text:
On January 4, 2008, a reversed-polarity sunspot appeared, and this signaled the start of Solar Cycle 24. It was high latitude (30° N) and magnetically reversed. NOAA named the spot AR10981, or sunspot 981 for short.
Sunspot 1007 produced the first solar flare above the B-class on November 2, 2008.
Sunspot 1009 produced the first solar flare above the C-class, a C1.4, on December 11, 2008.Only a few sunspots were observed in the surface of the Sun throughout 2008.

text: On January 4, 2008, a reversed-polarity sunspot appeared, and this signaled the start of Solar Cycle 24. It was high latitude (30° N) and magnetically reversed.

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text:
named the spot AR10981, or sunspot 981 for short.
Sunspot 1007 produced the first solar flare above the B-class on November 2, 2008.
Sunspot 1009 produced the first solar flare above the C-class, a C1.4, on December 11, 2008.Only a few sunspots were observed in the surface of the Sun throughout 2008.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

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answers: solar flares

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answers: Only a few sunspots were observed

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: Sunspot 1009

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: Sunspots can last lengths of time ranging from days to months

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answers: Earth is too far away to be affected by solar flares.

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answers: Sunspots can be harmed by radiation.

text: Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of the Sun, and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "Jupiter mass" ( or ) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of , while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of .

text: Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its

entity_name: Barycenter

text: barycenter

text: with the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: lies above the

entity_name: Photosphere

text: Sun's surface

text: at 1.068

entity_name: Solar radius

text: solar radii

text: from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the

text: radius of the Sun

text: , and its mass is 0.001 times the

entity_name: Solar mass

text: mass of the Sun

text: , so the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "

entity_name: Jupiter mass

text: Jupiter mass

text: " ( or ) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly

entity_name: Exoplanet

text: extrasolar planet

text: s and

entity_name: Brown dwarf

text: brown dwarfs

text: . So, for example, the extrasolar planet

text: HD 209458 b

text: has a mass of , while

entity_name: Kappa Andromedae b

text: Kappa Andromedae b

text: has a mass of .

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answers: brown dwarfs

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answers: its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center

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text: Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise in the same frequency band or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities referred to as scintillation. Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar cycle and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at any time. Solar radio bursts are associated with solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation. In addition to producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade the accuracy of SBAS systems.

entity_name: Space weather

text: Space weather

text: degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise in the same frequency band or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities referred to as scintillation. Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year

entity_name: Solar cycle

text: solar cycle

text: and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at any time. Solar radio bursts are associated with

entity_name: Solar flare

text: solar flares

text: and

entity_name: Coronal mass ejection

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CMEs) and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation. In addition to producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade the accuracy of SBAS systems.

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text: The 'Stonyhurst System of heliographic coordinates' is one of two 'heliographic coordinate' systems used for identifying the position of features on the Sun's surface. In the Stonyhurst system the zero point is set at the intersection of the Sun's equator and central meridian as seen from the Earth. Longitude increases towards the Sun's western limb. A solar feature will have a fixed latitude as it rotates across the solar disk, but its longitude will increase. This is in contrast to the Carrington heliographic coordinate system, where the longitude remains approximately fixed in time. The coordinates take their name from the College where they were devised in the nineteenth century.

text: The 'Stonyhurst System of heliographic coordinates' is one of two 'heliographic coordinate' systems used for identifying the position of features on the Sun's surface. In the Stonyhurst system the zero point is set at the intersection of the Sun's equator and central meridian as seen from the Earth. Longitude increases towards the Sun's western limb. A solar feature will have a fixed latitude as it rotates across the solar disk, but its longitude will increase. This is in contrast to the

entity_name: Prime meridian

entity_section: Other planetary bodies

text: Carrington heliographic coordinate system

text: , where the longitude remains approximately fixed in time. The coordinates take their name from the

entity_name: Stonyhurst College

text: College

text: where they were devised in the nineteenth century.

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answers: The 'Stonyhurst System of heliographic coordinates'

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Stonyhurst System of heliographic coordinates

text: Based upon the features of its spectrum, Beta Librae has a stellar classification of B8 V, making it a B-type main sequence star. It is about 130 times more luminous than the Sun and has a surface temperature of , double that of the Sun. This high temperature produces light with a simple spectrum, making it ideal for examining the interstellar gas and dust between Earth and the star. Like many stars of its kind, it is spinning rapidly, over 100 times faster than the Sun with a projected rotational velocity of . The measured angular diameter of the primary star is 0.801 mas. At the estimated distance of this system, this yields a physical size of about 4.9 times the radius of the Sun. This type of massive, hydrogen-fusing star often appears blue-white, and is usually stated to be white or bluish by modern observers, but earlier observers often described Beta Librae as the only greenish star visible to the naked eye. There seems to be no generally accepted explanation for why some observers see it as green.

text: Based upon the features of its

entity_name: Spectrum

text: spectrum

text: , Beta Librae has a

entity_name: Stellar classification

text: stellar classification

text: of B8 V, making it a

entity_name: B-type main-sequence star

text: B-type main sequence star

text: . It is about 130 times more luminous than the Sun and has a surface temperature of , double that of the Sun. This high temperature produces light with a simple spectrum, making it ideal for examining the interstellar gas and dust between Earth and the star. Like many stars of its kind, it is spinning rapidly, over 100 times faster than the Sun with a

entity_name: Stellar rotation

entity_section: Measurement

text: projected rotational velocity

text: of . The measured

entity_name: Angular diameter

text: angular diameter

text: of the primary star is 0.801

entity_name: Minute and second of arc

entity_section: Symbols and abbreviations

text: mas

text: . At the estimated distance of this system, this yields a physical size of about 4.9 times the

text: radius of the Sun

text: . This type of massive, hydrogen-fusing star often appears blue-white, and is usually stated to be white or bluish by modern observers, but earlier observers often described Beta Librae as the only

entity_name: Green star (astronomy)

text: greenish star

text: visible to the naked eye. There seems to be no generally accepted explanation for why some observers see it as green.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

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answers: There seems to be no generally accepted explanation for why some observers see it as green

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answers: Beta Librae

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: At the estimated distance of this system

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It is about 130 times more luminous than the Sun

text: QZ Carinae A1 is a blue supergiant of spectral type O9.7I with around 40 times the Sun's mass that has expanded to 22.5 times the Sun's radius. With a surface temperature of 32,000 K, it is around 500,000 times as luminous as the Sun. Its partner A2 is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B2V with around 10 times the Sun's mass and 6 times its radius. With a surface temperature of 20,000 K, it is around 5,000 times as luminous as the Sun.

text: QZ Carinae A1 is a

entity_name: Blue supergiant

text: blue supergiant

text: of spectral type

entity_name: O-type main-sequence star

text: I with around 40 times the Sun's mass that has expanded to 22.5 times the Sun's radius. With a surface temperature of 32,000 K, it is around 500,000 times as luminous as the Sun. Its partner A2 is a

text: blue-white main sequence star

text: of spectral type

text: V with around 10 times the Sun's mass and 6 times its radius. With a surface temperature of 20,000 K, it is around 5,000 times as luminous as the Sun.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: supergiant

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: surface temperature of 32,000 K

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: supergiant

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: QZ Carinae A1

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: supergiants

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: blue

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: QZ Carinae A1

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Carinae

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Its partner A2

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: It became apparent in the early 1960s that certain space weather events might interfere with the U.S. objective of putting a man on the moon. Foremost among these concerns was the possibility of a geomagnetic storm of solar origin. Metric Type II radio bursts, signatures of coronal shock waves or coronal mass ejections, were known to be commonly associated with solar flares. The United States Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) was thus assigned the task of developing and validating a network of ground-based solar observatories. AFRL established a world-wide network of sweep frequency recorders from which estimates of the shock speed in the corona could be made. The prototype was assembled and operated at Sagamore Hill during the early 1960s. The observatory began operating solar patrols in 1966.

text: It became apparent in the early 1960s that certain

text: space weather

text: events might interfere with the U.S. objective of putting a man on the moon. Foremost among these concerns was the possibility of a

entity_name: Geomagnetic storm

text: geomagnetic storm

text: of solar origin. Metric Type II radio bursts, signatures of coronal shock waves or

text: coronal mass ejections

text: , were known to be commonly associated with

text: solar flares

text: . The

entity_name: Air Force Research Laboratory

text: United States Air Force Research Laboratory

text: (AFRL) was thus assigned the task of developing and validating a network of ground-based solar observatories. AFRL established a world-wide network of sweep frequency recorders from which estimates of the shock speed in the corona could be made. The prototype was assembled and operated at Sagamore Hill during the early 1960s. The observatory began operating solar patrols in 1966.

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answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Metric Type II radio bursts

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Type II radio bursts

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar

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answers: coronal

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: coronal shock waves

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The moon

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The United States Air Force Research Laboratory

text: Flare sprays are a type of eruption associated with solar flares. They involve faster ejections of material than eruptive prominences, and reach velocities of 20 to 2000 kilometers per second.

text: Flare sprays are a type of eruption associated with solar flares. They involve faster ejections of material than eruptive prominences, and reach velocities of 20 to 2000 kilometers per second.

method: dangnt-nlp

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answers: Yes

text: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun. During this time, sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes, and often does not occur for days at a time.  The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity, so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place. Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns.

text: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year

text: solar cycle

text: of the

text: sun

text: . During this time,

entity_name: Sunspot

text: sunspot

text: and

text: solar flare

text: activity diminishes, and often does not occur for days at a time.  The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of

text: sunspot

text: activity, so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place. Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns.

