy of a sp-hybridized

text: carbanion

text: 3 during this last step, distinguishing it from a mechanism in which dinitrogen is lost by a free-radical pathway. The overall driving force of the reaction is the evolution of nitrogen gas from the reaction mixture.

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answers: the hydroxylic solvent and on the cation in the alkoxide catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The overall driving force of the reaction is the evolution of nitrogen gas from the reaction mixture

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The overall driving force of the reaction is the evolution of nitrogen gas from the reaction mixture

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the hydroxylic solvent

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The overall driving force of the reaction is the evolution of nitrogen gas from the reaction mixture

text: The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). For a 2 volts cell, this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.

text: The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can produce two

text: faradays

text: of charge (192,971

text: coulomb

text: s) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4

text: ampere-hour

text: s per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). For a 2 volts cell, this comes to 167

text: watt-hour

text: s per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: mass of the water and other constituent parts

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants

text: Chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption. This type of absorption depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants.

text: Chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption. This type of absorption depends upon the

text: stoichiometry

text: of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants.

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answers: The concentration of its reactants

text: Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product. In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways. These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell.

text: Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during

text: chemical synthesis

text: in order to obtain a desired product. In

text: biochemistry

text: , a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form

text: metabolic pathway

text: s. These reactions are often

text: catalyzed

text: by protein

text: enzyme

text: s. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that

text: metabolic

text: syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present within a

text: cell

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answers: Enzymes increase the rates

text: In chemistry, reaction progress kinetic analysis (RPKA) is a subset of a broad range of kinetic techniques utilized to determine the rate laws of chemical reactions and to aid in elucidation of reaction mechanisms. While the concepts guiding reaction progress kinetic analysis are not new, the process was formalized by Professor Donna Blackmond (currently at Scripps Research Institute) in the late 1990s and has since seen increasingly widespread use. Unlike more common pseudo-first-order analysis, in which an overwhelming excess of one or more reagents is used relative to a species of interest, RPKA probes reactions at synthetically relevant conditions (i.e. with concentrations and reagent ratios resembling those used in the reaction when not exploring the rate law.) Generally, this analysis involves a system in which the concentrations of multiple reactants are changing measurably over the course of the reaction. As the mechanism can vary depending on the relative and absolute concentrations of the species involved, this approach obtains results that are much more representative of reaction behavior under commonly utilized conditions than do traditional tactics. Furthermore, information obtained by observation of the reaction over time may provide insight regarding unexpected behavior such as induction periods, catalyst deactivation, or changes in mechanism.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , reaction progress kinetic analysis (RPKA) is a subset of a broad range of

text: kinetic

text: techniques utilized to determine the

text: rate law

text: s of chemical reactions and to aid in elucidation of

text: reaction mechanism

text: s. While the concepts guiding reaction progress kinetic analysis are not new, the process was formalized by Professor

text: Donna Blackmond

text: (currently at

text: Scripps Research Institute

text: ) in the late 1990s and has since seen increasingly widespread use. Unlike more common

text: pseudo-first-order

text: analysis, in which an overwhelming excess of one or more reagents is used relative to a species of interest, RPKA probes reactions at synthetically relevant conditions (i.e. with concentrations and reagent ratios resembling those used in the reaction when not exploring the rate law.) Generally, this analysis involves a system in which the concentrations of multiple reactants are changing measurably over the course of the reaction. As the

text: mechanism

text: can vary depending on the relative and absolute

text: concentration

text: s of the species involved, this approach obtains results that are much more representative of reaction behavior under commonly utilized conditions than do traditional tactics. Furthermore, information obtained by observation of the reaction over time may provide insight regarding unexpected behavior such as induction periods, catalyst deactivation, or changes in mechanism.

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answers: relative and absolute concentrations

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answers: It depends on the relative and absolute concentrations of the species involved

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answers: catalyst deactivation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: deactivation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Induction periods, catalyst deactivation, or changes in mechanism

text: Note that the free reactant concentrations can be regarded as implicit parameters in the equilibrium constant refinement process. In that context the values of the free concentrations are constrained by forcing the conditions of mass-balance to apply at all stages of the process.

text: Note that the free reactant concentrations can be regarded as implicit parameters in the equilibrium constant refinement process. In that context the values of the free concentrations are constrained by forcing the conditions of mass-balance to apply at all stages of the process.

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answers: mass-balance

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: free reactant concentrations can be regarded as implicit parameters

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Free reactant concentrations can be regarded as implicit parameters

text: The flow of reactants into the reaction chamber and subsequent ejection occur in a series of about 70 pulses, at a rate of about 500 pulses per second. The whole sequence of events takes only a fraction of a second. These pulsations are caused by repeated microexplosions which are the results of the continuous pressure on the reservoir and the oscillatory opening and closing of the valve that controls access to the reaction chamber. This pulsed mechanism is beneficial for the beetles' survival because the system uses pressure instead of muscles to eject the spray at a constant velocity, saving the beetle energy. Also, the reintroduction of new reactants into the vestibule where enzymes are stored, reduces the temperature of the chamber, thereby protecting the peroxidases and catalases from thermal denaturation.

text: The flow of reactants into the reaction chamber and subsequent ejection occur in a series of about 70 pulses, at a rate of about 500 pulses per second. The whole sequence of events takes only a fraction of a second. These pulsations are caused by repeated microexplosions which are the results of the continuous pressure on the reservoir and the oscillatory opening and closing of the valve that controls access to the reaction chamber. This pulsed mechanism is beneficial for the beetles' survival because the system uses pressure instead of muscles to eject the spray at a constant velocity, saving the beetle energy. Also, the reintroduction of new reactants into the vestibule where enzymes are stored, reduces the temperature of the chamber, thereby protecting the peroxidases and catalases from thermal denaturation.

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answers: continuous pressure on the reservoir and the oscillatory opening and closing of the valve

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The flow of reactants into the reaction chamber

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: thermal denaturation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: peroxidases and catalases from thermal denaturation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Reduces the temperature of the chamber

text: In chemical kinetics, the overall reaction rate is often explained using a mechanism consisting of a number of elementary steps. Not all of these steps affect the rate of reaction; normally the slowest elementary step controls the reaction rate. For this example, a possible mechanism is:

text: In chemical kinetics, the overall reaction rate is often explained using a mechanism consisting of a number of elementary steps. Not all of these steps affect the rate of reaction; normally the slowest elementary step controls the reaction rate. For this example, a possible mechanism is:

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answers: the slowest elementary step

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: the slowest elementary step controls the reaction rate

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answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: So, when a reaction has a rate constant that obeys Arrhenius' equation, a plot of ln(k) versus T gives a straight line, whose gradient and intercept can be used to determine E and A . This procedure has become so common in experimental chemical kinetics that practitioners have taken to using it to define the activation energy for a reaction. That is the activation energy is defined to be (−R) times the slope of a plot of ln(k) vs. (1/T )

text: So, when a reaction has a rate constant that obeys Arrhenius' equation, a plot of ln(k) versus T gives a straight line, whose gradient and intercept can be used to determine E and A . This procedure has become so common in experimental chemical kinetics that practitioners have taken to using it to define the activation energy for a reaction. That is the activation energy is defined to be (−R) times the slope of a plot of ln(k) vs. (1/T )

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answers: activation energy

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answers: The activation energy is defined to be ( R) times the slope

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answers: Arrhenius' equation

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answers: activation energy is defined to be ( R) times the slope

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answers: Arrhenius' equation

text: C       = Concentration of reactant A

text: C       = Concentration of reactant A

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answers: C = Concentration of reactant A

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: C = Concentration of reactant

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The concentration of reactants

text: Inhibition should be distinguished from catalyst poisoning. An inhibitor only hinders the working of a catalyst without changing it, whilst in catalyst poisoning the catalyst undergoes a chemical reaction that is irreversible in the environment in question (the active catalyst may only be regained by a separate process

text: Inhibition should be distinguished from catalyst poisoning. An inhibitor only hinders the working of a catalyst without changing it, whilst in catalyst poisoning the catalyst undergoes a chemical reaction that is irreversible in the environment in question (the active catalyst may only be regained by a separate process

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answers: environment

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answers: Inhibition

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answers: catalyst poisoning

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answers: An inhibitor only hinders the working of a catalyst without changing it

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Inhibition

text: Metabolic flux refers to the rate of metabolite conversion in a metabolic network.  For a reaction this rate is a function of both enzyme abundance and enzyme activity.  Enzyme concentration is itself a function of transcriptional and translational regulation in addition to the stability of the protein.  Enzyme activity is affected by the kinetic parameters of the enzyme, the substrate concentrations, the product concentrations, and the effector molecules concentration.  The genomic and environmental effects on metabolic flux are what determine healthy or diseased phenotype.

text: Metabolic flux refers to the rate of metabolite conversion in a metabolic network.  For a reaction this rate is a function of both enzyme abundance and enzyme activity.  Enzyme concentration is itself a function of transcriptional and translational regulation in addition to the stability of the protein.  Enzyme activity is affected by the kinetic parameters of the enzyme, the substrate concentrations, the product concentrations, and the effector molecules concentration.  The genomic and environmental effects on metabolic flux are what determine healthy or diseased phenotype.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: enzyme abundance and enzyme activity

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: enzyme abundance and enzyme activity

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Enzyme activity

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: enzyme activity is affected by the kinetic parameters of the enzyme

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Enzyme activity

text: Expressed in a chemical equation:  reactants → products + energy

text: Expressed in a

text: chemical equation

text: :  reactants → products + energy

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answers: reactants

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly.

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answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: reactants  products + energy

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and throat irritation. Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold before an odor becomes a nuisance depends also on the frequency, concentration, and duration of an odor.

text: The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and

text: throat irritation

text: . Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold before an odor becomes a nuisance depends also on the frequency, concentration, and duration of an odor.

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answers: frequency, concentration, and duration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: volatile compounds that act as a stimulus

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds

text: Primary condition is addition of reactant molecules at a very small rate to SWNT solution for a sufficient long time. This ensures reaction with only metallic SWNTs and with no semiconducting SWNTs as all the reactant molecules are taken up by the metallic SWNTs. Long time injection ensures that all metallic tubes are reacted. For example, one highly selective condition is: addition of 500 µL of 4-hydroxybenzene diazonium tetrafluoroborate solution in water (0.245 mM) at an injection rate of 20.83 µL/h into 5 mL of SWNT solution (1 wt % sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)) over 24 hrs. However, if the entire diazonium solution is added all instantaneously then semiconducting SWNTs will also react due to presence of excess reactant.

text: Primary condition is addition of reactant molecules at a very small rate to SWNT solution for a sufficient long time. This ensures reaction with only metallic SWNTs and with no semiconducting SWNTs as all the reactant molecules are taken up by the metallic SWNTs. Long time injection ensures that all metallic tubes are reacted. For example, one highly selective condition is: addition of 500 µL of 4-hydroxybenzene diazonium tetrafluoroborate solution in water (0.245 mM) at an injection rate of 20.83 µL/h into 5 mL of SWNT solution (1 wt %

text: sodium dodecyl sulfate

text: (SDS)) over 24 hrs. However, if the entire diazonium solution is added all instantaneously then semiconducting SWNTs will also react due to presence of excess reactant.

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answers: presence of excess reactant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It ensures that all metallic tubes are reacted

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: long time injection ensures that all metallic tubes are reacted

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: An injection rate of 20.83  L/h

text: Applying the law of mass action, which states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants (i.e.[E][S]), gives a system of four non-linear ordinary differential equations that define the rate of change of reactants with time

text: Applying the

text: law of mass action

text: , which states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants (i.e.[E][S]), gives a system of four non-linear

text: ordinary differential equation

text: s that define the rate of change of reactants with time

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentrations of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants

text: Do not forget that the stoichiometric number of reactants is negative. Now when we know the extent, we can rearrange the equation and calculate the equilibrium amounts of B and C.

text: Do not forget that the stoichiometric number of reactants is negative. Now when we know the extent, we can rearrange the equation and calculate the equilibrium amounts of B and C.

