text: Born Nathaniel Essex in Victorian London, Sinister became a biologist in 1859. He was a contemporary of Charles Darwin and became obsessed with Darwin's theories. However, Essex believed his peers were shackled by too many moral constraints and that their research should be beyond morality. Essex believed that humanity was undergoing increasing mutation, due to what he called “Essex Factors” in the human genome. He dreamed of bringing the perfection of the evolution of the human race to the masses. After the loss of his young son due to birth defects, he delved deeper into his work. Essex's theories were mocked, making him bitter, and his revealing of an unorthodox experiment resulted in his ousting from the Royal Society. Angry, Essex stated that if becoming a monster was what was required for his work to progress, then he would become a monster.

text: Born Nathaniel Essex in Victorian London, Sinister became a biologist in 1859. He was a contemporary of

entity_name: Charles Darwin

text: Charles Darwin

text: and became obsessed with Darwin's theories. However, Essex believed his peers were shackled by too many moral constraints and that their research should be beyond morality. Essex believed that humanity was undergoing increasing mutation, due to what he called “Essex Factors” in the human genome. He dreamed of bringing the perfection of the evolution of the human race to the masses. After the loss of his young son due to birth defects, he delved deeper into his work. Essex's theories were mocked, making him bitter, and his revealing of an unorthodox experiment resulted in his ousting from the Royal Society. Angry, Essex stated that if becoming a monster was what was required for his work to progress, then he would become a monster.

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text: In the summer of 1831 Henslow was offered a place as naturalist to sail aboard the survey ship HMS Beagle on a two-year voyage to survey South America, but his wife dissuaded him from accepting. Seeing a perfect opportunity for his protégé, Henslow wrote to the ship’s captain  Robert Fitzroy telling him that Darwin was the ideal man to join the expedition team. During the voyage, Darwin corresponded with Henslow, and collected plants with him in mind. In particular, when first arriving at the Galápagos Islands Darwin noted "I certainly recognize S America in Ornithology, would a botanist?", and went on to collect plant specimens carefully labelled by island and date. He also labelled the mockingbirds he caught, and initially thought these were varieties but while arranging these bird specimens on the last lap of the voyage he began wondering if they could be species, a possibility which would "undermine the stability of Species". Henslow's teaching continued to influence Darwin's work on evolution.

text: In the summer of 1831 Henslow was offered a place as naturalist to sail aboard the survey ship

entity_name: HMS Beagle

text: HMS Beagle

text: on a

entity_name: Second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: two-year voyage

text: to survey

entity_name: South America

text: South America

text: , but his wife dissuaded him from accepting. Seeing a perfect opportunity for his protégé, Henslow wrote to the ship’s captain

entity_name: Robert FitzRoy

text: Robert Fitzroy

text: telling him that Darwin was the ideal man to join the expedition team. During the voyage, Darwin corresponded with Henslow, and collected plants with him in mind. In particular, when first arriving at the

entity_name: Galápagos Islands

text: Galápagos Islands

text: Darwin noted "I certainly recognize S America in Ornithology, would a botanist?", and went on to collect plant specimens carefully labelled by island and date. He also labelled the

entity_name: Mockingbird

text: mockingbird

text: s he caught, and initially thought these were varieties but while arranging these bird specimens on the last lap of the voyage he began wondering if they could be species, a possibility which would "undermine the stability of Species". Henslow's teaching continued to influence Darwin's work on evolution.

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text: On 29 December 1838, Charles Darwin took the let of the furnished property at 12 Upper Gower Street (later 110 Gower Street), and wrote to tell his fiancée Emma Wedgwood of his delight at being the "possessor of Macaw Cottage". As their daughter Etty later recalled, "He used to laugh over the ugliness of their house in Gower St, and the furniture in the drawing-room, which he said combined all the colours of the macaw in hideous discord", and Darwin had christened the house "Macaw Cottage" in "allusion to the gaudy colours of the walls and furniture." He moved in on 31 December, and with Emma moved in on the day of their marriage, 29 January 1839. The development of Darwin's theory of natural selection made progress in this house, and their children William Erasmus Darwin and Anne Darwin were born there. In 1842 the family moved to Down House in the countryside, and the Gower Street house became part of the warehouse system of Messrs Schoolbred. On 13 December 1904 a London County Council blue plaque was put up, to "Charles Darwin Naturalist".  The house suffered from bomb damage in 1941 during the Blitz, and was not repaired. In 1961 the site became part of the Biological Sciences building of University College London, with a new plaque. The long thin garden which backed on to Gower Mews North (later Malet Place) was incorporated into Foster Court car park in 1978.

text: On 29 December 1838,

text: Charles Darwin

text: took the let of the furnished property at 12 Upper Gower Street (later 110 Gower Street), and wrote to tell his fiancée

entity_name: Emma Darwin

text: Emma Wedgwood

text: of his delight at being the "possessor of Macaw Cottage". As their daughter

entity_name: Henrietta Litchfield

text: Etty

text: later recalled, "He used to laugh over the ugliness of their house in Gower St, and the furniture in the drawing-room, which he said combined all the colours of the macaw in hideous discord", and Darwin had christened the house "Macaw Cottage" in "allusion to the gaudy colours of the walls and furniture." He moved in on 31 December, and with Emma moved in on the day of their marriage, 29 January 1839. The

entity_name: Development of Darwin's theory

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: of

entity_name: Natural selection

text: natural selection

text: made progress in this house, and their children

entity_name: William Erasmus Darwin

text: William Erasmus Darwin

text: and

entity_name: Anne Darwin

text: Anne Darwin

text: were born there. In 1842 the family moved to

entity_name: Down House

text: Down House

text: in the countryside, and the Gower Street house became part of the warehouse system of

text: Messrs Schoolbred

text: . On 13 December 1904 a

entity_name: London County Council

text: London County Council

entity_name: Blue plaque

text: blue plaque

text: was put up, to "Charles Darwin Naturalist".  The house suffered from bomb damage in 1941 during

entity_name: The Blitz

text: the Blitz

text: , and was not repaired. In 1961 the site became part of the Biological Sciences building of

entity_name: University College London

text: University College London

text: , with a new plaque. The long thin garden which backed on to Gower Mews North (later Malet Place) was incorporated into Foster Court car park in 1978.

method: UNH-ecn

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text: Members of  the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) say that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is wrong, but they do not necessarily reject evolution altogether. The views of the founder of ISKCON, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, on Darwin and evolution are found in his book Life comes from life.

text: Members of  the

entity_name: International Society for Krishna Consciousness

text: International Society for Krishna Consciousness

text: (ISKCON) say that

text: Charles Darwin's

text: theory of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: is wrong, but they do not necessarily reject evolution altogether. The views of the founder of ISKCON,

entity_name: A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada

text: A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada

text: , on Darwin and evolution are found in his book Life comes from life.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

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text: One of the first popular science books, the intent of The Botanic Garden is to pique readers' interest in science while educating them at the same time. By embracing Linnaeus's sexualized language, which anthropomorphizes plants, Darwin makes botany interesting and relevant to his readers, but his reliance on conventional images of women when describing plants and flowers reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.  Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants, arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of evolution (ideas that his grandson, Charles Darwin, would later turn into a full-fledged theory of evolution). This evolutionary theme continues in The Economy of Vegetation which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses.

text: One of the first popular science books, the intent of The Botanic Garden is to pique readers' interest in science while educating them at the same time. By embracing Linnaeus's sexualized language, which

text: anthropomorphizes

text: plants, Darwin makes

entity_name: Botany

text: botany

text: interesting and relevant to his readers, but his reliance on conventional images of women when describing plants and flowers reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.  Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants, arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of

entity_name: Evolution

text: evolution

text: (ideas that his grandson,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , would later turn into a full-fledged theory of evolution). This evolutionary theme continues in The Economy of Vegetation which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses.

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text: After returning from the Beagle survey expedition in October 1836, Darwin was intensively occupied with further establishing his reputation as an innovative geologist, as well as finding suitable experts to describe his natural history collections and arranging for publication of their work as the multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Near the outset of the voyage he had planned a book on geology, and during it extracts from his letters on geology had been privately published by his tutor John Stevens Henslow. Darwin now published papers on "proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili", "deposits containing extinct Mammalia" and "coral formations". He also rewrote his journal to incorporate observations from his notebooks as the book now called The Voyage of the Beagle, and began brainstorming in his notebooks about transmutation of species.

text: After returning from the

text: Beagle survey expedition

text: in October 1836, Darwin was intensively occupied with further establishing his reputation as an innovative geologist, as well as finding suitable experts to describe his

entity_name: Natural history

text: natural history

text: collections and arranging for publication of their work as the multi-volume

entity_name: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: . Near the outset of the voyage he had planned a book on geology, and during it extracts from his letters on geology had been privately published by his tutor

entity_name: John Stevens Henslow

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: . Darwin now published papers on "proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili", "deposits containing extinct Mammalia" and "coral formations". He also rewrote his journal to incorporate observations from his notebooks as the book now called

entity_name: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , and began brainstorming in his notebooks about

entity_name: Transmutation of species

text: transmutation of species

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text: Located about 2300 miles (3680 km) from the nearest continental shore, the Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated group of islands on the planet.  The plant and animal life of the Hawaiian archipelago is the result of early, very infrequent colonizations of arriving species and the slow evolution of those species—in isolation from the rest of the world's flora and fauna—over a period of at least 5 millions years. As a consequence, Hawai'i is home to a large number of endemic species.  The radiation of species described by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands which was critical to the formulation of his Theory of Evolution is far exceeded in the more isolated Hawaiian Islands.

text: Located about 2300 miles (3680 km) from the nearest continental shore, the

entity_name: Hawaiian Islands

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: are the most isolated group of islands on the planet.  The plant and animal life of the Hawaiian archipelago is the result of early, very infrequent colonizations of arriving species and the slow evolution of those species—in isolation from the rest of the world's flora and fauna—over a period of at least 5 millions years. As a consequence, Hawai'i is home to a large number of

entity_name: Endemism

text: endemic

text: species.  The

entity_name: Adaptive radiation

text: radiation

text: of

entity_name: Species

text: species

text: described by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: which was critical to the formulation of his

text: Theory of Evolution

text: is far exceeded in the more isolated Hawaiian Islands.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Upon receiving the 2008 Darwin Evolution/Revolution Award from the NIH, Pollock and his team marked the bicentennial of the birth  of Charles Darwin with a year-long celebration titled "Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership".  The life and intellectual impact of Darwin was celebrated in Pittsburgh with  a citywide series of events for children, teachers, students, and the general public.  Unique aspects of Darwin’s accomplishments were highlighted using the distinct abilities and resources of six major cultural institutions throughout Pittsburgh. The key event was the Darwin Synthetic Interview, an interactive display created in partnership with the ETC that allows visitors to ask 199 questions to a virtual re-creation of Darwin. The exhibit is installed as a permanent installation at the Carnegie Science Center, and the software has been used as part of the science curriculum of Pittsburgh Public Schools.

text: Upon receiving the 2008 Darwin Evolution/Revolution Award from the NIH, Pollock and his team marked the bicentennial of the birth  of

text: Charles Darwin

text: with a year-long celebration titled "

entity_name: Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership

text: Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership

text: ".  The life and intellectual impact of Darwin was celebrated in Pittsburgh with  a citywide series of events for children, teachers, students, and the general public.  Unique aspects of Darwin’s accomplishments were highlighted using the distinct abilities and resources of six major cultural institutions throughout Pittsburgh. The key event was the

text: Darwin Synthetic Interview

text: , an interactive display created in partnership with the ETC that allows visitors to ask 199 questions to a virtual re-creation of Darwin. The exhibit is installed as a permanent installation at the Carnegie Science Center, and the software has been used as part of the science curriculum of

entity_name: Pittsburgh Public Schools

text: Pittsburgh Public Schools

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text: Endemic to the Galápagos, the large cactus finch is found only on the islands of Española, Darwin, Wolf and Genovesa.  It is not found on any island where the common cactus finch occurs.

text: Endemic

text: to the Galápagos, the large cactus finch is found only on the islands of Española, Darwin, Wolf and Genovesa.  It is not found on any island where the

entity_name: Common cactus finch

text: common cactus finch

text: occurs.

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text: On 29 April 1992 a new £10 note in Series E, with orange rather than brown as the dominant colour, was issued. The reverse featured Charles Dickens and a scene from the Pickwick Papers. This note was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 2003. A second Series E note was issued on 7 November 2000 featuring Charles Darwin, HMS Beagle, a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the Origin of Species.  The hummingbird's inclusion has been criticised, since Darwin's ideas were spurred by finches and mockingbirds, not hummingbirds.

text: On 29 April 1992 a new £10 note in Series E, with orange rather than brown as the dominant colour, was issued. The reverse featured

entity_name: Charles Dickens

text: Charles Dickens

text: and a scene from the

entity_name: The Pickwick Papers

text: Pickwick Papers

text: . This note was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 2003. A second Series E note was issued on 7 November 2000 featuring

text: Charles Darwin

text: HMS Beagle

text: , a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the

entity_name: On the Origin of Species

text: Origin of Species

text: .  The hummingbird's inclusion has been criticised, since Darwin's ideas were spurred by

entity_name: Darwin's finches

text: finches and mockingbirds

text: , not hummingbirds.

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text: Toward the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Talbot claimed in Medicine that aposthia among Jews was evidence for the now-discredited Lamarckian theory of evolution. In his work, "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication", Charles Darwin also  mentioned cases of "born circumcised" babies as "conclusive evidence" for the now-discredited blending inheritance.

text: Toward the end of the nineteenth century,

text: E. S. Talbot

text: claimed in

entity_name: Medicine (disambiguation)

entity_section: Publications

text: Medicine

text: that aposthia among

entity_name: Jews

text: Jew

text: s was evidence for the now-discredited

entity_name: Lamarckism

text: Lamarckian

text: theory of

text: evolution

text: . In his work, "

entity_name: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: Charles Darwin

text: also  mentioned cases of "born circumcised" babies as "conclusive evidence" for the now-discredited

entity_name: Blending inheritance

text: blending inheritance

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text: Charles Darwin had been told that the Beagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831, but fitting out took longer. The Admiralty Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart.  Repeated Westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, the Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, under Mount Edgecumbe on the west side of Plymouth Sound and set out on its surveying expedition.

text: Charles Darwin had been told that the Beagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831, but fitting out took longer. The

entity_name: Admiralty

text: Admiralty

text: Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart.  Repeated Westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, the Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, under

entity_name: Mount Edgcumbe Country Park

text: Mount Edgecumbe

text: on the west side of

entity_name: Plymouth Sound

text: Plymouth Sound

text: and set out on its surveying expedition.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Lamarckism (or Lamarckian inheritance) is the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired during its lifetime to its offspring (also known as heritability of acquired characteristics or soft inheritance). It is named after the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who incorporated the action of soft inheritance into his evolutionary theories as a supplement to his concept of an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Lamarck did not originate the idea of soft inheritance, which proposes that individual efforts during the lifetime of the organisms were the main mechanism driving species to adaptation, as they supposedly would acquire adaptive changes and pass them on to offspring.When Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859), he continued to give credence to what he called "use and disuse inheritance," but rejected other aspects of Lamarck's theories. Later, Mendelian genetics supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis, and the general abandonment of the Lamarckian theory of evolution in biology. Despite this abandonment, interest in Lamarckism has continued as studies in the field of epigenetics have highlighted the possible inheritance of behavioral traits acquired by the previous generation. However, this remains controversial as science historians have asserted that it is inaccurate to describe transgenerational epigenetic inheritance as a form of Lamarckism.

text: Lamarckism (or Lamarckian inheritance) is the

entity_name: Idea

text: idea

text: that an

text: organism

text: can pass on characteristics that it has acquired during its lifetime to its

text: offspring

text: (also known as

text: heritability of acquired characteristics

text: or

text: soft inheritance

text: ). It is named after the French

text: biologist

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: (1744–1829), who incorporated the action of soft inheritance into his evolutionary theories as a supplement to his concept of an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater

text: complexity

text: , in parallel but separate lineages with no

text: extinction

text: . Lamarck did not originate the idea of soft inheritance, which proposes that individual efforts during the lifetime of the organisms were the main mechanism driving

text: species

text: to

text: adaptation

text: , as they supposedly would acquire adaptive changes and pass them on to offspring.When

text: Charles Darwin

text: published his

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: (1859), he continued to give credence to what he called "use and disuse inheritance," but rejected other aspects of Lamarck's theories. Later,

text: Mendelian genetics

text: supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: , and the general abandonment of the Lamarckian theory of evolution in

text: biology

text: . Despite this abandonment, interest in Lamarckism has continued as studies in the field of

text: epigenetics

text: have highlighted the possible inheritance of behavioral traits acquired by the previous generation. However, this remains controversial as science historians have asserted that it is inaccurate to describe

text: transgenerational epigenetic inheritance

text: as a form of Lamarckism.

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text: Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by Daniel Dennett, in which Dennett looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life. Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.

text: Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by

text: Daniel Dennett

text: , in which Dennett looks at some of the repercussions of

text: Darwinian

text: theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that

text: natural selection

text: is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the

text: evolution

text: of

text: life

text: . Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.

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answers: Darwinian theory

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Dennett

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Daniel Dennett

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of Galápagos wildlife to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to Charles Lyell's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject."

text: In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of

text: Galápagos wildlife

text: to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject."

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answers: species are confined to different islands

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: the first edition

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: first edition

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: finches

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: species "are confined to different islands"

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: finches

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: beaks

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: South America

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: the same law over a wide area

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Galápagos

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: disease and famine

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: the same law over a wide area

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Galapagos

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Charles Lyell

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answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: Contrary to the title, the book is not on the Creation–evolution controversy. Gale attempts to explain why Charles Darwin waited twenty years to publish his theory of natural selection and how his theory evolved during this period. The book heavily relies on Darwin's letters, notebooks, essays and papers. Darwin's private correspondences with Asa Gray and Joseph Hooker are cited.

text: Contrary to the title, the book is not on the

text: Creation–evolution controversy

text: . Gale attempts to explain why

text: Charles Darwin

text: waited twenty years to publish his theory of

text: natural selection

text: and how his theory evolved during this period. The book heavily relies on Darwin's letters, notebooks, essays and papers. Darwin's private correspondences with

text: Asa Gray

text: and

text: Joseph Hooker

text: are cited.

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answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin waited twenty years

answers: NDQ_009501

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answers: Gale attempts to explain why Charles Darwin waited twenty years to publish his theory

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answers: Darwin's private correspondences with Asa Gray and Joseph Hooker are cited

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin's private correspondences with Asa Gray and Joseph Hooker

answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Gale

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answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Gale

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answers: Gale

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answers: natural selection

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated selective breeding and was impressed by Sebright's observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection" so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities." Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas of environmental change causing ecological shifts, leading to what Augustin de Candolle had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist William Herbert. Darwin was struck by Thomas Robert Malthus' phrase "struggle for existence" used of warring human tribes.

text: When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated

text: selective breeding

text: and was impressed by

text: Sebright

text: 's observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection" so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities." Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas of environmental change causing

text: ecological shifts

text: , leading to what

text: Augustin de Candolle

text: had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist

text: William Herbert

text: . Darwin was struck by

text: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: ' phrase "struggle for existence" used of warring human tribes.

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answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1848

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answers: the weak and the unhealthy

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: plant species

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galapagos

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

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answers: environmental change

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin was impressed by Sebright's observation

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: Darwin

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man, so the ecosystem of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues solitaire, the Rodrigues rail, Newton's parakeet, the Rodrigues starling, the Rodrigues owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man, so the

text: ecosystem

text: of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the

text: Rodrigues solitaire

text: , the

text: Rodrigues rail

text: Newton's parakeet

text: , the Rodrigues starling, the

text: Rodrigues owl

text: , the

text: Rodrigues night heron

text: , and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the

text: domed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , the

text: saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues day gecko

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text: Charles Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle. [Foreword by Richard Darwin Keynes] (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming July 2009, with Gordon Chancellor and Kees Rookmaaker).

text: Charles Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle. [Foreword by Richard Darwin Keynes] (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming July 2009, with Gordon Chancellor and Kees Rookmaaker).

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text: Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the creation science movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to scientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized scientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan instead of the South.

text: Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the

text: creation science

text: movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to scientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized scientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan instead of the South.

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text: In The Guardian, Steven Poole criticises Wolfe's whole approach to Darwin and dismisses his suggestion that Darwin had no evidence for his theory of evolution, saying that Darwin 'adduced a lot of evidence at the time, including the geographical distribution of species, comparative anatomy, fossils and the existence of vestigial organs. Today, of course, evolution is observed in real time in the laboratory, among microbes or insects'.

text: In The Guardian, Steven Poole criticises Wolfe's whole approach to Darwin and dismisses his suggestion that Darwin had no evidence for his theory of evolution, saying that Darwin 'adduced a lot of evidence at the time, including the geographical distribution of species, comparative anatomy, fossils and the existence of vestigial organs. Today, of course, evolution is observed in real time in the laboratory, among microbes or insects'.

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text: Each cultivar has a different genome owing to mutation, evolution, the ecological niche, and intentional plant-breeding by man.

text: Each cultivar has a different genome owing to mutation, evolution, the ecological niche, and intentional plant-breeding by man.