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answers: The sun

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answers: Yes

text: On September 1–2, 1859, the largest recorded geomagnetic storm occurred. From August 28 until September 2, 1859, numerous sunspots and solar flares were observed on the Sun, with the largest flare on September 1. This is referred to as the Solar storm of 1859 or the Carrington Event. It can be assumed that a massive coronal mass ejection (CME) was launched from the Sun and reached the Earth within eighteen hours—a trip that normally takes three to four days. The horizontal field was reduced by 1600 nT as recorded by the Colaba Observatory. It is estimated that Dst would have been approximately −1760 nT. Telegraph wires in both the United States and Europe experienced induced voltage increases (emf), in some cases even delivering shocks to telegraph operators and igniting fires. Aurorae were seen as far south as Hawaii, Mexico, Cuba and Italy—phenomena that are usually only visible in polar regions. Ice cores show evidence that events of similar intensity recur at an average rate of approximately once per 500 years.

text: On September 1–2, 1859, the largest recorded geomagnetic storm occurred. From August 28 until September 2, 1859, numerous sunspots and solar flares were observed on the Sun, with the largest flare on September 1. This is referred to as the

entity_name: Solar storm of 1859

text: Solar storm of 1859

text: or the

entity_name: Richard Christopher Carrington

text: Carrington

text: Event. It can be assumed that a massive

text: coronal mass ejection

text: (CME) was launched from the Sun and reached the Earth within eighteen hours—a trip that normally takes three to four days. The horizontal field was reduced by 1600 nT as recorded by the

entity_name: Colaba Observatory

text: Colaba Observatory

text: . It is estimated that Dst would have been approximately −1760 nT.

entity_name: Aurora

entity_section: Auroral events of historical significance

text: Telegraph wires

text: in both the United States and Europe experienced induced voltage increases (

entity_name: Electromotive force

text: emf

text: ), in some cases even delivering shocks to telegraph operators and igniting fires. Aurorae were seen as far south as Hawaii, Mexico, Cuba and Italy—phenomena that are usually only visible in polar regions.

entity_name: Ice core

text: Ice cores

text: show evidence that events of similar intensity recur at an average rate of approximately once per 500 years.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

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answers: solar flares were observed on the Sun

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answers: CME

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answers: Heliocentrism

text: Zeta Telescopii (ζ Tel, ζ Telescopii) is the second-brightest star in the constellation Telescopium. An orange K-type giant of spectral type K1III-IV, with an apparent magnitude of +4.13 and surface temperature of 4720 K, it is around 1.53 times as massive as the Sun and shining with around 512 times its luminosity.  It is approximately 127 light-years from Earth.

text: Zeta Telescopii (ζ Tel, ζ Telescopii) is the second-brightest

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: in the

entity_name: Constellation

text: constellation

entity_name: Telescopium

text: Telescopium

text: . An orange

text: K-type

entity_name: Giant star

text: giant

text: of spectral type K1III-IV, with an

entity_name: Apparent magnitude

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +4.13 and surface temperature of 4720

entity_name: Kelvin

text: K

text: , it is around 1.53 times as massive as the

text: Sun

text: and shining with around 512 times its luminosity.  It is approximately 127

entity_name: Light-year

text: light-year

text: s from

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

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answers: Zeta Telescopii

text: Gaia was launched by Arianespace, using a Soyuz ST-B rocket with a Fregat-MT upper stage, from the Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz at Kourou in French Guiana on 19 December 2013 at 09:12 UTC (06:12 local time). The satellite separated from the rocket's upper stage 43 minutes after launch at 09:54 UTC. The craft headed towards the Sun–Earth Lagrange point L2 located approximately 1.5 million kilometres from Earth, arriving there 8 January 2014. The L2 point provides the spacecraft with a very stable gravitational and thermal environment. There it uses a Lissajous orbit that avoids blockage of the Sun by the Earth, which would limit the amount of solar energy the satellite could produce through its solar panels, as well as disturb the spacecraft's thermal equilibrium. After launch, a 10-metre diameter sunshade was deployed. The sunshade always faces the Sun, thus keeping all telescope components cool and powering Gaia using solar panels on its surface.

text: Gaia was launched by

entity_name: Arianespace

text: Arianespace

text: , using a

entity_name: Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre

text: Soyuz ST-B

text: rocket with a

entity_name: Fregat

text: Fregat-MT

text: upper stage, from the

entity_name: Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz

text: Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz

text: at

entity_name: Guiana Space Centre

text: Kourou

text: in

text: French Guiana

text: on 19 December 2013 at 09:12 UTC (06:12 local time). The satellite separated from the rocket's upper stage 43 minutes after launch at 09:54 UTC. The craft headed towards the Sun–Earth

text: Lagrange point L2

text: located approximately 1.5 million kilometres from Earth, arriving there 8 January 2014. The L2 point provides the spacecraft with a very stable gravitational and thermal environment. There it uses a

text: Lissajous orbit

text: that avoids blockage of the Sun by the Earth, which would limit the amount of solar energy the satellite could produce through its

text: solar panels

text: , as well as disturb the spacecraft's thermal equilibrium. After launch, a 10-metre diameter sunshade was deployed. The sunshade always faces the Sun, thus keeping all telescope components cool and powering Gaia using solar panels on its surface.

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answers: solar storms

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answers: solar panels, as well as disturb the spacecraft's thermal equilibrium

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answers: After launch, a 10-metre diameter sunshade was deployed

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answers: 1.5 million kilometres from Earth

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answers: The L2 point provides the spacecraft with a very stable gravitational and thermal environment

text: Author Douglas Reeman featured XE craft in two of his novels, the 1961 Dive in the Sun and Surface with Daring published in 1976.

text: Author

text: Douglas Reeman

text: featured XE craft in two of his novels, the 1961 Dive in the Sun and Surface with Daring published in 1976.

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text: Scientific opinion is divided on what causes geomagnetic excursions.  The dominant theory is that they are an inherent aspect of the dynamo processes that maintain the Earth's magnetic field.  In computer simulations, it is observed that magnetic field lines can sometimes become tangled and disorganized through the chaotic motions of liquid metal in the Earth's core.  In such cases, this spontaneous disorganization can cause decreases in the magnetic field as perceived at the Earth's surface.  In truth, under this scenario, the Earth's magnetic field intensity does not significantly change in the core itself, but rather energy is transferred from a dipole configuration to higher order multipole moments which decay more rapidly with the distance from the Earth's core, so that the expression of such a magnetic field at the surface of the Earth would be considerably less, even without significant changes in the strength of the deep field.  This scenario is supported by observed tangling and spontaneous disorganizations in the solar magnetic field.  However, this process in the sun invariabily leads to a reversal of the solar magnetic field (see: solar cycle), and has never been observed such that the field would recover without large scale changes in field orientation.

text: Scientific opinion

text: is divided on what causes geomagnetic excursions.  The dominant theory is that they are an inherent aspect of the

text: dynamo

text: processes that maintain the Earth's magnetic field.  In computer simulations, it is observed that magnetic field lines can sometimes become tangled and disorganized through the chaotic motions of liquid metal in the

text: Earth's core

text: .  In such cases, this spontaneous disorganization can cause decreases in the magnetic field as perceived at the Earth's surface.  In truth, under this scenario, the Earth's magnetic field intensity does not significantly change in the core itself, but rather energy is transferred from a

text: dipole

text: configuration to higher order

text: multipole moment

text: s which decay more rapidly with the distance from the Earth's core, so that the expression of such a magnetic field at the surface of the Earth would be considerably less, even without significant changes in the strength of the deep field.  This scenario is supported by observed tangling and spontaneous disorganizations in the

text: solar

text: magnetic field.  However, this process in the sun invariabily leads to a reversal of the solar magnetic field (see:

text: solar cycle

text: ), and has never been observed such that the field would recover without large scale changes in field orientation.

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text: Kepler-90 is a G-type star that is approximately 120% the mass and radius of the Sun. It has a surface temperature of 6080 K, and an estimated age of around 2 billion years. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: Kepler-90 is a

text: G-type

text: star that is approximately 120% the mass and radius of the

text: Sun

text: . It has a surface temperature of 6080

text: K

text: , and an estimated age of around 2 billion years. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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text: Flares take place in active regions and are characterized by a sudden increase of the radiative flux emitted from small regions of the corona. They are very complex phenomena, visible at different wavelengths; they involve several zones of the solar atmosphere and many physical effects, thermal and not thermal, and sometimes wide reconnections of the magnetic field lines with material expulsion.

text: Flares take place in active regions and are characterized by a sudden increase of the radiative flux emitted from small regions of the corona. They are very complex phenomena, visible at different wavelengths; they involve several zones of the solar atmosphere and many physical effects, thermal and not thermal, and sometimes wide reconnections of the magnetic field lines with material expulsion.

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answers: active regions

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: They are very complex phenomena, visible at different wavelengths

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: active regions

answers: NDQ_006085

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answers: active regions

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answers: active regions

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answers: solar atmosphere

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Another occurrence took place later that year on November 1, 2014.  This flare was defined as a C-Class flare and happened between 0400 and 0600 UTC.  Scientists noted that some material was sent back into the sun, which then caused several flashes of x-rays wherever they hit the surface of the sun.  The remaining material flew out into space that formed a large core of Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) and gravitated away from the sun.  It was not projected to hit Earth.  Unlike the flare of June 2014, solar activity was high after the event even when no sunspots were detected.

text: Another occurrence took place later that year on November 1, 2014.  This flare was defined as a C-Class flare and happened between 0400 and 0600 UTC.  Scientists noted that some material was sent back into the sun, which then caused several flashes of

text: x-rays

text: wherever they hit the surface of the sun.  The remaining material flew out into space that formed a large core of Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) and gravitated away from the sun.  It was not projected to hit

text: Earth

text: .  Unlike the flare of June 2014, solar activity was high after the event even when no

text: sunspots

text: were detected.

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answers: flares

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answers: no sunspots were detected

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: CME

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answers: CME

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Coronal Mass Ejection

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar activity

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: It was not projected to hit Earth

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It was not projected to hit Earth

text: Due to its unique spot in the spectrum, 10 meters can occasionally be challenging to work. At peak times of the solar cycle when many sunspots appear on the Sun's surface, 10 meters can be alive with extremely long-distance signals, refracting from the F2 layer in the ionosphere. Generally speaking, the most effective and efficient propagation of 10-meter radio waves takes place during local daylight hours.  During periods of increased sunspot activity, band openings may begin well before sunrise and continue into the night.

text: Due to its unique spot in the spectrum, 10 meters can occasionally be challenging to work. At peak times of the

text: solar cycle

text: when many

text: sunspots

text: appear on the Sun's surface, 10 meters can be alive with extremely long-distance signals, refracting from the

text: F2 layer

text: in the

text: ionosphere

text: . Generally speaking, the most effective and efficient propagation of 10-meter radio waves takes place during local daylight hours.  During periods of increased sunspot activity, band openings may begin well before sunrise and continue into the night.