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answers: number of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the stoichiometric number of reactants is negative

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Negative

text: These catalysts often tend towards deactivation and display poor reusability qualities. This has been attributed to a variety of causes including: metal oxidation, metal loss due to leaching or sintering, or a decrease in surface area as a result of pore occlusion. The occurrences of metal leaching and oxidation are observed far less often in catalysts composedof palladium. The cause of catalyst poisoning can generally be attributed to the CO that forms in the duration of a deCOx reaction or due to sulfur or phosphorusimpurities in the reaction feeds. An additional cause of deactivation may occur as a result of aromatic compounds adsorbing to the catalysts; these compounds being found in the feeds or produced during the course of a reaction. However, the primary cause of catalyst deactivation can be ascribed to surface area loss due to pore occlusion from deposits on the catalyst surface.

text: These catalysts often tend towards deactivation and display poor reusability qualities. This has been attributed to a variety of causes including: metal oxidation, metal loss due to leaching or sintering, or a decrease in surface area as a result of pore occlusion. The occurrences of metal leaching and oxidation are observed far less often in catalysts composedof palladium. The cause of catalyst poisoning can generally be attributed to the CO that forms in the duration of a deCOx reaction or due to

text: sulfur

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: impurities in the reaction feeds. An additional cause of deactivation may occur as a result of aromatic compounds adsorbing to the catalysts; these compounds being found in the feeds or produced during the course of a reaction. However, the primary cause of catalyst deactivation can be ascribed to surface area loss due to pore occlusion from deposits on the catalyst surface.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: pore occlusion

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: surface area loss due to deposits on the catalyst surface

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: This has been attributed to a variety of causes

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: metal leaching and oxidation are observed far less often in catalysts composedof palladium

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: metal oxidation, metal loss due to leaching or sintering

text: Here k is first-order rate constant having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A] is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with the characteristic half-life. More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation:

text: Here k is first-order rate constant having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A] is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with the characteristic

text: half-life

text: . More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the

text: Arrhenius equation

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentration and the properties

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Arrhenius equation

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Arrhenius equation

text: Orthodox chemical rockets use heat energy produced by chemical reactions in a reaction chamber to heat the gas products. The products are then expelled through a propulsion nozzle at a very high speed, creating thrust. In a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR), thrust is created by heating a fluid by using a nuclear fission reactor. The lower the molecular weight of the exhaust, hydrogen in the best case, the more efficient the motor can be. However, in this engine the propellant can be anything with suitable properties as there will be no reaction on the part of the propellant. In an NSWR the nuclear salt-water would be made to flow through a reaction chamber and out an exhaust nozzle in such a way and at such speeds that critical mass will begin once at the chamber is filled to a certain point, however, the peak neutron flux in the fission reaction would occur outside the vehicle.

text: Orthodox

text: chemical rocket

text: s use heat energy produced by chemical reactions in a reaction chamber to heat the gas products. The products are then expelled through a propulsion nozzle at a very high speed, creating thrust. In a

text: nuclear thermal rocket

text: (NTR), thrust is created by heating a fluid by using a nuclear fission reactor. The lower the

text: molecular weight

text: of the exhaust, hydrogen in the best case, the more efficient the motor can be. However, in this engine the propellant can be anything with suitable properties as there will be no reaction on the part of the propellant. In an NSWR the nuclear salt-water would be made to flow through a reaction chamber and out an exhaust nozzle in such a way and at such speeds that critical mass will begin once at the chamber is filled to a certain point, however, the peak

text: neutron flux

text: in the

text: fission

text: reaction would occur outside the vehicle.

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answers: products are then expelled through a propulsion nozzle at a very high speed

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answers: Chemical reactions in a reaction chamber to heat the gas products

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: there will be no reaction on the part of the propellant

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The products are then expelled through a propulsion nozzle at a very high speed

text: Taking an example from the food processing industry: fluidized beds are used to accelerate freezing in some IQF tunnel freezers (IQF means Individually Quick Frozen, or freezing unpackaged separate pieces). These fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small food products like peas, shrimp or sliced vegetables, and may use cryogenic or vapor-compression refrigeration. The fluid used in fluidized beds may also contain a fluid of catalytic type; that's why it is also used to catalyse the chemical reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction.

text: Taking an example from the food processing industry: fluidized beds are used to accelerate freezing in some

text: IQF tunnel freezers

text: (IQF means Individually Quick Frozen, or freezing unpackaged separate pieces). These fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small food products like peas, shrimp or sliced vegetables, and may use

text: cryogenic

text: or

text: vapor-compression refrigeration

text: . The fluid used in fluidized beds may also contain a fluid of catalytic type; that's why it is also used to catalyse the chemical reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction.

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answers: cryogenic or vapor-compression refrigeration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: fluidized beds may also contain a fluid of catalytic type

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalyse the chemical reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: catalyse the chemical reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Cryogenic or vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Catalyst interactions with multiple components of a reaction mixture can lead to a complex kinetic dependence. While off-cycle catalyst-substrate or catalyst-product interactions are generally considered "poisonous" to the system (certainly the case in the event of irreversible complexation) cases do exist in which the off-cycle species actually protects the catalyst from permanent deactivation.In either case, it is often essential to understand the role of the catalyst resting state.

text: Catalyst interactions with multiple components of a reaction mixture can lead to a complex kinetic dependence. While off-cycle catalyst-substrate or catalyst-product interactions are generally considered "poisonous" to the system (certainly the case in the event of irreversible complexation) cases do exist in which the off-cycle species actually protects the catalyst from permanent deactivation.In either case, it is often essential to understand the role of the catalyst resting state.

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answers: Catalyst interactions

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: a complex kinetic dependence

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalyst interactions with multiple components of a reaction mixture can lead to a complex kinetic dependence

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: it is often essential to understand the role of the catalyst resting state

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: kinetic dependence

text: Although a specialized application, SnCl is used in Friedel-Crafts reactions as a Lewis acidic catalyst for alkylation and cyclisation.  Stannic chloride is used in chemical reactions with fuming (90%) nitric acid for the selective nitration of activated aromatic rings in the presence of inactivated ones.

text: Although a specialized application, SnCl is used in

text: Friedel-Crafts reaction

text: s as a Lewis acidic

text: catalyst

text: for alkylation and cyclisation.  Stannic chloride is used in chemical reactions with fuming (90%) nitric acid for the selective nitration of activated aromatic rings in the presence of inactivated ones.

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text: According to IUPAC's Gold Book definitionthe reaction rate r for a chemical reaction occurring in a closed system under isochoric conditions, without a build-up of reaction intermediates, is defined as:

text: According to

text: IUPAC

text: 's

text: Gold Book

text: definitionthe reaction rate r for a chemical reaction occurring in a

text: closed system

text: under

text: isochoric conditions

text: , without a build-up of

text: reaction intermediate

text: s, is defined as:

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answers: build-up of reaction intermediates

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: build-up of reaction intermediates

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: isochoric conditions

text: Like S2 reactions, there are quite a few factors that affect the reaction rate of S1 reactions.  Instead of having two concentrations that affect the reaction rate, there is only one, substrate.  The rate equation for this would be Rate=k[Sub].  Since the rate of a reaction is only determined by its slowest step, the rate at which the leaving group "leaves" determines the speed of the reaction.  This means that the better the leaving group, the faster the reaction rate.  A general rule for what makes a good leaving group is the weaker the conjugate base, the better the leaving group.  In this case, halogens are going to be the best leaving groups, while compounds such as amines, hydrogen, and alkanes are going to be quite poor leaving groups.  As S2 reactions were affected by sterics, S1 reactions are determined by bulky groups attached to the carbocation.  Since there is an intermediate that actually contains a positive charge, bulky groups attached are going to help stabilize the charge on the carbocation through resonance and distribution of charge.  In this case, tertiary carbocation will react faster than a secondary which will react much faster than a primary.  It is also due to this carbocation intermediate that the product does not have to have inversion.  The nucleophile can attack from the top or the bottom and therefore create a racemic product.  It is important to use a protic solvent, water and alcohols, since an aprotic solvent could attack the intermediate and cause unwanted product.  It does not matter if the hydrogens from the protic solvent react with the nucleophile since the nucleophile is not involved in the rate determining step.

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: sterics, S1 reactions

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answers: S1 reactions are determined by bulky groups attached to the carbocation

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answers: The nucleophile can attack from the top or the bottom and therefore create a racemic product

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answers: S1 reactions are determined by bulky groups attached to the carbocation

text: Here, we have neglected the depletion of the reactant A, since its concentration is so large. The rate constants for the three reactions are

text: Here, we have neglected the depletion of the reactant A, since its concentration is so large. The rate constants for the three reactions are

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answers: Heat is a catalyst

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answers: The rate constants for the three reactions are

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answers: rate constants

text: The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

text: The term

text: chemical energy

text: is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a

text: chemical reaction

text: or to transform other chemical substances.

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answers: chemical energy

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answers: chemical energy

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answers: chemical reaction

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answers: chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances

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answers: chemical reaction

text: These results relate to whether a chemical reaction network can produce significantly different behaviour depending on the initial concentrations of its constituent reactants. This has applications in e.g. modelling biological switches — a high concentration of a key chemical at steady state could represent a biological process being "switched on" whereas a low concentration would represent being "switched off".

text: These results relate to whether a chemical reaction network can produce significantly different behaviour depending on the initial concentrations of its constituent reactants. This has applications in e.g. modelling

text: biological

text: switches — a high concentration of a key chemical at steady state could represent a biological process being "switched on" whereas a low concentration would represent being "switched off".

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: high concentration of a key chemical at steady state

text: Raman spectroscopy is one of the methods easiest to integrate into a heterogeneous operando experiment, as these reactions typically occur in the gas phase, so there is very low litter interference and good data can be obtained for the species on the catalytic surface.  In order to use Raman, all that is required is to insert a small probe containing two optical fibers for excitation and detection. Pressure and heat complications are essentially negligible, due to the nature of the probe. Operando confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy has been applied to the study of fuel cell catalytic layers with flowing reactant streams and controlled temperature.<ref name= "Smotkin"

text: Raman spectroscopy is one of the methods easiest to integrate into a heterogeneous operando experiment, as these reactions typically occur in the gas phase, so there is very low litter interference and good data can be obtained for the species on the catalytic surface.  In order to use Raman, all that is required is to insert a small probe containing two optical fibers for excitation and detection. Pressure and heat complications are essentially negligible, due to the nature of the probe. Operando confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy has been applied to the study of fuel cell catalytic layers with flowing reactant streams and controlled temperature.<ref name= "Smotkin"

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answers: Raman spectroscopy

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answers: good data can be obtained for the species on the catalytic surface

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Raman spectroscopy

text: , abscissa). Arrhenius plots are often used to analyze the effect of temperature on the rates of chemical reactions. For a single rate-limited thermally activated process, an Arrhenius plot gives a straight line, from which the activation energy and the pre-exponential factor can both be determined.

text: abscissa

text: ). Arrhenius plots are often used to analyze the effect of temperature on the rates of chemical reactions. For a single rate-limited thermally activated process, an Arrhenius plot gives a straight line, from which the

text: activation energy

text: and the

text: pre-exponential factor

text: can both be determined.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The activation energy and the pre-exponential factor can both be determined

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: For a single rate-limited thermally activated process

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: activation energy and the pre-exponential factor can both be determined

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The activation energy and the pre-exponential factor can both be determined

text: An eventual step is selection of compounds that are known as reagents or reactants. Various reaction types can be applied to these to synthesize the product, or an intermediate product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel such as a chemical reactor or a simple round-bottom flask.  Many reactions require some form of work-up procedure before the final product is isolated. The isolation (purification) of the product then proceeds via a variety of methods.

text: An eventual step is selection of

text: compounds

text: that are known as

text: reagent

text: s or reactants.

text: Various reaction types

text: can be applied to these to synthesize the product, or an intermediate product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel such as a

text: chemical reactor

text: or a simple

text: round-bottom flask

text: .  Many reactions require some form of

text: work-up

text: procedure before the final product is isolated. The isolation (purification) of the product then proceeds via a variety of methods.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: compounds

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Various reaction types can be applied to these

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: chemical reactor

text: where A is the reactant and S is an adsorption site on the surface and the respective rate constants for the adsorption, desorption and reaction are k, k and k, then the global reaction rate is:

text: where A is the reactant and S is an adsorption site on the surface and the respective

text: rate constant

text: s for the adsorption, desorption and reaction are k, k and k, then the global reaction rate is:

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: an adsorption site

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: k

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: k

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: k, k and k

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: k

text: One O-independent process involves a direct chemical reaction of Fe (commonly present in typical igneous minerals) or metallic Fe with HO to produce Fe(aq), which typically leads to hydroxides such as goethite (FeO•OH) under experimental conditions. While this reaction with HO is thermodynamically disfavored, it may be sustained nevertheless, by the rapid loss of the H byproduct. The reaction can be further facilitated by dissolved CO and SO, which lower the pH of brine films increasing the concentration of the more oxidative H.

text: One O-independent process involves a direct chemical reaction of Fe (commonly present in typical igneous minerals) or metallic Fe with HO to produce Fe(aq), which typically leads to hydroxides such as goethite (FeO•OH) under experimental conditions. While this reaction with HO is thermodynamically disfavored, it may be sustained nevertheless, by the rapid loss of the H byproduct. The reaction can be further facilitated by dissolved CO and SO, which lower the pH of brine films increasing the concentration of the more oxidative H.

answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4239/0cec80a34c54c00b7a96b56701ce488c

answers: 0

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answers: thermodynamically disfavored

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: rapid loss of the H byproduct

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The reaction can be further facilitated by dissolved CO and SO

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: It may be sustained nevertheless, by the rapid loss of the H byproduct

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: thermodynamically disfavored

text: If one reaction occurs much faster than the other one (k > k), it (k) will be called the main reaction, the other one (k) side reaction. If both reactions roughly of same speed (k ≅ k) is spoken of parallel reactions.

text: If one reaction occurs much faster than the other one (k > k), it (k) will be called the main reaction, the other one (k) side reaction. If both reactions roughly of same speed (k ≅ k) is spoken of parallel reactions.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: one reaction occurs much faster than the other

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: If one reaction occurs much faster than the other one (k > k)

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: If one reaction occurs much faster than the other one (k > k), it (k) will be called the main reaction, the other one (k) side reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: If both reactions roughly of same speed (k  k) is spoken of parallel reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: If both reactions roughly of same speed (k  k) is spoken of parallel reactions

text: A reaction calorimeter is a calorimeter in which a chemical reaction is initiated within a closed insulated container. Reaction heats are measured and the total heat is obtained by integrating heatflow versus time. This is the standard used in industry to measure heats since industrial processes are engineered to run at constant temperatures. Reaction calorimetry can also be used to determine maximum heat release rate for chemical process engineering and for tracking the global kinetics of reactions. There are four main methods for measuring the heat in reaction calorimeter:

text: A reaction calorimeter is a calorimeter in which a

text: chemical reaction

text: is initiated within a closed insulated container. Reaction heats are measured and the total heat is obtained by integrating heatflow versus time. This is the standard used in industry to measure heats since industrial processes are engineered to run at constant temperatures. Reaction calorimetry can also be used to determine maximum heat release rate for chemical process engineering and for tracking the global kinetics of reactions. There are four main methods for measuring the heat in reaction calorimeter:

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text: Reactions on surfaces are reactions in which at least one of the steps of the reaction mechanism is the adsorption of one or more reactants. The mechanisms for these reactions, and the rate equations are of extreme importance for heterogeneous catalysis. Via scanning tunneling microscopy, it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis.

text: Reactions on surfaces are reactions in which at least one of the steps of the

text: reaction mechanism

text: is the

text: adsorption

text: of one or more reactants. The mechanisms for these reactions, and the

text: rate equation

text: s are of extreme importance for

text: heterogeneous catalysis

text: . Via

text: scanning tunneling microscopy

text: , it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis.

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answers: reaction mechanism

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answers: It is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalysis

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The mechanisms for these reactions, and the rate equations are of extreme importance

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: It is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space

text: . As an example of the first type, the reaction NO + CO → NO + CO is second-order in the reactant NO and zero order in the reactant CO. The observed rate is given by <math chem> r= k [\ce{NO2}]^2\, </math>, and is independent of the concentration of CO.

text: . As an example of the first type, the reaction NO + CO → NO + CO is second-order in the reactant NO and zero order in the reactant CO. The observed rate is given by <math chem> r= k [\ce{NO2}]^2\, </math>, and is independent of the concentration of CO.

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answers: concentration of CO

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: r= k [ ce NO2 ] 2

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: is independent of the concentration of CO

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: r= k [ ce NO2 ] 2

text: The product-determining step is the step of a chemical reaction that determines the ratio of products formed via differing reaction mechanisms that start from the same reactants. The product determining step is not rate limiting if the rate limiting step of each mechanism is the same.

text: The product-determining step is the step of a

text: chemical reaction

text: that determines the ratio of

text: products

text: formed via differing

text: reaction mechanism

text: s that start from the same

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text: s. The product determining step is not rate limiting if the

text: rate limiting step

text: of each mechanism is the same.

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answers: The product-determining step

text: Gustav Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that the variation of the heat of reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants: dΔH / dT = ΔC. Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature.

text: Gustav Kirchhoff

text: showed in 1858 that the variation of the heat of reaction is given by the difference in

text: heat capacity

text: between products and reactants: dΔH / dT = ΔC. Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature.

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answers: heat capacity between products and reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Kirchhoff

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answers: Kirchhoff

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the variation of the heat of reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Kirchhoff

text: In comparison to RhCl(PHCy), the iridium analogue has reduced catalytic activity on the dehydrogenation of non sterically hindered amine-boranes, and increased activity on more sterically hindered substrates. Dehydrocoupling of primary diborazanes NHR—BH—NHR—BH can be catalyzed by Brookhart's catalyst via conversion to the metal-bound species MeNH—BH and subsequent polymerization/oligomerization. This same reaction has been found to occur in the absence of the iridium metal, upon heating of the reaction mixture. Dehydrogenation of ammonia-borane with Brookhart's catalyst results in quantitative formation of the cyclic pentamer [NHBH] rather than the typically seen cyclic dimers from other amine-borane dehydrogenations. When catalyzing ammonia-borane dehydrogenation, the catalyst acts homogeneously at a 0.5 mol% catalyst loading. Rather than the typical high temperatures needed for this dehydrogenation, the reaction proceeds cleanly at room temperature, with complete substrate conversion in 14min.

text: In comparison to RhCl(PHCy), the iridium analogue has reduced catalytic activity on the dehydrogenation of non sterically hindered

text: amine-boranes

text: , and increased activity on more sterically hindered substrates. Dehydrocoupling of primary diborazanes NHR—BH—NHR—BH can be catalyzed by

text: Brookhart's catalyst

text: via conversion to the metal-bound species MeNH—BH and subsequent polymerization/oligomerization. This same reaction has been found to occur in the absence of the iridium metal, upon heating of the reaction mixture. Dehydrogenation of ammonia-borane with Brookhart's catalyst results in quantitative formation of the cyclic pentamer [NHBH] rather than the typically seen cyclic dimers from other amine-borane dehydrogenations. When catalyzing ammonia-borane dehydrogenation, the catalyst acts homogeneously at a 0.5 mol% catalyst loading. Rather than the typical high temperatures needed for this dehydrogenation, the reaction proceeds cleanly at room temperature, with complete substrate conversion in 14min.

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answers: catalyst loading

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answers: When catalyzing ammonia-borane dehydrogenation

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answers: It is not possible to tell

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answers: Brookhart's catalyst acts homogeneously at a 0.5 mol% catalyst loading

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The catalyst acts homogeneously

text: A laminar flow reactor (LFR) is a type of chemical reactor that uses laminar flow to control reaction rate, and/or reaction distribution. LFR is generally a long tube with constant diameter that is kept at constant temperature. Reactants are injected at one end and products are collected and monitored at the other.  Laminar flow reactors are often used to study an isolated elementary reaction or multi-step reaction mechanism.

text: A laminar flow reactor (LFR) is a type of

text: chemical reactor

text: that uses

text: laminar flow

text: to control

text: reaction rate

text: , and/or reaction distribution. LFR is generally a long tube with constant diameter that is kept at constant temperature. Reactants are injected at one end and products are collected and monitored at the other.  Laminar flow reactors are often used to study an isolated

text: elementary reaction

text: or multi-step

text: reaction mechanism

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It depends on the type of reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Reactants are injected at one end and products are collected and monitored

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: used to study an isolated elementary reaction or multi-step reaction mechanism

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reaction rate

text: Surface diffusion is a critically important concept in heterogeneous catalysis, as reaction rates are often dictated by the ability of reactants to "find" each other at a catalyst surface. With increased temperature adsorbed molecules, molecular fragments, atoms, and clusters tend to have much greater mobility (see equation 1). However, with increased temperature the lifetime of adsorption decreases as the factor kT becomes large enough for the adsorbed species to overcome the barrier to desorption, Q (see figure 2). Reaction thermodynamics aside because of the interplay between increased rates of diffusion and decreased lifetime of adsorption, increased temperature may in some cases decrease the overall rate of the reaction.

text: Surface diffusion is a critically important concept in heterogeneous catalysis, as reaction rates are often dictated by the ability of reactants to "find" each other at a catalyst surface. With increased temperature adsorbed molecules, molecular fragments, atoms, and clusters tend to have much greater mobility (see equation 1). However, with increased temperature the lifetime of adsorption decreases as the factor kT becomes large enough for the adsorbed species to overcome the barrier to desorption, Q (see figure 2).

text: Reaction

text: thermodynamics

text: aside because of the interplay between increased rates of diffusion and decreased lifetime of adsorption, increased temperature may in some cases decrease the overall rate of the reaction.

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answers: kT

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answers: With increased temperature

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: With increased temperature

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: increased temperature may in some cases decrease the overall rate of the reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: With increased temperature

text: The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes an explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction. Unless the reaction occurs very rapidly, the thermally expanding gases will be moderately dissipated in the medium, with no large differential in pressure and there will be no explosion. Consider a wood fire. As the fire burns, there certainly is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to build up a sudden substantial pressure differential and then cause an explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow, and that of a flash capacitor like that in a camera flash, which releases its energy all at once.

text: The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes an explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction. Unless the reaction occurs very rapidly, the thermally expanding gases will be moderately dissipated in the medium, with no large differential in pressure and there will be no explosion. Consider a wood fire. As the fire burns, there certainly is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to build up a sudden substantial pressure differential and then cause an explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a

text: battery

text: , which is slow, and that of a flash

text: capacitor

text: like that in a

text: camera

text: flash, which releases its energy all at once.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: thermally expanding gases

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes an explosive reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The reaction occurs very rapidly

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Unless the reaction occurs very rapidly, the thermally expanding gases will be moderately dissipated in the medium

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The speed of the reaction

text: The concentration of DNA can affect the rate of ligation, and whether the ligation is an inter-molecular or intra-molecular reaction.  Ligation involves joining up the ends of a DNA with other ends, however, each DNA fragment has two ends, and if the ends are compatible, a DNA molecule can circularize by joining its own ends.  At high DNA concentration, there is a greater chance of forming intermolecular ligation, while at a lower DNA concentration, intramolecular reaction that circularizes the DNA is more likely.  The transformation efficiency of linear DNA is much lower than circular DNA, and for the DNA to circularize, the DNA concentration should not be too high.  As a general rule, the total DNA concentration should be less than 10 μg/ml.

text: The concentration of DNA can affect the rate of ligation, and whether the ligation is an inter-molecular or intra-molecular reaction.  Ligation involves joining up the ends of a DNA with other ends, however, each DNA fragment has two ends, and if the ends are compatible, a DNA molecule can circularize by joining its own ends.  At high DNA concentration, there is a greater chance of forming intermolecular ligation, while at a lower DNA concentration,

text: intramolecular reaction

text: that circularizes the DNA is more likely.  The

text: transformation efficiency

text: of linear DNA is much lower than circular DNA, and for the DNA to circularize, the DNA concentration should not be too high.  As a general rule, the total DNA concentration should be less than 10 μg/ml.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentration of DNA

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The concentration of DNA can affect the rate of ligation

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: At high DNA concentration

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: At high DNA concentration, there is a greater chance of forming intermolecular ligation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Warmer reactants have more energy and move faster

text: From the reaction rate's temperature dependence an activation energy is determined, and this activation energy is interpreted as the energy of the transition state in a reaction diagram. The latter is drawn, according to Arrhenius and Eyring, as an energy diagram with the reaction coordinate as the abscissa. The reaction coordinate describes the minimum energy path from the reactants to the products, and the points of this coordinate are combinations of distances and angles between and in the reactants in the course of the formation and/or cleavage of bonds. The maximum of the energy diagram, the transition state, is characterized by a specific configuration of the atoms.  Moreover, in Eyring's TST  a quite specific change of the nuclear coordinates is responsible for crossing the maximum point, a vibration in this direction is consequently treated as a translation.

text: From the reaction rate's temperature dependence an

text: activation energy

text: is determined, and this activation energy is interpreted as the energy of the

text: transition state

text: in a reaction diagram. The latter is drawn, according to Arrhenius and Eyring, as an energy diagram with the reaction coordinate as the abscissa. The reaction coordinate describes the minimum energy path from the reactants to the products, and the points of this coordinate are combinations of distances and angles between and in the reactants in the course of the formation and/or cleavage of bonds. The maximum of the energy diagram, the

text: transition state

text: , is characterized by a specific configuration of the atoms.  Moreover, in Eyring's TST  a quite specific change of the

text: nuclear coordinates

text: is responsible for crossing the maximum point, a vibration in this direction is consequently treated as a translation.