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text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836, was published in 1842 as Charles Darwin's first monograph, and set out his theory of the formation of coral reefs and atolls. He conceived of the idea during the voyage of the Beagle while still in South America, before he had seen a coral island, and wrote it out as HMS Beagle crossed the Pacific Ocean, completing his draft by November 1835. At the time there was great scientific interest in the way that coral reefs formed, and Captain Robert FitzRoy's orders from the Admiralty included the investigation of an atoll as an important scientific aim of the voyage. FitzRoy chose to survey the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean. The results supported Darwin's theory that the various types of coral reefs and atolls could be explained by uplift and subsidence of vast areas of the Earth's crust under the oceans.

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836, was published in 1842 as

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's first

text: monograph

text: , and set out his

text: theory

text: of the formation of

text: coral reef

text: s and

text: atoll

text: s. He conceived of the idea during the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: while still in South America, before he had seen a coral island, and wrote it out as

text: HMS Beagle

text: crossed the Pacific Ocean, completing his draft by November 1835. At the time there was great scientific interest in the way that coral reefs formed, and Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: 's orders from the

text: Admiralty

text: included the investigation of an atoll as an important scientific aim of the voyage. FitzRoy chose to survey the

text: Keeling Islands

text: in the Indian Ocean. The results supported Darwin's theory that the various types of coral reefs and atolls could be explained by

text: uplift

text: and

text: subsidence

text: of vast areas of the Earth's

text: crust

text: under the oceans.

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answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: Although often considered examples of island gigantism, prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens giant tortoises also occurred in non-island locales, as well as on a number of other, more accessible islands.  During the Pleistocene, and mostly during the last 50,000 years, tortoises of the mainland of southern Asia (Colossochelys atlas), North and South America, Australia (Meiolania), Indonesia, Madagascar (Dipsochelys), and even the island of Malta became extinct. The giant tortoises formerly of Africa died out somewhat earlier, during the late Pliocene. While the timing of the disappearances of various extinct giant tortoise species seems to correlate with the arrival of humans, direct evidence for human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking; however, such evidence has been obtained in the case of Meiolania damelipi in Vanuatu.One interesting relic is the shell of an extinct giant tortoise found in a submerged sinkhole in Florida with a wooden spear piercing it, carbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Today, only one of the species of the Indian Ocean survives in the wild, the Aldabra giant tortoise (two more are claimed to exist in captive or re-released populations, but some genetic studies have cast doubt on the validity of these as separate species) and 10 extant species in the Galápagos.

text: Although often considered examples of

text: island gigantism

text: , prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens giant tortoises also occurred in non-island locales, as well as on a number of other, more accessible islands.  During the

text: Pleistocene

text: , and mostly during the last 50,000 years, tortoises of the mainland of southern Asia (

text: Colossochelys atlas

text: ), North and South America, Australia (

text: Meiolania

text: Indonesia

text: Madagascar

text: Dipsochelys

text: ), and even the island of

text: Malta

text: became extinct. The giant tortoises formerly of Africa died out somewhat earlier, during the

text: late Pliocene

text: . While the timing of the disappearances of various extinct giant tortoise species seems to correlate with the arrival of humans, direct evidence for human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking; however, such evidence has been obtained in the case of Meiolania damelipi in

text: Vanuatu

text: .One interesting relic is the shell of an extinct giant tortoise found in a submerged sinkhole in Florida with a wooden spear piercing it, carbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Today, only one of the species of the Indian Ocean survives in the wild, the

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: (two more are claimed to exist in captive or re-released populations, but some genetic studies have cast doubt on the validity of these as separate species) and 10

text: extant

text: species in the

text: Galápagos

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answers: NDQ_009522

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answers: NDQ_009523

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: NDQ_009525

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answers: NDQ_009526

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answers: NDQ_009527

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answers: NDQ_009529

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answers: NDQ_009530

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answers: NDQ_009536

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answers: NDQ_009537

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009495

answers: human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: The New York Times

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Homo sapiens

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: unspecified

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Homo sapiens

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Meiolania

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: 10 extant species in the Galápagos

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: tortoises

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: shell

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: South America

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: humans

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: non-island locales

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: tortoises

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Homo sapiens

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: genetic studies

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: 10 extant species

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Homo sapiens

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: _

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: extinctions

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: evidence for human involvement

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Galápagos

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Galápagos

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Homo sapiens

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: genetic

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: genetic

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: genetic

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Higgs

text: Charles Darwin aspired to be a parson-naturalist until his return from his voyage on the Beagle.

text: Charles Darwin

text: aspired to be a parson-naturalist until his return from his voyage on the

text: Beagle

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text: In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution's use of conventional hybridization increased yields by breeding "high-yielding varieties". The replacement of locally indigenous breeds, compounded with unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding (genetic mixing), has reduced the gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds resulting in the loss of genetic diversity. Since the indigenous breeds are often well-adapted to local extremes in climate and have immunity to local pathogens, this can be a significant genetic erosion of the gene pool for future breeding. Therefore, commercial plant geneticists strive to breed "widely adapted" cultivars to counteract this tendency.

text: In agriculture and

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text: , the

text: Green Revolution

text: 's use of conventional hybridization increased yields by breeding "

text: high-yielding varieties

text: ". The replacement of locally indigenous breeds, compounded with unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding (

text: genetic mixing

text: ), has reduced the gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds resulting in the loss of

text: genetic diversity

text: . Since the indigenous breeds are often well-adapted to local extremes in climate and have immunity to local pathogens, this can be a significant

text: genetic erosion

text: of the gene pool for future breeding. Therefore, commercial plant geneticists strive to breed "widely adapted" cultivars to counteract this tendency.

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text: Bell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when Charles Darwin returned to London from the Beagle expedition on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of Crustacea collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book British Stalke-eyed Crustacea is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands, not brought in by buccaneers for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles (Part 5) was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.

text: Bell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when

text: Charles Darwin

text: returned to London from the

text: Beagle expedition

text: on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of

text: Crustacea

text: collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book British Stalke-eyed Crustacea is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s were native to the islands, not brought in by

text: buccaneer

text: s for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: , but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles (Part 5) was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.

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text: The third voyage of Beagle, under the command of John Clements Wickham, began in 1837 with a mission to chart the west coast of Australia between the Fitzroy River and the Swan River, and the Bass Strait – the channel separating mainland Australia from Tasmania.  In 1839 Beagle was taken north to explore the Arafura Sea where Port Darwin was discovered and named. The voyage is also notable for the watercolour paintings of fish and other wildlife produced by 1st Lt. James Barker Emery.  In March 1841 Wickham gave up command due to illness and returned to England. Command was then given to John Lort Stokes.

text: The third voyage of Beagle, under the command of

text: John Clements Wickham

text: , began in 1837 with a mission to chart the west coast of Australia between the

text: Fitzroy River

text: and the

text: Swan River

text: , and the

text: Bass Strait

text: – the channel separating mainland Australia from

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text: .  In 1839 Beagle was taken north to explore the

text: Arafura Sea

text: where

text: Port Darwin

text: was discovered and named. The voyage is also notable for the watercolour paintings of fish and other wildlife produced by 1st Lt.

text: James Barker Emery

text: .  In March 1841 Wickham gave up command due to illness and returned to England. Command was then given to

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text: The domed Rodrigues tortoise was one of the smallest of the giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean, reaching a length of just over 40 cm and an estimated weight of around 12 kg.

text: The domed Rodrigues tortoise was one of the smallest of the giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean, reaching a length of just over 40 cm and an estimated weight of around 12 kg.

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text: His tasks included finding experts to examine and report on his collections from the voyage. Darwin proposed to edit these reports, writing his own forewords and notes, and used his contacts to lobby for government sponsorship of publication of these findings as a large book. When a Treasury grant of £1,000 was allocated at the end of August 1837, Darwin stretched the project to include the geology book that he had conceived in April 1832 at the first landfall in the voyage. He selected Smith, Elder & Co. as the publisher, and gave them unrealistic commitments on the timing of providing the text and illustrations. He assured the Treasury that the work would be good value, as the publisher would only require a small commission profit, and he himself would have no profit. From October he planned what became the multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle on his collections, and began writing about the geology of volcanic islands.

text: His tasks included finding experts to examine and report on his collections from the voyage. Darwin proposed to edit these reports, writing his own forewords and notes, and used his contacts to lobby for government sponsorship of publication of these findings as a large book. When a Treasury grant of

text: 1,000 was allocated at the end of August 1837, Darwin stretched the project to include the geology book that he had conceived in April 1832 at the first landfall in the voyage. He selected

text: Smith, Elder & Co.

text: as the publisher, and gave them unrealistic commitments on the timing of providing the text and illustrations. He assured the Treasury that the work would be good value, as the publisher would only require a small commission profit, and he himself would have no profit. From October he planned what became the multi-volume

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: on his collections, and began writing about the geology of volcanic islands.

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text: Mockingbirds are an American group of passerine birds. In the Galápagos they are famous (along with Darwin's finches) for confirming Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.4 species in Galápagos

text: Mockingbirds are an American group of passerine birds. In the Galápagos they are famous (along with Darwin's finches) for confirming

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution.4 species in Galápagos

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text: Finch enlisted in the Australian Army on 2 June 1941. He served in the Middle East and was an anti-aircraft gunner during the Bombing of Darwin.

text: Finch enlisted in the

text: Australian Army

text: on 2 June 1941. He served in the

text: Middle East

text: and was an anti-aircraft gunner during the

text: Bombing of Darwin

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answers: NDQ_009522

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answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: NDQ_009525

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answers: NDQ_009526

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009495

answers: evolution involves the idea(s) that

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Australian

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Bombing of Darwin

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1941

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Bombing of Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: The Galpagos Islands are in the Pacific Ocean

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: Australian

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Australia

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: Australian Army

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: Aircraft

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarck

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Middle East

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: famine

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Middle East

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: mutation

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Finch

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: Multiply

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: Arriving at Barmouth on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August, to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall. He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at The Mount, Shrewsbury, on 29 August, and found a letter from Henslow. The Cambridge Fellow George Peacock had heard from Francis Beaufort of plans for the second survey voyage of HMS Beagle, and had written to Henslow proposing Leonard Jenyns as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin. Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to Terra del Fuego & home by the East Indies, not as "a finished Naturalist", but as a gentleman "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain Robert FitzRoy, than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".

text: Arriving at

text: Barmouth

text: on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August, to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at

text: Maer Hall

text: . He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at

text: The Mount, Shrewsbury

text: , on 29 August, and found a letter from Henslow. The Cambridge Fellow

text: George Peacock

text: had heard from

text: Francis Beaufort

text: of plans for the

text: second survey voyage of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , and had written to Henslow proposing

text: Leonard Jenyns

text: as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin. Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to

text: Terra del Fuego

text: & home by the

text: East Indies

text: , not as "a finished Naturalist", but as a

text: gentleman

text: "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".

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text: Despite the minimization of development in evolutionary theory, early developmental psychology was influenced by evolution. Both Darwin's theory of evolution and Karl Ernst von Baer's developmental principles of ontogeny shaped early thought in developmental psychology. Wilhelm T. Preyer, a pioneer of child psychology, was heavily inspired by Darwin's work and approached the mental development of children from an evolutionary perspective.

text: Despite the minimization of development in evolutionary theory, early developmental psychology was influenced by evolution. Both Darwin's theory of evolution and

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text: , a pioneer of child psychology, was heavily inspired by Darwin's work and approached the mental development of children from an evolutionary perspective.

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text: By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

text: By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: " included forms of "

text: saltationism

text: " in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of

text: orthogenesis

text: claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of

text: August Weismann

text: , that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called

text: neo-Darwinism

text: . It was thought that the rediscovery of

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: invalidated Darwin's views.

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text: The theory of evolution by natural selection is now scientific orthodoxy, but when it was unveiled it caused a storm of controversy, from fellow scientists as well as religious people. They criticised it for being short on evidence and long on assertion and Darwin, being the honest scientist that he was, agreed with them. He knew that his theory was riddled with 'difficulties', but he entrusted future generations to complete his work and prove the essential truth of his vision, which is what scientists have been doing for the past 150 years.

text: The theory of evolution by natural selection is now scientific orthodoxy, but when it was unveiled it caused a storm of controversy, from fellow scientists as well as religious people. They criticised it for being short on evidence and long on assertion and Darwin, being the honest scientist that he was, agreed with them. He knew that his theory was riddled with 'difficulties', but he entrusted future generations to complete his work and prove the essential truth of his vision, which is what scientists have been doing for the past 150 years.

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text: There have been big advances in plant breeding and animal breeding, such as crop hybridization, GMOs (genetically modified organisms) and artificial insemination of livestock. Further down the food chain came innovations in food processing and food distribution (e.g. frozen foods).

text: There have been big advances in

text: plant breeding

text: and

text: animal breeding

text: , such as crop hybridization,

text: GMOs

text: (genetically modified organisms) and artificial insemination of livestock. Further down the food chain came innovations in

text: food processing

text: and

text: food distribution

text: (e.g. frozen foods).

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Many of Darwin's supporters accepted evolution on the basis that it could be reconciled with design. In particular, Asa Gray considered natural selection to be the main mechanism of evolution and sought to reconcile it with natural theology. He proposed that natural selection could be a mechanism in which the problem of evil of suffering produced the greater good of adaptation, but conceded that this had difficulties and suggested that God might influence the variations on which natural selection acted to guide evolution. For Darwin and Thomas Henry Huxley such pervasive supernatural influence was beyond scientific investigation, and George Frederick Wright, an ordained minister who was Gray's colleague in developing theistic evolution, emphasised the need to look for secondary or known causes rather than invoking supernatural explanations: "If we cease to observe this rule there is an end to all science and all sound science."

text: Many of Darwin's supporters accepted evolution on the basis that it could be reconciled with design. In particular,

text: Asa Gray

text: considered natural selection to be the main mechanism of evolution and sought to reconcile it with natural theology. He proposed that natural selection could be a mechanism in which the

text: problem of evil

text: of suffering produced the greater good of adaptation, but conceded that this had difficulties and suggested that God might influence the variations on which natural selection acted to guide evolution. For Darwin and

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: such pervasive supernatural influence was beyond scientific investigation, and

text: George Frederick Wright

text: , an ordained minister who was Gray's colleague in developing theistic evolution, emphasised the need to look for secondary or known causes rather than invoking supernatural explanations: "If we cease to observe this rule there is an end to all science and all sound science."

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answers: For Darwin and Thomas Henry Huxley such pervasive supernatural influence was beyond scientific investigation

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answers: Gray considered natural selection to be the main mechanism

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answers: Asa Gray

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answers: Asa Gray

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answers: end to all science

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answers: Darwin

text: Herbert Spencer's ideas, like those of evolutionary progressivism, stemmed from his reading of Thomas Malthus, and his later theories were influenced by those of Darwin. However, Spencer's major work, Progress: Its Law and Cause (1857), was released two years before the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, and First Principles was printed in 1860.

text: Herbert Spencer's ideas, like those of evolutionary progressivism, stemmed from his reading of Thomas Malthus, and his later theories were influenced by those of Darwin. However, Spencer's major work, Progress: Its Law and Cause (1857), was released two years before the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, and First Principles was printed in 1860.

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text: One of the challenges to Darwin's theory of evolution was explaining how complex structures could evolve gradually, given that their incipient forms may have been inadequate to serve any function. As George Jackson Mivart (a critic of Darwin) pointed out, 5 percent of a bird wing would not be functional. The incipient form of complex traits would not have survived long enough to evolve to a useful form.

text: One of the challenges to Darwin's theory of evolution was explaining how complex structures could evolve gradually, given that their incipient forms may have been inadequate to serve any function. As

text: George Jackson Mivart

text: (a critic of Darwin) pointed out, 5 percent of a bird wing would not be functional. The incipient form of complex traits would not have survived long enough to evolve to a useful form.

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text: The Darwin Industry has also stretched to many related figures before, during and after Darwin's time.  Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin has been a subject of great interest, and the broad philosophical currents of Naturphilosophie and Romanticism in science during the 19th century are still being explored.  Studies of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Georges Cuvier, Charles Lyell, Thomas Henry Huxley, Richard Owen, Alfred Russel Wallace and many others have all been influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the work of the Darwin Industry.  Because of the unusual hybrid nature of The Origin of Species as both a popular and scientific work, one major focus of the Darwin Industry has been the role of popularization and education in the spread of Darwin's theory: the popular work of Huxley, Ernst Haeckel, Herbert Spencer, and most dramatically, Robert Chambers (who wrote the 1844 sensation Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation), is increasingly seen as important in its own right in the history of evolutionary thought.

text: The Darwin Industry has also stretched to many related figures before, during and after Darwin's time.  Darwin's grandfather

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: has been a subject of great interest, and the broad philosophical currents of

text: Naturphilosophie

text: and

text: Romanticism in science

text: during the 19th century are still being explored.  Studies of

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: Georges Cuvier

text: Charles Lyell

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: Richard Owen

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: and many others have all been influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the work of the Darwin Industry.  Because of the unusual hybrid nature of

text: The Origin of Species

text: as both a popular and scientific work, one major focus of the Darwin Industry has been the role of popularization and education in the spread of Darwin's theory: the popular work of Huxley,

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , and most dramatically,

text: Robert Chambers

text: (who wrote the 1844 sensation

entity_name: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

text: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

text: ), is increasingly seen as important in its own right in the

text: history of evolutionary thought

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answers: NDQ_009495

answers: Darwin's theory

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: 1844

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: The Darwin Industry

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1844

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin's grandfather

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin has been a subject of great interest

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: Species

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: Darwin's theory

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin has been a subject of great interest

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin's theory

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: The Darwin Industry

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Lamarck

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answers: Georges Cuvier

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answers: Georges Cuvier

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answers: evolution

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answers: Georges Cuvier

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Georges Cuvier

text: In addition to its officers and crew, the Beagle carried several supernumeraries, passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his 22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin, as well as engaging the artist/draughtsman Augustus Earle to go in a private capacity. The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to Tierra del Fuego on the Beagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.

text: In addition to its officers and crew, the Beagle carried several

text: supernumeraries

text: , passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his

text: 22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin

text: , as well as engaging the artist/draughtsman

text: Augustus Earle

text: to go in a private capacity. The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: on the Beagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.

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text: The arguments in Paley's book have been rejected by "virtually all biologists". In its place, the theory of evolution has been widely accepted by scientists from Darwin onwards, and Darwin persuaded "most educated people" that processes such as evolution were governed by natural laws. This has not stopped creationists such as those in the Intelligent Design movement from continuing to use Paley's arguments:

text: The arguments in Paley's book have been rejected by "virtually all biologists". In its place, the theory of

text: evolution

text: has been widely accepted by scientists from Darwin onwards, and Darwin persuaded "most educated people" that processes such as evolution were governed by natural laws. This has not stopped

text: creationist

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text: Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months on land, 18 months at sea. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. At Punta Alta he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that species were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months on land, 18 months at sea. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. At

text: Punta Alta

text: he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that species were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

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text: Despite originally starting out on good terms with Darwin, Owen was highly critical of the Origin in large part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution that had been proposed by people like Chambers and himself, and instead compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.

text: Despite originally starting out on good terms with Darwin, Owen was highly critical of the Origin in large part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution that had been proposed by people like Chambers and himself, and instead compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.

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text: "Lonesome George" along with other of the tortoises on Pinta Island, belong to a genus of 21 species. Giant tortoises were widespread on most of the continents except for Australia and Antarctica. Not only do the Galapagos tortoises remain the largest living tortoises, but in the Galapagos, distinct populations survived in multiple localities.

text: "Lonesome George" along with other of the tortoises on Pinta Island, belong to a genus of 21 species. Giant tortoises were widespread on most of the continents except for Australia and Antarctica. Not only do the Galapagos tortoises remain the largest living tortoises, but in the Galapagos, distinct populations survived in multiple localities.

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text: The current theory of evolution, the modern evolutionary synthesis (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and Gregor Mendel’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection).

text: The current theory of evolution, the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of

text: species

text: occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and

text: Gregor Mendel

text: ’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection).

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text: Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on Charles Darwin and his inception of Darwinism, but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.

text: Ibn Miskawayh

text: 's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the

text: Brethren of Purity

text: 's

text: Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity

text: (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his inception of

text: Darwinism

text: , but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.

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text: Also among the 1638 emigrants were two brothers, Richard and Thomas Wickham. Samuel, a son of Thomas, settled in Rhode Island and became a Freeman of the Colony and a Deputy. Another descendant, Captain John Clements Wickham R.N. served on the Beagle on its voyage with Charles Darwin and was later the first Magistrate and administrator of Queensland.

text: Also among the 1638 emigrants were two brothers, Richard and Thomas Wickham. Samuel, a son of Thomas, settled in

entity_name: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

text: Rhode Island

text: and became a Freeman of the Colony and a Deputy. Another descendant, Captain

text: John Clements Wickham

text: R.N. served on the

text: Beagle

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text: and was later the first Magistrate and administrator of

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text: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

text: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

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text: Human settlers colonised the Mascarenes in 1663. These giant tortoises were very large and slow, thus making them easy game. Like many island species they were also reported to have been friendly and unafraid of humans. Most species of this genus were already driven to extinction by 1795 and the last individuals were reputed to have died around 1840 (Arnold 1979, Bour 1980, Cheke and Hume 2008).

text: Human settlers colonised the Mascarenes in 1663. These giant tortoises were very large and slow, thus making them easy game. Like many island species they were also reported to have been friendly and unafraid of humans. Most species of this genus were already driven to

text: extinction

text: by 1795 and the last individuals were reputed to have died around 1840 (Arnold 1979, Bour 1980, Cheke and Hume 2008).