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answers: NDQ_006087

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answers: NDQ_006088

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answers: NDQ_006089

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: solar cycle

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: 10 meters can be alive with extremely long-distance signals

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the solar cycle

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: peak times of the solar cycle

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Sun's surface

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: 10 meters can occasionally be challenging to work

text: In the time zone at GMT+7 it would have been 15 minutes to high noon on 28 August. Any observatory situated at plus or minus two time zones would have been in an excellent position to observe the super flare and record the magnetic signature of Solar Flare Effect. Unfortunately in 1859 the Kew Observatory had the only self-recording magnetographs. Other magnetic observatories were manually operated and typically only took readings at hourly intervals unless there was a magnetic storm, in which case readings were taken at 15 minute intervals. One such magnetic observatory was the Colaba Observatory on the Island of Colaba which is now part of Mumbai (Bombay), India at GMT+5.5. In a 2003 paper the manually recorded magnetic readings from the Colaba Observatory for 1 September, through 2 September 1859 were recalibrated and evaluated. No mention is made in this paper of reading before 1 September or any visual observations of the sun. After 150 years it is very unlikely that any additional data will surface but any reports of strange events about noon Asian time on 28 August 1859 would be of interest.

text: In the time zone at GMT+7 it would have been 15 minutes to high noon on 28 August. Any observatory situated at plus or minus two time zones would have been in an excellent position to observe the super flare and record the magnetic signature of Solar Flare Effect. Unfortunately in 1859 the

text: Kew Observatory

text: had the only

text: self-recording magnetographs

text: . Other magnetic observatories were manually operated and typically only took readings at hourly intervals unless there was a magnetic storm, in which case readings were taken at 15 minute intervals. One such magnetic observatory was the

text: Colaba Observatory

text: on the Island of

text: Colaba

text: which is now part of

text: Mumbai

text: Bombay

text: India

text: at GMT+5.5. In a 2003 paper the manually recorded magnetic readings from the

text: Colaba Observatory

text: for 1 September, through 2 September 1859 were recalibrated and evaluated. No mention is made in this paper of reading before 1 September or any visual observations of the sun. After 150 years it is very unlikely that any additional data will surface but any reports of strange events about noon Asian time on 28 August 1859 would be of interest.

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: magnetic storm

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: typically only took readings at hourly intervals

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: super flare

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: super flare

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: magnetic

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: magnetic storm

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Solar Flare Effect

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: no

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It is very unlikely

text: Until [1911] the Observatory belonged to the Navy Ministry, and from 1912 to 1991 NAO became the southern branch of the Pulkovo Observatory. The main objective of the Observatory at that time was the spread of the Pulkovo absolute star catalogs to the southern sky and the implementation of regular observations of the Sun and Solar system bodies. To equip the new department the Repsold Vertical Circle and the passage instrument (Freiberg-Kondratiev) were moved from Odessa. The Observatory managed to survive and was preserved as a scientific institution during a period of great distress in our society: the First World War, the  Revolution and then Civil War. Boris Pavlovich Ostaschenko-Kudryavtsev (1879–1956) was the director at that times. The Renaissance of the Observatory after the ordeal is associated with the name of the fourth director Leonid Ivanovich Semenov (1878–1965), who headed the Observatory in [1923]. In [1931], the highly accurate Time Service was created by NAO, which contributed to national and international programs to determine the exact time. In 1935 the observatory was included in the system of institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR as a branch of the Pulkovo. During the Great Patriotic War from August 1941 to March 1944 the observatory was occupied by the Germans. Director L.I. Semenov managed to keep it from serious injury and destruction.

text: Until [1911] the Observatory belonged to the Navy Ministry, and from 1912 to 1991 NAO became the southern branch of the Pulkovo Observatory. The main objective of the Observatory at that time was the spread of the Pulkovo absolute star catalogs to the southern sky and the implementation of regular observations of the Sun and Solar system bodies. To equip the new department the Repsold Vertical Circle and the passage instrument (Freiberg-Kondratiev) were moved from Odessa. The Observatory managed to survive and was preserved as a scientific institution during a period of great distress in our society: the

text: First World War

text: , the

text: Revolution

text: and then

text: Civil War

text: . Boris Pavlovich Ostaschenko-Kudryavtsev (1879–1956) was the director at that times. The Renaissance of the Observatory after the ordeal is associated with the name of the fourth director Leonid Ivanovich Semenov (1878–1965), who headed the Observatory in [1923]. In [1931], the highly accurate Time Service was created by NAO, which contributed to national and international programs to determine the exact time. In 1935 the observatory was included in the system of institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR as a branch of the Pulkovo. During the Great Patriotic War from August 1941 to March 1944 the observatory was occupied by the Germans. Director L.I. Semenov managed to keep it from serious injury and destruction.

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answers: Solar system bodies

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answers: regular observations of the Sun and Solar system bodies

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Great Patriotic War

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun and Solar system bodies

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answers: the Sun

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answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: During the Great Patriotic War from August 1941 to March 1944

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Solar system bodies

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Solar system bodies

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: During the Great Patriotic War

text: Around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU—256 times its current size. At the tip of the red giant branch, as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun's surface will be much cooler (about 2600 K) than now and its luminosity much higher—up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red giant life, the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33% of its mass. During these times, it is possible that Saturn's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life.

text: Around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a

text: red giant

text: . Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU—256 times its current size. At the tip of the

text: red giant branch

text: , as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun's surface will be much cooler (about 2600 K) than now and its

text: luminosity

text: much higher—up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red giant life, the Sun will have a strong

text: stellar wind

text: that will carry away around 33% of its mass. During these times, it is possible that

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Titan

text: could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life.

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answers: It is possible that Saturn's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life

text: As of July 31 there had been 18 days during 2016 on which there were no sunspots.

text: As of July 31 there had been 18 days during 2016 on which there were no sunspots.

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text: The heliospheric current sheetis the surface within the Solar System where the polarity of the Sun's magnetic field changes from north to south. This field extends throughout the Sun's equatorial plane in the heliosphere.   The shape of the current sheet results from the influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the plasma in the interplanetary medium (Solar Wind). A small electrical current flows within the sheet, about 10 A/m². The thickness of the current sheet is about 10,000 km near the orbit of the Earth.

text: The heliospheric current sheetis the surface within the

text: Solar System

text: where the

text: polarity

text: of the

text: Sun

text: 's

text: magnetic field

text: changes from north to south. This field extends throughout the Sun's

text: equatorial plane

text: in the

text: heliosphere

text: .   The shape of the

text: current sheet

text: results from the influence of the Sun's

text: rotating magnetic field

text: on the

text: plasma

text: in the

text: interplanetary medium

text: Solar Wind

text: ). A small

text: electrical current

text: flows within the sheet, about 10

text: A

text: /m². The thickness of the current sheet is about 10,000 km near the orbit of the Earth.

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answers: polarity of the Sun's magnetic field

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answers: the polarity of the Sun's magnetic field changes from north to south

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Solar Wind

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: A small electrical current flows within the sheet

text: Solar flares strongly influence the local space weather in the vicinity of the Earth. They can produce streams of highly energetic particles in the solar wind, known as a solar proton event. These particles can impact the Earth's magnetosphere (see main article at geomagnetic storm), and present radiation hazards to spacecraft and astronauts. Additionally, massive solar flares are sometimes accompanied by coronal mass ejections (CMEs) which can trigger geomagnetic storms that have been known to disable satellites and knock out terrestrial electric power grids for extended periods of time.

text: Solar flares strongly influence the local

text: space weather

text: in the vicinity of the Earth. They can produce streams of highly energetic particles in the

text: solar wind

text: , known as a solar proton event. These particles can impact the Earth's

text: magnetosphere

text: (see main article at

text: geomagnetic storm

text: ), and present

text: radiation

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text: (CMEs) which can trigger

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text: that

text: have been known

text: to disable satellites and knock out terrestrial electric power grids for extended periods of time.

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text: They decide to accompany the Sodal Ye back to Bountiful Basin, an arm of the sea close to the terminator. On the way they witness a solar flare.  The morel explains to them that the world is about to end as the Sun brightens, and the strange, green columns they begin to see beaming into space is life itself, transferring to new stars.

text: They decide to accompany the Sodal Ye back to Bountiful Basin, an arm of the sea close to the terminator. On the way they witness a

text: solar flare

text: .  The morel explains to them that the world is about to end as the Sun brightens, and the strange, green columns they begin to see beaming into space is life itself, transferring to new

text: stars

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answers: Yes

text: Flares may also occur from solar panels, but they are not as bright (up to −3.5 magnitude). Such flares last about twice as long as those from the main mission antennas (MMA), because the so-called "mirror angle" for the solar panels is twice that for the MMAs. There are also rare cases of flares from MMAs and solar panels, or two MMAs (front and either right or left) of one satellite in a single pass.

text: Flares may also occur from solar panels, but they are not as bright (up to −3.5 magnitude). Such flares last about twice as long as those from the main mission antennas (MMA), because the so-called "mirror angle" for the solar panels is twice that for the MMAs. There are also rare cases of flares from MMAs and solar panels, or two MMAs (front and either right or left) of one satellite in a single

text: pass

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answers: Flares may also occur from solar panels

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answers: solar panels

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answers: Flares may also occur from solar panels

text: Prior to the age of space exploration, interplanetary space was considered to be a vacuum.  The coincidence of the Carrington super flare and the super geomagnetic event of 1859 was evidence that plasma was ejected from the Sun during a flare event.  Chapman and Ferraro  proposed that a plasma was emitted by the Sun in a burst as part of a flare event which disturbed the planet's magnetic field in a manner known as a geomagnetic storm.  The collision frequency of particles in the plasma in the interplanetary medium is very low and the electrical conductivity is so high that it could be approximated to an infinite conductor.  A magnetic field in a vacuum cannot penetrate a volume with infinite conductivity.  Chapman and Bartels (1940) illustrated this concept by postulating a plate with infinite conductivity placed on the dayside of a planet’s dipole as shown in the schematic.  The field lines on the dayside are bent.  At low latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed inward.  At high latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed backwards and over the polar regions.  The boundary between the region dominated by the planet’s magnetic field (i.e., the magnetosphere) and the plasma in the interplanetary medium is the magnetopause.  The configuration equivalent to a flat, infinitely conductive plate is achieved by placing an image dipole (green arrow at left of schematic) at twice the distance from the planet’s dipole to the magnetopause along the planet-Sun line.  Since the solar wind is continuously flowing outward, the magnetopause above, below and to the sides of the planet are swept backward into the geomagnetic tail as shown in the artist’s concept.  The region (shown in pink in the schematic) which separates field lines from the planet which are pushed inward from those which are pushed backward over the poles is an area of weak magnetic field or day-side cusp.  Solar wind particles can enter the planet’s magnetosphere through the cusp region.  Because the solar wind exists at all times and not just times of solar flares, the magnetopause is a permanent feature of the space near any planet with a magnetic field.