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text: In enzymology, an isochorismatase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

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text: In enzymology, a triphosphatase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

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answers: triphosphatase

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Triphosphatase

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: catalyzes the chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Triphosphatase

text: Increasing the pressure in a gaseous reaction will increase the number of collisions between reactants, increasing the rate of reaction. This is because the activity of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This is similar to the effect of increasing the concentration of a solution.

text: Increasing the pressure in a gaseous reaction will increase the number of collisions between reactants, increasing the rate of reaction. This is because the

text: activity

text: of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This is similar to the effect of increasing the concentration of a solution.

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answers: partial pressure of the gas

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: increase the number of collisions between reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the activity of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: increase the number of collisions between reactants

text: The chemical kinetics of a radical reaction depend on all these individual reactions. In steady state the concentrations of initiating (I) and terminating species T are negligent and rate of initiation and rate of termination are equal. The overall reaction rate can be written as:

text: The

text: chemical kinetics

text: of a radical reaction depend on all these individual reactions. In

text: steady state

text: the concentrations of initiating (I) and terminating species T are negligent and rate of initiation and rate of termination are equal. The overall

text: reaction rate

text: can be written as:

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 3

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

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answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: all these individual reactions

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The chemical kinetics of a radical reaction depend on all these individual reactions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The overall reaction rate can be written as

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: rate of initiation and rate of termination are equal

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The overall reaction rate can be written as

text: MCPs lacking stabilizing groups may generate TMM synthons in the presence of palladium(0) or nickel(0) catalysts. Formal insertion of the catalyst into either of the two chemically distinct cyclopropane bonds (called "distal" and "proximal" to reflect their distance from the double bond) has the potential to generate isomeric products. Generally, palladium catalysts cause formal distal bond cleavage. This process is believed to occur through direct attack of the distal bond on the coordinated alkene. The reaction is stepwise and lacks stereospecificity under both palladium and nickel catalysis.

text: MCPs lacking stabilizing groups may generate TMM synthons in the presence of

text: palladium

text: (0) or

text: nickel

text: (0) catalysts. Formal insertion of the catalyst into either of the two chemically distinct

text: cyclopropane

text: bonds (called "distal" and "proximal" to reflect their distance from the

text: double bond

text: ) has the potential to generate

text: isomer

text: ic products. Generally, palladium catalysts cause formal distal bond cleavage. This process is believed to occur through direct attack of the distal bond on the coordinated alkene. The reaction is stepwise and lacks stereospecificity under both palladium and nickel catalysis.

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answers: distance from the double bond

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answers: The reaction is stepwise and lacks stereospecificity

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answers: no

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answers: The reaction is stepwise and lacks stereospecificity

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The reaction is stepwise and lacks stereospecificity

text: In the catalyzed elementary reaction, catalysts do not change the extent of a reaction: they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are both affected (see also thermodynamics).  The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction.  Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium. Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in a reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy. Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous only if Gibbs free energy is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst. Then, removing the catalyst would also result in reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine, a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics.

text: In the catalyzed

text: elementary reaction

text: , catalysts do not change the extent of a reaction: they have no effect on the

text: chemical equilibrium

text: of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are both affected (see also

text: thermodynamics

text: ).  The

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction.  Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium. Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in a reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy. Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous only if

text: Gibbs free energy

text: is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst. Then, removing the catalyst would also result in reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a

text: perpetual motion machine

text: , a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics.

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answers: forward and the reverse reaction

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are both affected

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium

text: Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands.  For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in [Co(NH)] is elevated relative to NH itself.  Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not.  The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands.  Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids.  Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry.  But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same.  Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H, O, and CH.  The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis.  Ligands can also undergo ligand transfer reactions such as transmetalation.

text: Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands.  For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in

text: [Co(NH)]

text: is elevated relative to NH itself.  Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not.  The large and industrially important area of

text: catalysis

text: hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands.

text: Homogeneous catalysis

text: occurs in solution and

text: heterogeneous catalysis

text: occurs when

text: gas

text: eous or

text: dissolved

text: substrates interact with surfaces of solids.  Traditionally

text: homogeneous catalysis

text: is considered part of organometallic chemistry and

text: heterogeneous catalysis

text: is discussed in the context of

text: surface science

text: , a subfield of solid state chemistry.  But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same.  Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H, O, and CH.  The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis.  Ligands can also undergo ligand transfer reactions such as

text: transmetalation

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answers: acidity of the ammonia ligands

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Catalysis

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answers: the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids

text: Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions. Some reactions produce heat and are called exothermic reactions and others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called endothermic reactions. Understanding chemical changes is a major part of the science of chemistry.

text: Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called

text: chemical synthesis

text: or, alternatively,

text: chemical decomposition

text: into two or more different substances. These processes are called

text: chemical reaction

text: s and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions. Some reactions produce

text: heat

text: and are called

text: exothermic reaction

text: s and others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called

text: endothermic reactions

text: . Understanding chemical changes is a major part of the science of

text: chemistry

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answers: heat

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answers: exothermic reactions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Some reactions produce heat and are called exothermic reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: exothermic reactions

text: The steady state concept is different from chemical equilibrium. Although both may create a situation where a concentration does not change, in a system at chemical equilibrium, the net reaction rate is zero (products transform into reactants at the same rate as reactants transform into products), while no such limitation exists in the steady state concept. Indeed, there does not have to be a reaction at all for a steady state to develop.

text: The steady state concept is different from

text: chemical equilibrium

text: . Although both may create a situation where a

text: concentration

text: does not change, in a system at chemical equilibrium, the net

text: reaction

text: rate is zero (products transform into reactants at the same rate as reactants transform into products), while no such limitation exists in the steady state concept. Indeed, there does not have to be a reaction at all for a steady state to develop.

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answers: concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: no such limitation exists in the steady state concept

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: no such limitation exists in the steady state concept

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: no such limitation exists in the steady state concept

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The net reaction rate is zero

text: Steam was in use in many areas of the gasworks, including:For the operation of the exhauster;For scurfing of pyrolysis char and slag from the retorts and for clinkering the producer of the bench;For the operation of engines used for conveying, compressing air, charging hydraulics, or the driving of dynamos or generators producing electric current;To be injected under the grate of the producer in the indirectly fired bench, so as to prevent the formation of clinker, and to aid in the water-gas shift reaction, ensuring high-quality secondary combustion;As a reactant in the (carburetted) water gas plant, as well as driving the equipment thereof, such as the numerous blowers used in that process, as well as the oil spray for the carburettor;For the operation of fire, water, liquid, liquor, and tar pumps;For the operation of engines driving coal and coke conveyor-belts;For clearing of chemical obstructions in pipes, including naphthalene & tar as well as general cleaning of equipment;For heating cold buildings in the works, for maintaining the temperature of process piping, and preventing freezing of the water of the gasholder, or congealment of various chemical tanks and wells.

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answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Steam was in use in many areas of the gasworks

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: for clinkering the producer of the bench

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: aid in the water-gas shift reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Steam was in use in many areas of the gasworks

text: In yeast cells, the interaction of yeast pyruvate kinase (YPK) with PEP and its allosteric effector Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP,) was found to be enhanced by the presence of Mg. Therefore, Mg was isolated as an important component in the successful catalysis of PEP into pyruvate by pyruvate kinase. Furthermore, the metal ion Mn was shown to have a similar, but stronger effect on the coupling free energy of YPK than Mg. The binding of metal ions to the metal binding sites on pyruvate kinase enhance the rate of this glycolytic reaction. The glycolytic reaction catalyzed by pyruvate kinase is the final step of glycolysis. It is one of the three rate-affecting steps of the catabolic reaction cascade. The rate-affecting steps are the slower steps of a reaction and thus determines the rate of the overall reaction. In glycolysis, the rate-affecting steps are coupled with the hydrolysis of ATP or the phosphorylation of ADP to create the highly energetically favorable and irreversible reaction mechanism. This final step is highly regulated and deliberately irreversible because pyruvate is a crucial intermediate building block for further metabolic pathways. Once pyruvate kinase synthesizes pyruvate, pyruvate either enters the TCA cycle for further production of ATP under aerobic conditions, or is reduced to lactate under anaerobic conditions. Both of these secondary metabolic pathways are essential to the function of the metabolism.

text: In yeast cells, the interaction of yeast pyruvate kinase (YPK) with PEP and its allosteric effector

text: Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

text: (FBP,) was found to be enhanced by the presence of Mg. Therefore, Mg was isolated as an important component in the successful catalysis of PEP into pyruvate by pyruvate kinase. Furthermore, the metal ion Mn was shown to have a similar, but stronger effect on the coupling free energy of YPK than Mg. The binding of metal ions to the metal binding sites on pyruvate kinase enhance the rate of this glycolytic reaction. The glycolytic reaction catalyzed by pyruvate kinase is the final step of glycolysis. It is one of the three rate-affecting steps of the catabolic reaction cascade. The

text: rate-affecting steps

text: are the slower steps of a reaction and thus determines the rate of the overall reaction. In glycolysis, the rate-affecting steps are coupled with the hydrolysis of ATP or the phosphorylation of ADP to create the highly energetically favorable and irreversible reaction mechanism. This final step is highly regulated and deliberately irreversible because pyruvate is a crucial intermediate building block for further metabolic pathways. Once pyruvate kinase synthesizes pyruvate, pyruvate either enters the

text: TCA cycle

text: for further production of ATP under aerobic conditions, or is reduced to lactate under anaerobic conditions. Both of these secondary metabolic pathways are essential to the function of the metabolism.

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answers: the rate-affecting steps

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: aerobic conditions

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is one of the three rate-affecting steps of the catabolic reaction cascade

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The rate-affecting steps are the slower steps of a reaction and thus determines the rate of the overall reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: aerobic conditions

text: An example of catalysts of this type is Sander’s porphyrin trimer. A Diels Alder reaction between two pyridine functionalized substrates normally yield a mixture of endo and exo products. In the presence of the two catalysts, however, complete endo selectivity or exo selectivity could be obtained. The underlying cause of the selectivity is the coordination interaction between pyridine and the zinc ion on porphyrin. Depending on the shape of the catalysts, one product is preferred over the other.

text: An example of catalysts of this type is Sander’s porphyrin trimer. A Diels Alder reaction between two pyridine functionalized substrates normally yield a mixture of endo and exo products. In the presence of the two catalysts, however, complete endo selectivity or exo selectivity could be obtained. The underlying cause of the selectivity is the coordination interaction between pyridine and the zinc ion on porphyrin. Depending on the shape of the catalysts, one product is preferred over the other.

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answers: A Diels Alder reaction

text: Corrosion is a major issue with neural electrodes. Corrosion can occur because electrode metals are placed in an electrolytic solution, where the presence of current can either increase the rate of corrosion mechanisms or overcome limiting activation energies. Redox reactions are a mechanism of corrosion that can lead to dissolution of ions from the electrode surface. There is a base level of metal ions in tissue, however, when these levels increase beyond threshold values the ions become toxic and can cause severe health problems. In addition, the fidelity of the electrode system can be compromised. Knowing the impedance of an electrode is important whether the electrode is used for stimulation or recording. When degradation of the electrode surface occurs because of corrosion, the surface area increases with its roughness. Calculating a new electrode impedance to compensate for the change in surface area once implanted it is not easy. This computational flaw can skew data from recording or pose a dangerous obstacle limiting safe stimulation.

text: Corrosion

text: is a major issue with neural electrodes. Corrosion can occur because electrode metals are placed in an electrolytic solution, where the presence of current can either increase the rate of corrosion mechanisms or overcome limiting activation energies.

text: Redox

text: reactions are a mechanism of corrosion that can lead to dissolution of ions from the electrode surface. There is a base level of metal ions in tissue, however, when these levels increase beyond threshold values the ions become toxic and can cause severe health problems. In addition, the fidelity of the electrode system can be compromised. Knowing the impedance of an electrode is important whether the electrode is used for stimulation or recording. When degradation of the electrode surface occurs because of corrosion, the surface area increases with its roughness. Calculating a new electrode impedance to compensate for the change in surface area once implanted it is not easy. This computational flaw can skew data from recording or pose a dangerous obstacle limiting safe stimulation.

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answers: The presence of current can either increase the rate of corrosion mechanisms

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answers: Redox reactions are a mechanism of corrosion

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answers: corrosion mechanisms or overcome limiting activation energies

text: Before the development of TST, the Arrhenius rate law was widely used to determine energies for the reaction barrier. The Arrhenius equation derives from empirical observations and ignores any mechanistic considerations, such as whether one or more reactive intermediates are involved in the conversion of a reactant to a product.  Therefore, further development was necessary to understand the two parameters associated with this law, the pre-exponential factor (A) and the activation energy (E). TST, which led to the Eyring equation, successfully addresses these two issues; however, 46 years elapsed between the publication of the Arrhenius rate law, in 1889, and the Eyring equation derived from TST, in 1935. During that period, many scientists and researchers contributed significantly to the development of the theory.

text: Before the development of TST, the Arrhenius rate law was widely used to determine energies for the reaction barrier. The

text: Arrhenius equation

text: derives from empirical observations and ignores any mechanistic considerations, such as whether one or more reactive intermediates are involved in the conversion of a reactant to a product.  Therefore, further development was necessary to understand the two parameters associated with this law, the pre-exponential factor (A) and the activation energy (E). TST, which led to the

text: Eyring equation

text: , successfully addresses these two issues; however, 46 years elapsed between the publication of the Arrhenius rate law, in 1889, and the Eyring equation derived from TST, in 1935. During that period, many scientists and researchers contributed significantly to the development of the theory.