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answers: Most species of this genus were already driven to extinction by 1795

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answers: Most species of this genus

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text: This book's subtitle is, "Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It." Eiseley documented that animal variation, extinction, and a lengthy history of the earth were observed from the 1600s onward. Scientists groped towards a theory with increasingly detailed observations. They became aware that evolution had occurred without knowing how. Evolution was "in the air" and part of the intellectual discourse both before and after On the Origin of Species was published. The publisher describes it thus: "At the heart of the account is Charles Darwin, but the story neither begins nor ends with him. Starting with the seventeenth-century notion of the Great Chain of Being, Dr. Eiseley traces the achievements and discoveries of men in many fields of science who paved the way for Darwin; and the book concludes with an extensive discussion of the ways in which Darwin's work has been challenged, improved upon, and occasionally refuted during the past hundred years."

text: This book's subtitle is, "Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It." Eiseley documented that animal variation, extinction, and a lengthy history of the earth were observed from the 1600s onward. Scientists groped towards a theory with increasingly detailed observations. They became aware that evolution had occurred without knowing how. Evolution was "in the air" and part of the intellectual discourse both before and after

text: On the Origin of Species

text: was published. The publisher describes it thus: "At the heart of the account is Charles Darwin, but the story neither begins nor ends with him. Starting with the seventeenth-century notion of the

text: Great Chain of Being

text: , Dr. Eiseley traces the achievements and discoveries of men in many fields of science who paved the way for Darwin; and the book concludes with an extensive discussion of the ways in which Darwin's work has been challenged, improved upon, and occasionally refuted during the past hundred years."

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text: Lewis's grand plans were also hampered by the fact that her ideas were seen by publishers as too complicated for a lay audience but not advanced enough for the scientific community. As a product of a devout religious upbringing, Lewis was critical of the Charles Darwin's theory of evolution for much of her life, instead positing that God was responsible for an intricate and well ordered universe. Only in the 1890s did Lewis come to accept some evolutionary ideas, still seeing the process as part and parcel of a grand theist system. Lewis particularly rejected Darwin's idea that random variation was part of the process behind natural selection, arguing instead that evolution was a divinely directed process for the perfection of supernaturally created species.

text: Lewis's grand plans were also hampered by the fact that her ideas were seen by publishers as too complicated for a lay audience but not advanced enough for the scientific community. As a product of a devout religious upbringing, Lewis was critical of the

text: Charles Darwin's

text: theory of evolution for much of her life, instead positing that God was responsible for an intricate and well ordered universe. Only in the 1890s did Lewis come to accept some evolutionary ideas, still seeing the process as part and parcel of a grand theist system. Lewis particularly rejected Darwin's idea that random variation was part of the process behind

text: natural selection

text: , arguing instead that evolution was a divinely directed process for the perfection of supernaturally created species.

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text: In 1874, Hodge published What is Darwinism?, claiming that Darwinism, was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic. Both in the Review and in What is Darwinism?, (1874) Hodge attacked Darwinism. His views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. While he didn't consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile, at Princeton University, a totally separate institution, President John Maclean also rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However, in 1868, upon Maclean's retirement, James McCosh, a philosopher, became president. McCosh believed that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, and so he strove to prepare Christians for this event. Instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose in the universe. He thus argued that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton. The Seminary held to Hodge's position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college (Princeton University) became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology.

text: In 1874, Hodge published What is Darwinism?, claiming that

text: Darwinism

text: , was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic. Both in the Review and in What is Darwinism?, (1874) Hodge attacked Darwinism. His views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. While he didn't consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile, at

text: Princeton University

text: , a totally separate institution, President John Maclean also rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However, in 1868, upon Maclean's retirement,

text: James McCosh

text: , a philosopher, became president. McCosh believed that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, and so he strove to prepare Christians for this event. Instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose in the universe. He thus argued that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton. The Seminary held to Hodge's position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college (

text: Princeton University

text: ) became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology.

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text: How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin’s Finches-2008

text: How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin’s Finches-2008

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answers: 5: The answer is highly relevant, complete, and accurate.

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text: The modern understanding of evolution began with the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In addition, Gregor Mendel's work with plants helped to explain the hereditary patterns of genetics. Fossil discoveries in paleontology, advances in population genetics and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Scientists now have a good understanding of the origin of new species (speciation) and have observed the speciation process in the laboratory and in the wild. Evolution is the principal scientific theory that biologists use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including medicine, psychology, conservation biology, anthropology, forensics, agriculture and other social-cultural applications.

text: The modern understanding of evolution began with the 1859 publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . In addition,

text: Gregor Mendel

text: 's work with plants helped to explain the hereditary patterns of

text: genetics

text: . Fossil discoveries in

text: paleontology

text: , advances in

text: population genetics

text: and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Scientists now have a good understanding of the origin of new species (

text: speciation

text: ) and have observed the speciation process in the laboratory and in the wild. Evolution is the principal

text: scientific theory

text: that

text: biologist

text: s use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including

text: medicine

text: psychology

text: conservation biology

text: anthropology

text: forensics

text: agriculture

text: and other

text: social-cultural

text: applications.

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text: Burrows was also an expert on Charles Darwin and the potent racial theories that Social Darwinism drew from biological versions of the theory of evolution.  His introduction to the Penguin Books edition of The Origin of Species is still an authoritative contribution to the cultural history of Victorian science.

text: Burrows was also an expert on

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text: Social Darwinism

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text: Penguin Books

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text: The Origin of Species

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text: In 2007 and 2008, Neffe traveled for seven months, recreating Charles Darwin's travels on the Beagle. As a result, he published the book Darwin - Das Abenteuer des Lebens, consisting of a combination of travel writing, science reportage on the development of the theory of evolution, and biographical information about Charles Darwin.

text: In 2007 and 2008, Neffe traveled for seven months, recreating

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's travels on the

text: Beagle

text: . As a result, he published the book Darwin - Das Abenteuer des Lebens, consisting of a combination of travel writing, science reportage on the development of the

text: theory of evolution

text: , and biographical information about Charles Darwin.

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text: By the late 1860s, however, Darwin’s theory of evolution had been thought to be compatible with the polygenist thesis (Stepan 1982). Darwin thus used Descent of Man to disprove the polygenist thesis and end the debate between polygeny and monogeny once and for all. Darwin also used it to disprove other hypotheses about racial difference that had persisted since the time of ancient Greece, for example, that differences in skin color and body constitution occurred because of differences of geography and climate.

text: By the late 1860s, however, Darwin’s theory of evolution had been thought to be compatible with the polygenist thesis (Stepan 1982). Darwin thus used Descent of Man to disprove the polygenist thesis and end the debate between polygeny and monogeny once and for all. Darwin also used it to disprove other hypotheses about racial difference that had persisted since the time of ancient Greece, for example, that differences in skin color and body constitution occurred because of differences of geography and climate.

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text: Though easily accessible to most visitors to the Galápagos, the national park service has highly restricted visits to this island, and it is primarily used for scientific research. An intensive study of Darwin's finches was conducted here by biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant over a period of 20 years. They examined the behaviour and life cycles of finches, with the results strongly supporting Darwin's theory of evolution. Their efforts were documented in the Pulitzer Prize–winning book The Beak of the Finch.

text: Though easily accessible to most visitors to the Galápagos, the national park service has highly restricted visits to this island, and it is primarily used for scientific research. An intensive study of

text: Darwin's finches

text: was conducted here by biologists

text: Peter and Rosemary Grant

text: over a period of 20 years. They examined the behaviour and life cycles of finches, with the results strongly supporting

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: . Their efforts were documented in the Pulitzer Prize–winning book

text: The Beak of the Finch

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text: Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further speciation has led to the loss of flight in flightless birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins, and also members of the duck family, have further evolved for swimming. Birds, specifically Darwin's finches, played an important part in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: Birds have

text: wing

text: s which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the

text: extinct

text: moa

text: s and

text: elephant bird

text: s. Wings, which evolved from

text: forelimb

text: s, gave birds the ability to

text: fly

text: , although further

text: speciation

text: has led to the loss of

text: flight

text: in

text: flightless bird

text: s, including

text: ratite

text: s,

text: penguin

text: s, and diverse

text: endemic island species of birds

text: . The

text: digestive

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins, and also members of the

text: duck family

text: , have further evolved for

text: swimming

text: . Birds, specifically

text: Darwin's finches

text: , played an important part in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

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text: Lyell attended Huxley's continuing working-men's lectures, and was "astonished at the attentiveness and magnitude of the audience...[who would] devour any amount of your anthropoid ape questions". Human origins had been taboo to the scientific élite, but had long been featured in the radical press and the secularist Reasoner was currently running a series about evolution to combat "Theological Theories of the Origin of Man" with information about human fossils and Darwin's book. Huxley was tailoring his lectures to bring Darwinism to this wider constituency, saying that "Brought face to face [with chimpanzees or apes] these blurred copies of himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain shock... It is as if Nature herself has foreseen the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his intellect by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves, admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust." Man might have come from the brutes, but "he is assuredly not of them... [man is not] degraded from his high estate [by descent from a] bestial savage,... [but] once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his long progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment of a nobler future." This was Darwinism supporting the creed of working class self-improvement.

text: Lyell attended Huxley's continuing working-men's lectures, and was "astonished at the attentiveness and magnitude of the audience...[who would] devour any amount of your anthropoid ape questions". Human origins had been taboo to the scientific élite, but had long been featured in the

text: radical

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text: Charles Darwin's theory of how evolution works ("By Means of Natural Selection") is explicitly competitive ("survival of the fittest"), Malthusian ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("nature, red in tooth and claw").  Species are pitted against species for shared resources,similar species with similar needs and niches even more so, and individuals within species most of all.  All this comes down to one factor: out-competing all rivals and predators in producing progeny.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of how

text: evolution

text: works ("By Means of

text: Natural Selection

text: ") is explicitly competitive ("

text: survival of the fittest

text: Malthusian

text: ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("

text: nature, red in tooth and claw

text: ").  Species are pitted against species for shared resources,similar species with similar needs and niches even more so, and individuals within species most of all.  All this comes down to one factor: out-competing all rivals and predators in producing progeny.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: When Darwin first collected the species in 1835, he assumed it was a finch.  John Gould, who formally described the vegetarian finch in 1837, agreed and assigned it to the genus Fringilla. By 1841, Gould had changed his mind, and moved the species to the genus Camarhynchus, lumping it with the ground and cactus finches.  Robert Ridgway separated it from the other species in 1896, assigning it to a new genus Platyspiza.  DNA research has now shown that all Darwin's "finches" are actually tanagers.

text: When Darwin first collected the species in 1835, he assumed it was a

text: finch

text: John Gould

text: , who formally described the vegetarian finch in 1837, agreed and assigned it to the genus

text: Fringilla

text: . By 1841, Gould had changed his mind, and moved the species to the genus

text: Camarhynchus

text: , lumping it with the ground and cactus finches.

text: Robert Ridgway

text: separated it from the other species in 1896, assigning it to a new genus Platyspiza.

text: DNA

text: research has now shown that all Darwin's "finches" are actually

text: tanager

text: s.

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answers: Darwin

text: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. In his book Evolution, Old and New (1879) he accused Darwin of borrowing heavily from Buffon, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck, whilst playing down these influences and giving them little credit. In 1912, biologist Vernon Kellogg described Butler's views as follows:

text: Butler accepted evolution but rejected

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: . In his book Evolution, Old and New (1879) he accused Darwin of borrowing heavily from

text: Buffon

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: and

text: Lamarck

text: , whilst playing down these influences and giving them little credit. In 1912, biologist

text: Vernon Kellogg

text: described Butler's views as follows:

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection

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answers: Butler rejected Darwin's theory of natural selection.

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: natural selection

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answers: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Evolution, Old and New

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answers: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory

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answers: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory

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answers: natural selection

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answers: Buffon, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck

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answers: disease and famine

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answers: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Darwin's theory

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answers: Vernon Kellogg

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: In a survey of 909 people, 77% of its respondents in India agreed that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, and 85% of God-believing people said they agree with evolution as well. According to the survey conducted by Pew Forum in the United States, 80% of Hindus agree that evolution is the best explanation for the origin of human life on earth.  However, in India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals. The Hindu dharma believes that the gods have animal features, showing a theory that humans can be reborn again as animals or with their features.

text: In a survey of 909 people, 77% of its respondents in India agreed that enough scientific evidence exists to support

text: Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

text: , and 85% of God-believing people said they agree with evolution as well. According to the survey conducted by

text: Pew Forum

text: in the

text: United States

text: , 80% of Hindus agree that evolution is the best explanation for the origin of human life on earth.  However, in India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals. The Hindu dharma believes that the gods have animal features, showing a theory that humans can be reborn again as animals or with their features.

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text: During allopatric (from the ancient Greek allos, "other" + Greek patrā, "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.

text: During allopatric (from the ancient Greek allos, "other" + Greek patrā, "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by

text: habitat fragmentation

text: due to geographical change such as

text: mountain formation

text: ). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or

text: phenotypic

text: divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar

text: selective

text: pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different

text: mutation

text: s arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging

text: gene

text: s.

text: Island genetics

text: is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include

text: insular dwarfism

text: and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on

text: Komodo

text: . The

text: Galápagos Islands

text: are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s could be identified by island, and noticed that

text: finch

text: es differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to

text: England

text: , his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as

text: Darwin's finches

text: to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.

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answers: The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: Galápagos tortoises

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: island

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: England

answers: NDQ_009508

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answers: Galápagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Galápagos

answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: The Galápagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: The Galápagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: allopatric

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Darwin's finches

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: selective pressure

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: allopatric

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: allopatric

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Galápagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: allopatric

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Galápagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: speciation

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: selective pressures

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: The idea of de-evolution is based at least partly on the presumption that "evolution" requires some sort of purposeful direction towards "increasing complexity". Modern evolutionary theory, beginning with Darwin at least, poses no such presumption and the concept of evolutionary change is independent of either any increase in complexity of organisms sharing a gene pool, or any decrease, such as in vestigiality or in loss of genes. Earlier views that species are subject to "cultural decay", "drives to perfection", or "devolution" are practically meaningless in terms of current (neo-)Darwinian theory.  Early scientific theories of transmutation of species such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to form improved adaptations to the environment. In contrast, Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research, have shown that adaptation through natural selection comes about when particular heritable attributes in a population happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in the reigning environment than rival attributes do. By the same process less advantageous attributes are less "successful"; they decrease in frequency or are lost completely. Since Darwin's time it has been shown how these changes in the frequencies of attributes occur according to the mechanisms of genetics and the laws of inheritance originally investigated by Gregor Mendel.  Combined with Darwin's original insights, genetic advances led to what has variously been called the modern evolutionary synthesis or neo-Darwinism. In these terms evolutionary adaptation may occur most obviously through the natural selection of particular alleles. Such alleles may be long established, or they may be new mutations. Selection also might arise from more complex epigenetic or other chromosomal changes, but the fundamental requirement is that any adaptive effect must be heritable.

text: The idea of de-evolution is based at least partly on the presumption that "evolution" requires some sort of

text: purposeful direction

text: towards "

text: increasing complexity

text: ". Modern evolutionary theory, beginning with Darwin at least, poses no such presumption and the concept of evolutionary change is independent of either any increase in complexity of organisms sharing a gene pool, or any decrease, such as in

text: vestigiality

text: or in loss of genes. Earlier views that species are subject to "cultural decay", "drives to perfection", or "devolution" are practically meaningless in terms of current (neo-)Darwinian theory.  Early scientific theories of

text: transmutation of species

text: such as

text: Lamarckism

text: and

text: orthogenesis

text: perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to form improved adaptations to the environment. In contrast, Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research, have shown that

text: adaptation

text: through

text: natural selection

text: comes about when particular heritable attributes in a population happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in the reigning environment than rival attributes do. By the same process less advantageous attributes are less "successful"; they decrease in frequency or are lost completely. Since Darwin's time it has been shown how these changes in the frequencies of attributes occur according to the mechanisms of

text: genetics

text: and the laws of inheritance originally investigated by

text: Gregor Mendel

text: .  Combined with Darwin's original insights, genetic advances led to what has variously been called the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: or neo-Darwinism. In these terms evolutionary adaptation may occur most obviously through the natural selection of particular

text: allele

text: s. Such alleles may be long established, or they may be new

text: mutation

text: s. Selection also might arise from more complex

text: epigenetic

text: or other

text: chromosomal

text: changes, but the fundamental requirement is that any adaptive effect must be

text: heritable

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answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_009495

answers: evolution requires some sort of purposeful direction towards "increasing complexity"

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwinian evolution

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Darwin's time

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: genetic advances

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: Darwinian evolution

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwinian evolution

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: the concept of evolutionary change is independent of either any increase in complexity of organisms sharing a gene pool, or any decrease, such as in vestigiality or in loss of genes

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: organisms

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: alleles

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: heritable attributes

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: environment

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwinian evolution

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwinian

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Lamarckism

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Lamarckism

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Lamarckism and orthogenesis

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: cultural decay

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Lamarckism

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Lamarckism

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answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Gregor Mendel

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answers: Gregor Mendel

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answers: evolution

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answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: In Darwin's theory of natural selection, more organisms are produced than can survive. Some have variations that give them a competitive advantage, and they have the best chance of surviving and procreating. The main element lacking in the theory was any mechanism that would allow organisms to pass on these favorable variations. Lacking such a mechanism, the theory of evolution faced competition from theories such as neo-Lamarckism, in which the environment acted directly on organisms, changing their structures. Darwin did not know that the monk Gregor Mendel was already working on experiments that would explain inheritance in terms of units of heredity that we now call genes.

text: In Darwin's theory of

text: natural selection

text: , more organisms are produced than can survive. Some have variations that give them a competitive advantage, and they have the best chance of surviving and procreating. The main element lacking in the theory was any mechanism that would allow organisms to pass on these favorable variations. Lacking such a mechanism, the theory of evolution faced competition from theories such as

text: neo-Lamarckism

text: , in which the environment acted directly on organisms, changing their structures. Darwin did not know that the monk

text: Gregor Mendel

text: was already working on experiments that would explain inheritance in terms of units of heredity that we now call genes.

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text: The philosopher Karl Popper held that any scientific proposition must be falsifiable, in other words it must at least be possible to imagine an experiment whose outcome would disprove the hypothesis. Initially he thought that Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection (often summarized as "the survival of the fittest") was untestable in this sense, and therefore "almost tautological." Popper later changed his view, concluding that the theory of natural selection is falsifiable and that Darwin's own example of the peacock's tail had disproved one extreme variation of it, that all evolution is driven by natural selection. Although in 1978 Popper wrote that his earlier objection had been specifically to the theory of natural selection, in lectures and articles from 1949 to 1974 he had stated that "Darwinism" or "Darwin's theory of evolution" was a "metaphysical research programme" because it was not falsifiable. In fact he continued to express dissatisfaction with contemporary statements of the theory of evolution which focused on population genetics, the study of the relative frequencies of alleles (different forms of the same gene). Unfortunately some of the adjustments he proposed resembled Lamarckianism or saltationism, evolutionary theories that were and still are considered obsolete, and evolutionary biologists therefore disregarded his criticisms. In 1981 Popper complained that he had been misinterpreted as saying that "historical sciences" such as paleontology or the history of evolution of life on Earth were not genuine sciences, when in fact he believed they could make falsifiable predictions.

text: The philosopher

text: Karl Popper

text: held that any scientific proposition must be

text: falsifiable

text: , in other words it must at least be possible to

text: imagine an experiment

text: whose outcome would disprove the hypothesis. Initially he thought that

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: (often summarized as "the survival of the fittest") was untestable in this sense, and therefore "almost

text: tautological

text: ." Popper later changed his view, concluding that the theory of natural selection is falsifiable and that Darwin's own example of the

text: peacock

text: 's tail had disproved one extreme variation of it, that all evolution is driven by natural selection. Although in 1978 Popper wrote that his earlier objection had been specifically to the theory of natural selection, in lectures and articles from 1949 to 1974 he had stated that "

text: Darwinism

text: " or "Darwin's theory of evolution" was a "metaphysical research programme" because it was not falsifiable. In fact he continued to express dissatisfaction with contemporary statements of the theory of evolution which focused on

text: population genetic

text: s, the study of the relative frequencies of

text: allele

text: s (different forms of the same

text: gene

text: ). Unfortunately some of the adjustments he proposed resembled

text: Lamarckianism

text: or

text: saltationism

text: , evolutionary theories that were and still are considered obsolete, and evolutionary biologists therefore disregarded his criticisms. In 1981 Popper complained that he had been misinterpreted as saying that "historical sciences" such as

text: paleontology

text: or the

text: history of evolution of life on Earth

text: were not genuine sciences, when in fact he believed they could make falsifiable predictions.

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answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009496

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answers: NDQ_009497

answers: 1978

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answers: Popper later changed his view

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1974

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answers: NDQ_009501

answers: peacock's tail

answers: NDQ_009502

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answers: NDQ_009503

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answers: Darwin's own example

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Popper later changed his view

answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarckianism

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Popper later changed his view

answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: Popper

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: The son of Erasmus Darwin, Robert Darwin was a noted physician from Shrewsbury, whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son Charles Darwin's place on the Voyage of the Beagle and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in natural history that led to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. He married Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (see above), and they had the following children.

text: The son of

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: Robert Darwin

text: was a noted physician from

text: Shrewsbury

text: , whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's place on

text: the Voyage of the Beagle

text: and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in

text: natural history

text: that led to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: . He married

text: Susannah Wedgwood

text: , daughter of

text: Josiah Wedgwood

text: see above

text: ), and they had the following children.