text: Prior to the age of space exploration, interplanetary space was considered to be a vacuum.  The coincidence of the

text: Carrington super flare

text: and the

text: super geomagnetic event of 1859

text: was evidence that plasma was ejected from the Sun during a flare event.  Chapman and Ferraro  proposed that a plasma was emitted by the Sun in a burst as part of a flare event which disturbed the planet's magnetic field in a manner known as a geomagnetic storm.  The collision frequency of particles in the plasma in the interplanetary medium is very low and the electrical conductivity is so high that it could be approximated to an infinite conductor.  A magnetic field in a vacuum cannot penetrate a volume with infinite conductivity.  Chapman and Bartels (1940) illustrated this concept by postulating a plate with infinite conductivity placed on the dayside of a planet’s dipole as shown in the schematic.  The field lines on the dayside are bent.  At low latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed inward.  At high latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed backwards and over the polar regions.  The boundary between the region dominated by the planet’s magnetic field (i.e., the

text: magnetosphere

text: ) and the plasma in the interplanetary medium is the magnetopause.  The configuration equivalent to a flat, infinitely conductive plate is achieved by placing an image dipole (green arrow at left of schematic) at twice the distance from the planet’s dipole to the magnetopause along the planet-Sun line.  Since the solar wind is continuously flowing outward, the magnetopause above, below and to the sides of the planet are swept backward into the geomagnetic tail as shown in the artist’s concept.  The region (shown in pink in the schematic) which separates field lines from the planet which are pushed inward from those which are pushed backward over the poles is an area of weak magnetic field or day-side cusp.  Solar wind particles can enter the planet’s magnetosphere through the cusp region.  Because the solar wind exists at all times and not just times of solar flares, the magnetopause is a permanent feature of the space near any planet with a magnetic field.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: flare events

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answers: plasma was ejected from the Sun during a flare event

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answers: geomagnetic storm

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answers: solar activity

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answers: the Sun

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answers: the Sun

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answers: low latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed inward.

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: plasma in the interplanetary medium

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answers: Earth is too far away from the sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The collision frequency of particles in the plasma in the interplanetary medium is very low and the electrical conductivity is so high

text: The band formed in the summer of 2005 under the name Sunspots but underwent an early name-change for legal reasons. Original members included Andrew Wood, Keith Sigel, Peter Mucek and Jon Crockett. Their self-titled debut EP was released on their label CityBird records in September 2006 and received praise from a variety of sources, earning the tag "band to watch."

text: The band formed in the summer of 2005 under the name Sunspots but underwent an early name-change for legal reasons. Original members included Andrew Wood, Keith Sigel, Peter Mucek and Jon Crockett. Their self-titled debut EP was released on their label CityBird records in September 2006 and received praise from a variety of sources, earning the tag "band to watch."

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answers: band

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answers: formed in the summer of 2005

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: the summer

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answers: Sun

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answers: September 2006

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: The band formed in the summer of 2005

text: According to Mitra, the so-called astrophysical black holes are ultra-magnetized and ultra-hot balls of plasma, nicknamed Magnetospheric Eternally Collapsing Objects which are something like extremely general relativistic versions of Sun. He claims, accordingly, MECOs can give rise to flares like Solar flares and Coronal mass ejections like the Sun. And on October 25, 2015, NASA reported that its NuStar telescope has detected a massive X-ray flare from a supermassive black hole in a certain quasar, and this flare appears to be triggered by emission of corona from very close to the black hole. In an interview to Nature India, Mitra claimed that, emission of such a corona from the so-called black hole suggests that it is actually a MECO and not a true mathematical black hole. In an international workshop entitled "Jet Triggering Mechanisms in Black Hole Sources", organized by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India (January 20–23, 2016), Mitra elaborated on this point in the presence of large number of astrophysicists.

text: According to Mitra, the so-called astrophysical black holes are ultra-magnetized and ultra-hot balls of plasma, nicknamed

entity_name: Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object

text: Magnetospheric Eternally Collapsing Objects

text: which are something like extremely general relativistic versions of Sun. He claims, accordingly, MECOs can give rise to flares like

text: Solar flares

text: and

text: Coronal mass ejection

text: s like the Sun. And on October 25, 2015, NASA reported that its NuStar telescope has detected a massive X-ray flare from a supermassive black hole in a certain quasar, and this flare appears to be triggered by emission of corona from very close to the black hole. In an interview to

text: Nature India

text: , Mitra claimed that, emission of such a corona from the so-called black hole suggests that it is actually a MECO and not a true mathematical black hole. In an international workshop entitled "Jet Triggering Mechanisms in Black Hole Sources", organized by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India (January 20–23, 2016), Mitra elaborated on this point in the presence of large number of astrophysicists.

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text: Scheiner's delay led to the dispute with Galileo Galilei over who had seen the sunspots first. In fact, others had independently observed sunspots before either Scheiner or Galileo.Scheiner eventually came to accept Galileo's view that the sunspots were in fact marks on the Sun's surface.Cysat succeeded Scheiner as professor of mathematics and astronomy from 1616 to 1622.Later Cysat was asked to become professor of mathematics at the Reales Estudios in Madrid, where he would be primarily concerned with military architecture.

text: Scheiner's delay led to the dispute with

text: Galileo Galilei

text: over who had seen the sunspots first. In fact, others had independently observed sunspots before either Scheiner or Galileo.Scheiner eventually came to accept Galileo's view that the sunspots were in fact marks on the Sun's surface.Cysat succeeded Scheiner as professor of mathematics and astronomy from 1616 to 1622.Later Cysat was asked to become professor of mathematics at the

text: Reales Estudios

text: in

text: Madrid

text: , where he would be primarily concerned with military architecture.

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text: Fényi Gyula was noted for his observations of the Sun, including spectroscopic studies of solar prominences, as well as sun spots. He was the first person to demonstrate a correlation between the number of solar prominences and the number of sun spots. Between 1880 until 1919 he assembled over 6,000 drawings of the Sun, all using the same instrument. (These drawings are archived at the Heliophysical Observatory, in Debrecen, Hungary.) He published over 200 scientific papers in several languages. In 1916 he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

text: Fényi Gyula was noted for his observations of the Sun, including

text: spectroscopic

text: studies of solar

text: prominence

text: s, as well as

text: sun spot

text: s. He was the first person to demonstrate a correlation between the number of solar prominences and the number of sun spots. Between 1880 until 1919 he assembled over 6,000 drawings of the Sun, all using the same instrument. (These drawings are archived at the Heliophysical Observatory, in

text: Debrecen

text: , Hungary.) He published over 200 scientific papers in several languages. In 1916 he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

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text: Stephen Schneider said of him that "Jaworowski is perhaps even more contrarian than most, claiming that he can prove the climate is going to get colder through his work excavating glaciers on six different continents, which he says indicates what we should really be worrying about is 'The approaching new Ice Age...'."  Jaworowski wrote The current sunspot cycle is weaker than the preceding cycles, and the next two cycles will be even weaker. Bashkirtsev and Mishnich (2003) expect that the minimum of the secular cycle of solar activity will occur between 2021 and 2026, which will result in the minimum global temperature of the surface air. The shift from warm to cool climate might have already started..

text: Stephen Schneider

text: said of him that "Jaworowski is perhaps even more contrarian than most, claiming that he can prove the climate is going to get colder through his work excavating glaciers on six different continents, which he says indicates what we should really be worrying about is 'The approaching new Ice Age...'."  Jaworowski wrote The current sunspot cycle is weaker than the preceding cycles, and the next two cycles will be even weaker. Bashkirtsev and Mishnich (2003) expect that the minimum of the secular cycle of solar activity will occur between 2021 and 2026, which will result in the minimum global temperature of the surface air. The shift from warm to cool climate might have already started..

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answers: Yes

text: Both stars are small red dwarfs, with each having around a third the Sun's mass and radius. They each display the type of variability common to flare stars, and their active surfaces are sources of X-ray emission. The orbital period for the pair is about 295 years, with an average distance of about 56 astronomical units, and the eccentricity of their orbit is 0.70.

text: Both stars are small

text: red dwarf

text: s, with each having around a third the Sun's mass and radius. They each display the type of

text: variability

text: common to

text: flare star

text: s, and their active surfaces are sources of

text: X-ray emission

text: . The orbital period for the pair is about 295 years, with an average distance of about 56

text: astronomical units

text: , and the

text: eccentricity

text: of their orbit is 0.70.

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answers: 56 astronomical units

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text: Significantly, the SMM's ACRIM instrument package showed that contrary to expectations, the Sun is actually brighter during the sunspot cycle maximum (when the greatest number of dark 'sunspots' appear). This is because sunspots are surrounded by bright features called faculae, which more than cancel the darkening effect of the sunspot.

text: Significantly, the SMM's ACRIM instrument package showed that contrary to expectations, the Sun is actually brighter during the

text: sunspot

text: cycle maximum (when the greatest number of dark 'sunspots' appear). This is because sunspots are surrounded by bright features called

text: faculae

text: , which more than cancel the darkening effect of the sunspot.