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answers: The Arrhenius equation

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The Arrhenius equation derives from empirical observations

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: activation energy

text: In the context of organocatalysis both concepts of on-water reactions and in-the-presence-of-water reactions have been criticized in 2007 as not so environmentally friendly by Donna Blackmond. According to Blackmond, separation of reaction product from the water phase usually requires organic solvent anyway and in reported aqueous systems the water phase can in reality be less than 10% of the total reaction mixture with another component forming the actual solvent. Blackmond also notes that in reported instances, the observed rate-acceleration in presence of water is in fact due to water suppressing reaction deactivation.

text: In the context of

text: organocatalysis

text: both concepts of on-water reactions and in-the-presence-of-water reactions have been criticized in 2007 as not so environmentally friendly by Donna Blackmond. According to Blackmond, separation of reaction product from the water phase usually requires organic solvent anyway and in reported aqueous systems the water phase can in reality be less than 10% of the total reaction mixture with another component forming the actual solvent. Blackmond also notes that in reported instances, the observed rate-acceleration in presence of water is in fact due to water suppressing reaction deactivation.

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answers: water

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: rate-acceleration in presence of water

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Blackmond

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: separation of reaction product from the water phase usually requires organic solvent anyway

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: rate-acceleration

text: This type of inhibition reduces the maximum rate of a chemical reaction without changing the apparent binding affinity of the catalyst for the substrate (K – see Michaelis-Menten kinetics).

text: This type of inhibition reduces the

text: maximum rate

text: of a

text: chemical reaction

text: without changing the apparent binding

text: affinity

text: of the

text: catalyst

text: for the

text: substrate

text: (K – see

text: Michaelis-Menten kinetics

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answers: 2

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answers: 3

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: binding affinity

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Michaelis-Menten

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Michaelis-Menten

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the apparent binding affinity of the catalyst for the substrate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of a chemical reaction

text: For most chemical reactions of industrial interest, it is impossible for the reaction to proceed to 100% completion.  The rate of reaction decreases as the reactants are consumed until the point where the system reaches dynamic equilibrium (no net reaction, or change in chemical species occurs).  The equilibrium point for most systems is less than 100% complete. For this reason a separation process, such as distillation, often follows a chemical reactor in order to separate any remaining reagents or byproducts from the desired product. These reagents may sometimes be reused at the beginning of the process, such as in the Haber process. In some cases, very large reactors would be necessary to approach equilibrium, and chemical engineers may choose to separate the partially reacted mixture and recycle the leftover reactants.

text: For most chemical reactions of industrial interest, it is impossible for the reaction to proceed to 100% completion.  The rate of reaction decreases as the reactants are consumed until the point where the system reaches dynamic equilibrium (no net reaction, or change in chemical species occurs).  The equilibrium point for most systems is less than 100% complete. For this reason a separation process, such as

text: distillation

text: , often follows a chemical reactor in order to separate any remaining reagents or byproducts from the desired product. These reagents may sometimes be reused at the beginning of the process, such as in the

text: Haber process

text: . In some cases, very large reactors would be necessary to approach equilibrium, and

text: chemical engineer

text: s may choose to separate the partially reacted mixture and recycle the leftover reactants.

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answers: reactants are consumed

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answers: It is impossible for the reaction to proceed to 100% completion

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answers: It is impossible for the reaction to proceed to 100% completion

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of reaction decreases

text: Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide).  When the peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction.  Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst.

text: Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide).  When the peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction.  Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst.

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answers: UV

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answers: When the peroxide is mixed with the resin

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answers: It is not possible to tell

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answers: they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: When the peroxide is mixed with the resin

text: In enzymology, a mannokinase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

text: In

text: enzymology

text: , a mannokinase () is an

text: enzyme

text: that

text: catalyzes

text: the

text: chemical reaction

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text: In enzymology, a guanidinopropionase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

text: In

text: enzymology

text: , a guanidinopropionase () is an

text: enzyme

text: that

text: catalyzes

text: the

text: chemical reaction

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answers: Warm reactants have more energy and move faster

text: In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through reaction with a third substance known as catalyst. Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase (heterogeneous) or in the same phase (homogeneous) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid–liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high activation energy can take place in circumvention of this activation energy.

text: In

text: catalysis

text: , the reaction does not proceed directly, but through reaction with a third substance known as

text: catalyst

text: . Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase (

text: heterogeneous

text: ) or in the same phase (

text: homogeneous

text: ) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include

text: coking

text: where the catalyst becomes covered by

text: polymer

text: ic side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid–liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high activation energy can take place in circumvention of this activation energy.

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answers: chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors

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answers: Catalysts can only speed up the reaction

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answers: Catalysts can only speed up the reaction

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answers: It can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: catalysts can only speed up the reaction

text: A first order reaction depends on the concentration of only one reactant (a unimolecular reaction). Other reactants can be present, but each will be zero order. The rate law for a reaction that is first order with respect to a reactant A is

text: A first order reaction depends on the concentration of only one reactant (a unimolecular reaction). Other reactants can be present, but each will be zero order. The rate law for a reaction that is first order with respect to a reactant A is

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answers: concentration of only one reactant

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answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

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answers: unimolecular

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answers: other reactants can be present but each will be zero order

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: a unimolecular reaction

text: Collision theory is a theory proposed independently by Max Trautz in 1916 and William Lewis in 1918, that qualitatively explains how chemical reactions occur and why reaction rates differ for different reactions. The collision theory states that when suitable particles of the reactant hit each other, only a certain percentage of the collisions cause any noticeable or significant chemical change; these successful changes are called successful collisions. The successful collisions have enough energy, also known as activation energy, at the moment of impact to break the preexisting bonds and form all new bonds. This results in the products of the reaction. Increasing the concentration of the reactant particles or raising the temperature, thus bringing about more collisions and therefore many more successful collisions, increases the rate of reaction.

text: Collision theory is a theory proposed independently by

text: Max Trautz

text: in 1916 and

text: William Lewis

text: in 1918, that qualitatively explains how

text: chemical reactions

text: occur and why

text: reaction rate

text: s differ for different reactions. The collision theory states that when suitable particles of the reactant hit each other, only a certain percentage of the collisions cause any noticeable or significant chemical change; these successful changes are called successful collisions. The successful collisions have enough energy, also known as

text: activation energy

text: , at the moment of impact to break the preexisting bonds and form all new bonds. This results in the products of the reaction. Increasing the concentration of the reactant particles or raising the temperature, thus bringing about more collisions and therefore many more successful collisions, increases the rate of reaction.

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answers: concentration of the reactant particles or raising the temperature

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: increase the rate of reaction

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answers: The successful collisions have enough energy

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answers: increases the rate of reaction

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answers: increase the rate of reaction

text: René Marcelin developed the first theoretical treatment of the rate of chemical reactions that goes beyond a simple empirical description. He showed that the expression of the rate constant given by the Arrhenius equation had to be composed of two terms. In addition to the activation energy term, he considered that there had to be an activation entropy term. In 1910, Rene Marcelin introduced the concept of standard Gibbs energy of activation. In 1912, he treated the progress of a chemical reaction as a motion of a point in phase space. Using Gibbs' statistical-mechanical methods, he obtained an expression similar to the one which he had obtained earlier from thermodynamic consideration. In 1913, René Marcelin was also the first to use the term potential energy surface.  He theorized that the progress of a chemical reaction could be described as a point in a potential energy surface with coordinates in atomic momenta and distances.

text: René Marcelin developed the first theoretical treatment of the

text: rate

text: of

text: chemical reaction

text: s that goes beyond a simple empirical description. He showed that the expression of the

text: rate constant

text: given by the

text: Arrhenius equation

text: had to be composed of two terms. In addition to the

text: activation energy

text: term, he considered that there had to be an

text: activation entropy

text: term. In 1910, Rene Marcelin introduced the concept of standard Gibbs energy of activation. In 1912, he treated the progress of a chemical reaction as a motion of a point in

text: phase space

text: . Using Gibbs' statistical-mechanical methods, he obtained an expression similar to the one which he had obtained earlier from thermodynamic consideration. In 1913, René Marcelin was also the first to use the term

text: potential energy surface

text: .  He theorized that the progress of a chemical reaction could be described as a point in a potential energy surface with coordinates in atomic momenta and distances.

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answers: Rene Marcelin developed the first theoretical treatment of the rate of chemical reactions

answers: NDQ_016530

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answers: Gibbs energy of activation

text: In general terms, the free energy change (ΔG) of a reaction determines whether a chemical change will take place, but kinetics describes how fast the reaction is. A reaction can be very exothermic and have a very positive entropy change but will not happen in practice if the reaction is too slow. If a reactant can produce two different products, the thermodynamically most stable one will in general form, except in special circumstances when the reaction is said to be under kinetic reaction control. The Curtin–Hammett principle applies when determining the product ratio for two reactants interconverting rapidly, each going to a different product. It is possible to make predictions about reaction rate constants for a reaction from free-energy relationships.

text: In general terms, the

text: free energy change (ΔG)

text: of a reaction determines whether a chemical change will take place, but kinetics describes how fast the reaction is. A reaction can be very

text: exothermic

text: and have a very positive

text: entropy

text: change but will not happen in practice if the reaction is too slow. If a reactant can produce two different products, the thermodynamically most stable one will in general form, except in special circumstances when the reaction is said to be under

text: kinetic reaction control

text: . The

text: Curtin–Hammett principle

text: applies when determining the product ratio for two reactants interconverting rapidly, each going to a different product. It is possible to make predictions about reaction rate constants for a reaction from

text: free-energy relationship

text: s.

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answers: entropy change

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: kinetics describes how fast the reaction is

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The Curtin–Hammett principle

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: It is possible to make predictions about reaction rate constants for a reaction from free-energy relationships

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: kinetics describes how fast the reaction is

text: A perfect overlay of multiple experiments with the same-excess but different initial substrate loadings suggests that no changes in the active substrate/catalyst concentration occur over the course of the reaction. The failure of the plots to overlay is generally indicative of catalyst activation, deactivation, or product inhibition under the reaction conditions. These cases may be distinguished by the position of the reaction progress curves relative to each other. Intercepting reactions lying below (slower rates at the same substrate concentration) the parent reactions on the rate vs. substrate concentration plot, are indicative of catalyst activation under reaction conditions. Intercepting reactions lying above (faster rates at the same substrate concentration) the parent reactions on the rate vs. substrate concentration plot, are indicative of catalyst deactivation under reaction conditions; further experimentation is necessary to distinguish product inhibition from other forms of catalyst death.

text: A perfect overlay of multiple experiments with the same-excess but different initial substrate loadings suggests that no changes in the active substrate/catalyst concentration occur over the course of the reaction. The failure of the plots to overlay is generally indicative of catalyst activation, deactivation, or product inhibition under the reaction conditions. These cases may be distinguished by the position of the reaction progress curves relative to each other. Intercepting reactions lying below (slower rates at the same substrate concentration) the parent reactions on the rate vs. substrate concentration plot, are indicative of catalyst activation under reaction conditions. Intercepting reactions lying above (faster rates at the same substrate concentration) the parent reactions on the rate vs. substrate concentration plot, are indicative of catalyst deactivation under reaction conditions; further experimentation is necessary to distinguish product inhibition from other forms of catalyst death.

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answers: substrate concentration

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answers: faster rates at the same substrate concentration

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answers: catalyst

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answers: The failure of the plots to overlay is generally indicative of catalyst activation

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: catalyst activation

text: Surface area is important in chemical kinetics. Increasing the surface area of a substance generally increases the rate of a chemical reaction. For example, iron in a fine powder will combust, while in solid blocks it is stable enough to use in structures. For different applications a minimal or maximal surface area may be desired.

text: Surface area is important in

text: chemical kinetics

text: . Increasing the surface area of a substance generally increases the

text: rate

text: of a

text: chemical reaction

text: . For example,

text: iron

text: in a fine powder will

text: combust

text: , while in solid blocks it is stable enough to use in structures. For different applications a minimal or maximal surface area may be desired.