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text: The sooty grassquit (Tiaris fuliginosus) is a small bird formerly placed with the Emberizidae. It is now recognized as a tanager closely related to Darwins finches.

text: The sooty grassquit (Tiaris fuliginosus) is a small

text: bird

text: formerly placed with the

text: Emberizidae

text: . It is now recognized as a

text: tanager

text: closely related to

text: Darwins finches

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text: In a review of Behe's paper 'Design vs. Randomness in Evolution: Where Do the Data Point?', Denis Lamoureux criticised Darwin's Black Box as having become central to fundamentalist and evangelical anti-evolution critiques against biological evolution. Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic, when On the Origin of Species repeatedly refers to a Creator in a positive and supportive context as impressing laws on matter. Though Behe has avoided committing himself to the view that God intervenes directly in nature to create purportedly irreducibly complex structures, Darwin's Black Box briefly speculates that divine intervention might have caused the direct creation of a cell from which all of life evolved, supporting creationist views of miraculous acts of creation, but ironically echoing Darwin's stated "view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one". Behe's claim that the creation of an original first cell represents a "gap" in the laws of nature needing divine intervention appears to be the problematic God of the gaps position which is subject to the gaps being filled by scientific discoveries. Behe's thesis that irreducible structures are created in "one fell swoop" is opposed by other biochemists, including many who are devout Christians, and has, it is claimed by some, no support from the fossil record - something Behe would dispute.

text: In a review of Behe's paper 'Design vs. Randomness in Evolution: Where Do the Data Point?',

text: Denis Lamoureux

text: criticised Darwin's Black Box as having become central to fundamentalist and evangelical anti-evolution critiques against biological evolution. Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic, when

text: On the Origin of Species

text: repeatedly refers to a Creator in a positive and supportive context as impressing laws on matter. Though Behe has avoided committing himself to the view that God intervenes directly in nature to create purportedly irreducibly complex structures, Darwin's Black Box briefly speculates that divine intervention might have caused the direct creation of a cell from which all of life evolved, supporting creationist views of miraculous acts of creation, but ironically echoing Darwin's stated "view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one". Behe's claim that the creation of an original first cell represents a "gap" in the laws of nature needing divine intervention appears to be the problematic

text: God of the gaps

text: position which is subject to the gaps being filled by scientific discoveries. Behe's thesis that irreducible structures are created in "one fell swoop" is opposed by other biochemists, including many who are devout Christians, and has, it is claimed by some, no support from the fossil record - something Behe would dispute.

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answers: God intervenes directly in nature to create purportedly irreducibly complex structures

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: On the Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Darwin's Black Box

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Black Box

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: Darwin's Black Box

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Black Box

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: beetles

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: fossil record

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Black Box

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: randomness

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answers: Darwin's Black Box

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Behe would dispute

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: Species

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: On the Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Darwin's Black Box

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin's Black Box

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Denis Lamoureux

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: On the Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009527

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answers: God of the gaps

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Behe

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answers: God of the gaps

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Black Box

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answers: Denis Lamoureux

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answers: evolution

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answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: One famous example is Charles Darwin's deathbed conversion in which it was claimed by Lady Hope that Darwin said:"How I wish I had not expressed my theory of evolution as I have done." He went on to say that he would like her to gather a congregation since he "would like to speak to them of Christ Jesus and His salvation, being in a state where he was eagerly savoring the heavenly anticipation of bliss."Lady Hope's story was printed in the Boston Watchman Examiner. The story spread, and the claims were republished as late as October 1955 in the Reformation Review and in the Monthly Record of the Free Church of Scotland in February 1957.

text: One famous example is

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's deathbed conversion in which it was claimed by

text: Lady Hope

text: that Darwin said:"How I wish I had not expressed my theory of

text: evolution

text: as I have done." He went on to say that he would like her to gather a congregation since he "would like to speak to them of Christ Jesus and His salvation, being in a state where he was eagerly savoring the heavenly anticipation of bliss."Lady Hope's story was printed in the Boston Watchman Examiner. The story spread, and the claims were republished as late as October 1955 in the Reformation Review and in the Monthly Record of the

text: Free Church of Scotland

text: in February 1957.

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text: His ideas changed in summer 1862 when he returned to study at Jena, where Ernst Haeckel introduced him to Darwin's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: His ideas changed in summer 1862 when he returned to study at

text: Jena

text: , where

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: introduced him to

text: Darwin

text: 's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's

text: theory of evolution

text: by natural selection.

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text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery.

text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as

text: botany

text: and

text: zoology

text: became increasingly professional

text: scientific discipline

text: s.

text: Lavoisier

text: and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for

text: biogeography

text: ecology

text: and

text: ethology

text: . Naturalists began to reject

text: essentialism

text: and consider the importance of

text: extinction

text: and the

text: mutability of species

text: Cell theory

text: provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from

text: embryology

text: and

text: paleontology

text: , were synthesized in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . The end of the 19th century saw the fall of

text: spontaneous generation

text: and the rise of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , though the mechanism of

text: inheritance

text: remained a mystery.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Veja magazine had a cover story about the influence of Charles Darwin, who developed the theory of evolution. In an interview, Crivella said that he is a creationist and rejects this theory. The Senator said "there is no conclusive proofs that

text: Veja

text: magazine had a cover story about the influence of

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who developed the theory of

text: evolution

text: . In an interview, Crivella said that he is a

text: creationist

text: and rejects this theory. The Senator said "there is no conclusive proofs that

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answers: evolution is true"

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Theory of Evolution

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Veja magazine

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Crivella

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answers: Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution

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answers: Darwin's theory is true."

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answers: Darwin developed the theory of evolution

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Crivella is a creationist."

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answers: evolution is true."

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answers: Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection is true."

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Darwin's theory of evolution is true."

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answers: Crivella is a creationist."

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answers: Darwin's theory of evolution

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answers: evolution is true"

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answers: Crivella

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answers: Crivella

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answers: evolution

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics. The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, and other beliefs about innate "progress" within the largest-scale trends in evolution, became obsolete scientific theories. Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses, constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories, using observational data, and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory.

text: In the early 20th century the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: integrated

text: classical genetics

text: with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of

text: population genetics

text: . The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of

text: biology

text: . Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as

text: orthogenesis

text: evolutionism

text: , and other beliefs about innate "progress" within the

text: largest-scale trends in evolution

text: , became

text: obsolete scientific theories

text: . Scientists continue to study various aspects of

text: evolutionary biology

text: by forming and testing hypotheses, constructing

text: mathematical models of theoretical biology

text: and biological theories, using

text: observational data

text: , and performing

text: experiment

text: s in both the

text: field

text: and the laboratory.

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text: Charles Darwin initially shared the belief that nature was perfect and harmonious: after graduating as a student at the University of Cambridge in 1831, he was convinced by William Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity which saw adaptation as purposeful design and presented population pressure optimistically; "it is a happy world after all". By mid January 1832, early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin saw geology from Charles Lyell's viewpoint. When the second volume of Lyell's Principles of Geology was delivered to the Beagle that November, Darwin accepted its argument that the "struggle for existence" disproved transmutation of species. He was reminded of Malthusianism when his sisters sent him out pamphlets by Harriet Martineau. Lyell had been unable to show the mechanism for introducing new species, and towards the end of the voyage Darwin noted that the distribution of mockingbirds found on the Galápagos Islands raised doubts that species were fixed.

text: Charles Darwin

text: initially shared the belief that nature was perfect and harmonious: after graduating as a student at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: in 1831, he was convinced by

text: William Paley

text: 's

entity_name: Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity

text: Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity

text: which saw

text: adaptation

text: as

text: purposeful design

text: and presented population pressure optimistically; "it is a happy world after all". By mid January 1832, early in the

text: Beagle voyage

text: , Darwin saw geology from

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's viewpoint. When the second volume of Lyell's

text: Principles of Geology

text: was delivered to the Beagle that November, Darwin accepted its argument that the "struggle for existence" disproved

text: transmutation of species

text: . He was reminded of

text: Malthusianism

text: when his sisters sent him out pamphlets by

text: Harriet Martineau

text: . Lyell had been unable to show the mechanism for introducing new species, and towards the end of the voyage Darwin noted that the distribution of

text: mockingbird

text: s found on the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: raised doubts that species were fixed.

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answers: Darwin saw geology from Charles Lyell's viewpoint

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: In his journal of The Voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin reports the finding of a nearly perfect fossil Scelidotherium in Punta Alta while travelling overland from Bahía Blanca to Buenos Aires in 1832. He allied it to the Megatherium.  Owen (1840) recognized the true characters of the remains and named them Scelidotherium, which means "femur beast" to reflect the distinctive proportions of that skeletal element. They were  tall and might have weighed up to .

text: In his journal of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Charles Darwin

text: reports the finding of a nearly perfect fossil Scelidotherium in

text: Punta Alta

text: while travelling overland from

text: Bahía Blanca

text: to

text: Buenos Aires

text: in 1832. He allied it to the

text: Megatherium

text: .  Owen (1840) recognized the true characters of the remains and named them Scelidotherium, which means "femur beast" to reflect the distinctive proportions of that skeletal element. They were  tall and might have weighed up to .

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text: If Charles Darwin's Theory of evolution was scientific as applied to animals, the same approach should be applied to "man" as an "animal".

text: If

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text: 's

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text: In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (Fisher, Dobzhansky) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also Christians who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a theistic evolution viewpoint, where God provides a divine spark that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where God has guided evolution in one way or another.

text: In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (

text: Fisher

text: Dobzhansky

text: ) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also

text: Christians

text: who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a

text: theistic evolution

text: viewpoint, where

text: God

text: provides a

text: divine spark

text: that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where God has guided evolution in one way or another.

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text: The Nesomimus group is endemic to the  Galápagos Islands. These mockingbirds were important in Charles Darwin's development of the theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: The Nesomimus group is

text: endemic

text: to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . These mockingbirds were important in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's development of the theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

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text: Alfred Wallace and Darwin independently arrived at the theory of evolution by natural selection. Similar to Darwin, Wallace used Malthus's idea of the struggle for existence to reach this conclusion. In addition, Wallace was influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology. Lyell discusses a struggle between organisms that causes one species to become extinct; Wallace may have taken the phrase struggle for existence from this example. Additionally, Wallace claimed that it was the collection of chapters 3–12 of the first volume of An Essay on the Principle of Population that helped him develop his theory. "In these chapters are comprised very detailed accounts from all available sources of the various causes which keep down the population of savage and barbarous nations." Then, in 1853, Wallace first used the phrase "struggle for existence" when discussing the issue of slavery. By 1855, Wallace had made connections between the struggle for existence and overall population. Wallace saw in Malthus's writing how there are different ways in which a population can be kept in check:

text: Alfred Wallace

text: and Darwin independently arrived at the theory of evolution by natural selection. Similar to Darwin, Wallace used Malthus's idea of the struggle for existence to reach this conclusion. In addition, Wallace was influenced by

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's

text: Principles of Geology

text: . Lyell discusses a struggle between organisms that causes one species to become extinct; Wallace may have taken the phrase struggle for existence from this example. Additionally, Wallace claimed that it was the collection of chapters 3–12 of the first volume of An Essay on the Principle of Population that helped him develop his theory. "In these chapters are comprised very detailed accounts from all available sources of the various causes which keep down the population of savage and barbarous nations." Then, in 1853, Wallace first used the phrase "struggle for existence" when discussing the issue of slavery. By 1855, Wallace had made connections between the struggle for existence and overall population. Wallace saw in Malthus's writing how there are different ways in which a population can be kept in check:

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text: Dismissing the Darwin's Theory of Evolution, Naik said that the theory of evolution is "only a hypothesis, and an unproven conjecture at best". According to Naik, most scientists "support the theory, because it went against the Bible – not because it was true." Naik argues that scientific theories were prophesised by the Quran. For example, he has stated in 2010 that certain verses of the Quran accurately describe embryological development.

text: Dismissing the

text: Darwin's

text: Theory of Evolution

text: , Naik said that the

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: is "only a hypothesis, and an unproven conjecture at best". According to Naik, most scientists "support the theory, because it went against the Bible – not because it was true." Naik argues that scientific theories were prophesised by the Quran. For example, he has stated in 2010 that certain verses of the

text: Quran

text: accurately describe

text: embryological

text: development.

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text: By promoting a perception that evolution is the subject of wide controversy and debate within the scientific community, whereas in fact evolution is overwhelmingly supported by scientists, the list is used to lend support to other Discovery Institute campaigns promoting intelligent design, including "Teach the Controversy", "Critical Analysis of Evolution", "Free Speech on Evolution", and "Stand Up For Science". For example, in its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, the Institute claims that "evolution is a theory in crisis" and that many scientists criticize evolution and citing the list as evidence or a resource. The Discovery Institute also asserts that this information is being withheld from students in public high school science classes along with "alternatives" to evolution such as intelligent design. The Institute uses A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism as evidence to support its claim that evolution is disputed widely within the scientific community. In 2002, Stephen C. Meyer, the founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, presented the list as evidence to the Ohio Board of Education to promote Teach the Controversy. He cited it as demonstrating that there was a genuine controversy over Darwinian evolution. In the 2005 Kansas evolution hearings Meyer cited the list in support of his assertion that there was "significant scientific dissent from Darwinism" that students should be informed about.

text: By promoting a perception that evolution is the subject of wide controversy and debate within the scientific community, whereas in fact evolution is overwhelmingly supported by scientists, the list is used to lend support to other

text: Discovery Institute

entity_name: Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns

text: campaigns

text: promoting

text: intelligent design

text: , including "

text: Teach the Controversy

text: Critical Analysis of Evolution

text: Free Speech on Evolution

text: ", and "

text: Stand Up For Science

text: ". For example, in its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, the Institute claims that "evolution is a theory in crisis" and that many scientists criticize evolution and citing the list as evidence or a resource. The Discovery Institute also asserts that this information is being withheld from students in public high school science classes along with "alternatives" to evolution such as intelligent design. The Institute uses A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism as evidence to support its claim that evolution is disputed widely within the scientific community. In 2002,

text: Stephen C. Meyer

text: , the founder of the Discovery Institute's

text: Center for Science and Culture

text: , presented the list as evidence to the

text: Ohio Board of Education

text: to promote

text: Teach the Controversy

text: . He cited it as demonstrating that there was a genuine controversy over Darwinian evolution. In the 2005

text: Kansas evolution hearings

text: Meyer cited the list in support of his assertion that there was "significant scientific dissent from Darwinism" that students should be informed about.

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text: The publication of Darwin's theory brought into the open Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection, the culmination of more than twenty years of work.

text: The publication of Darwin's theory brought into the open

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: through

text: natural selection

text: , the culmination of more than twenty years of work.

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text: Also in early 2009, the BBC broadcast an Attenborough one-hour special, Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life. In reference to the programme, Attenborough stated that "People write to me that evolution is only a theory. Well, it is not a theory. Evolution is as solid a historical fact as you could conceive. Evidence from every quarter. What is a theory is whether natural selection is the mechanism and the only mechanism. That is a theory. But the historical reality that dinosaurs led to birds and mammals produced whales, that's not theory." He strongly opposes creationism and its offshoot "intelligent design", saying that a survey that found a quarter of science teachers in state schools believe that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in science lessons was "really terrible".

text: Also in early 2009, the BBC broadcast an Attenborough one-hour special,

text: Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life

text: . In reference to the programme, Attenborough stated that "People write to me that evolution is only a theory. Well, it is not a theory. Evolution is as solid a historical fact as you could conceive. Evidence from every quarter. What is a theory is whether natural selection is the mechanism and the only mechanism. That is a theory. But the historical reality that dinosaurs led to birds and mammals produced whales, that's not theory." He strongly opposes

text: creationism

text: and its offshoot "

text: intelligent design

text: ", saying that a survey that found a quarter of science teachers in state schools believe that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in science lessons was "really terrible".

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text: The film is inspired by Darwin's theory of evolution and the myths of Narcissus and Prometheus.

text: The film is inspired by

text: Darwin's theory of evolution

text: and the myths of

text: Narcissus

text: and

text: Prometheus

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text: John F. Haught is a Distinguished Research Professor at Georgetown University. He specializes in systematic theology, with a particular interest in issues pertaining to science, cosmology, evolution, ecology, and religion. He has authored numerous books and articles, including Science and Faith: A New Introduction (2012), Making Sense of Evolution: Darwin, God, and The Drama of Life ( 2010), God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens (2008), Christianity and Science: Toward a Theology of Nature (2007), Is Nature Enough? Meaning and Truth in the Age of Science (2006), Purpose, Evolution and the Meaning of Life (2004), God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (2000, 2nd ed. 2007), Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation (1995), The Promise of Nature: Ecology and Cosmic Purpose (1993, 2nd ed. 2004), What is Religion? (1990), What is God? (1986), and The Cosmic Adventure: Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose (1984).  In 2002, Haught received the Owen Garrigan Award in Science and Religion, in 2004 the Sophia Award for Theological Excellence, and in 2008 a “Friend of Darwin Award” from the National Center for Science Education.  He also testified for the plaintiffs in Harrisburg, PA “Intelligent Design Trial”(Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education).

text: John F. Haught is a Distinguished Research Professor at Georgetown University. He specializes in

text: systematic theology

entity_name: Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District

text: Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education

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answers: Evolution

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answers: Darwin

text: The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through a statistical understanding of heredity used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by Francis Galton and, initially, was closely linked to Darwinism and the theory of natural selection. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply it to humans. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: eugenics. With the introduction of genetics, eugenics relied on an ideology of genetic determinism in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism. Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.

text: The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through a statistical understanding of

text: heredity

text: used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by

text: Francis Galton

text: and, initially, was closely linked to Darwinism and the theory of

text: natural selection

text: . Galton had read his half-cousin

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply it to humans. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: eugenics. With the introduction of

text: genetics

text: , eugenics relied on an ideology of

text: genetic determinism

text: in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism. Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.

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answers: Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory

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answers: Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory,or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, economics, culture, medicine, computer science and physics.

text: Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory,or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of

text: Darwinism

text: beyond its original domain of

text: biological evolution

text: on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of

text: variation

text: selection

text: and

text: heredity

text: proposed by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , so that they can apply to explain

text: evolution

text: in a wide variety of other domains, including

text: psychology

text: economics

text: culture

text: medicine

text: computer science

text: and

text: physics

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text: Løvtrup is most well known for his book Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth (1987). In this controversial work, he claimed that Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the real founder of evolution and that natural selection was discovered by Erasmus Darwin, Patrick Matthew and other naturalists before Charles Darwin. The book supports the ideas of early evolutionary thinkers such as Karl Ernst von Baer, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and St. George Jackson Mivart. He was a critic of gradualism and the punctuated equilibrium theory of evolution.

text: Løvtrup is most well known for his book Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth (1987). In this controversial work, he claimed that

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: was the real founder of evolution and that

text: natural selection

text: was discovered by

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: Patrick Matthew

text: and other naturalists before

text: Charles Darwin

text: . The book supports the ideas of early evolutionary thinkers such as

text: Karl Ernst von Baer

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: and

text: St. George Jackson Mivart

text: . He was a critic of

text: gradualism

text: and the

text: punctuated equilibrium

text: theory of evolution.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: The 'Beagle' Collection comprises approximately 2000 rocks and a few fossils collected by Charles Darwin during his voyage around the world on HMS Beagle between 1831-1836.

text: The 'Beagle' Collection comprises approximately 2000 rocks and a few fossils collected by

text: Charles Darwin

text: during his voyage around the world on

text: HMS Beagle

text: between 1831-1836.

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text: The idea of shaping an organism to fit a specific need isn’t a new science; selective breeding of animals and plants started before recorded history. However, until the late 1900s farmers and scientist could breed new strains of a plant or organism only from closely related species, because the DNA had to be compatible for offspring to be able to reproduce another generation.

text: The idea of shaping an organism to fit a specific need isn’t a new science; selective breeding of animals and plants started before recorded history. However, until the late 1900s farmers and scientist could breed new strains of a plant or organism only from closely related species, because the DNA had to be compatible for offspring to be able to reproduce another generation.

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answers: NDQ_009503

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text: Colin Patterson reviewed Evolution of Living Organisms for the New Scientist stating that the book was a criticism of neo-Darwinism, with the opinion that paleontology is "the only true science of evolution". Patterson a paleontologist disputed this statement. He also noted that Grassé's own theory of neo-Lamarckism was "hard to disentangle, and there were other places where Grasse's reasoning was difficult to follow." According to Patterson the book did not mention gene duplication, but this has been well-established in evolution.

text: Colin Patterson

text: reviewed Evolution of Living Organisms for the

text: New Scientist

text: stating that the book was a criticism of neo-Darwinism, with the opinion that paleontology is "the only true science of evolution". Patterson a paleontologist disputed this statement. He also noted that Grassé's own theory of neo-Lamarckism was "hard to disentangle, and there were other places where Grasse's reasoning was difficult to follow." According to Patterson the book did not mention

text: gene duplication

text: , but this has been well-established in evolution.