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answers: NDQ_006080

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answers: dark

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: sunspots are surrounded by bright features called faculae

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: ACRIM

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: bright features

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: sunspot cycle

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: |-| 7801 Goretti ||  || |-id=802| 7802 Takiguchi ||  || Setsuo Takiguchi, 20th-century Japanese founder and first director of the Hiroshima Children's Museum |-id=803| 7803 Adachi ||  || Makoto Adachi, Japanese elementary school teacher, amateur astronomer, and director of the Oriental Astronomical Association |-id=804| 7804 Boesgaard || 3083 P-L || Ann Merchant Boesgaard, American astronomer †|-id=805| 7805 Moons || 7610 P-L || Michèle Moons, 20th-century Belgian astronomer |-id=806| 7806 Umasslowell || 1971 UM || University of Massachusetts Lowell |-id=807| 7807 Grier ||  || Jennifer Grier, American planetary scientist |-id=808| 7808 Bagould ||  || Benjamin Apthorp Gould, 19th-century American astronomer, founder of the Astronomical Journal, first director of the Córdoba Observatory, initiator of the Uranometria Argentina |-id=811| 7811 Zhaojiuzhang ||  || Zhao Jiuzhang, 20th-century Chinese physicist and pioneer of the Chinese satellite program |-id=812| 7812 Billward || 1984 UT ||  Named in honor of William R. Ward (b. 1943), an accomplished theoretician who specializes in dynamics and celestial mechanics. Ward has made fundamental contributions to a wide variety of topics in modern planetary science, including both solar nebula and circumplanetary disk dynamics, the origin of the moon, planetesimal formation, planetary ring dynamics, and martian obliquity variations and their coupling to planetwide climatological change. Ward has spent most of his career at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Southwest Research Institute, Boulder. Both his talents and his good spirits are enjoyed by colleagues around the world. Name proposed and citation written by S. A. Stern.|-id=813| 7813 Anderserikson ||  || Anders Erikson, Swedish astronomer †|-id=815| 7815 Dolon || 1987 QN || Dolon, mythical Trojan warrior †|-id=816| 7816 Hanoi || 1987 YA || Hanoi, Vietnam*|-id=817| 7817 Zibiturtle ||  || Elizabeth "Zibi" Turtle, American planetary scientist |-id=818| 7818 Muirhead || 1990 QO || |-id=824| 7824 Lynch ||  || Named in honor of William Lynch III of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and an outstanding model of efficiency, friendliness and dedication to his work and responsibilities. He is the epitome of the NASA/JPL motto, "Faster, better and cheaper", in the sense that anyone who works in a highly-charged, positive fashion, streamlined for action, leads to a more successful and economical operation. Always with a big smile and a cheerful greeting, he is one of JPL's biggest assets.|-id=826| 7826 Kinugasa || 1991 VO || Sachio Kinugasa, Japanese professional baseball player|-id=828| 7828 Noriyositosi ||  || Named for Noriyosi Furiya (1838-1914), a pioneer Japanese winegrower, and his great-grandson Tosihiko (Tosi) Tukamoto (b. 1931). Tosi introduced a sake-brewing technique of low-temperature fermentation to the winemaking world.|-id=829| 7829 Jaroff ||  || Named in honor of Leon Jaroff (b. 1927), science journalist with a long, distinctive association with Time magazine. Jaroff is internationally known for his well-researched, insightful articles and essays on scientific subjects combining factual reporting and intelligent commentary. He has won many awards and honors for his fine journalism. Through his writing, he has drawn attention to the issue of NEOs and the potentially catastrophic consequences for our civilization should a large comet or asteroid strike the earth.|-id=830| 7830 Akihikotago ||  || Akihiko Tago, Japanese amateur (?) astronomer*|-id=831| 7831 François-Xavier || 1993 FQ || François-Xavier Bagnoud, French pilot|-id=833| 7833 Nilstamm ||  || Nils Tamm, Swedish amateur astronomer and artist whose private observatory is now the Kvistabergs Observatorium, an observing station of Uppsala Astronomical Observatory †|-id=835| 7835 Myroncope || 1993 MC || Myron Cope, 20th-century American sports journalist |-id=837| 7837 Mutsumi || 1993 TX || |-id=838| 7838 Feliceierman || 1993 WA || Felice Ierman (1922-1996), father of this minor planet's co-discoverer Giovanni Ierman, was a strong believer in science and technology who inspired his son's passion for astronomy. He also contributed morally and materially to the construction of the first Farra d´Isonzo observatory.|-id=840| 7840 Hendrika ||  || Hendrika Cornelia Marshall Aikman (née Grootendorst), wife of the discoverer †|-id=842| 7842 Ishitsuka || 1994 XQ || Named in honor of Mutsumi Ishitsuka (b. 1930), who has worked in Peru since 1957, making coronagraphic observations of the sun at high altitude. In 1979 he built the Cosmos Observatory and in 1988 set up a new coronagraph there that was destroyed by a group of guerrillas. He is currently trying to reconstruct the observatory and to establish a Peruvian National Observatory for teaching astronomy. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by T. Kuroda and Y. Yamada.|-id=844| 7844 Horikawa ||  || Kuniaki Horikawa (b. 1958), a computer systems engineer in Yokohama, started Jupiter observations in 1974, and he has obtained more than 3000 drawings and 8200 central-meridian transit timings. Since 2001 he has served as director of the Jupiter-Saturn Section of the Oriental Astronomical Association.|-id=845| 7845 Mckim || 1996 AC || Richard McKim, British amateur astronomer*|-id=846| 7846 Setvák || 1996 BJ || Martin Setvák, Czech meteorologist †|-id=847| 7847 Mattiaorsi ||  || Named for Mattia Orsi (b. 1995), nephew of Arcetri astronomer Giuseppe Forti.|-id=848| 7848 Bernasconi ||  || Giovanni and Angelo Bernasconi, Italian amateur astronomers †|-id=849| 7849 Janjosefrič || 1996 HR || Josef Jan Frič, Czech amateur astronomer, founder of Ondřejov Observatory*|-id=850| 7850 Buenos Aires || 1996 LH || Buenos Aires, Argentina*|-id=851| 7851 Azumino ||  || Named for an area in Nagano prefecture, Azumino is the rice field area east of the Japanese Northern Alps. In various places, natural spring water surfaces to form clear mountain streams. Azumino is famous throughout Japan for its beautiful scenery year-round.|-id=852| 7852 Itsukushima || 7604 P-L || Named for Itsukushima Island near Hiroshima City. Known as "one of the Scenic Trio of Japan", the island is also called "Miyajima", which means "Shrine Island". The origin of the shrine is not known, but it goes back at least to the sixth century; in the twelfth century its building complex was much enlarged. The shrine and its giant torii gate stand in the sea at high tide. In 1996 the shrine was assigned "World Heritage" recognition by UNESCO. Name proposed by Takeshi Sato.|-id=853| 7853 Confucius || 2086 T-2 || Confucius, Chinese philosopher*|-id=854| 7854 Laotse || 1076 T-3 || Lao Zi, Chinese philosopher*|-id=855| 7855 Tagore || 4092 T-3 || Rabindranath Tagore, poet*|-id=856| 7856 Viktorbykov ||  ||  Russian scientist Viktor Leonidovich Bykov (b. 1934) is known for his work on the theory of satellite communication. He was a designer of the space communication systems "Ekran" and "Intersputnik", as well as of the direct government line between Russia and the U.S. The name was suggested by the Institute of Applied Astronomy.|-id=857| 7857 Lagerros ||  || Johan S. V. Lagerros, Swedish astronomer †|-id=858| 7858 Bolotov ||  || Andrey Timofeyevich Bolotov, 18th-century Russian writer, scientist, agriculturist, forester and builder of parks |-id=859| 7859 Lhasa || 1979 US || Lhasa, Tibet †|-id=860| 7860 Zahnle || 1980 PF || Kevin J. Zahnle, American space research scientist |-id=861| 7861 Messenger ||  || Scott R. Messenger, American space scientist |-id=862| 7862 Keikonakamura ||  || Keiko Nakamura Messenger, Japanese-American(?) space scientist |-id=863| 7863 Turnbull || 1981 VK || Margaret A. ("Maggie") Turnbull, American astrobiologist |-id=865| 7865 Françoisgros ||  || François Gros (b. 1925) is a molecular biologist and permanent secretary emeritus of the French Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor at the College de France and at the Institut Pasteur. He is the president of COPED, the Committee of Developing Countries of the French Academy of Sciences.|-id=866| 7866 Sicoli || 1982 TK || Piero Sicoli, Italian amateur astronomer. |-id=867| 7867 Burian ||  || Zdeněk Burian, Czech artist †|-id=868| 7868 Barker ||  ||  Named in honor of Edwin S. Barker (b. 1940), a research scientist at the McDonald Observatory of the University of Texas at Austin. Barker is well known for his work on physical observations of both major and minor planets. He served as McDonald Observatory superintendent for several years in the 1980s, simultaneously continuing his planetary studies and vastly improving seeing conditions at the observatory. He also conducted an extensive atmospheric-monitoring and data-reduction program that resulted in the recommendation of locating the Hobby-Eberly Telescope on Mt. Fowlkes. In the early 1990s he very successfully served as discipline scientist at NASA headquarters, and in 1997-1998 was chair of the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society. Citation written by P. J. Shelus.|-id=869| 7869 Pradun ||  || Valentin Panteleevich Pradun, Ukrainian economist and professor at Tavrichesky National University, president of the Crimean Academy of Humanities |-id=871| 7871 Tunder ||  || Franz Tunder, German organist †|-id=873| 7873 Böll ||  || Heinrich Böll, German novelist and recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972*|-id=881| 7881 Schieferdecker ||  || Johann Christian Schieferdecker, German organist †|-id=885| 7885 Levine ||  || A ballerina, an astrophysicist and a yoga instructor, Joanna L. Levine (b. 1975) is an inspiration to those around her. She attended Walnut Hill School to study ballet, obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Florida concentrating on star formation in Orion, and is currently is a professor at Mt. Holyoke College.  |-id=886| 7886 Redman || 1993 PE || Roderick Oliver Redman and Russell Ormond Redman, American-Canadian astronomers †|-id=887| 7887 Bratfest ||  || Oktoberfest style gathering hosted by the graduate students of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona|-id=890| 7890 Yasuofukui ||  ||  Named in honor of Yasuo Fukui (b. 1951), professor at Nagoya University and a radio astronomer specializing in molecular clouds and the birth of stars. He established and directs the operation of the "Nanten" millimeter-wavelength radio telescope at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. He is a winner of the Vainu Bappu Gold Medal and other prizes. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by T. Sato and A. Fujii.|-id=891| 7891 Fuchie ||  ||  Named in honor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Fuchie Senior High School, where the first discoverer teaches astronomy and geology. Fuchie means the bank of a large river. This place has been called Fuchie for nearly a thousand years.|-id=892| 7892 Musamurahigashi ||  || Musashimurayama East High School, Japan*|-id=894| 7894 Rogers ||  ||  John H. Rogers (b. 1952), director of the British Astronomical Association's Jupiter section since 1988, received the Association's Goodacre Medal in 2003. He is the author of The Giant Planet Jupiter (Cambridge University Press, 1995). By profession he is a molecular neurobiologist at the University of Cambridge.|-id=895| 7895 Kaseda ||  ||  Named for a city in the southwest of Kagoshima prefecture, where the discoverer was born. This town is fully blessed with natural beauty and is relatively free of light pollution. It once won the highest commendation for the most beautiful starry sky in Japan.|-id=896| 7896 Švejk || 1995 EC || The Good Soldier Švejk, character created by Jaroslav Hašek †|-id=897| 7897 Bohuška ||  || |-id=898| 7898 Ohkuma ||  || Masami Ohkuma (b. 1954) is an amateur astronomer who serves as chief editor of the Japanese astronomical monthly magazine Hoshi-Navi. He also plays an important role for the popularization of astronomy in Japan.|-id=899| 7899 Joya ||  || Masanori Joya (1940-1967) was an early member of the Japan Lunar and Planetary Observers Network and played a vital role in its early development. He was the first discoverer in Japan of Jupiter's SEB Disturbance in 1962. He died tragically after losing his way in an unexpectedly heavy snowfall on Mt. Asama.|-id=900| 7900 Portule ||  || Named for the highest mountain peak in the Asiago tableland, near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory. The wild mountain range is a trekking favorite for local astronomers.|}