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answers: Surface area

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: generally increases the rate of a chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The surface area of a substance generally increases the rate of a chemical reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: For different applications a minimal or maximal surface area may be desired

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: increase the rate of a chemical reaction

text: Some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be extremely selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called substrates; they then catalyze the reaction between them. By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

text: Some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins

text: actin

text: and

text: myosin

text: ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be extremely selective in what they bind.

text: Antibodies

text: are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the

text: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

text: (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the

text: enzyme

text: s. Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called

text: substrate

text: s; they then

text: catalyze

text: the reaction between them. By lowering the

text: activation energy

text: , the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

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answers: activation energy

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: by lowering the activation energy of the reaction

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: by lowering the activation energy

text: Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions at rates that are astounding relative to uncatalyzed chemistry at the same reaction conditions.  Each catalytic event requires a minimum of three or often more steps, all of which occur within the few milliseconds that characterize typical enzymatic reactions.  According to transition state theory, the smallest fraction of the catalytic cycle is spent in the most important step, that of the transition state.  The original proposals of absolute reaction rate theory for chemical reactions defined the transition state as a distinct species in the reaction coordinate that determined the absolute reaction rate.  Soon thereafter, Linus Pauling proposed that the powerful catalytic action of enzymes could be explained by specific tight binding to the transition state species   Because reaction rate is proportional to the fraction of the reactant in the transition state complex, the enzyme was proposed to increase the concentration of the reactive species.

text: Enzymes catalyze

text: chemical reactions at rates that are astounding relative to uncatalyzed chemistry at the same reaction conditions.  Each catalytic event requires a minimum of three or often more steps, all of which occur within the few milliseconds that characterize typical enzymatic reactions.  According to transition state theory, the smallest fraction of the catalytic cycle is spent in the most important step, that of the transition state.  The original proposals of absolute reaction rate theory for chemical reactions defined the transition state as a distinct species in the reaction coordinate that determined the absolute reaction rate.  Soon thereafter,

text: Linus Pauling

text: proposed that the powerful catalytic action of enzymes could be explained by specific tight binding to the transition state species   Because reaction rate is proportional to the fraction of the reactant in the transition state complex, the enzyme was proposed to increase the concentration of the reactive species.

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: fraction of the reactant

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Because reaction rate is proportional to the fraction of the reactant in the transition state complex

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the smallest fraction of the catalytic cycle is spent in the most important step, that of the transition state

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The enzyme was proposed to increase the concentration of the reactive species

text: The increases the rate of the reaction as enzyme-substrate interactions align reactive chemical groups and hold them close together. This reduces the entropy of the reactants and thus makes reactions such as ligations or addition reactions more favorable, there is a reduction in the overall loss of entropy when two reactants become a single product.

text: The increases the rate of the reaction as enzyme-substrate interactions align reactive chemical groups and hold them close together. This reduces the

text: entropy

text: of the reactants and thus makes reactions such as ligations or addition reactions more favorable, there is a reduction in the overall loss of entropy when two reactants become a single product.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: enzyme-substrate interactions

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: This reduces the entropy of the reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: increases the rate of the reaction as enzyme-substrate interactions align reactive chemical groups and hold them close together

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: This reduces the entropy of the reactants

text: The use of catalysts is of paramount importance in delivering reliable methods of SiO ALD. Without catalysts, surface reactions leading to the formation of SiO are generally very slow and only occur at exceptionally high temperatures. Typical catalysts for SiO ALD include Lewis bases such as NH or pyridine and SiO ; ALD can also be initiated when these Lewis bases are coupled with other silicon precursors such as tetraethoxysilane (TEOS). Hydrogen bonding is believed to occur between the Lewis base and the SiOH* surface species or between the HO based reactant and the Lewis base. Oxygen becomes a stronger nucleophile when the Lewis base hydrogen bonds with the SiOH* surface species because the SiO-H bond is effectively weakened. As such, the electropositive Si atom in the SiCl reactant is more susceptible to nucleophilic attack. Similarly, hydrogen bonding between a Lewis base and an HO reactant make the electronegative O in HO a strong nucleophile that is able to attack the Si in an existing SiCl* surface species. The use of a Lewis base catalyst is more or less a requirement for SiO ALD, as without a Lewis base catalyst, reaction temperatures must exceed 325 °C and pressures must exceed 10 torr. Generally, the most favorable temperature to perform SiO ALD is at 32 °C and a common deposition rate is 1.35 Angstroms per binary reaction sequence. Two surface reactions for SiO ALD, an overall reaction, and a schematic illustrating Lewis base catalysis in SiO ALD are provided below.

text: The use of catalysts is of paramount importance in delivering reliable methods of SiO ALD. Without

text: catalysts

text: , surface reactions leading to the formation of SiO are generally very slow and only occur at exceptionally high temperatures. Typical catalysts for SiO ALD include Lewis bases such as NH or pyridine and SiO ; ALD can also be initiated when these

text: Lewis bases

text: are coupled with other silicon precursors such as

text: tetraethoxysilane

text: (TEOS).

text: Hydrogen bonding

text: is believed to occur between the Lewis base and the SiOH* surface species or between the HO based reactant and the Lewis base. Oxygen becomes a stronger

text: nucleophile

text: when the Lewis base hydrogen bonds with the SiOH* surface species because the SiO-H bond is effectively weakened. As such, the electropositive Si atom in the SiCl reactant is more susceptible to nucleophilic attack. Similarly, hydrogen bonding between a Lewis base and an HO reactant make the electronegative O in HO a strong nucleophile that is able to attack the Si in an existing SiCl* surface species. The use of a Lewis base catalyst is more or less a requirement for SiO ALD, as without a Lewis base catalyst, reaction temperatures must exceed 325 °C and pressures must exceed 10 torr. Generally, the most favorable temperature to perform SiO ALD is at 32 °C and a common deposition rate is 1.35 Angstroms per binary reaction sequence. Two surface reactions for SiO ALD, an overall reaction, and a schematic illustrating Lewis base catalysis in SiO ALD are provided below.

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answers: surface reactions leading to the formation of SiO are generally very slow and only occur at exceptionally high temperatures

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The use of catalysts is of paramount importance

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: hydrogen bonding is believed to occur between the Lewis base and the SiOH* surface species or between the HO based reactant and the Lewis base

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: surface reactions leading to the formation of SiO are generally very slow and only occur at exceptionally high temperatures

text: On a molecular scale, there are two main competing reaction processes involved in the degradation of cellulose, or wood fuels, in wildfires.  When there is a low amount of moisture in a cellulose fiber, volatilization of the fuel occurs; this process will generate intermediate gaseous products that will ultimately be the source of combustion.  When moisture is present—or when enough heat is being carried away from the fiber, charring occurs. The chemical kinetics of both reactions indicate that there is a point at which the level of moisture is low enough—and/or heating rates high enough—for combustion processes become self-sufficient. Consequently, changes in wind speed, direction, moisture, temperature, or lapse rate at different levels of the atmosphere can have a significant impact on the behavior and growth of a wildfire. Since the wildfire acts as a heat source to the atmospheric flow, the wildfire can modify local advection patterns, introducing a feedback loop between the fire and the atmosphere.

text: On a molecular scale, there are two main competing reaction processes involved in the degradation of

text: cellulose

text: , or wood fuels, in

text: wildfire

text: s.  When there is a low amount of moisture in a cellulose fiber,

text: volatilization

text: of the fuel occurs; this process will generate intermediate gaseous products that will ultimately be the source of

text: combustion

text: .  When moisture is present—or when enough heat is being carried away from the fiber,

text: charring

text: occurs. The

text: chemical kinetics

text: of both reactions indicate that there is a point at which the level of moisture is low enough—and/or heating rates high enough—for combustion processes become self-sufficient. Consequently, changes in wind speed, direction, moisture, temperature, or

text: lapse rate

text: at different levels of the atmosphere can have a significant impact on the behavior and growth of a wildfire. Since the wildfire acts as a heat source to the atmospheric flow, the wildfire can modify local

text: advection

text: patterns, introducing a

text: feedback loop

text: between the fire and the atmosphere.

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answers: chemical kinetics

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answers: heating rates

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Wildfire acts as a heat source to the atmospheric flow

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: When moisture is present—or when enough heat is being carried away from the fiber, charring occurs

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: heating rates

text: The reaction catalysed by an enzyme uses exactly the same reactants and produces exactly the same products as the uncatalysed reaction. Like other catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of equilibrium between substrates and products. However, unlike uncatalysed chemical reactions, enzyme-catalysed reactions display saturation kinetics.  For a given enzyme concentration and for relatively low substrate concentrations, the reaction rate increases linearly with substrate concentration; the enzyme molecules are largely free to catalyse the reaction, and increasing substrate concentration means an increasing rate at which the enzyme and substrate molecules encounter one another.  However, at relatively high substrate concentrations, the reaction rate asymptotically approaches the theoretical maximum; the enzyme active sites are almost all occupied and the reaction rate is determined by the intrinsic turnover rate of the enzyme.  The substrate concentration midway between these two limiting cases is denoted by K.

text: The reaction catalysed by an enzyme uses exactly the same reactants and produces exactly the same products as the uncatalysed reaction. Like other

text: catalysts

text: , enzymes do not alter the position of

text: equilibrium

text: between substrates and products. However, unlike uncatalysed chemical reactions, enzyme-catalysed reactions display saturation kinetics.  For a given enzyme concentration and for relatively low substrate concentrations, the reaction rate increases linearly with substrate concentration; the enzyme molecules are largely free to catalyse the reaction, and increasing substrate concentration means an increasing rate at which the enzyme and substrate molecules encounter one another.  However, at relatively high substrate concentrations, the reaction rate

text: asymptotically

text: approaches the theoretical maximum; the enzyme active sites are almost all occupied and the reaction rate is determined by the intrinsic turnover rate of the enzyme.  The substrate concentration midway between these two limiting cases is denoted by K.

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answers: 0

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answers: substrate concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: At relatively high substrate concentrations, the reaction rate asymptotically approaches the theoretical maximum

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Do not alter the position of equilibrium between substrates and products

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: At relatively high substrate concentrations, the reaction rate asymptotically approaches the theoretical maximum

text: where the rate is the change in the molar concentration in one second in the rate-determining step of the reaction (the slowest step), [A] is the product of the molar concentration of all the reactants raised to the correct order, known as the reaction order, and k is the reaction constant, which is constant for one given set of circumstances (generally temperature and pressure) and independent of concentration. The greater the reactivity of a compound the higher the value of k and the higher the rate.  For instance, if,

text: where the

text: rate

text: is the change in the molar concentration in one second in the rate-determining step of the reaction (the slowest step), [A] is the product of the molar concentration of all the reactants raised to the correct order, known as the reaction order, and k is the reaction constant, which is constant for one given set of circumstances (generally temperature and pressure) and independent of concentration. The greater the reactivity of a compound the higher the value of k and the higher the rate.  For instance, if,

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answers: temperature and pressure

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: temperature and pressure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: greater the reactivity of a compound the higher the value of k and the higher the rate

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: higher temperature and pressure

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: higher the value of k and the higher the rate

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The greater the reactivity of a compound the higher the value of k and the higher the rate

text: An example of an experiment in which spectrophotometry is used is the determination of the equilibrium constant of a solution.  A certain chemical reaction within a solution may occur in a forward and reverse direction where reactants form products and products break down into reactants.  At some point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point.  In order to determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry.  The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through.

text: An example of an experiment in which spectrophotometry is used is the determination of the equilibrium constant of a solution.  A certain chemical reaction within a solution may occur in a forward and reverse direction where reactants form products and products break down into reactants.  At some point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point.  In order to determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry.  The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through.

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: concentrations of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Reactants form products and products break down into reactants

text: Additions in the absence of a catalyst or promoter take place only upon heating to 100-130 °C. In the presence of a Lewis acid, the addition will proceed at -78 °C. Reactions must be carried out under an inert atmosphere in anhydrous conditions, but the process is operationally simple and does not require a great deal of special care. Reactions should be carried out in a well-ventilated fume hood, however, as volatile organotin compounds are highly toxic.

text: Additions in the absence of a catalyst or promoter take place only upon heating to 100-130 °C. In the presence of a Lewis acid, the addition will proceed at -78 °C. Reactions must be carried out under an inert atmosphere in anhydrous conditions, but the process is operationally simple and does not require a great deal of special care. Reactions should be carried out in a well-ventilated fume hood, however, as volatile organotin compounds are highly toxic.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: a catalyst or promoter

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Additions in the absence of a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Additions in the absence of a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Reactions must be carried out under an inert atmosphere in anhydrous conditions

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Additions

text: When a 1-to-1 (one mole of reactant gives one mole of product) chemical reaction (including equilibria) involves a pair of substances with an isosbestic point, the absorbance of the reaction mixture at this wavelength remains invariant, regardless of the extent of reaction (or the position of the chemical equilibrium). This occurs because the two substances absorb light of that specific wavelength to the same extent, and the analytical concentration remains constant.

text: When a 1-to-1 (one

text: mole

text: of

text: reactant

text: gives one

text: mole

text: of

text: product

text: chemical reaction

text: (including

text: equilibria

text: ) involves a pair of substances with an isosbestic point, the absorbance of the reaction mixture at this wavelength remains invariant, regardless of the

text: extent of reaction

text: (or the position of the chemical equilibrium). This occurs because the two substances

text: absorb

text: light of that specific wavelength to the same extent, and the

text: analytical concentration

text: remains constant.