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text: The Discovery Institute has created a number of petitions to give the impression that there are widespread doubts about the Theory of Evolution among scientists and scientifically-literate professionals. These petitions include A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism, Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity, Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism, and the now-defunct Stand Up For Science.

text: The Discovery Institute has created a number of petitions to give the impression that there are widespread doubts about the Theory of Evolution among scientists and scientifically-literate professionals. These petitions include

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entity_name: Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity

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text: See the development of Darwin's theory for the ensuing developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

text: See the

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: for the ensuing developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

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text: Samuel Wilberforce FRS (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the Church of England, third son of William Wilberforce.  Known as "Soapy Sam", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. The nickname derives from a comment by Benjamin Disraeli that the bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous".  He is probably best remembered today for his opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution—most notably at a famous debate in 1860.

text: Samuel Wilberforce

text: FRS

text: (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the

text: Church of England

text: , third son of

text: William Wilberforce

text: .  Known as "Soapy Sam", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. The nickname derives from a comment by

text: Benjamin Disraeli

text: that the bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous".  He is probably best remembered today for his opposition to

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: —most notably at a

text: famous debate in 1860

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text: Between 1868 and 1872, the life and work of Charles Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions continued with aspects of his intended "Big Book" on evolution through natural selection.  He had by then hurriedly published an "abstract" of this work as On the Origin of Species in 1859, and following the immediate reaction to Darwin's theory his earlier work included demonstrating the utility of the flowers of Orchids in directing insect pollination to achieve cross fertilisation, and a summing up of thirteen years of experiments in The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication which went on sale on 30 January 1868. He now published his ideas on human evolution and on how beautiful but apparently impractical features could have evolved in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. After revising The Origin of Species as the definitive 6th edition, his major works on species culminated in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.  This period was followed by extensive work on insectivorous plants and research into worms.

text: Between 1868 and 1872, the life and work of

text: Charles Darwin

text: from Descent of Man to Emotions continued with aspects of his intended "Big Book" on

text: evolution

text: through

text: natural selection

text: .  He had by then hurriedly published an "

text: abstract

text: " of this work as

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, and following the immediate

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text: included demonstrating the utility of the flowers of

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text: s in directing insect pollination to achieve cross fertilisation, and a summing up of thirteen years of experiments in

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: which went on sale on 30 January 1868. He now published his ideas on human evolution and on how beautiful but apparently impractical features could have evolved in

entity_name: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: . After revising The Origin of Species as the definitive 6th edition, his major works on species culminated in

entity_name: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

text: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

text: .  This period was followed by

entity_name: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms

text: extensive work on insectivorous plants and research into worms

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text: The publication in May of Darwin's Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle) brought reviews accusing him of theorising rather than letting the facts speak for themselves. He turned his attention to expanding his investigations and theory of the formation of coral atolls as the first part of his planned book on geology.

text: The publication in May of Darwin's

text: Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle)

text: brought reviews accusing him of theorising rather than letting the facts speak for themselves. He turned his attention to expanding his investigations and theory of the formation of

text: coral

text: atoll

text: s as the first part of his planned book on geology.

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text: He was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He first read Fritz Müller's Für Darwin (For Darwin) in Giessen. From this he became a supporter of natural selection and Ernst Haeckel's biogenetic law. His scientific works and theories were inspired by Darwinism.

text: He was greatly influenced by

text: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution

text: . He first read

text: Fritz Müller

text: 's Für Darwin (For Darwin) in Giessen. From this he became a supporter of natural selection and

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: 's

text: biogenetic law

text: . His scientific works and theories were inspired by Darwinism.

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: In the first edition of On The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin used an estimate for the erosion of the chalk, sandstone and clay strata of the Weald in his theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin was a follower of Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism and decided to expand upon Lyell's theory with a quantitative estimate to determine if there was enough time in the history of the Earth to uphold his principles of evolution. He assumed the rate of erosion was around one inch per century and calculated the age of the Weald at around 300 million years. Were that true, he reasoned, the Earth itself must be much older. In 1862, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) published a paper "On the age of the sun's heat" in which, unaware of the process of solar fusion, he calculated the Sun had been burning for less than a million years, and put the outside limit of the age of the Earth at 200 million years. Based on these estimates he denounced Darwin's geological estimates as imprecise. Darwin saw Lord Kelvin's calculation as one of the most serious criticisms to his theory and removed his calculations on the Weald from the third edition of On the Origin of Species.

text: In the first edition of

text: On The Origin of Species

text: Charles Darwin

text: used an estimate for the erosion of the chalk, sandstone and clay strata of the Weald in his

text: theory of natural selection

text: . Charles Darwin was a follower of Lyell's theory of

text: uniformitarianism

text: On the Origin of Species

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text: The level of support for creationism among relevant scientists is minimal. Only 700 out of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists gave credence to creationism in 1987, representing about 0.146% of relevant scientists. In 2007 the Discovery Institute reported that about 600 scientists signed their A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism list, up from 100 in 2001. The actual statement of the Scientific Dissent from Darwinism is a relatively mild one that expresses skepticism about the absoluteness of 'Darwinism' (and is in line with the falsifiability required of scientific theories) to explain all features of life, and does not in any way represent an absolute denial or rejection of evolution. By contrast, a tongue-in-cheek response known as Project Steve, a list of scientists named Steve who agree that evolution is "a vital, well-supported, unifying principle of the biological sciences," has 1,382 signatories . People named Steve make up approximately 1% of the total U.S. population.

text: The level of support for

text: creationism

text: among relevant scientists is minimal. Only 700 out of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists gave credence to creationism in 1987, representing about 0.146% of relevant scientists. In 2007 the

text: Discovery Institute

text: reported that about 600 scientists signed their

text: A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism

text: list, up from 100 in 2001. The actual statement of the Scientific Dissent from Darwinism is a relatively mild one that expresses skepticism about the absoluteness of 'Darwinism' (and is in line with the

text: falsifiability

text: required of

text: scientific theories

text: ) to explain all features of life, and does not in any way represent an absolute denial or rejection of evolution. By contrast, a tongue-in-cheek response known as

text: Project Steve

text: , a list of scientists named Steve who agree that evolution is "a vital, well-supported, unifying principle of the biological sciences," has 1,382 signatories . People named Steve make up approximately 1% of the total U.S. population.

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text: One famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with Darwin's finches.  It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur.  The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification.  Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the Galápagos Islands and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their beaks.  The first obvious explanation for these differences is allopatric speciation, speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately.  Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years.  However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in sympatry, with seven or more species inhabiting the same island.  This raises the question as to why these species split when living in the same environment with all the same resources.  Petren, Grant, Grant, and Keller proposed that the speciation of the finches occurred in two parts: an initial, easily observable allopatric event followed by a less clear sympatric event. This sympatric event which occurred second was adaptive radiation.  This occurred largely to promote specialization upon each island.  One major morphological difference among species sharing one island is beak size and shape.  Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources.  Those with short beaks are better adapted to eating seeds on the ground, those with thin, sharp beaks eat insects, and those with long beaks use their beaks to probe for food inside cacti.  With these specializations, seven or more species of finches are able to inhabit the same environments without competition or lack of resources killing several off.  In other words, these morphological differences in beak size and shape brought about by adaptive radiation allow the island diversification to persist.

text: One famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with

text: Darwin's finches

text: .  It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur.  The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification.  Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their

text: beak

text: s.  The first obvious explanation for these differences is

text: allopatric speciation

text: , speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately.  Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years.  However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in

text: sympatry

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answers: It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists

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answers: Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources

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answers: Darwin's finches

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answers: allopatric

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answers: Adaptive radiation

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answers: many evolutionary biologists

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answers: Darwin

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answers: speciation

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answers: Darwin

text: Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of wild plants into uniform and predictable agricultural cultigens. High-yielding varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.

text: Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of

text: wild

text: plants into uniform and predictable agricultural

text: cultigen

text: s.

text: High-yielding

text: varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.

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answers: Plant breeding

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answers: The Origin of Species

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: A major influence on plant systematics was the theory of evolution (Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859), resulting in the aim to group plants by their phylogenetic relationships. To this was added the interest in plant anatomy, aided by the use of the light microscope and the rise of chemistry, allowing the analysis of secondary metabolites.

text: A major influence on plant systematics was the theory of

text: evolution

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: Origin of Species

text: in 1859), resulting in the aim to group plants by their

text: phylogenetic

text: relationships. To this was added the interest in

text: plant anatomy

text: , aided by the use of the

text: light microscope

text: and the rise of chemistry, allowing the analysis of

text: secondary metabolites

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text: Before Darwin published his theory of evolution and common descent in his Origin of Species (1859) scientific theories or models of Polygenism (such as Agassiz's) were strictly creationist. Even after Darwin's book was published, Agassiz still stuck to his scientific form of polygenist creationism and denounced the idea of evolution. However by the late 19th century most scientific polygenists had abandoned Agassiz's creationism and began to embrace polygenist forms of evolution. This even included many students of Agassiz, including Nathaniel Shaler who had studied under Agassiz at Harvard. Shaler continued to believe in polygenism, but believed the different races evolved from different primates. The prominent French anthropologist Paul Broca by 1878 had also converted from creationist polygenism to accepting a form of polygenist evolution.

text: Before Darwin published his theory of evolution and

text: common descent

text: in his Origin of Species (1859) scientific theories or models of Polygenism (such as Agassiz's) were strictly

text: creationist

text: . Even after Darwin's book was published, Agassiz still stuck to his scientific form of polygenist creationism and denounced the idea of evolution. However by the late 19th century most scientific polygenists had abandoned Agassiz's creationism and began to embrace polygenist forms of evolution. This even included many students of Agassiz, including

text: Nathaniel Shaler

text: who had studied under Agassiz at

text: Harvard

text: . Shaler continued to believe in polygenism, but believed the different races evolved from different primates. The prominent French anthropologist

text: Paul Broca

text: by 1878 had also converted from creationist polygenism to accepting a form of polygenist evolution.

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answers: polygenism

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: French

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Agassiz

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answers: Agassiz

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answers: NDQ_009535

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answers: Darwin

text: The voyage took almost five years, and although the Beagle was frequently exposed to lightning and was thought to have been struck by lightning on at least two occasions, "when—at the instant of a vivid flash of lightning, accompanied by a crashing peal of thunder—a hissing sound was heard on the masts; and a strange, though very slightly tremulous, motion in the ship indicated that something unusual had happened", there was never the "slightest damage". Darwin himself reported this effect, and his conviction that "but for the conductor, the results would have been serious." FitzRoy reported that the copper plates stayed firmly in place, even in small spars, and strengthened the spars rather than weakening them. FitzRoy gave the lightning protection high praise:

text: The voyage took almost five years, and although the Beagle was frequently exposed to lightning and was thought to have been struck by lightning on at least two occasions, "when—at the instant of a vivid flash of lightning, accompanied by a crashing peal of thunder—a hissing sound was heard on the masts; and a strange, though very slightly tremulous, motion in the ship indicated that something unusual had happened", there was never the "slightest damage". Darwin himself reported this effect, and his conviction that "but for the conductor, the results would have been serious." FitzRoy reported that the copper plates stayed firmly in place, even in small spars, and strengthened the spars rather than weakening them. FitzRoy gave the lightning protection high praise:

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answers: NDQ_009495

answers: Darwin himself reported this effect

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Beagle

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: FitzRoy

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: FitzRoy

answers: NDQ_009499

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answers: NDQ_009500

answers: conductor

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: the copper plates stayed firmly in place, even in small spars

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: FitzRoy reported that the copper plates stayed firmly in place

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: lightning

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: copper plates

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: the conductor

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: FitzRoy

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils, so they had no influence on his theory of evolution

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: lightning

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarcks ideas about evolution were influenced by Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection.

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: FitzRoy

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

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answers: NDQ_009526

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answers: evolution

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answers: Darwin

text: Further extensive modifications were made for the second voyage of HMS Beagle. Darwin noted in his journal in April 1833 that "It blew half a gale of wind; but it was fair & we scudded before it. — Our decks fully deserved their nickname of a "half tide rock"; so constantly did the water flow over them", but John Lort Stokes who was on all three survey expeditions praised the Beagle: "The reader will be surprised to learn that she belongs to that much-abused class, the '10-gun brigs'—coffins, as they are not infrequently designated in the service; notwithstanding which, she has proved herself, under every possible variety of trial, in all kinds of weather, an excellent sea boat.

text: Further extensive modifications were made for the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: . Darwin noted in his journal in April 1833 that "It blew half a gale of wind; but it was fair & we scudded before it. — Our decks fully deserved their nickname of a "half tide rock"; so constantly did the water flow over them", but

text: John Lort Stokes

text: who was on all three survey expeditions praised the Beagle: "The reader will be surprised to learn that she belongs to that much-abused class, the '10-gun brigs'—coffins, as they are not infrequently designated in the service; notwithstanding which, she has proved herself, under every possible variety of trial, in all kinds of weather, an excellent sea boat.

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text: Darwin had kept a diary of his experiences, and rewrote this as the book titled Journal and Remarks, published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. This travelogue and scientific journal was widely popular, and was reprinted many times with various titles, becoming known as The Voyage of the Beagle. This diary is where Darwin drew most of the ideas for his publications. Darwin attributes his first real training in natural history to his voyage on the Beagle.

text: Darwin had kept a diary of his experiences, and rewrote this as the book titled Journal and Remarks, published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. This travelogue and scientific journal was widely popular, and was reprinted many times with various titles, becoming known as

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: . This diary is where Darwin drew most of the ideas for his publications. Darwin attributes his first real training in natural history to his voyage on the Beagle.

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text: Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May after more than three years of work, with Part 4: Fish of Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle also going to print. Illness was a continuing problem, and he and Emma left London on 18 May, visiting her parents at Maer Hall before moving on to Shrewsbury on 15 June for rest and quiet. Now Darwin "first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages", the '"Pencil Sketch"' of his theory. This discussed farmers breeding animals, gave the analogy of overpopulation and competition leading to "Natural Selection" through the "war of nature" and the mechanism of descent. Every living thing was related in a branching pedigree, not ascending a Lamarckian ladder, and this pedigree was the proper basis for classification.<ref>

text: Darwin's book

entity_name: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: on his theory of

text: atoll

text: formation was published in May after more than three years of work, with Part 4: Fish of

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: also going to print. Illness was a continuing problem, and he and Emma left London on 18 May, visiting her parents at

text: Maer Hall

text: before moving on to

text: Shrewsbury

text: on 15 June for rest and quiet. Now Darwin "first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages", the '"Pencil Sketch"' of his theory. This discussed farmers breeding animals, gave the analogy of overpopulation and competition leading to "Natural Selection" through the "war of nature" and the mechanism of descent. Every living thing was related in a branching pedigree, not ascending a Lamarckian ladder, and this pedigree was the proper basis for classification.<ref>

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text: Ever since 1859, when Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, the biological theory of evolution has been significant. The theory posits that the human species is related to all others, living and extinct, and that natural selection is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g. social Darwinism, and for new technology, e.g. antibiotics.

text: Ever since 1859, when

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , the biological

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: has been significant. The theory posits that the human

text: species

text: is related to all others, living and extinct, and that

text: natural selection

text: is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g.

text: social Darwinism

text: , and for new

text: technology

text: , e.g.

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text: When Sir John Lubbock was doing the preliminary work for his 1865 magnum opus, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were jointly publishing their first papers On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. Darwins's On the Origin of Species came out in 1859, but he did not elucidate the theory of evolution as it applies to man until the Descent of Man in 1871. Meanwhile, Wallace read a paper in 1864 to the Anthropological Society of London that was a major influence on Sir John, publishing in the very next year. He quoted Wallace:

text: When Sir John Lubbock was doing the preliminary work for his 1865

text: magnum opus

text: Charles Darwin

text: and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: were jointly publishing their first papers

entity_name: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

text: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

text: . Darwins's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: came out in 1859, but he did not elucidate the

text: theory of evolution

text: as it applies to man until

text: the Descent of Man

text: in 1871. Meanwhile, Wallace read a paper in 1864 to the

text: Anthropological Society of London

text: that was a major influence on Sir John, publishing in the very next year. He quoted Wallace:

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text: While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson and Eugenie Scott that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical  developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example. In the United States, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism, but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, with evolution by natural selection.

text: While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as

text: Olivia Judson

text: and

text: Eugenie Scott

text: that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the

text: Moravia

text: n scientist and

text: Augustinian

text: friar

text: Gregor Mendel

text: , and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of

text: heredity

text: . He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical  developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of

text: genetic drift

text: , for example. In the United States, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a

text: pejorative

text: term in reference to beliefs such as

text: scientific materialism

text: , but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, with evolution by natural selection.

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text: Charles Darwin's views on women were based on his view of natural selection. Darwin believed that the difference between males and females were partly due to "sexual selection." Darwin's theory of sexual selection, which can be found in his book The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, states that women, and some men, will choose to mate with someone that is most suitable to culture. This proposition of sexual selection readily tied into his theory of natural selection in the way that evolution will have different outcomes depending on the traits of the suitor the females chooses to reproduce with. This also supports his principle of "survival of the fittest" in the human species.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's views on women were based on his view of natural selection. Darwin believed that the difference between males and females were partly due to "

text: sexual selection

text: ." Darwin's theory of sexual selection, which can be found in his book

text: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: , states that women, and some men, will choose to mate with someone that is most suitable to culture. This proposition of sexual selection readily tied into his theory of

text: natural selection

text: in the way that evolution will have different outcomes depending on the traits of the suitor the females chooses to reproduce with. This also supports his principle of "survival of the fittest" in the human species.

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answers: the difference between males and females were partly due to "sexual selection."

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Charles Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis".

text: Charles Darwin

text: gave new direction to

text: morphology

text: and

text: physiology

text: , by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a

text: genealogical

text: basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of

text: spontaneous generation

text: and the rise of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , though the mechanism of

text: inheritance

text: remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of

text: Mendel's

text: work led to the rapid development of

text: genetics

text: by

text: Thomas Hunt Morgan

text: and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of

text: population genetics

text: and natural selection in the "

text: neo-Darwinian synthesis

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text: He distinguished between the scale structures of fishes, living and fossil, by which they are classified and recognized. This is important because different strata may identified by fossil fish scales. Goodrich's attention was always focused on evolution, to which he made notable contributions, firmly adhering to Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: He distinguished between the scale structures of fishes, living and fossil, by which they are classified and recognized. This is important because different

text: strata

text: may identified by fossil fish scales. Goodrich's attention was always focused on

text: evolution

text: , to which he made notable contributions, firmly adhering to Darwin's theory of

text: natural selection

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text: Unlike Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in South America and the Malay Archipelago made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of an extract from Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter. Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

text: Unlike Darwin,

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in

text: South America

text: and the

text: Malay Archipelago

text: made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of

text: an extract from Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter

text: . Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

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text: Gray, considered by Darwin to be his friend and "best advocate", also attempted to convince Darwin in his letters that design was inherent in all forms of life, and to return to his faith. Gray saw nature as filled with "unmistakable and irresistible indications of design" and argued that "God himself is the very last, irreducible causal factor and, hence, the source of all evolutionary change." Darwin agreed that his theories were "not at all necessarily atheistical" but was unable to share Gray's belief. "I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of Newton," he wrote. Gray was a Christian, but he was a staunch supporter of Darwin in America. He collected together a number of his own writings to produce an influential book, Darwiniana (1876); these essays argued for a conciliation between Darwinian evolution and the tenets of theism, at a time when many on both sides perceived the two as mutually exclusive. Gray denied that investigation of physical causes stood opposed to the theological view and the study of the harmonies between mind and Nature, and thought it "most presumable that an intellectual conception realized in Nature would be realized through natural agencies". The result of all this is that Gray distanced himself from Social Darwinism. Gray is a critical link in the history of American intellectualism, and his writings that explain how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive have been considered his supreme accomplishment; thereby providing a way for believers in Creationism to consider Darwin's ideas.

text: Gray, considered by Darwin to be his friend and "best advocate", also attempted to convince Darwin in his letters that

text: design was inherent in all forms of life

text: , and to return to his faith. Gray saw nature as filled with "unmistakable and irresistible indications of design" and argued that "God himself is the very last, irreducible causal factor and, hence, the source of all evolutionary change." Darwin agreed that his theories were "not at all necessarily atheistical" but was unable to share Gray's belief. "I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of

text: Newton

text: ," he wrote. Gray was a Christian, but he was a staunch supporter of Darwin in America. He collected together a number of his own writings to produce an influential book,

text: Darwiniana

text: (1876); these essays argued for a conciliation between Darwinian evolution and the tenets of

text: theism

text: , at a time when many on both sides perceived the two as mutually exclusive. Gray denied that investigation of physical causes stood opposed to the theological view and the study of the harmonies between mind and Nature, and thought it "most presumable that an intellectual conception realized in Nature would be realized through natural agencies". The result of all this is that Gray distanced himself from

text: Social Darwinism

text: . Gray is a critical link in the history of American intellectualism, and his writings that explain how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive have been considered his supreme accomplishment; thereby providing a way for believers in

text: Creationism

text: to consider Darwin's ideas.

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answers: The result of all this that Gray distanced himself

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text: What distinguishes most mankind from animals, according to Darwin, is in fact evolution and development of morality. Mankind is a social animal, and has inherited its moral traits through the evolution of morality. As Darwin notes, the moral difference between mankind and animals, however, is "certainly one of degree and not of kind." Emotions such as remorse, regret or shame one may feel, stem from human's incessant reflection on past experiences and preoccupation with the judgement of others.

text: What distinguishes most mankind from animals, according to Darwin, is in fact evolution and development of morality. Mankind is a social animal, and has inherited its moral traits through the

text: evolution of morality

text: . As Darwin notes, the moral difference between mankind and animals, however, is "certainly one of degree and not of kind." Emotions such as remorse, regret or shame one may feel, stem from human's incessant reflection on past experiences and preoccupation with the judgement of others.