text: 7801 Goretti

text: ||  || |-id=802|

text: 7802 Takiguchi

text: ||  || Setsuo Takiguchi, 20th-century Japanese founder and first director of the

text: Hiroshima Children's Museum

text: 7803 Adachi

text: ||  || Makoto Adachi, Japanese elementary school teacher, amateur astronomer, and director of the

text: Oriental Astronomical Association

text: 7804 Boesgaard

text: || 3083 P-L ||

text: Ann Merchant Boesgaard

text: , American astronomer †|-id=805|

text: 7805 Moons

text: || 7610 P-L ||

text: Michèle Moons

text: , 20th-century Belgian astronomer |-id=806|

text: 7806 Umasslowell

text: || 1971 UM ||

text: University of Massachusetts Lowell

text: 7807 Grier

text: ||  || Jennifer Grier, American planetary scientist |-id=808|

text: 7808 Bagould

text: Benjamin Apthorp Gould

text: , 19th-century American astronomer, founder of the

text: Astronomical Journal

text: , first director of the

text: Córdoba Observatory

text: , initiator of the

text: Uranometria Argentina

text: 7811 Zhaojiuzhang

text: Zhao Jiuzhang

text: , 20th-century Chinese physicist and pioneer of the Chinese satellite program |-id=812|

text: 7812 Billward

text: || 1984 UT ||  Named in honor of William R. Ward (b. 1943), an accomplished theoretician who specializes in dynamics and celestial mechanics. Ward has made fundamental contributions to a wide variety of topics in modern planetary science, including both solar nebula and circumplanetary disk dynamics, the origin of the moon, planetesimal formation, planetary ring dynamics, and martian obliquity variations and their coupling to planetwide climatological change. Ward has spent most of his career at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Southwest Research Institute, Boulder. Both his talents and his good spirits are enjoyed by colleagues around the world. Name proposed and citation written by S. A. Stern.|-id=813|

text: 7813 Anderserikson

text: Anders Erikson

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=815|

text: 7815 Dolon

text: || 1987 QN ||

text: Dolon

text: , mythical Trojan warrior †|-id=816|

text: 7816 Hanoi

text: || 1987 YA ||

text: Hanoi

text: , Vietnam*|-id=817|

text: 7817 Zibiturtle

text: Elizabeth "Zibi" Turtle

text: , American planetary scientist |-id=818|

text: 7818 Muirhead

text: || 1990 QO || |-id=824|

text: 7824 Lynch

text: ||  || Named in honor of William Lynch III of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and an outstanding model of efficiency, friendliness and dedication to his work and responsibilities. He is the epitome of the NASA/JPL motto, "Faster, better and cheaper", in the sense that anyone who works in a highly-charged, positive fashion, streamlined for action, leads to a more successful and economical operation. Always with a big smile and a cheerful greeting, he is one of JPL's biggest assets.|-id=826|

text: 7826 Kinugasa

text: || 1991 VO ||

text: Sachio Kinugasa

text: , Japanese professional baseball player|-id=828|

text: 7828 Noriyositosi

text: ||  || Named for Noriyosi Furiya (1838-1914), a pioneer Japanese winegrower, and his great-grandson Tosihiko (Tosi) Tukamoto (b. 1931). Tosi introduced a sake-brewing technique of low-temperature fermentation to the winemaking world.|-id=829|

text: 7829 Jaroff

text: ||  || Named in honor of Leon Jaroff (b. 1927), science journalist with a long, distinctive association with Time magazine. Jaroff is internationally known for his well-researched, insightful articles and essays on scientific subjects combining factual reporting and intelligent commentary. He has won many awards and honors for his fine journalism. Through his writing, he has drawn attention to the issue of NEOs and the potentially catastrophic consequences for our civilization should a large comet or asteroid strike the earth.|-id=830|

text: 7830 Akihikotago

text: Akihiko Tago

text: , Japanese amateur (?) astronomer*|-id=831|

text: 7831 François-Xavier

text: || 1993 FQ ||

text: François-Xavier Bagnoud

text: , French pilot|-id=833|

text: 7833 Nilstamm

text: Nils Tamm

text: , Swedish amateur astronomer and artist whose private observatory is now the

text: Kvistabergs Observatorium

text: , an observing station of

text: Uppsala Astronomical Observatory

text: 7835 Myroncope

text: || 1993 MC ||

text: Myron Cope

text: , 20th-century American sports journalist |-id=837|

text: 7837 Mutsumi

text: || 1993 TX || |-id=838|

text: 7838 Feliceierman

text: || 1993 WA || Felice Ierman (1922-1996), father of this minor planet's co-discoverer Giovanni Ierman, was a strong believer in science and technology who inspired his son's passion for astronomy. He also contributed morally and materially to the construction of the first Farra d´Isonzo observatory.|-id=840|

text: 7840 Hendrika

text: ||  || Hendrika Cornelia Marshall Aikman (née Grootendorst), wife of the discoverer †|-id=842|

text: 7842 Ishitsuka

text: || 1994 XQ || Named in honor of Mutsumi Ishitsuka (b. 1930), who has worked in Peru since 1957, making coronagraphic observations of the sun at high altitude. In 1979 he built the Cosmos Observatory and in 1988 set up a new coronagraph there that was destroyed by a group of guerrillas. He is currently trying to reconstruct the observatory and to establish a Peruvian National Observatory for teaching astronomy. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by T. Kuroda and Y. Yamada.|-id=844|

text: 7844 Horikawa

text: ||  || Kuniaki Horikawa (b. 1958), a computer systems engineer in Yokohama, started Jupiter observations in 1974, and he has obtained more than 3000 drawings and 8200 central-meridian transit timings. Since 2001 he has served as director of the Jupiter-Saturn Section of the Oriental Astronomical Association.|-id=845|

text: 7845 Mckim

text: || 1996 AC ||

text: Richard McKim

text: , British amateur astronomer*|-id=846|

text: 7846 Setvák

text: || 1996 BJ ||

text: Martin Setvák

text: , Czech meteorologist †|-id=847|

text: 7847 Mattiaorsi

text: ||  || Named for Mattia Orsi (b. 1995), nephew of Arcetri astronomer Giuseppe Forti.|-id=848|

text: 7848 Bernasconi

text: ||  || Giovanni and Angelo Bernasconi, Italian amateur astronomers †|-id=849|

text: 7849 Janjosefrič

text: || 1996 HR ||

text: Josef Jan Frič

text: , Czech amateur astronomer, founder of

text: Ondřejov Observatory

text: 7850 Buenos Aires

text: || 1996 LH ||

text: Buenos Aires

text: , Argentina*|-id=851|

text: 7851 Azumino

text: ||  || Named for an area in Nagano prefecture, Azumino is the rice field area east of the Japanese Northern Alps. In various places, natural spring water surfaces to form clear mountain streams. Azumino is famous throughout Japan for its beautiful scenery year-round.|-id=852|

text: 7852 Itsukushima

text: || 7604 P-L || Named for Itsukushima Island near Hiroshima City. Known as "one of the Scenic Trio of Japan", the island is also called "Miyajima", which means "Shrine Island". The origin of the shrine is not known, but it goes back at least to the sixth century; in the twelfth century its building complex was much enlarged. The shrine and its giant torii gate stand in the sea at high tide. In 1996 the shrine was assigned "World Heritage" recognition by UNESCO. Name proposed by Takeshi Sato.|-id=853|

text: 7853 Confucius

text: || 2086 T-2 ||

text: Confucius

text: , Chinese philosopher*|-id=854|

text: 7854 Laotse

text: || 1076 T-3 ||

text: Lao Zi

text: , Chinese philosopher*|-id=855|

text: 7855 Tagore

text: || 4092 T-3 ||

text: Rabindranath Tagore

text: , poet*|-id=856|

text: 7856 Viktorbykov

text: ||  ||  Russian scientist Viktor Leonidovich Bykov (b. 1934) is known for his work on the theory of satellite communication. He was a designer of the space communication systems "Ekran" and "Intersputnik", as well as of the direct government line between Russia and the U.S. The name was suggested by the Institute of Applied Astronomy.|-id=857|

text: 7857 Lagerros

text: Johan S. V. Lagerros

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=858|

text: 7858 Bolotov

text: Andrey Timofeyevich Bolotov

text: , 18th-century Russian writer, scientist, agriculturist, forester and builder of parks |-id=859|