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answers: 2

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: analytical concentration

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: one mole of reactant gives one mole of product

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: chemical reaction

text: The Koch reaction is an organic reaction for the synthesis of tertiary carboxylic acids from alcohols or alkenes. The reaction is a strongly acid-catalyzed carbonylation using carbon monoxide, and typically occurs at high pressures ranging from 50 to 5,000 kPa, often requiring temperatures several hundred degrees higher than room temperature. Generally the reaction is conducted with strong mineral acids such as sulfuric acid, HF or BF. Large scale operations for the fine chemical industry produce almost 150,000 tonnes of Koch acids and their derivatives annually but also generate a great deal of waste, motivating ongoing attempts to use metal, solid acid, and other novel catalysts to enable the use of milder reaction conditions.  Formic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon monoxide in the presence of acids or relatively low heat, is often used instead of carbon monoxide directly; this procedure was developed shortly after the Koch reaction and is more commonly referred to as the Koch-Haaf reaction and allows for reactions at nearly standard room temperature and pressure. Some commonly industrially produced Koch acids include pivalic acid, 2,2-dimethylbutyric acid and 2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid.

text: The Koch reaction is an

text: organic reaction

text: for the

text: synthesis

text: of tertiary

text: carboxylic acids

text: from

text: alcohols

text: or

text: alkenes

text: . The

text: reaction

text: is a strongly

text: acid

text: catalyzed

text: carbonylation

text: using

text: carbon monoxide

text: , and typically occurs at high pressures ranging from 50 to 5,000 k

text: Pa

text: , often requiring temperatures several hundred degrees higher than room temperature. Generally the reaction is conducted with strong mineral acids such as

text: sulfuric acid

text: HF

text: or

text: BF

text: . Large scale operations for the

text: fine chemical

text: industry produce almost 150,000 tonnes of Koch acids and their derivatives annually but also generate a great deal of waste, motivating ongoing attempts to use metal, solid acid, and other novel

text: catalysts

text: to enable the use of milder reaction conditions.

text: Formic acid

text: , which readily decomposes to carbon monoxide in the presence of acids or relatively low heat, is often used instead of carbon monoxide directly; this procedure was developed shortly after the Koch reaction and is more commonly referred to as the Koch-Haaf reaction and allows for reactions at nearly

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard room temperature and pressure

text: . Some commonly industrially produced Koch acids include

text: pivalic acid

text: , 2,2-dimethylbutyric acid and 2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid.

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answers: requiring temperatures several hundred degrees higher than room temperature

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answers: The reaction is a strongly acid-catalyzed carbonylation using carbon monoxide

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answers: The Koch reaction

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answers: metal, solid acid, and other novel catalysts to enable the use of milder reaction conditions

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answers: The reaction is a strongly acid-catalyzed carbonylation

text: Between 1928 and 1933, Conant published 55 papers. Much of his research, like his double thesis, combined natural product chemistry with physical organic chemistry. Based on his exploration of reaction rates in chemical equilibria, Conant was one of the first to recognise that the kinetics of these systems is sometimes straightforward and simple, yet quite complex in other cases. Conant studied the effect of haloalkane structure on the rate of substitution with inorganic iodide salts<ref>Conant published a series of three papers on the reaction of inorganic iodide with organic halides:

text: Between 1928 and 1933, Conant published 55 papers. Much of his research, like his double thesis, combined

text: natural product

text: chemistry with

text: physical organic chemistry

text: . Based on his exploration of

text: reaction rate

text: s in

text: chemical equilibria

text: , Conant was one of the first to recognise that the

text: kinetics

text: of these systems is sometimes straightforward and simple, yet quite complex in other cases. Conant studied the effect of

text: haloalkane

text: structure on the rate of

text: substitution

text: with inorganic

text: iodide

text: salts

text: <ref>Conant published a series of three papers on the reaction of inorganic iodide with organic halides:

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answers: haloalkane structure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Based on his exploration of reaction rates in chemical equilibria

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Inorganic iodide salts

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the kinetics of these systems is sometimes straightforward and simple, yet quite complex

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Conant studied the effect of haloalkane structure on the rate of substitution with inorganic iodide salts

text: In the early stages of the reaction, only a minor amount of the catalyst is activated. As the reaction proceeds, more acetate is generated, which leads to the formation of more activated complex and progressively faster catalysis. This type of behavior is typical for cascade-type reactions including PCR. Unlike the previous example in which the catalyst produced a signal amplifier, this catalyst is a target amplifier making more copies of the target acetate. Following the reaction by gas chromatography, one observes that the generation of products follows a sigmoidal curve, indicative of a PCR-like cascade reaction system.

text: In the early stages of the reaction, only a minor amount of the catalyst is activated. As the reaction proceeds, more acetate is generated, which leads to the formation of more activated complex and progressively faster catalysis. This type of behavior is typical for cascade-type reactions including PCR. Unlike the previous example in which the catalyst produced a signal amplifier, this catalyst is a target amplifier making more copies of the target acetate. Following the reaction by gas chromatography, one observes that the generation of products follows a sigmoidal curve, indicative of a PCR-like cascade reaction system.

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answers: In the early stages of the reaction, only a minor amount of the catalyst is activated

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: As the reaction proceeds

text: It is fundamental in chemical reactions of the form A+B→ C+D that two products are necessarily generated though product C may have been the desired one. That being the case, D is considered a byproduct. As it is a significant goal of green chemistry to maximize the efficiency of the reactants and minimize the production of waste, D must either be found to have use, be eliminated or be as insignificant and innocuous as possible. With the new equation of the form A+B→C, the first step in making chemical manufacturing more efficient is the use of reactions that resemble simple addition reactions with the only other additions being catalytic materials.

text: It is fundamental in chemical reactions of the form A+B→ C+D that two products are necessarily generated though product C may have been the desired one. That being the case, D is considered a byproduct. As it is a significant goal of green chemistry to maximize the efficiency of the reactants and minimize the production of waste, D must either be found to have use, be eliminated or be as insignificant and innocuous as possible. With the new equation of the form A+B→C, the first step in making chemical manufacturing more efficient is the use of reactions that resemble simple addition reactions with the only other additions being catalytic materials.

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answers: The new equation of the form A+B C

text: Electron Equivalent is a concept commonly used in redox chemistry, reactions involving electron transfer, to define a quantity (e.g. energy or moles) relative to one electron. Energies of formation are often given as kilojoules per electron equivalent to enable calculation of specific reaction energies on a "per electron" basis.  Reactions containing movement of electrons are often balanced such that reaction quantities are given in relation to the transfer of a single electron, allowing quantification of reactants and products in relation to a single electron transfer.

text: Electron Equivalent is a concept commonly used in

text: redox chemistry

text: , reactions involving

text: electron transfer

text: , to define a quantity (e.g. energy or moles) relative to one electron.

text: Energies of formation

text: are often given as kilojoules per electron equivalent to enable calculation of specific reaction energies on a "per electron" basis.  Reactions containing movement of electrons are often balanced such that reaction quantities are given in relation to the transfer of a single electron, allowing quantification of reactants and products in relation to a single electron transfer.

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answers: reactions involving electron transfer

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly than cooler reactants

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Reactions involving electron transfer

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: allowing quantification of reactants and products in relation to a single electron transfer

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Reactions containing movement of electrons

text: A chemical reaction network (often abbreviated to CRN) comprises a set of reactants, a set of products (often intersecting the set of reactants), and a set of reactions. For example, the pair of combustion reactions

text: A chemical reaction network (often abbreviated to CRN) comprises a

text: set

text: of

text: reactants

text: , a set of products (often

text: intersecting

text: the set of reactants), and a set of

text: reactions

text: . For example, the pair of

text: combustion

text: reactions

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answers: often intersecting the set of reactants

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answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: . The number of molecules of each reactant used up each time a reaction occurs is constant, as is the number of molecules produced of each product. These numbers are referred to as the stoichiometry of the reaction, and the difference between the two (i.e. the overall number of molecules used up or produced) is the net stoichiometry. This means that the equation representing the chemical reaction network can be rewritten as

text: . The number of molecules of each reactant used up each time a reaction occurs is constant, as is the number of molecules produced of each product. These numbers are referred to as the

text: stoichiometry

text: of the reaction, and the difference between the two (i.e. the overall number of molecules used up or produced) is the net stoichiometry. This means that the equation representing the chemical reaction network can be rewritten as

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answers: the number of molecules used up each time a reaction occurs

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answers: It depends on the temperature of the reactants

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answers: The net stoichiometry

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answers: the net stoichiometry

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The net stoichiometry

text: The concentrations of reactants and products in an equilibrium mixture are determined by the analytical concentrations of the reagents (A and B or C and D) and the equilibrium constant, K. The magnitude of the equilibrium constant depends on the Gibbs free energy change for the reaction. So, when the free energy change is large (more than about 30 kJ mol), then the equilibrium constant is large (log K > 3) and the concentrations of the reactants at equilibrium are very small. Such a reaction is sometimes considered to be an irreversible reaction, although in reality small amounts of the reactants are still expected to be present in the reacting system. A truly irreversible chemical reaction is usually achieved when one of the products exits the reacting system, for example, as does carbon dioxide (volatile) in the reaction

text: The

text: concentration

text: s of reactants and products in an equilibrium mixture are determined by the

text: analytical concentration

text: s of the reagents (A and B or C and D) and the

text: equilibrium constant

text: , K. The magnitude of the equilibrium constant depends on the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: change for the reaction. So, when the free energy change is large (more than about 30 kJ mol), then the equilibrium constant is large (log K > 3) and the concentrations of the reactants at equilibrium are very small. Such a reaction is sometimes considered to be an irreversible reaction, although in reality small amounts of the reactants are still expected to be present in the reacting system. A truly irreversible chemical reaction is usually achieved when one of the products exits the reacting system, for example, as does carbon dioxide (volatile) in the reaction

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answers: small amounts of the reactants are still expected to be present in the reacting system

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The magnitude of the equilibrium constant depends on the Gibbs free energy change

text: In biochemistry, there has been significant interest in the appropriate mathematical model for chemical reactions occurring in the intracellular medium.  This is in contrast to the initial work done on chemical kinetics, which was in simplified systems where reactants were in a relatively dilute, pH-buffered, aqueous solution.  In more complex environments, where bound particles may be prevented from disassociation by their surroundings, or diffusion is slow or anomalous, the model of mass action does not always describe the behavior of the reaction kinetics accurately.  Several attempts have been made to modify the mass action model, but consensus has yet to be reached.  Popular modifications replace the rate constants with functions of time and concentration.  As an alternative to these mathematical constructs, one school of thought is that the mass action model can be valid in intracellular environments under certain conditions, but with different rates than would be found in a dilute, simple environment .

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answers: bound particles may be prevented from disassociation by their surroundings

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answers: The model of mass action does not always describe the behavior of the reaction kinetics accurately

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: chemical reactions occurring in the intracellular medium

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the model of mass action does not always describe the behavior of the reaction kinetics accurately

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: pH-buffered, aqueous solution

text: Poisoning involves compounds which bonds chemically to the active surface sites of a catalyst. This may have two effects: the total number of catalytic sites or the fraction of the total surface area that has the capability of promoting reaction always decreases, and the average distance that a reactant molecule must diffuse through the pore structure before undergoing reaction may increase. Poisoned sites can no longer accelerate the reaction with which the catalyst was supposed to catalyze. Large scale production of substances such as ammonia in the Haber–Bosch process include steps to remove potential poisons from the product stream.

text: Poisoning involves compounds which

text: bonds chemically

text: to the active surface sites of a catalyst. This may have two effects: the total number of catalytic sites or the fraction of the total surface area that has the capability of promoting reaction always decreases, and the average distance that a reactant molecule must diffuse through the pore structure before undergoing reaction may increase. Poisoned sites can no longer accelerate the reaction with which the catalyst was supposed to catalyze. Large scale production of substances such as

text: ammonia

text: in the

text: Haber–Bosch process

text: include steps to remove potential poisons from the product stream.