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answers: Darwin

text: Charles Darwin read Sir John's 1809 pamphlet, and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities". These writings, along with Darwin's correspondence via their mutual friend William Yarrell, aided Darwin in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin's seminal work On the Origin of Species, first published in 1859, cited Sir John's experiments in pigeon breeding, and recalled "That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.'" Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam, as well as pigeon and dog breeding, in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, and his book on Natural Selection (which was not published in his lifetime).

text: Charles Darwin

text: read Sir John's 1809 pamphlet, and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities". These writings, along with

text: Darwin's correspondence

text: via their mutual friend

text: William Yarrell

text: , aided Darwin in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: . Darwin's seminal work

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , first published in 1859, cited Sir John's experiments in pigeon breeding, and recalled "That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.'" Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam, as well as pigeon and dog breeding, in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, his 1871

text: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: , and his book on Natural Selection (which was not published in his lifetime).

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answers: NDQ_009523

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

text: During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the

text: Beagle Channel

text: was named

text: Darwin Sound

text: by

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing

text: glacier

text: caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby

text: Mount Darwin

text: in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the

text: Beagle

text: was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend

text: John Lort Stokes

text: sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain

text: Wickham

text: named

text: Port Darwin

text: : a nearby settlement was renamed

text: Darwin

text: in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's

text: Northern Territory

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text: After a week with student friends at Barmouth, Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on  with captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

text: After a week with student friends at

text: Barmouth

text: , Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished)

text: naturalist

text: for a self-funded

text: supernumerary

text: place on  with captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , emphasising that this was a position for a

text: gentleman

text: rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.

text: Robert Darwin

text: objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law,

text: Josiah Wedgwood

text: , to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

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text: The school was at the centre of a storm of protests from scientists and educationalists when it was revealed that some members of the management team, including both the principal and the head of science, were sympathetic to Young Earth creationism and had allowed its hall to be rented by Answers in Genesis, an organisation which promotes such views. The school includes evolutionary science in its curriculum, but presents evolution as a theory complemented by the theory of creationism (taught in RE lessons). This led to allegations by Richard Dawkins, John Polkinghorne, and others in 2002 that the school taught creationism in science lessons. In 2002, the Liberal Democrat MP Jenny Tonge asked Prime Minister Tony Blair if he was "happy to allow the teaching of creationism alongside Darwin's theory of evolution in state schools". The Prime Minister replied that he supported a "diverse school system", and praised the teachers at Emmanuel College for their commitments to "deliver[ing] better results for our children".

text: The school was at the centre of a storm of protests from scientists and educationalists when it was revealed that some members of the management team, including both the principal and the head of science, were sympathetic to

text: Young Earth creationism

text: and had allowed its hall to be rented by

text: Answers in Genesis

text: , an organisation which promotes such views. The school includes evolutionary science in its curriculum, but presents evolution as a theory complemented by the theory of creationism (taught in RE lessons). This led to allegations by

text: Richard Dawkins

text: John Polkinghorne

text: , and others in 2002 that the school taught creationism in science lessons. In 2002, the

text: Liberal Democrat

text: MP

text: Jenny Tonge

text: asked Prime Minister

text: Tony Blair

text: if he was "happy to allow the teaching of creationism alongside Darwin's theory of evolution in state schools". The Prime Minister replied that he supported a "diverse school system", and praised the teachers at Emmanuel College for their commitments to "deliver[ing] better results for our children".

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text: Now Darwin turned to work on a new edition of The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication incorporating additions from the hundreds of letters and scores of monographs that had been sent to Darwin in the seven years since it had been published. Parts were altered or discarded, and George Romanes set aside work on jellyfish to graft vegetable plants in experiments aimed at finding out about the "gemmules" which Darwin thought formed the mechanism of inheritance of characteristics. Investigations into "pangenesis" by Galton had tried blood transfusions between different breeds of rabbits without success. Darwin continued to look for proof of inheritance of acquired characteristics, amassing evidence of blacksmith's children being muscular and babies born with scars matching those of their parents. He would not follow Huxley in discarding these ideas, and Descent had presented such inheritance as a significant factor in human evolution.

text: Now Darwin turned to work on a new edition of

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: incorporating additions from the hundreds of letters and scores of monographs that had been sent to Darwin in the seven years since it had been published. Parts were altered or discarded, and

text: George Romanes

text: set aside work on jellyfish to graft vegetable plants in experiments aimed at finding out about the "

text: gemmules

text: " which Darwin thought formed the mechanism of inheritance of characteristics. Investigations into "

text: pangenesis

text: " by

text: Galton

text: had tried blood transfusions between different breeds of rabbits without success. Darwin continued to look for proof of inheritance of acquired characteristics, amassing evidence of blacksmith's children being muscular and babies born with scars matching those of their parents. He would not follow Huxley in discarding these ideas, and Descent had presented such inheritance as a significant factor in human evolution.

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text: , a British Navy brig-sloop, was converted into an exploration vessel. The most famous of her three trips was the second one under the command of Captain FitzRoy. On board was the young Charles Darwin. HMS Beagle remained in the Magellan región for almost three years. She is famous for being the ship where Darwin started developing his theory of evolution. The construction of the full-size HMS Beagle replica started in November 2012.

text: , a British Navy

text: brig-sloop

text: , was converted into an exploration vessel. The most famous of her three trips was the second one under the command of Captain

text: FitzRoy

text: . On board was the young

text: Charles Darwin

text: . HMS Beagle remained in the

text: Magellan región

text: for almost three years. She is famous for being the ship where Darwin started developing his theory of evolution. The construction of the full-size HMS Beagle replica started in November 2012.

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text: Mr. Turpen is a male Galapagos tortoise that lives in the Pitcairn Islands. These animals were known as "turpins", for example Charles Darwin wrote "Met an immense Turpin; took little notice of me."

text: Mr. Turpen is a male

text: Galapagos tortoise

text: that lives in the

text: Pitcairn Islands

text: . These animals were known as "

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text: wrote "Met an immense Turpin; took little notice of me."

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text: Although not the only species in the family the Darwin's finches are the only ones in the family to be found in the archipelago. Famous for inspiring Darwin in his theory of evolution, the finches have astonishingly different beaks.14 species in Galápagos

text: Although not the only species in the family the

text: Darwin's finches

text: are the only ones in the family to be found in the archipelago. Famous for inspiring Darwin in his

text: theory of evolution

text: , the finches have astonishingly different beaks.14 species in Galápagos

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text: The domestication of animals is the scientific theory of the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations.

text: The domestication of animals is the

text: scientific theory

text: of the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction.

text: Charles Darwin

text: recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious

text: selective breeding

text: in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of

text: natural selection

text: or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or

text: regional populations

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answers: Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors

answers: NDQ_009523

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answers: Charles Darwin

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Developmental systems theory is plainly radically incompatible with both neo-Darwinism and information processing theory. Whereas neo-Darwinism defines evolution in terms of changes in gene distribution, the possibility that an evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any directly corresponding change in gene frequencies is an elementary assumption of developmental systems theory, just as neo-Darwinism’s ‘explanation’ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness is regarded as fundamentally shallow. Even the widespread mechanistic equation of ‘gene’ with a specific DNA sequence has been thrown into question, as have the analogous interpretations of evolution and adaptation.

text: Developmental systems theory is plainly radically incompatible with both neo-Darwinism and information processing theory. Whereas neo-Darwinism defines evolution in terms of changes in gene distribution, the possibility that an evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any directly corresponding change in gene frequencies is an elementary assumption of developmental systems theory, just as neo-Darwinism’s ‘explanation’ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness is regarded as fundamentally shallow. Even the widespread mechanistic equation of ‘gene’ with a specific DNA sequence has been thrown into question, as have the analogous interpretations of evolution and adaptation.

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answers: changes in gene distribution

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwinism

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Developmental systems theory

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Developmental systems theory

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1848

answers: NDQ_009500

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answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Galpagos penguins

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any directly corresponding change in gene frequencies

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: reproductive fitness

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: DNA sequence

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

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answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin’s ‘explanation’ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness

answers: NDQ_009517

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answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: NDQ_009522

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answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Developmental systems theory

answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: NDQ_009525

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answers: NDQ_009526

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answers: Darwin

text: Following Charles Darwin's return from the Beagle voyage, Buckland discussed with him the Galapagos land iguanas and Marine iguanas. He subsequently recommended Darwin's paper on the role of earthworms in soil formation for publication, praising it as "a new & important theory to explain Phenomena of universal occurrence on the surface of the Earth—in fact a new Geological Power", while rightly rejecting Darwin's suggestion that chalkland could have been formed in a similar way.

text: Following

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's return from the

text: Beagle voyage

text: , Buckland discussed with him the

text: Galapagos land iguana

text: s and

text: Marine iguana

text: s. He subsequently recommended Darwin's paper on the role of

text: earthworm

text: s in

text: soil formation

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text: The most prominent member of the family, Charles Darwin, proposed the first coherent theory of evolution by means of natural and sexual selection.

text: The most prominent member of the family,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , proposed the first coherent theory of

text: evolution

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answers: NDQ_009517

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answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: NDQ_009522

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answers: NDQ_009523

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answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

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answers: NDQ_009527

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answers: NDQ_009528

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answers: NDQ_009529

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answers: NDQ_009534

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answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: sexual selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early prehistory; key species such as wheat, rice, and dogs have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and maize, which required especially large changes from teosinte, its wild form, was selectively bred in Mesoamerica. Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as Mago the Carthaginian. The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the Persian Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples.

text: Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early

text: prehistory

text: ; key species such as

text: wheat

text: rice

text: , and

text: dog

text: s have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and

text: maize

text: , which required especially large changes from

entity_section: Origin of maize and interaction with teosintes

text: teosinte

text: , its wild form, was selectively bred in

text: Mesoamerica

text: . Selective breeding was practiced by the

text: Romans

text: . Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as

text: Mago the Carthaginian

text: . The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the

text: Persian

text: Muslim

text: polymath

text: Abu Rayhan Biruni

text: in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples.

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answers: Selective breeding

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: India

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answers: Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: in the 11th century

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Selective breeding

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: teosinte

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Selective breeding has been practiced since early prehistory

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: plants and animals

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: book titled India

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: their wild ancestors

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: purposes

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Abu Rayhan Biruni

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Selective breeding

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answers: Selective breeding

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answers: Selective breeding

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answers: Mago

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answers: Abu Rayhan Biruni

text: FitzRoy undertook the second voyage of Beagle to return the surviving three Fuegians, at considerable personal expense. He was accompanied by Charles Darwin, who by the end of the voyage had become famous in scientific circles as a result of the discoveries he made during it, and who also collected much of the material that was to underpin his evolutionary theories during these travels. Decades later, following the publication of The Origin of Species, FitzRoy – a committed Christian – regretted that he had facilitated Darwin’s research.

text: FitzRoy undertook the

text: second voyage of Beagle

text: to return the surviving three Fuegians, at considerable personal expense. He was accompanied by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who by the end of the voyage had become famous in scientific circles as a result of the discoveries he made during it, and who also collected much of the material that was to underpin his evolutionary theories during these travels. Decades later, following the publication of

text: The Origin of Species

text: , FitzRoy – a committed Christian – regretted that he had facilitated Darwin’s research.

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text: "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race."

text: "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by

text: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: : "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race."

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text: Dover co-edited the textbook Genome Evolution with Richard Flavell. He has also written a popular book on evolution, Dear Mr Darwin: Letters on the Evolution of Life and Human Nature, framed as an exchange of letters with Charles Darwin from beyond the grave. The book seeks to refute the selfish gene theory promulgated by Richard Dawkins.

text: Dover co-edited the textbook Genome Evolution with Richard Flavell. He has also written a popular book on evolution, Dear Mr Darwin: Letters on the Evolution of Life and Human Nature, framed as an exchange of letters with

text: Charles Darwin

text: from beyond the grave. The book seeks to refute the

text: selfish gene theory

text: promulgated by

text: Richard Dawkins

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text: The ten sketches of "The Encantadas" go back to Melville's whaling years, during which he visited the Galapagos Islands, supplemented with material from his reading in at least six books of Pacific voyages. According to the editors of The Piazza Tales, reliance on personal experience seems most prominent in the first four sketches, yet even here Melville drew upon "a number of other writers", though he only named William Cowley. Neither is the attribution at the end of the fifth sketch--where Cowley, Colnett, and Porter are mentioned--complete, for Melville borrowed from James Burney as well, probably from A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, published from 1803 to 1817. Neither did he mention The Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin, which he used in the first sketch and possibly parodied in sketch four.

text: The ten sketches of "The Encantadas" go back to Melville's whaling years, during which he visited the Galapagos Islands, supplemented with material from his reading in at least six books of Pacific voyages. According to the editors of The Piazza Tales, reliance on personal experience seems most prominent in the first four sketches, yet even here Melville drew upon "a number of other writers", though he only named

text: William Cowley

text: . Neither is the attribution at the end of the fifth sketch--where Cowley, Colnett, and Porter are mentioned--complete, for Melville borrowed from

text: James Burney

text: as well, probably from A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, published from 1803 to 1817. Neither did he mention

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , which he used in the first sketch and possibly parodied in sketch four.

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text: From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe hood mockingbird, large cactus finch, and medium tree finch, all endemic to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called Darwin's finch group of tanagers, significant for their impact on Charles Darwin's reasoning about evolution and the emergence of new species.

text: From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe

text: hood mockingbird

text: large cactus finch

text: , and

text: medium tree finch

text: , all

text: endemic

text: to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called

text: Darwin's finch

text: group of

text: tanager

text: s, significant for their impact on

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's reasoning about

text: evolution

text: and the emergence of new species.

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text: Charles Darwin, best known for his theory of evolution, made many significant contributions to the early study of marine biology. He spent much of his time from 1831 to 1836 on the voyage of HMS Beagle collecting and studying specimens from a variety of marine organisms. It was also on this expedition where Darwin began to study coral reefs and their formation. He came up with the theory that the overall growth of corals is a balance between the growth of corals upward and the sinking of the sea floor. He then came up with the idea that wherever coral atolls would be found, the central island where the coral had started to grow would be gradually subsiding

text: Charles Darwin

text: , best known for his

text: theory of evolution

text: , made many significant contributions to the early study of marine biology. He spent much of his time from 1831 to 1836 on the

text: voyage of HMS Beagle

text: collecting and studying specimens from a variety of marine organisms. It was also on this expedition where Darwin began to study

text: coral reefs

text: and their formation. He came up with the theory that the overall growth of corals is a balance between the growth of corals upward and the sinking of the sea floor. He then came up with the idea that wherever coral atolls would be found, the central island where the coral had started to grow would be gradually subsiding

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text: Wallace's reaction, delivered in January 1859, was that he was gratified to have spurred Darwin into making the announcement and that it would have caused him "much pain & regret" if his papers had been published on their own, without Darwin's papers.  Darwin was still sensitive on the point, and assured Wallace that he "had absolutely nothing whatever to do with leading Lyell and Hooker to what they thought was a fair course of action". He responded to Wallace's enquiry about what Lyell thought of the theory by saying that "I think he is somewhat staggered, but does not give in and speaks with horror [of] what a job it would be for the next edition of "The Principles" [of Geology] if he were "perverted". But he is most candid and honest, and I think he will end up by being "perverted"." Lyell was still struggling to come to terms with the idea of mankind, with immortal soul, originating from animals, but "Considering his age, his former views and position in society, I think his conduct has been heroic on the subject."

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text: In the 19th century, several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography.  Charles Lyell, being one of the first contributors in the 19th century, developed the Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils.  This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct.  Since he noted that earth’s climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly.  Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.

text: In the 19th century, several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography.

text: Charles Lyell

text: , being one of the first contributors in the 19th century, developed the Theory of

text: Uniformitarianism

text: after studying fossils.  This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct.  Since he noted that earth’s climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly.  Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.

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answers: Charles Darwin

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, of the Weismann barrier or in genetics of the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life, and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.

text: Darwinism is a

text: theory

text: of

text: biological

text: evolution

text: developed by the English

text: naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: (1809-1882) and others, stating that all

text: species

text: of

text: organism

text: s arise and develop through the

text: natural selection

text: of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and

text: reproduce

text: . Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of

text: transmutation of species

text: or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, of the

text: Weismann barrier

text: or in

text: genetics

text: of the

text: central dogma of molecular biology

text: . Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution,

text: creationists

text: have appropriated it to refer to the

text: origin of life

text: , and it has even been applied to concepts of

text: cosmic evolution

text: , both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including

text: divine design

text: and

text: extraterrestrial origins

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answers: all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: ||12||Tortoises||Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea)||

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: (Geochelone gigantea)||

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answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwin's famous book on evolution is The Origin of Species.

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: The Aldabra tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise native to the Andes of South America.

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: The development of Darwin's theory was influenced by the development of tortoises.

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859.

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is the largest tortoise in the world.

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise native to the Galapagos Islands.

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: The Aldabra tortoise is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a tortoise native to the Galapagos Islands.

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: The Galapagos Islands are located off the west coast of Ecuador.

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin's job on the Beagle was to observe and collect specimens wherever the ship went ashore.

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils, so they had no influence on his theory of evolution.

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarck's theory of evolution by natural selection was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: The Aldabra tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise native to the Andes of South America.

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: The theory of evolution by natural selection explains and unifies all of life science.

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: All of the giant Galpagos tortoises are now extinct.

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Animal breeders produce animals with desired traits by selecting which animals are allowed to

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is the world's largest tortoise.

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: The Aldabra tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) is a species of tortoise in the family Geocheloneidae.

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Darwin's book on evolution by natural selection was rejected because it contained very little.

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Aldabra

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Geological Survey of America

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Jacques Vallée

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: Evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Albert Einstein

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: Genotyping

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: During the same time that the stratigraphic column was being completed, imperialism drove several countries in the early to mid 19th century to explore distant lands to expand their empires. This gave naturalists the opportunity to collect data on these voyages. In 1831 Captain Robert FitzRoy, given charge of the coastal survey expedition of HMS Beagle, sought a suitable naturalist to examine the land and give geological advice. This fell to Charles Darwin, who had just completed his BA degree and had accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week Welsh mapping expedition after taking his Spring course on geology. Fitzroy gave Darwin Lyell’s Principles of Geology, and Darwin became Lyell's first disciple, inventively theorising on uniformitarian principles about the geological processes he saw, and challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift, then on the basis of the idea that ocean areas sank as land was uplifted, theorised that coral atolls grew from fringing coral reefs round sinking volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the Beagle surveyed the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and in 1842 he published his theory on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of evolution by natural selection published in On the Origin of Species in 1859.

text: During the same time that the stratigraphic column was being completed,

text: imperialism

text: drove several countries in the early to mid 19th century to explore distant lands to expand their empires. This gave naturalists the opportunity to collect data on these voyages. In 1831 Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , given charge of the coastal

text: survey expedition of HMS Beagle

text: , sought a suitable naturalist to examine the land and give geological advice. This fell to

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who had just completed his BA degree and had accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week Welsh mapping expedition after taking his Spring course on geology. Fitzroy gave Darwin Lyell’s Principles of Geology, and Darwin became Lyell's first disciple, inventively theorising on

text: uniformitarian

text: principles about the geological processes he saw, and challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift, then on the basis of the idea that ocean areas sank as land was uplifted, theorised that

text: coral atoll

text: s grew from fringing

text: coral reef

text: s round sinking volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the Beagle surveyed the

text: Cocos (Keeling) Islands

text: , and in 1842 he published his theory on

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: . Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: published in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859.

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answers: natural selection

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answers: On the Origin of Species

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answers: discovery of giant fossils

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answers: his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of evolution by natural selection published in On the Origin of Species in 1859

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answers: He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith, often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed, is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.

text: In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first

text: neo-Darwinism

text: and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith, often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed, is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.

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text: While the birds seemed almost an afterthought the ornithologist John Gould took them on and was quick to notice the significance of specimens from the Galápagos Islands. He startlingly revealed at the next meeting on 10 January that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches were "a series of ground finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group" of 11 species. The story of what we now call "Darwin's finches" was covered by the daily newspapers, though Darwin was in Cambridge and did not get details at this stage. In the minutes of the meeting the number was extended to 12 species.

text: While the birds seemed almost an afterthought the ornithologist

text: John Gould

text: took them on and was quick to notice the significance of specimens from the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . He startlingly revealed at the next meeting on 10 January that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches were "a series of ground finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group" of 11 species. The story of what we now call "

text: Darwin's finches

text: " was covered by the daily newspapers, though Darwin was in Cambridge and did not get details at this stage. In the minutes of the meeting the number was extended to 12 species.