text: 7859 Lhasa

text: || 1979 US ||

text: Lhasa

text: , Tibet †|-id=860|

text: 7860 Zahnle

text: || 1980 PF ||

text: Kevin J. Zahnle

text: , American space research scientist |-id=861|

text: 7861 Messenger

text: Scott R. Messenger

text: , American space scientist |-id=862|

text: 7862 Keikonakamura

text: Keiko Nakamura Messenger

text: , Japanese-American(?) space scientist |-id=863|

text: 7863 Turnbull

text: || 1981 VK ||

text: Margaret A. ("Maggie") Turnbull

text: , American astrobiologist |-id=865|

text: 7865 Françoisgros

text: ||  || François Gros (b. 1925) is a molecular biologist and permanent secretary emeritus of the French Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor at the College de France and at the Institut Pasteur. He is the president of COPED, the Committee of Developing Countries of the French Academy of Sciences.|-id=866|

text: 7866 Sicoli

text: || 1982 TK ||

text: Piero Sicoli

text: , Italian amateur astronomer. |-id=867|

text: 7867 Burian

text: Zdeněk Burian

text: , Czech artist †|-id=868|

text: 7868 Barker

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Edwin S. Barker (b. 1940), a research scientist at the McDonald Observatory of the University of Texas at Austin. Barker is well known for his work on physical observations of both major and minor planets. He served as McDonald Observatory superintendent for several years in the 1980s, simultaneously continuing his planetary studies and vastly improving seeing conditions at the observatory. He also conducted an extensive atmospheric-monitoring and data-reduction program that resulted in the recommendation of locating the Hobby-Eberly Telescope on Mt. Fowlkes. In the early 1990s he very successfully served as discipline scientist at NASA headquarters, and in 1997-1998 was chair of the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society. Citation written by P. J. Shelus.|-id=869|

text: 7869 Pradun

text: Valentin Panteleevich Pradun

text: , Ukrainian economist and professor at

text: Tavrichesky National University

text: , president of the

text: Crimean Academy of Humanities

text: 7871 Tunder

text: Franz Tunder

text: , German organist †|-id=873|

text: 7873 Böll

text: Heinrich Böll

text: , German novelist and recipient of the

text: Nobel Prize for Literature

text: in 1972*|-id=881|

text: 7881 Schieferdecker

text: Johann Christian Schieferdecker

text: , German organist †|-id=885|

text: 7885 Levine

text: ||  || A ballerina, an astrophysicist and a yoga instructor, Joanna L. Levine (b. 1975) is an inspiration to those around her. She attended Walnut Hill School to study ballet, obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Florida concentrating on star formation in Orion, and is currently is a professor at Mt. Holyoke College.  |-id=886|

text: 7886 Redman

text: || 1993 PE ||

text: Roderick Oliver Redman

text: and

text: Russell Ormond Redman

text: , American-Canadian astronomers †|-id=887|

text: 7887 Bratfest

text: ||  || Oktoberfest style gathering hosted by the graduate students of the

text: Lunar and Planetary Laboratory

text: at the

text: University of Arizona

text: 7890 Yasuofukui

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Yasuo Fukui (b. 1951), professor at Nagoya University and a radio astronomer specializing in molecular clouds and the birth of stars. He established and directs the operation of the "Nanten" millimeter-wavelength radio telescope at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. He is a winner of the Vainu Bappu Gold Medal and other prizes. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by T. Sato and A. Fujii.|-id=891|

text: 7891 Fuchie

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Fuchie Senior High School, where the first discoverer teaches astronomy and geology. Fuchie means the bank of a large river. This place has been called Fuchie for nearly a thousand years.|-id=892|

text: 7892 Musamurahigashi

text: Musashimurayama East High School

text: , Japan*|-id=894|

text: 7894 Rogers

text: ||  ||  John H. Rogers (b. 1952), director of the British Astronomical Association's Jupiter section since 1988, received the Association's Goodacre Medal in 2003. He is the author of The Giant Planet Jupiter (Cambridge University Press, 1995). By profession he is a molecular neurobiologist at the University of Cambridge.|-id=895|

text: 7895 Kaseda

text: ||  ||  Named for a city in the southwest of Kagoshima prefecture, where the discoverer was born. This town is fully blessed with natural beauty and is relatively free of light pollution. It once won the highest commendation for the most beautiful starry sky in Japan.|-id=896|

text: 7896 Švejk

text: || 1995 EC ||

text: The Good Soldier Švejk

text: , character created by

text: Jaroslav Hašek

text: 7897 Bohuška

text: ||  || |-id=898|

text: 7898 Ohkuma

text: ||  || Masami Ohkuma (b. 1954) is an amateur astronomer who serves as chief editor of the Japanese astronomical monthly magazine Hoshi-Navi. He also plays an important role for the popularization of astronomy in Japan.|-id=899|

text: 7899 Joya

text: ||  || Masanori Joya (1940-1967) was an early member of the Japan Lunar and Planetary Observers Network and played a vital role in its early development. He was the first discoverer in Japan of Jupiter's SEB Disturbance in 1962. He died tragically after losing his way in an unexpectedly heavy snowfall on Mt. Asama.|-id=900|

text: 7900 Portule

text: ||  || Named for the highest mountain peak in the Asiago tableland, near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory. The wild mountain range is a trekking favorite for local astronomers.|}

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answers: University of Massachusetts Lowell

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The Hiroshima Atomic Power Plant was a nuclear power plant in Hiroshima, Japan.

text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona), when the plasma medium is heated to tens of millions of Kelvin, while the cosmic-ray-like electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass ejections (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (

text: photosphere

text: chromosphere

text: , and

text: corona

text: ), when the

text: plasma

text: medium is heated to tens of millions of

text: Kelvin

text: , while the

text: cosmic-ray

text: -like

text: electron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s, and heavier

text: ion

text: s are accelerated to near the

text: speed of light

text: . They produce

text: radiation

text: across the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: at all

text: wavelength

text: s, from

text: radio waves

text: to

text: gamma ray

text: s, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around

text: sunspot

text: s, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the

text: photosphere

text: to link the

text: corona

text: to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce

text: coronal mass ejections

text: (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

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answers: active regions

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answers: intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere

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answers: solar flares

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answers: CME

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answers: solar atmosphere

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answers: timescales of minutes to tens of minutes

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answers: Solar flares

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answers: Solar flares

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answers: radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum

text: The first one of August 18, 1868 created the subject of solar physics, for at this eclipse the spectroscope was used for the first time to discover the gaseous nature of the prominences. The hydrogen emission lines seen in the prominence were so strong that the French astronomer Jansen reasoned they could be seen without the eclipse. The next day at the eclipse site the speculation was proved to be correct, making it possible for daily surveys of prominences thereafter, without the need of a total eclipse.

text: The first one of August 18, 1868 created the subject of solar physics, for at this eclipse the spectroscope was used for the first time to discover the gaseous nature of the prominences. The hydrogen emission lines seen in the prominence were so strong that the French astronomer Jansen reasoned they could be seen without the eclipse. The next day at the eclipse site the speculation was proved to be correct, making it possible for daily surveys of prominences thereafter, without the need of a total eclipse.

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answers: The hydrogen emission lines seen in the prominence

text: On March 8, 2013, NASA released an article according to which ion cyclotron waves were identified by its solar probe spacecraft called WIND as the main cause for the heating of the solar wind as it rises from the sun's surface. Before this discovery, it was unclear why the solar wind particles would heat up, instead of cool down, when speeding away from the sun's surface.

text: On March 8, 2013, NASA released an article according to which ion cyclotron waves were identified by its solar probe spacecraft called WIND as the main cause for the heating of the

text: solar wind

text: as it rises from the sun's surface. Before this discovery, it was unclear why the solar wind particles would heat up, instead of cool down, when speeding away from the sun's surface.

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text: When a solar flare occurs on the Sun a blast of intense ultraviolet and x-ray radiation hits the dayside of the Earth after a propagation time of about 8 minutes. This high energy radiation is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states and knocking electrons free in the process of photoionization. The low altitude ionospheric layers (D region and E region) immediately increase in density over the entire dayside. The ionospheric disturbance enhances VLF radio propagation. Scientists on the ground can use this enhancement to detect solar flares; by monitoring the signal strength of a distant VLF transmitter, sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) are recorded and indicate when solar flares have taken place.

text: When a solar flare occurs on the

text: Sun

text: a blast of intense

text: ultraviolet

text: and

text: x-ray

text: radiation hits the dayside of the Earth after a propagation time of about 8 minutes. This high energy

text: radiation

text: is absorbed by atmospheric particles, raising them to excited states and knocking

text: electron

text: s free in the process of

text: photoionization

text: . The low altitude ionospheric layers (

text: D region

text: and

text: E region

text: ) immediately increase in density over the entire dayside. The ionospheric disturbance enhances VLF radio propagation. Scientists on the ground can use this enhancement to detect solar flares; by monitoring the signal strength of a distant VLF transmitter, sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) are recorded and indicate when solar flares have taken place.

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answers: Yes

text: Comet Lovejoy reached perihelion on 16 December 2011 at 00:17 UTC, as it passed approximately  above the Sun's surface at a speed of , or 0.18% the speed of light. It was not expected to survive the encounter due to extreme conditions in the corona, such as temperatures reaching more than one million kelvins and the exposure time of nearly an hour. However, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), as well as other Sun-monitoring spacecraft, observed the comet emerge from the corona intact. The STEREO and SOHO spacecraft continued to observe the comet as it moved away from the Sun.

text: Comet Lovejoy reached

text: perihelion

text: on 16 December 2011 at 00:17

text: UTC

text: , as it passed approximately  above the Sun's surface at a speed of , or 0.18% the

text: speed of light

text: . It was not expected to survive the encounter due to extreme conditions in the corona, such as temperatures reaching more than one million

text: kelvin

text: s and the exposure time of nearly an hour. However, the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO), as well as other Sun-monitoring spacecraft, observed the comet emerge from the corona intact. The STEREO and SOHO spacecraft continued to observe the comet as it moved away from the Sun.