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answers: average distance that a reactant molecule must diffuse through the pore structure

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Poisoned sites can no longer accelerate the reaction

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Poisoning

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: Poisoning involves compounds which bonds chemically to the active surface sites of a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: Poisoning

text: The rate of a reaction is always positive. A negative sign is present to indicate that the reactant concentration is decreasing.) The IUPAC recommends that the unit of time should always be the second. The rate of reaction differs from the rate of increase of concentration of a product P by a constant factor (the reciprocal of its stoichiometric number) and for a reactant A by minus the reciprocal of the stoichiometric number. The stoichiometric numbers are included so that the defined rate is independent of which reactant or product species is chosen for measurement. For example if a = 1 and b = 3 then B is consumed three times more rapidly than A, but v = -d[A]/dt = -(1/3)d[B]/dt is uniquely defined.

text: The rate of a reaction is always positive. A

text: negative sign

text: is present to indicate that the reactant concentration is decreasing.) The IUPAC recommends that the unit of time should always be the second. The rate of reaction differs from the rate of increase of concentration of a product P by a constant factor (the reciprocal of its

text: stoichiometric number

text: ) and for a reactant A by minus the reciprocal of the stoichiometric number. The stoichiometric numbers are included so that the defined rate is independent of which reactant or product species is chosen for measurement. For example if a = 1 and b = 3 then B is consumed three times more rapidly than A, but v = -d[A]/dt = -(1/3)d[B]/dt is uniquely defined.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: stoichiometric numbers

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: A negative sign is present to indicate that the reactant concentration is decreasing

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: The IUPAC recommends that the unit of time should always be the second

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the defined rate is independent of which reactant or product species is chosen for measurement

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: The rate of reaction differs from the rate of increase of concentration

text: Different elements have a different atomic mass, and as collections of single atoms, molecules have a definite molar mass, measured with the unit mole (6.02 × 10 individual molecules, Avogadro's constant). By definition, carbon-12 has a molar mass of 12 g/mol. Thus, to calculate the stoichiometry by mass, the number of molecules required for each reactant is expressed in moles and multiplied by the molar mass of each to give the mass of each reactant per mole of reaction. The mass ratios can be calculated by dividing each by the total in the whole reaction.

text: Different elements have a different

text: atomic mass

text: , and as collections of single atoms, molecules have a definite

text: molar mass

text: , measured with the unit mole (6.02 × 10 individual molecules,

text: Avogadro's constant

text: ). By definition, carbon-12 has a molar mass of 12 g/mol. Thus, to calculate the stoichiometry by mass, the number of molecules required for each reactant is expressed in moles and multiplied by the molar mass of each to give the mass of each reactant per mole of reaction. The mass ratios can be calculated by dividing each by the total in the whole reaction.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4243/429ee42694fe0dc6531955079c1dc858

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: atomic mass

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: Warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: Heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: The mass ratios can be calculated by dividing each by the total in the whole reaction

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: reactants have more energy and move faster

text: , such that initial rate of reaction,

text: , such that initial rate of reaction,

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4241/55e6debaa1f1a7a072b5124312c70d8f

answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4241/83d784a7991ab3d96e76dd505142a3be

answers: 1: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0834/T_4241/92b47b60d7bea86d36283ad7e6c420cb

answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete, with substantial shortcomings.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 1: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_016523

answers: initial concentration of reactants, initial concentration of reactants, initial concentration of reactants

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: warmer reactants react more quickly

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: heat is a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: it can be used as a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: accelerates

text: He has since extended his work on CH activation, to examine the use of basic solvents to facilitate the activation of strong bonds.  The fundamental strategy in this case is to develop catalysts that operate by nucleophilic CH activation that, in contrast of electrophilic CH activation, generates negative charge on the carbon during CH cleavage.  The expectation is that in this case the strongly basic solvent can both activate the catalyst as well as “protect” the alcohol product by deprotonation. This is done by the use of non-innocent ligands that participate in the reaction by protonation or deprotonation. This allowed for the demonstration of the first example of aqueous base accelerated CH activation involving the use of a Ru(IPI)Cl pre-catalyst where IPI = 2,6-diimidizoylpyridine. This strategy has led to demonstration of CH activation by a Ru(II)(IPI)(OH)(H2O) complex dissolved in aqueous KOH. As hoped, it was found that rates of CH activation are accelerated by increasing [KOH].

text: He has since extended his work on

text: CH activation

text: , to examine the use of basic solvents to facilitate the activation of strong bonds.  The fundamental strategy in this case is to develop catalysts that operate by nucleophilic CH activation that, in contrast of electrophilic CH activation, generates negative charge on the carbon during CH cleavage.  The expectation is that in this case the strongly basic solvent can both activate the catalyst as well as “protect” the alcohol product by deprotonation. This is done by the use of non-innocent

text: ligands

text: that participate in the reaction by protonation or deprotonation. This allowed for the demonstration of the first example of aqueous base accelerated CH activation involving the use of a Ru(IPI)Cl pre-catalyst where IPI = 2,6-diimidizoylpyridine. This strategy has led to demonstration of CH activation by a Ru(II)(IPI)(OH)(H2O) complex dissolved in aqueous KOH. As hoped, it was found that rates of CH activation are accelerated by increasing [KOH].

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: [KOH]

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: rates of CH activation are accelerated

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: rates of CH activation are accelerated by increasing [KOH]

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: [KOH]

text: Other reactions with apolar reactants such as Ene reactions and Diels-Alder reactions also exhibit rate accelerations. An explanation is not available but it involves hydrogen bonding and the presence of a small amount of dissolved solute. This reaction type is of interest to green chemistry because it greatly reduces the usage of organic solvents, reaction product isolation is relatively easy, and it increases the yields and chemical purity with little extra expenditure, if not less.

text: Other reactions with

text: apolar

text: reactant

text: s such as

text: Ene reaction

text: s and

text: Diels-Alder reaction

text: s also exhibit rate accelerations. An explanation is not available but it involves

text: hydrogen bonding

text: and the presence of a small amount of dissolved solute. This reaction type is of interest to

text: green chemistry

text: because it greatly reduces the usage of organic solvents, reaction product isolation is relatively easy, and it increases the yields and chemical purity with little extra expenditure, if not less.

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answers: It greatly reduces the usage of organic solvents

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answers: it increases the yields and chemical purity with little extra expenditure

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answers: rate accelerations

text: The approach at SEMC is based on the de novo, rational design of new technologies from the ground up through a process involving conceptual design, computational study, and experimental discovery. One of the major emphases within SEMC is the development of new single-site catalysts for the activation and eventual rupture of strong bonds. The goal of new catalysts is to reduce the temperature and pressures required to operate the molecular conversion. Next generation catalysts will be key to lower-temperature processes. Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions at lower temperatures and are utilized in very small amounts. There are currently no catalysts that can efficiently convert natural gas, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, or water at lower temperatures to useful materials or extract the energy stored in the bonds of these molecules. SEMC is addressing these challenges by designing new catalysts to convert these molecules into products that society uses daily.

text: The approach at SEMC is based on the de novo, rational design of new technologies from the ground up through a process involving conceptual design, computational study, and experimental discovery. One of the major emphases within SEMC is the development of new single-site catalysts for the activation and eventual rupture of strong bonds. The goal of new catalysts is to reduce the temperature and pressures required to operate the molecular conversion. Next generation catalysts will be key to lower-temperature processes.

text: Catalysts

text: increase the rate of

text: chemical reactions

text: at lower temperatures and are utilized in very small amounts. There are currently no catalysts that can efficiently convert natural gas, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, or water at lower temperatures to useful materials or extract the energy stored in the bonds of these molecules. SEMC is addressing these challenges by designing new catalysts to convert these molecules into products that society uses daily.

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answers: Catalysts increase the rate

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answers: lower-temperature processes

text: Phase conversions like changes of aggregate state, chemical reactions or nuclear reactions transmuting substances, from reactants to products, or diffusion through membranes have an overall energy balance. Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature molar energy balances define the notion of a substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy, which gives the energetic information about whether the process is possible or not - in a closed system.

text: Phase

text: conversions like changes of

text: aggregate state

text: chemical reaction

text: s or

text: nuclear reaction

text: s transmuting substances, from

text: reactant

text: s to

text: products

text: , or

text: diffusion

text: through

text: membranes

text: have an overall energy balance. Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature molar energy balances define the notion of a

text: substance potential

text: or

text: chemical potential

text: or molar

text: Gibbs energy

text: , which gives the energetic information about whether the process is possible or not - in a

text: closed system

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answers: Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature

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answers: Phase conversions like changes of aggregate state, chemical reactions or nuclear reactions transmuting substances

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answers: Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature

text: Chemical reaction engineering (reaction engineering or reactor engineering) is a specialty in chemical engineering or industrial chemistry dealing with chemical reactors.  Frequently the term relates specifically to catalytic reaction systems where either a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst is present in the reactor.  Sometimes a reactor per se is not present by itself, but rather is integrated into a process, for example in reactive separations vessels, retorts, certain fuel cells, and photocatalytic surfaces. The issue of solvent effects on reaction kinetics is also considered as an integral part.

text: Chemical reaction engineering (reaction engineering or reactor engineering) is a specialty in

text: chemical engineering

text: or industrial chemistry dealing with

text: chemical reactor

text: s.  Frequently the term relates specifically to catalytic reaction systems where either a

text: homogeneous

text: or

text: heterogeneous

text: catalyst

text: is present in the reactor.  Sometimes a reactor per se is not present by itself, but rather is integrated into a

text: process

text: , for example in reactive separations vessels,

text: retort

text: s, certain

text: fuel cell

text: s, and photocatalytic surfaces. The issue of

text: solvent effects

text: on reaction kinetics is also considered as an integral part.

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text: NFP is used in the development of a to scale, direct-write nanomanufacturing platform. The platform is capable of constructing complex, highly-functional nanoscale devices from a diverse suite of materials (e.g., nanoparticles, catalysts (increase rate of reaction), biomolecules, and chemical solutions).Demonstrated nanopatterning capabilities include:

text: NFP is used in the development of a to scale, direct-write nanomanufacturing platform. The platform is capable of constructing complex, highly-functional nanoscale devices from a diverse suite of materials (e.g., nanoparticles, catalysts (increase rate of reaction), biomolecules, and chemical solutions).Demonstrated nanopatterning capabilities include:

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text: When applied to In Situ Chemical Oxidation, the collective reaction results in the degradation of contaminants in the presence of  as a catalyst. The overall end result of the process can be described by the following reaction:

text: When applied to In Situ Chemical Oxidation, the collective reaction results in the degradation of contaminants in the presence of  as a

text: catalyst

text: . The overall end result of the process can be described by the following reaction:

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answers: NDQ_016523

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answers: NDQ_016524

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answers: NDQ_016529

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answers: NDQ_016530

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answers: NDQ_016531

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answers: NDQ_016523

answers: as a catalyst

answers: NDQ_016524

answers: In Situ Chemical Oxidation

answers: NDQ_016529

answers: in the presence of heat

answers: NDQ_016530

answers: the collective reaction results in the degradation of contaminants

answers: NDQ_016531

answers: In Situ Chemical Oxidation

text: The A coupling (also known as A3 coupling reaction or the aldehyde-alkyne-amine reaction) is a type of multicomponent reaction involving an aldehyde, an alkyne and an amine which react to give a propargyl-amine. The reaction proceeds via direct dehydrative condensation and requires a metal catalyst, typically based on ruthenium/copper, gold or silver. Chiral catalyst can be used to give an enantioselective reaction, yielding a chiral amine.  The solvent can be water. In the catalytic cycle the metal activates the alkyne to a metal acetylide, the amine and aldehyde combine to form an imine which then reacts with the acetylide in an nucleophilic addition. The reaction type was independently reported by three research groups in 2001 -2002; one report on a similar reaction dates back to 1953.

text: The A coupling (also known as A3 coupling reaction or the aldehyde-alkyne-amine reaction) is a type of

text: multicomponent reaction

text: involving an

text: aldehyde

text: , an

text: alkyne

text: and an

text: amine

text: which react to give a

text: propargyl

text: amine

text: . The reaction proceeds via direct dehydrative condensation and requires a metal

text: catalyst

text: , typically based on

text: ruthenium

text: copper

text: gold

text: or

text: silver

text: . Chiral catalyst can be used to give an enantioselective reaction, yielding a chiral amine.  The solvent can be water. In the

text: catalytic cycle

text: the metal activates the alkyne to a

text: metal acetylide

text: , the amine and aldehyde combine to form an

text: imine

text: which then reacts with the acetylide in an

text: nucleophilic addition

text: . The reaction type was independently reported by three research groups in 2001 -2002; one report on a similar reaction dates back to 1953.

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