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text: The structure was originally depicted by Tiedemann, and later by Knox in the early 19th century, but it was John Struthers was the first to draw attention to this structure in 1848 as a "peculiar process" that bore curious resemblance to anatomy that he had seen in cats.  This observation was one of many that Struthers made in subsequent investigations of vestigial and rudimentary structures, and in sharing these observations with his contemporary, Charles Darwin, provided significant evidence for the theories of evolution. Charles Darwin took the ligament to mean that humans and other mammals had a common ancestor, and used Struthers' work as evidence in Chapter 1 of his Descent of Man (1871).  Struthers went on to create an museum of Comparative Anatomy filled with zoological specimens to illustrate Darwin's theory of common descent.

text: The structure was originally depicted by Tiedemann, and later by Knox in the early 19th century, but it was

text: John Struthers

text: was the first to draw attention to this structure in 1848 as a "peculiar process" that bore curious resemblance to anatomy that he had seen in cats.  This observation was one of many that Struthers made in subsequent investigations of vestigial and rudimentary structures, and in sharing these observations with his contemporary, Charles Darwin, provided significant evidence for the theories of evolution.

text: Charles Darwin

text: took the ligament to mean that humans and other mammals had a

text: common ancestor

text: , and used Struthers' work as evidence in Chapter 1 of his

text: Descent of Man

text: (1871).  Struthers went on to create an museum of Comparative Anatomy filled with zoological specimens to illustrate Darwin's theory of common descent.

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text: Among all living organisms, flowers, which are the reproductive structures of angiosperms, are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction. Plants that are not flowering plants (green algae, mosses, liverworts, hornworts, ferns and gymnosperms such as conifers) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the sperm from one plant fertilizes the ovum of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations. Christian Konrad Sprengel (1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the pollination process involved both biotic and abiotic interactions. Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection utilized this work to build his theory of evolution, which includes analysis of the coevolution of flowers and their insect pollinators.

text: Among all living organisms,

text: flower

text: s, which are the reproductive structures of

text: angiosperms

text: , are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction. Plants that are not flowering plants (

text: green alga

text: e,

text: moss

text: es,

text: liverwort

text: s,

text: hornworts

text: fern

text: s and

text: gymnosperm

text: s such as

text: conifer

text: s) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the sperm from one plant fertilizes the ovum of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations.

text: Christian Konrad Sprengel

text: (1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the

text: pollination

text: process involved both

text: biotic

text: and

text: abiotic

text: interactions.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theories of

text: natural selection

text: utilized this work to build his theory of evolution, which includes analysis of the

text: coevolution

text: of flowers and their

text: insect

text: pollinator

text: s.

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answers: Christian Konrad Sprengel

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Charles Darwin was one of the first to collect Toxodon fossils, after paying 18 pence for a T. platensis skull from a farmer in Uruguay. In The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin wrote "November 26th - I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farm-house on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence the head of the Toxodon." Since Darwin discovered that the fossils of similar mammals of South America were different from those in Europe, he invoked many debates about the evolution and natural selection of animals.

text: Charles Darwin

text: was one of the first to collect Toxodon fossils, after paying 18 pence for a T. platensis skull from a farmer in Uruguay. In The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin wrote "November 26th - I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farm-house on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence the head of the Toxodon." Since Darwin discovered that the fossils of similar mammals of South America were different from those in Europe, he invoked many debates about the evolution and natural selection of animals.

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answers: 18 pence

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answers: Darwin discovered that the fossils of similar mammals of South America were different from those in Europe

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding. Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory.

text: Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of

text: natural selection

text: and

text: artificial selection

text: or

text: selective breeding

text: Genetic drift

text: was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the

text: modern synthesis

text: of the theory.

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text: The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous Vestiges of Creation had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.

text: The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in

text: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

text: is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous

text: Vestiges of Creation

text: had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and

text: common descent

text: by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.

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text: Traditional breeding refers to the process of allowing certain chosen plants to sexually reproduce with other plants. Plants are chosen based on favorable characteristics. Simply put, traditional breeding takes plants with favorable characteristics and breeds them. Then the offspring are raised and then judgment is made about which ones have the best traits and the process proceeds to the next generation. This method has been the way that humans have traditionally modified organisms. Not until the 20th century were humans able to influence the genotypes of organisms in any other way.

text: Traditional breeding refers to the process of allowing certain chosen plants to sexually reproduce with other plants. Plants are chosen based on favorable characteristics. Simply put, traditional breeding takes plants with favorable characteristics and breeds them. Then the offspring are raised and then judgment is made about which ones have the best traits and the process proceeds to the next generation. This method has been the way that humans have traditionally modified organisms. Not until the 20th century were humans able to influence the genotypes of organisms in any other way.

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answers: the process proceeds to the next generation

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answers: not until the 20th century were humans able to influence the genotypes of organisms in any other way

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answers: Then the offspring are raised and then judgment is made about which ones have the best traits

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answers: humans have traditionally modified organisms

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answers: The process proceeds to the next generation

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answers: Traditional breeding

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: The spiritualist Gerald Massey claimed that Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete:

text: The spiritualist

text: Gerald Massey

text: claimed that

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answers: Darwin's theory of evolution includes the idea that

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: The Spiritualist

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Gerald Massey

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1865

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answers: Darwin's theory of evolution

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Galpagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete.

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: frogs

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galpagos

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: birds

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarcks ideas about evolution were influenced by Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection.

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Gerald Massey

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: Breeding

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Gerald Massey

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: disease

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Massey

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Gerald Massey

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answers: islands

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answers: Darwin

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answers: Gerald Massey

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answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: The computing pioneer Charles Babbage published his unofficial Ninth Bridgewater Treatise in 1837, putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ad hoc miracles each time a new species was required. In 1844 the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers anonymously published an influential and extremely controversial book of popular science entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the solar system and life on earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals with current animals being branches off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Robert Grant, but its implication that humans were just the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. Both conservatives like Adam Sedgwick, and radical materialists like Thomas Henry Huxley, who disliked Chambers' implications of preordained progress, were able to find scientific inaccuracies in the book that they could disparage. Darwin himself openly deplored the author's "poverty of intellect", and dismissed it as a "literary curiosity." However, the high profile of the public debate over Vestiges, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, and its popular success, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. It also influenced some younger naturalists, including Alfred Russel Wallace, to take an interest in the idea of transmutation.

text: The computing pioneer

text: Charles Babbage

text: published his unofficial

text: Ninth Bridgewater Treatise

text: in 1837, putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ad hoc miracles each time a new species was required. In 1844 the Scottish publisher

text: Robert Chambers

text: anonymously published an influential and extremely controversial book of popular science entitled

text: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

text: . This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the solar system and life on earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals with current animals being branches off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely

text: materialistic

text: than the ideas of radicals like Robert Grant, but its implication that humans were just the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. Both conservatives like

text: Adam Sedgwick

text: , and radical materialists like

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: , who disliked Chambers' implications of preordained progress, were able to find scientific inaccuracies in the book that they could disparage. Darwin himself openly deplored the author's "poverty of intellect", and dismissed it as a "literary curiosity." However, the high profile of the public debate over Vestiges, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, and its popular success, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. It also influenced some younger naturalists, including

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , to take an interest in the idea of transmutation.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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text: In the letter, Darwin had expressed agreement with William Graham's claim that natural laws implied purpose and the belief that the universe was "not the result of chance", but again showed his doubts about such beliefs and left the matter as insoluble. Darwin only had this doubt about questions beyond the scope of science, and thought science was well within the scope of an evolved mind. Michael Ruse said that by presenting it as "Darwin's doubt" that evolutionary naturalism is self-defeating, Plantinga failed to note that Darwin at once excused himself from philosophical matters he did not feel competent to consider. Others, such as Evan Fales, agreed that this citation allowed Plantinga to call the source of the problem EAAN addresses Darwin's Doubt. Also, contrary to Ruse's claim, Plantinga gave the name "Darwin's Doubt" not to the idea that the conjunction of naturalism and evolution is self-defeating, but rather to the view that given naturalism and evolution our cognitive faculties are unlikely to be reliable.  Plantinga asserts that "this doubt arises for naturalists or atheists, but not for those who believe in God. That is because if God has created us in his image, then even if he fashioned us by some evolutionary means, he would presumably want us to resemble him in being able to know; but then most of what we believe might be true even if our minds have developed from those of the lower animals."

text: In the letter, Darwin had expressed agreement with William Graham's claim that natural laws implied purpose and the belief that the universe was "not the result of chance", but again showed his doubts about such beliefs and left the matter as insoluble. Darwin only had this doubt about questions beyond the scope of science, and thought science was well within the scope of an evolved mind.

text: Michael Ruse

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answers: the universe was "not the result of chance"

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwin's Doubt

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answers: EAAN

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answers: Michael Ruse

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answers: Darwin only had this doubt about questions beyond the scope of science

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: lower animals

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: this doubt arises for naturalists or atheists, but not for those who believe in God

answers: NDQ_009503

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answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galpagos

answers: NDQ_009506

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answers: naturalism

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwin's Doubt

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: EAAN

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: EAAN

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: lower animals

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Darwin's Doubt

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: EAAN

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: William Graham

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: His views on evolution are not obvious from his books. At one point he referred to "the wonders of Creation" and he wrote a chapter in the same book on the giant tortoise of the Galapagos Islands, including reference to Charles Darwin, but with no mention of evolution. Religious examples are frequent in his books, for example, quoting Beecher's "Of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest; a vast and majestic tree is greater than that", and again, "Thousands see in cathedral aisles the reproduction in stone of the pine-forest or the beech-wood."

text: His views on

text: evolution

text: are not obvious from his books. At one point he referred to "the wonders of Creation" and he wrote a chapter in the same book on the

text: giant tortoise

text: of the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: , including reference to

text: Charles Darwin

text: , but with no mention of evolution. Religious examples are frequent in his books, for example, quoting

text: Beecher's

text: "Of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest; a vast and majestic tree is greater than that", and again, "Thousands see in cathedral aisles the reproduction in stone of the pine-forest or the beech-wood."

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answers: NDQ_009495

answers: Creation

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Creation

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: The wonders of Creation

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: religious examples

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1874

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: tortoise

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: the giant tortoise of the Galapagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: giant tortoise

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galapagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: Creation

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Galapagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: are not obvious

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answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Galapagos

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answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: In 2003 he married Sarah Darwin, a great-great-granddaughter of the naturalist Charles Darwin; they have two sons Leo Erasmus Darwin Vogel (born 2003) and Josiah Algy Darwin Vogel (born 2005).  In 2009/10 the family were part of a recreation of Darwin's voyage on the Beagle for the Dutch TV show Beagle: In Darwin's Wake} (Dutch: Beagle: In het kielzog van Darwin) on board of the sailing ship Stad Amsterdam.

text: In 2003 he married

text: Sarah Darwin

text: , a great-great-granddaughter of the naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: ; they have two sons Leo Erasmus Darwin Vogel (born 2003) and Josiah Algy Darwin Vogel (born 2005).  In 2009/10 the family were part of a recreation of

text: Darwin's voyage on the Beagle

text: for the

text: Dutch

text: TV show

text: Beagle: In Darwin's Wake

text: } (Dutch: Beagle: In het kielzog van Darwin) on board of the sailing ship

text: Stad Amsterdam

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text: Speaking of the finches with their gradations in size of beaks, he writes "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

text: Speaking of the finches with their gradations in size of beaks, he writes "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

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text: The basic model of emotions finds its roots in Charles Darwin's The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems: facial expression, behavioral response, and physical responses, which include physiological, postural, and vocal changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his theories on evolution and thus, the expression of emotion is universal and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality hypothesis. Lastly, primates and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans.

text: The basic model of emotions finds its roots in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals

text: . Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems:

text: facial expression

text: , behavioral response, and physical responses, which include

text: physiological

text: postural

text: , and

text: vocal

text: changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his

text: theories on evolution

text: and thus, the expression of emotion is

text: universal

text: and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality hypothesis. Lastly,

text: primate

text: s and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans.

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text: The book was in the library of HMS Beagle for Charles Darwin's voyage. In The Origin of Species (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by use and disuse, being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type."

text: The book was in the library of

text: HMS Beagle

text: for

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's voyage. In

text: The Origin of Species

text: (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of

text: natural selection

text: ." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: 's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by

text: use and disuse

text: , being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type."

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answers: Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection."

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text: Hypotheses of social evolution and cultural evolution were common in Europe. The Enlightenment thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as Hegel, often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life. Thomas Hobbes's 17th century portrayal of the state of nature seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies.

text: Hypotheses of social evolution and

text: cultural evolution

text: were common in Europe. The

text: Enlightenment

text: thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as

text: Hegel

text: , often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life.

text: Thomas Hobbes

text: 's 17th century portrayal of the

text: state of nature

text: seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies.

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text: In animal breeding, crossbreed describes crosses within a single species, while hybrid refers to crosses between different species.  In plant breeding terminology, the term crossbreed is uncommon. No universal term is used to distinguish hybridization or crossing within a population from those between populations, or even those between species.

text: In animal breeding, crossbreed describes crosses within a single species, while

text: hybrid

text: refers to crosses between different species.  In plant breeding terminology, the term crossbreed is uncommon. No universal term is used to distinguish hybridization or crossing within a population from those between populations, or even those between species.

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text: It is named after Charles Darwin, who carried out a zoological survey of the Falkland Islands on the Beagle's second voyage. Darwin was said to have spent the night here.

text: It is named after

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who carried out a zoological survey of the

text: Falkland Islands

text: on the

text: Beagle

text: 's

text: second voyage

text: . Darwin was said to have spent the night here.

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text: Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

text: Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of

text: coral atoll

text: s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on

text: barnacle

text: s. While

text: On the Origin of Species

text: dominates perceptions of his work,

text: The Descent of Man

text: and

text: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

text: had considerable impact, and his books on plants including

text: The Power of Movement in Plants

text: were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on

entity_name: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms

text: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms

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answers: On the Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: South America

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: Darwin’s publication of this book occurred within the heated debates between advocates of monogeny, who held that all races came from a common ancestor, and advocates of polygeny, who held that the races were separately created. Darwin, who had come from a family with strong abolitionist ties, had experienced and was disturbed by cultures of slavery during his voyage on the Beagle years earlier. Noted Darwin biographers Adrian Desmond and James Moore argue that Darwin’s writings on evolution were not only influenced by his abolitionist tendencies, but also his belief that non-white races were equal in regard to their intellectual capacity as white races, a belief which had been strongly disputed by scientists such as Morton, Agassiz and Broca, all noted polygenists.

text: Darwin’s publication of this book occurred within the heated debates between advocates of monogeny, who held that all races came from a common ancestor, and advocates of polygeny, who held that the races were separately created. Darwin, who had come from a family with strong abolitionist ties, had experienced and was disturbed by cultures of slavery during his voyage on the Beagle years earlier. Noted Darwin biographers

text: Adrian Desmond

text: and

text: James Moore

text: argue that Darwin’s writings on evolution were not only influenced by his abolitionist tendencies, but also his belief that non-white races were equal in regard to their intellectual capacity as white races, a belief which had been strongly disputed by scientists such as Morton, Agassiz and Broca, all noted polygenists.

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answers: monogeny

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: The Origin of Species

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Darwin’s publication

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: abolitionist tendencies

answers: NDQ_009499

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answers: NDQ_009500

answers: biographers

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: the Beagle

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: polygenists

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answers: cultures of slavery

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: monogeny

answers: NDQ_009506

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answers: NDQ_009508

answers: polygeny

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: He had come from a family with strong abolitionist ties

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: He had experienced and was disturbed by cultures of slavery during his voyage on the Beagle years earlier

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: cultures of slavery

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarck

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: monogeny

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Adrian Desmond

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answers: polygeny

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answers: monogeny

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answers: monogeny

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answers: monogeny

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answers: monogeny

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answers: Beagle

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answers: Agassiz

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answers: evolution

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answers: Agassiz

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory are still used in opposition to evolution. The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation. Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical. The natural theology of the early 19th century was typified by William Paley's watchmaker analogy, an argument from design still used by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans. This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion.

text: Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory are still used in opposition to evolution. The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the

text: Genesis account of Creation

text: . Believers in

text: Biblical infallibility

text: attacked

text: Darwinism

text: as heretical. The

text: natural theology

text: of the early 19th century was typified by

text: William Paley

text: 's

text: watchmaker analogy

text: , an

text: argument from design

text: still used by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans. This position has been adopted by denominations of

text: Christianity

text: and

text: Judaism

text: in line with

text: modernist theology

text: which views the Bible and

text: Torah

text: as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion.

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text: Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin's theory, and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, which he expanded in later editions.

text: Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin's theory, and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, which he expanded in later editions.

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text: Charles Darwin coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of natural selection. Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional animal and plant breeding from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.

text: Charles Darwin

text: coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of

text: natural selection

text: . Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional

text: animal and

text: plant breeding

text: from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.

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text: By the time the first edition was published, the development of Darwin's theory of natural selection was in progress. For the 1845 second edition of The Voyage (now titled Journal of Researches), Darwin added more detail about the beaks of the birds, and two closing sentences which reflected his changed ideas: "Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

text: By the time the first edition was published, the

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text: was in progress. For the 1845 second edition of The Voyage (now titled Journal of Researches), Darwin added more detail about the beaks of the birds, and two closing sentences which reflected his changed ideas: "Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

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text: Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time.

text: Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first

text: agricultural

text: plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time.

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text: Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

text: Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that

text: species formed in isolated populations only

text: , as on islands, to an emphasis on

text: speciation without isolation

text: ; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new

text: ecological niche

text: s. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in

text: fancy pigeon

text: breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son

text: Francis

text: ) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

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text: Each of the words "evolution," "fact" and "theory" has several meanings in different contexts. Evolution means change over time, as in stellar evolution. In biology it refers to observed changes in organisms, to their descent from a common ancestor, and at a technical level to a change in gene frequency over time; it can also refer to explanatory theories (such as Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection) which explain the mechanisms of evolution. To a scientist, fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition. To the public, theory can mean an opinion or conjecture (e.g., "it's only a theory"), but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of "well-substantiated explanation." With this number of choices, people can often talk past each other, and meanings become the subject of linguistic analysis.

text: Each of the words "evolution," "fact" and "theory" has several meanings in different contexts. Evolution means change over time, as in

text: stellar evolution

text: . In

text: biology

text: it refers to observed changes in organisms, to their descent from a common ancestor, and at a technical level to a change in

text: gene frequency

text: over time; it can also refer to explanatory theories (such as

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: ) which explain the mechanisms of evolution. To a scientist, fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition. To the public, theory can mean an opinion or conjecture (e.g., "it's only a theory"), but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of "well-substantiated explanation." With this number of choices, people can often talk past each other, and meanings become the subject of

text: linguistic analysis

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text: The Creative Evolution in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in philosophy and to construct a cosmology based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "survival of the fittest"). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.

text: The Creative Evolution in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against

text: Herbert Spencer

text: 's evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: in philosophy and to construct a

text: cosmology

text: based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "

text: survival of the fittest

text: "). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.

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answers: Bergson

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Bergson

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: Owing considerable lineage to Get Smart, the plot was always played for laughs and featured Lancelot Link and his female colleague, "Mata Hairi," whose own name in turn was a play on Mata Hari, in secret agent and spy satires. Link worked for A.P.E., the Agency to Prevent Evil, in an ongoing conflict with the evil organization C.H.U.M.P., the Criminal Headquarters for the Underworld's Master Plan. APE's chief Darwin gave Link and Hairi their orders as part of his "theory," a play on the Charles Darwin (after whom the character had been named) theory of evolution. CHUMP's monocled chief Baron von Butcher inevitably hatched the latest plan to endanger the world. The Baron's network of international fiends included his shifty chauffeur Creto, mad scientist Dr. Strangemind, imperious Dragon Woman, drowsy Wang Fu, singing sheikh Ali Assa Seen, and the cultured Duchess. One or more would appear in each episode.

text: Owing considerable lineage to

text: Get Smart

text: , the plot was always played for laughs and featured Lancelot Link and his female colleague, "Mata Hairi," whose own name in turn was a play on

text: Mata Hari

text: , in secret agent and spy satires. Link worked for A.P.E., the Agency to Prevent Evil, in an ongoing conflict with the evil organization C.H.U.M.P., the Criminal Headquarters for the Underworld's Master Plan. APE's chief Darwin gave Link and Hairi their orders as part of his "theory," a play on the

text: Charles Darwin

text: (after whom the character had been named) theory of

text: evolution

text: . CHUMP's

text: monocle

text: d chief Baron von Butcher inevitably hatched the latest plan to endanger the world. The Baron's network of international fiends included his shifty chauffeur Creto, mad scientist Dr. Strangemind, imperious Dragon Woman, drowsy Wang Fu, singing

text: sheikh

text: Ali Assa Seen, and the cultured Duchess. One or more would appear in each episode.

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answers: NDQ_009537

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_009495

answers: Darwin gave Link and Hairi their orders

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Secret Agent and Spy Satire

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Mata Hari

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1848

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: APE

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Mata Hari

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: One or more would appear in each episode

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Mata Hari

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: the world

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: APE's chief Darwin

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Baron von Butcher

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: APE's chief Darwin

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: are too small

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Baron von Butcher

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Mata Hari

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Mata Hari

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Dr. Strangemind

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in animal breeding experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

text: The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in

text: animal breeding

text: experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an

text: adaptive landscape

text: and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

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text: For teaching purpose, plant breeding is presented as four categories: Line breeding (autogamous crops), population breeding (allogamous crops), hybrid breeding (mostly allogamous crops, some autogamous crops), clone breeding (vegetatively propagated crops).

text: For teaching purpose, plant breeding is presented as four categories: Line breeding (autogamous crops), population breeding (

text: allogamous

text: crops),

text: hybrid

text: breeding (mostly allogamous crops, some

text: autogamous

text: crops), clone breeding (vegetatively propagated crops).

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answers: Charles Darwin

text: Darwin was now working hard on an "abstract" trimmed from his Natural Selection, writing much of it from memory. The chapters were sent to Hooker for correcting as they were completed, which led to a minor disaster when a large bundle was put by accident into the drawer Hooker's wife used to keep paper for the children to draw on. Lyell made arrangements with the publisher John Murray, who had brought out the second edition of The Voyage of the Beagle.   Darwin fretted, asking "Does he know all the subject of the book?", and saying that to avoid being more "un-orthodox than the subject makes inevitable" he did not discuss the origin of man, or bring in any discussion about Genesis. Unusually, Murray agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen, and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. He anticipated printing 500 copies.

text: Darwin was now working hard on an "abstract" trimmed from his Natural Selection, writing much of it from memory. The chapters were sent to Hooker for correcting as they were completed, which led to a minor disaster when a large bundle was put by accident into the drawer Hooker's wife used to keep paper for the children to draw on. Lyell made arrangements with the publisher

text: John Murray

text: , who had brought out the second edition of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: .   Darwin fretted, asking "Does he know all the subject of the book?", and saying that to avoid being more "un-orthodox than the subject makes inevitable" he did not discuss the origin of man, or bring in any discussion about Genesis. Unusually, Murray agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen, and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. He anticipated printing 500 copies.

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text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (A. g. hololissa) is broad, flattened on the back and with raised scutes, it is usually a brownish-grey color.In comparison, the true Aldabra tortoise (A. g. gigantea) is a roundly-domed, black-colored species.

text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (A. g. hololissa) is broad, flattened on the back and with raised

text: scute

text: s, it is usually a brownish-grey color.In comparison, the true Aldabra tortoise (A. g. gigantea) is a roundly-domed, black-colored species.

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text: Next, Henslow called upon Admiral Robert FitzRoy, who had been Darwin's captain and companion on the voyage of the Beagle twenty-five years earlier. FitzRoy denounced Darwin's book and, "lifting an immense Bible first with both hands and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". He was believed to have said: "I believe that this is the Truth, and had I known then what I know now, I would not have taken him [Darwin] aboard the Beagle."

text: Next, Henslow called upon Admiral

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , who had been Darwin's captain and companion on the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: twenty-five years earlier. FitzRoy denounced Darwin's book and, "lifting an immense Bible first with both hands and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". He was believed to have said: "I believe that this is the Truth, and had I known then what I know now, I would not have taken him [Darwin] aboard the Beagle."

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text: The Controversy took its name from Spurgeon's use of the term "Downgrade" to describe certain other Baptists' outlook toward the Bible (i.e., they had "downgraded" the Bible and the principle of sola scriptura). Spurgeon alleged that an incremental creeping of the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and other concepts were weakening the Baptist Union. Spurgeon emphatically decried the doctrine that resulted:   The standoff caused division amongst the Baptists and other non-conformists, and is regarded by many as an important paradigm.

text: The Controversy took its name from Spurgeon's use of the term "Downgrade" to describe certain other Baptists' outlook toward the Bible (i.e., they had "downgraded" the Bible and the principle of

text: sola scriptura

text: ). Spurgeon alleged that an incremental creeping of the

entity_section: The Wellhausen (or Graf–Wellhausen) hypothesis

text: Graf-Wellhausen

text: hypothesis,

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , and other concepts were weakening the Baptist Union. Spurgeon emphatically decried the doctrine that resulted:   The standoff caused division amongst the Baptists and other non-conformists, and is regarded by many as an important paradigm.

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text: The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón, other Spanish name: Islas Galápagos, ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed on either side of the Equator in the Pacific Ocean surrounding the centre of the Western Hemisphere,  west of continental Ecuador, of which they are a part. The islands are known for their vast number of endemic species and were studied by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle, as his observations and collections contributed to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón, other

text: Spanish

text: name: Islas Galápagos, ) are an

text: archipelago

text: of

text: volcanic islands

text: distributed on either side of the

text: Equator

text: in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: surrounding the centre of the

text: Western Hemisphere

text: ,  west of continental

text: Ecuador

text: , of which they are a part. The islands are known for their vast number of

text: endemic species

text: and were studied by

text: Charles Darwin

text: during

text: the voyage of the Beagle

text: , as his observations and collections contributed to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

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text: Contrary to often-held belief, the Nesomimus mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as Darwin's finches in inspiring Darwin's work on his theory of evolution.

text: Contrary to often-held belief, the

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answers: Nesomimus mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as Darwin's finches

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: finches

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: mockingbirds

answers: NDQ_009506

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answers: NDQ_009508

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answers: Darwin's finches

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin's finches

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: finches

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Lamarck

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Darwin's finches

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: genetic selection

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: famine

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Nesomimus

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Finches

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Nesomimus

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: evolution

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: Wyman was a theist who attended the Unitarian Church at Harvard and as such leaned toward a belief in a "theistic, morphological form of evolution rather than natural selection." Two historians of science who chronicles Wyman's career, A. Hunter Dupree and Toby Appel, disagreed as to Wyman's reception of Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection.  Dupree believed that Wyman's religious beliefs caused him to struggle with Darwin's theories, accepting them "only by intense effort both as a scientist and a person."  Appel disagreed with Dupree, believing that Wyman had no difficulty accepting Darwin's theory of evolution but that his work in philosophical anatomy made it "doubtful that he ever accepted natural selection."  In her article, Appel makes a case for Wyman as a proponent of philosophical anatomy at Harvard, along with Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray.  Philosophical anatomy, also known as transcendental anatomy, was the "search for ideal patterns of structure in nature."  This search did not prevent Wyman and Gray in accepting evolution, although Agassiz never did.  However, unlike Gray, Wyman could not accept natural selection as the method of evolution, believing instead in evolution as "directed by the Creator."

text: Wyman was a

text: theist

text: who attended the Unitarian Church at Harvard and as such leaned toward a belief in a "theistic, morphological form of evolution rather than natural selection." Two historians of science who chronicles Wyman's career,

text: A. Hunter Dupree

text: and Toby Appel, disagreed as to Wyman's reception of

text: Darwin's

text: theories of

text: evolution

text: and

text: natural selection

text: .  Dupree believed that Wyman's religious beliefs caused him to struggle with Darwin's theories, accepting them "only by intense effort both as a scientist and a person."  Appel disagreed with Dupree, believing that Wyman had no difficulty accepting Darwin's theory of evolution but that his work in philosophical anatomy made it "doubtful that he ever accepted natural selection."  In her article, Appel makes a case for Wyman as a proponent of philosophical anatomy at Harvard, along with Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray.  Philosophical anatomy, also known as

text: transcendental anatomy

text: , was the "search for ideal patterns of structure in nature."  This search did not prevent Wyman and Gray in accepting evolution, although Agassiz never did.  However, unlike Gray, Wyman could not accept natural selection as the method of evolution, believing instead in evolution as "directed by the Creator."

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answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: Harvard

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: religious beliefs

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1848

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Galpagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: This search did not prevent Wyman and Gray in accepting evolution, although Agassiz never did

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: morphological

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galpagos

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Wyman was a theist

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Wyman could not accept natural selection

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Wyman could not accept natural selection as the method of evolution

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Toby Appel

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Toby Appel

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answers: Louis Agassiz

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answers: Louis Agassiz

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answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: His most important publication was Variation and Evolution in Plants, which combined genetics and Darwin's theory of natural selection to describe plant speciation. It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the modern evolutionary synthesis and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology; according to Ernst Mayr, "Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins' work." He also researched and wrote widely on the role of hybridization and polyploidy in speciation and plant evolution; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field.

text: His most important publication was

text: Variation and Evolution in Plants

text: , which combined

text: genetics

text: and

text: Darwin's

text: theory of

text: natural selection

text: to describe plant

text: speciation

text: . It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology; according to

text: Ernst Mayr

text: , "Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins' work." He also researched and wrote widely on the role of

text: hybridization

text: and

text: polyploidy

text: in speciation and plant evolution; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field.

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text: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is central to the acceptance of a natural morality.

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text: The term "Darwin's finches" was first applied by Percy Lowe in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by David Lack in his book Darwin's Finches. David Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from 10 to 20 cm and weigh between 8 and 38 grams. The smallest are the warbler-finches and the largest is the vegetarian finch. The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, and the beaks are highly adapted to different food sources. The birds are all dull-coloured.

text: The term "Darwin's finches" was first applied by

text: Percy Lowe

text: in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by

text: David Lack

text: in his book Darwin's Finches. David Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from 10 to 20 cm and weigh between 8 and 38 grams. The smallest are the

text: warbler-finch

text: es and the largest is the

text: vegetarian finch

text: . The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, and the beaks are highly

text: adapted

text: to different food sources. The birds are all dull-coloured.

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text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly after returning from the Voyage of the Beagle in 1836. By December 1838, he had developed the basic principles of his theory. At that time, similar ideas brought others disgrace and association with the revolutionary mob. He was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analyzing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly after returning from

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text: in 1836. By December 1838, he had developed the basic principles of his theory. At that time, similar ideas brought others disgrace and association with the revolutionary mob. He was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analyzing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

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text: Darwin visited Grant in 1831 to get advice on storing specimens immediately before setting out on the Voyage of the Beagle. When Darwin returned from his voyage, Grant was one of those to offer to examine his specimens, but was turned down: they do not seem to have had further contact.

text: Darwin visited Grant in 1831 to get advice on storing specimens immediately before setting out on

text: the Voyage of the Beagle

text: . When Darwin returned from his voyage, Grant was one of those to offer to examine his specimens, but was turned down: they do not seem to have had further contact.

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text: For the Darwin bicentenary year of 2009  van Wyhe published four books on Darwin: Darwin's shorter publications, Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin in Cambridge and an accessible biography: Darwin.

text: For the Darwin bicentenary year of 2009  van Wyhe published four books on Darwin: Darwin's shorter publications, Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin in Cambridge and an accessible biography: Darwin.

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text: Since the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859, the attitude of the Catholic Church on the theory of evolution has slowly been refined. Early contributions to the development of evolutionary theory were made by Catholic scientists such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel. For nearly a century, the papacy offered no authoritative pronouncement on Darwin's theories. In the 1950 encyclical Humani generis, Pope Pius XII confirmed that there is no intrinsic conflict between Christianity and the theory of evolution, provided that Christians believe that the individual soul is a direct creation by God and not the product of purely material forces. , the Church supports theistic evolution(ism), also known as evolutionary creation, although Catholics are free not to believe in any part of evolutionary theory.

text: Since the publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, the attitude of the

text: Catholic Church

text: on the theory of

text: evolution

text: has slowly been refined. Early contributions to the development of evolutionary theory were made by Catholic scientists such as

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: and the Augustinian monk

text: Gregor Mendel

text: . For nearly a century, the

text: papacy

text: offered no authoritative pronouncement on Darwin's theories. In the 1950

text: encyclical

text: Humani generis

text: Pope Pius XII

text: confirmed that there is no intrinsic conflict between Christianity and the theory of evolution, provided that Christians believe that the individual

text: soul

text: is a direct creation by

text: God

text: and not the product of purely material forces. , the Church supports

text: theistic evolution

text: (ism), also known as evolutionary creation, although Catholics are free not to believe in any part of evolutionary theory.

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text: In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's Descent of Man, often in strong disagreement. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but Wallace and August Weismann were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it. In 1889, Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.

text: In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's

text: Descent of Man

text: , often in strong disagreement. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but Wallace and

text: August Weismann

text: were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it. In 1889, Wallace published the book

text: Darwinism

text: as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.

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answers: Descent of Man

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: 1889

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Wallace

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1880s

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Galpagos Islands

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Darwinism

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Descent of Man

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Wallace and August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Wallace

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: collapse

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Wallace

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Darwinism

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Descent of Man

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Wallace

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: August Weismann

text: Precise mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis. In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory. August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cells structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well-known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J. B. S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled.

text: Precise mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of

text: pangenesis

text: . In 1865,

text: Gregor Mendel

text: reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the

entity_section: Law of Independent Assortment (the "Second Law")

text: independent assortment

text: and segregation of elements (later known as

text: gene

text: s). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.

text: August Weismann

text: made the important distinction between

text: germ cell

text: s that give rise to

text: gamete

text: s (such as

text: sperm

text: and

text: egg cell

text: s) and the

text: somatic cell

text: s of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only.

text: Hugo de Vries

text: connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the

text: cell nucleus

text: and when expressed they could move into the

text: cytoplasm

text: to change the

text: cell

text: s structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well-known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as

text: Ronald Fisher

text: Sewall Wright

text: and

text: J. B. S. Haldane

text: set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: was thus reconciled.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_009498

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009501

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answers: NDQ_009502

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answers: NDQ_009503

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answers: NDQ_009504

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answers: NDQ_009506

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answers: NDQ_009508

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answers: NDQ_009516

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009517

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answers: NDQ_009519

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answers: NDQ_009522

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answers: NDQ_009523

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answers: NDQ_009524

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answers: NDQ_009525

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answers: NDQ_009526

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answers: NDQ_009527

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009530

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answers: NDQ_009531

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answers: NDQ_009532

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answers: NDQ_009533

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_009495

answers: heredity passes through the germ line

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Darwinian evolution

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: 1865

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: 1865

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Mendelian traits

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: sperm and egg cells

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: genes

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Ecuador

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: mutations

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: gametes

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: heritability

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: population genetics

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Precise mechanisms

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Mendelian

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: August Weismann

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Ronald Fisher

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: mutation

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Gregor Mendel

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: reproductive heritability

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Darwin

text: A 2005 poll reportedly found 26% of Russians accepting evolution and 49% accepting creationism. But a 2003 poll reported that 44% agreed with "Human beings are developed from earlier species of animals," and a 2009 poll reported that 48% of Russians who "know something about Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution" agreed that there was sufficient evidence for the theory. The 2009 poll indicated that 53% of Russians agreed with "Evolutionary theories should be taught in science lessons in schools together with other possible perspectives, such as intelligent design and creationism," with 13% preferring that such perspectives be taught instead of evolution; only 10% agreed with "Evolutionary theories alone should be taught in science lessons in schools."

text: A 2005 poll reportedly found 26% of Russians accepting evolution and 49% accepting creationism. But a 2003 poll reported that 44% agreed with "Human beings are developed from earlier species of animals," and a 2009 poll reported that 48% of Russians who "know something about Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution" agreed that there was sufficient evidence for the theory. The 2009 poll indicated that 53% of Russians agreed with "Evolutionary theories should be taught in science lessons in schools together with other possible perspectives, such as intelligent design and creationism," with 13% preferring that such perspectives be taught instead of evolution; only 10% agreed with "Evolutionary theories alone should be taught in science lessons in schools."

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text: 'Darwin's finches: The evolution of a legend in the history of science', British Society for the History of Science annual conference, Leeds, 15.7.2005.

text: 'Darwin's finches: The evolution of a legend in the history of science', British Society for the History of Science annual conference, Leeds, 15.7.2005.

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text: The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process. For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."

text: The

text: theory of evolution

text: described by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of

text: Darwin

text: 's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process. For example, influential British Quaker scientist

text: Edward Newman

text: stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."

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text: Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled  On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

text: Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on

text: Natural Selection

text: , when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the

text: Maluku Islands

text: Ternate

text: and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the

text: Linnean Society

text: , and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled

text: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

text: , by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the

text: artificial selection

text: practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to

text: selective breeding

text: , and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing

text: group selection

text: rather than selection acting on individual variation.

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text: Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), sometimes referred to as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind". He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern scientific method) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world. Plants and animals adapt to nature; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and "survival of the fittest" benefited human society and socio-cultural evolution, Ward regarded competition as a destructive force, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to "meet and checkmate" the unrestrained competition of natural forces. Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the role of religion and maximized that of science, could effectively support the individual in his or her attempt to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages:

text: Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), sometimes referred to as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind". He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern

text: scientific method

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text: Among those who had heard of Charles Darwin and knew something about the theory of evolution, 77% of people in India agree that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Also, 85% of God believing Indians who know about evolution agree that life on earth evolved over time as a result of natural selection.

text: Among those who had heard of Charles Darwin and knew something about the theory of evolution, 77% of people in India agree that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Also, 85% of God believing Indians who know about evolution agree that life on earth evolved over time as a result of natural selection.

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answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Galpagos

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: life on earth

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Galpagos

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Darwin never observed fossils

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: scientific evidence

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: India

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: natural selection

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation. Albert Gunther of the British Museum, who later moved to the Natural History Museum of London (enlisting Charles Darwin and other famous scientists to help him) worked with the government of Mauritius to establish a preserve at the end of the 19th century. The related, but distinct, species of giant tortoise from the Seychelles islands (Seychelles giant tortoise A. g. hololissa and Arnold's giant tortoise A. g. arnoldi) are the subject of a captive-breeding and reintroduction program by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.

text: The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation. Albert Gunther of the British Museum, who later moved to the Natural History Museum of London (enlisting

text: Charles Darwin

text: and other famous scientists to help him) worked with the government of

text: Mauritius

text: to establish a preserve at the end of the 19th century. The related, but distinct, species of giant tortoise from the Seychelles islands (Seychelles giant tortoise A. g. hololissa and Arnold's giant tortoise A. g. arnoldi) are the subject of a captive-breeding and reintroduction program by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.

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answers: NDQ_009495

answers: evolution involves the idea(s) that

answers: NDQ_009496

answers: Natural History Museum of London

answers: NDQ_009497

answers: British Museum

answers: NDQ_009498

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009499

answers: London

answers: NDQ_009500

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009501

answers: Aldabra giant tortoise

answers: NDQ_009502

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation

answers: NDQ_009503

answers: giant tortoise

answers: NDQ_009504

answers: Seychelles

answers: NDQ_009506

answers: United States

answers: NDQ_009508

answers: Aldabra giant tortoise

answers: NDQ_009516

answers: Mauritius

answers: NDQ_009517

answers: Albert Gunther of the British Museum

answers: NDQ_009519

answers: tortoises

answers: NDQ_009522

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009523

answers: Charles Lyell

answers: NDQ_009524

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009525

answers: The Aldabra giant tortoise

answers: NDQ_009526

answers: captive-breeding

answers: NDQ_009527

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009528

answers: disease and famine

answers: NDQ_009529

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009530

answers: Albert Gunther

answers: NDQ_009531

answers: Seychelles

answers: NDQ_009532

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009533

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009534

answers: Darwin

answers: NDQ_009535

answers: Charles Darwin

answers: NDQ_009536

answers: breeding

answers: NDQ_009537

answers: Charles Darwin

text: The 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection put forward an explanation for complexity and adaptation, which reflects scientific consensus on the origins of biological diversity, and provides a counter-argument to the watchmaker analogy. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins also referred to the analogy in his 1986 book The Blind Watchmaker giving his explanation of evolution. In the 19th century, deists, who championed the watchmaker analogy, held that Darwin's theory fit with "the principle of uniformitarianism—the idea that all processes in the world occur now as they have in the past" and that deistic evolution "provided an explanatory framework for understanding species variation in a mechanical universe."

text: The 1859 publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: put forward an explanation for complexity and

text: adaptation

text: , which reflects scientific consensus on the origins of biological diversity, and provides a counter-argument to the watchmaker analogy. Evolutionary biologist

text: Richard Dawkins

text: also referred to the analogy in his 1986 book

text: The Blind Watchmaker

text: giving his explanation of

text: evolution

text: . In the 19th century,

text: deists

text: , who championed the watchmaker analogy, held that Darwin's theory fit with "the principle of

text: uniformitarianism

text: —the idea that all processes in the world occur now as they have in the past" and that

text: deistic evolution

text: "provided an explanatory framework for understanding species variation in a mechanical universe."

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text: By the time that Darwin published his theory, theologians of liberal Christianity were already supporting such ideas, and by the late 19th century, their modernist approach was predominant in theology. In science, evolution theory incorporating Darwin's natural selection became completely accepted.

text: By the time that Darwin published his theory, theologians of

text: liberal Christianity

text: were already supporting such ideas, and by the late 19th century, their modernist approach was predominant in theology. In science,

text: evolution

text: theory incorporating Darwin's natural selection became completely accepted.

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text: Charles Darwin grew up with an interest in natural history, and as a student at the University of Cambridge he became a pupil and close friend of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. The year he graduated, Darwin was given a supernumerary position as a gentleman naturalist and geologist on the second voyage of HMS Beagle, a trip that lasted five years. By the time he returned in October 1836, he had doubts about the doctrine that species were fixed and unchanging. Within months, experts informed him that specimens he had collected were separate species, not just varieties, and the patterns he saw inspired the inception of his theory of natural selection in 1838. Darwin began editing and publishing the expert reports, collected in the Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, at the same time as writing a series of books on geology, the first of which was The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. His "species work" was his "prime hobby", a background to this writing, but it evolved into an extensive research programme during the twenty years before he published his theory.

text: Charles Darwin

text: grew up with an interest in

text: natural history

text: , and as a student at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: he became a pupil and close friend of

text: botany

text: professor

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: . The year he graduated, Darwin was given a

text: supernumerary

text: position as a gentleman naturalist and geologist on the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: , a trip that lasted five years. By the time he returned in October 1836, he had doubts about the doctrine that

text: species

text: were fixed and unchanging. Within months, experts informed him that specimens he had collected were separate species, not just

text: varieties

text: , and the patterns he saw inspired the

text: inception of his theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: in 1838. Darwin began editing and publishing the expert reports, collected in the

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: , at the same time as writing a series of books on geology, the first of which was

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: . His "species work" was his "prime hobby", a background to this writing, but it evolved into an extensive research programme during the twenty years before he

text: published his theory

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