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answers: It was not expected to survive the encounter

text: Proxima Centauri's chromosphere is active, and its spectrum displays a strong emission line of singly ionized magnesium at a wavelength of 280 nm. About 88% of the surface of Proxima Centauri may be active, a percentage that is much higher than that of the Sun even at the peak of the solar cycle. Even during quiescent periods with few or no flares, this activity increases the corona temperature of Proxima Centauri to 3.5 million K, compared to the 2 million K of the Sun's corona. However, Proxima Centauri's overall activity level is considered low compared to other red dwarfs, which is consistent with the star's estimated age of 4.85 years, since the activity level of a red dwarf is expected to steadily wane over billions of years as its stellar rotation rate decreases. The activity level also appears to vary with a period of roughly 442 days, which is shorter than the solar cycle of 11 years.

text: Proxima Centauri's

text: chromosphere

text: is active, and its

text: spectrum

text: displays a strong

text: emission line

text: of singly ionized

text: magnesium

text: at a wavelength of 280

text: nm

text: . About 88% of the surface of Proxima Centauri may be active, a percentage that is much higher than that of the Sun even at the peak of the

text: solar cycle

text: . Even during quiescent periods with few or no flares, this activity increases the

text: corona

text: temperature of Proxima Centauri to 3.5 million K, compared to the 2 million K of the Sun's corona. However, Proxima Centauri's overall activity level is considered low compared to other red dwarfs, which is consistent with the star's estimated age of 4.85 years, since the activity level of a red dwarf is expected to steadily wane over billions of years as its

text: stellar rotation

text: rate decreases. The activity level also appears to vary with a period of roughly 442 days, which is shorter than the solar cycle of 11 years.

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answers: The activity level also appears to vary with a period of roughly 442 days, which is shorter than the solar cycle of 11 years

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answers: Proxima Centauri's chromosphere is active

text: The Big Bear Solar Observatory (BBSO) is a solar observatory located on the north side of Big Bear Lake in the San Bernardino Mountains of southwestern San Bernardino County, California (USA), approximately  east of downtown Los Angeles.  The telescopes and instruments at the observatory are designed and employed specifically for studying the activities and phenomena of our solar system's star, the Sun.

text: The Big Bear Solar Observatory (BBSO) is a

text: solar observatory

text: located on the north side of

text: Big Bear Lake

text: in the

text: San Bernardino Mountains

text: of southwestern

text: San Bernardino County

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text: (USA), approximately  east of downtown

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text: .  The telescopes and instruments at the observatory are designed and employed specifically for studying the activities and phenomena of our solar system's star, the

text: Sun

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answers: Big Bear Lake

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answers: the Sun

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answers: The Big Bear Solar Observatory

text: The surface magnetic activity on this star is similar to what is observed on the Sun. Magnetic features on the surface have been detected using asteroseismology that appear to be starspots (the stellar equivalent to sunspots on the Sun).

text: The

text: surface magnetic activity

text: on this star is similar to what is observed on the Sun. Magnetic features on the surface have been detected using

text: asteroseismology

text: that appear to be

text: starspot

text: s (the stellar equivalent to

text: sunspot

text: s on the Sun).

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answers: starspots

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answers: Magnetic features on the surface have been detected

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answers: sunspots

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answers: starspots

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answers: starspots

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answers: Starspots

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answers: Starspots

text: The Ladder features flared legs for increased stability.  Locking, telescoping side rails allow the various height configurations.  Trapezoidal rungs create a stable standing surface. They are attached using "double zig-zag" welds.

text: The Ladder features flared legs for increased stability.  Locking, telescoping side rails allow the various height configurations.  Trapezoidal rungs create a stable standing surface. They are attached using "double zig-zag" welds.

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answers: double zig-zag

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: "double zig-zag" welds

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Trapezoidal

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: unanswerable

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answers: Trapezoidal

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: Trapezoidal

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Trapezoidal rungs

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Ladder

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Ladder

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It's impossible to say

text: Other large solar flares also occurred on April 2, 2001 (X20), October 28, 2003 (X17.2 and 10), September 7, 2005 (X17), February 17, 2011 (X2), August 9, 2011 (X6.9), March 7, 2012 (X5.4), July 6, 2012 (X1.1). On July 6, 2012, a solar storm hit just after midnight UK time, when an X1.1 solar flare fired out of the AR1515 sunspot. Another X1.4 solar flare from AR 1520 region of the Sun, second in the week, reached the Earth on July 15, 2012 with a geomagnetic storm of G1–G2 level. A X1.8-class flare was recorded on October 24, 2012. There has been major solar flare activity in early 2013, notably within a 48-hour period starting on May 12, 2013, a total of four X-class solar flares were emitted ranging from an X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2, the latter of which was one of the largest year 2013 flares. Departing sunspot complex AR2035-AR2046 erupted on April 25, 2014 at 0032 UT, producing a strong X1.3-class solar flare and an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the explosion.

text: Other large solar flares also occurred on April 2, 2001 (X20), October 28, 2003 (X17.2 and 10), September 7, 2005 (X17), February 17, 2011 (X2), August 9, 2011 (X6.9), March 7, 2012 (X5.4), July 6, 2012 (X1.1). On July 6, 2012, a solar storm hit just after midnight UK time, when an X1.1 solar flare fired out of the AR1515 sunspot. Another X1.4 solar flare from AR 1520 region of the Sun, second in the week, reached the Earth on July 15, 2012 with a

text: geomagnetic storm

text: of G1–G2 level. A X1.8-class flare was recorded on October 24, 2012. There has been major solar flare activity in early 2013, notably within a 48-hour period starting on May 12, 2013, a total of four X-class solar flares were emitted ranging from an X1.2 and upwards of an X3.2, the latter of which was one of the largest year 2013 flares. Departing sunspot complex AR2035-AR2046 erupted on April 25, 2014 at 0032 UT, producing a strong X1.3-class solar flare and an HF communications blackout on the dayside of Earth. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory recorded a flash of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the explosion.

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answers: Extreme ultraviolet radiation

text: Located around 343 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity approximately 576 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 4000 K.

text: Located around 343 light-years distant, it shines with a

text: luminosity

text: approximately 576 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 4000 K.

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answers: Located around 343 light-years distant

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answers: 343 light-years

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answers: Yes

text: The geology of the dwarf planet, Ceres, was largely unknown until Dawn spacecraft explored it in early 2015. However, certain surface features such as "Piazzi", named after the dwarf planets' discoverer, had been resolved.[a] Ceres's oblateness is consistent with a differentiated body, a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle. This 100-kilometer-thick mantle (23%–28% of Ceres by mass; 50% by volume) contains 200 million cubic kilometers of water, which is more than the amount of fresh water on Earth. This result is supported by the observations made by the Keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modeling. Also, some characteristics of its surface and history (such as its distance from the Sun, which weakened solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low-freezing-point components to be incorporated during its formation), point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of Ceres. It has been suggested that a remnant layer of liquid water may have survived to the present under a layer of ice. The surface composition of Ceres is broadly similar to that of C-type asteroids. Some differences do exist. The ubiquitous features of the Cererian IR spectra are those of hydrated materials, which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in the interior. Other possible surface constituents include iron-rich clay minerals (cronstedtite) and carbonate minerals (dolomite and siderite), which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The spectral features of carbonates and clay minerals are usually absent in the spectra of other C-type asteroids. Sometimes Ceres is classified as a G-type asteroid.

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text: He and his family visited Austin, Texas in 1965-66, when he was National Science Foundation Senior Visiting Scientist at The University of Texas and McDonald Observatory. This visit led to a permanent move to Austin in 1968, and he became professor of astronomy and associate director of McDonald Observatory. At McDonald Observatory R. E. Nather with Brian Warner developed a photometer able to measure extremely rapid changes in brightness. Their technique led Evans to look afresh at his occultation research and, for the next two decades he and his co-workers calculated the angular diameters of late-type stars. He also wrote "Herschel at the Cape,” and participated in measurements of the occultation of Beta Scorpii by Jupiter in 1972 and the apparent gravitational displacement of stars visually close to the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1973. The eclipse was observed from Mauritania and once again confirmed Einstein’s predictions.

text: He and his family visited

text: Austin, Texas

text: in 1965-66, when he was

text: National Science Foundation

text: Senior Visiting Scientist at The

text: University of Texas

text: and

text: McDonald Observatory

text: . This visit led to a permanent move to Austin in 1968, and he became professor of astronomy and associate director of McDonald Observatory. At McDonald Observatory

text: R. E. Nather

text: with Brian Warner developed a photometer able to measure extremely rapid changes in brightness. Their technique led Evans to look afresh at his occultation research and, for the next two decades he and his co-workers calculated the angular diameters of late-type stars. He also wrote "

text: Herschel

text: at the Cape,” and participated in measurements of the occultation of

text: Beta Scorpii

text: by

text: Jupiter

text: in 1972 and the apparent gravitational displacement of stars visually close to the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1973. The eclipse was observed from

text: Mauritania

text: and once again confirmed

text: Einstein

text: ’s predictions.

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text: A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness observed over the Sun's surface or the solar limb, which is interpreted as an energy release of up to 6 × 10 joules of energy (about a sixth of the total Sun's energy output each second or 160 billion megatons of TNT equivalent, over 25,000 times more energy than released from the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter). They may be followed by a coronal mass ejection. The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions and atoms through the corona into space. These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event. Similar phenomena in other stars are known as stellar flares.

text: A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness observed over the Sun's surface or the

text: solar limb

text: , which is interpreted as an energy release of up to 6 × 10

text: joule

text: s of

text: energy

text: (about a sixth of the

text: total Sun's energy output each second

text: or 160 billion megatons of

text: TNT

text: equivalent, over 25,000 times more energy than released from the impact of

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: with Jupiter). They may be followed by a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions and atoms through the corona into space. These clouds typically reach

text: Earth

text: a day or two after the event. Similar phenomena in other stars are known as stellar flares.

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answers: These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event

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answers: coronal mass ejection

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: They may be followed by

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

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answers: Sun's surface

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two

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answers: solar flare

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event

text: In 1917, James Hopwood Jeans argued that only a very close approach of a second star was necessary to eject material, instead of requiring solar prominences.  In 1939, Lyman Spitzer showed that a column of material drawn out from the sun would dissipate rather than condense. By this time the theory had mostly fallen out of favor, and in the 1940s, the work of Henry Norris Russell showed that if the solar material had been pulled away from the sun with the force necessary to account for the angular momentum of Jupiter, the material would have continued out of the solar system entirely.

text: In 1917,

text: James Hopwood Jeans

text: argued that only a very close approach of a second star was necessary to eject material, instead of requiring solar prominences.  In 1939,

text: Lyman Spitzer

text: showed that a column of material drawn out from the sun would dissipate rather than condense. By this time the theory had mostly fallen out of favor, and in the 1940s, the work of

text: Henry Norris Russell

text: showed that if the solar material had been pulled away from the sun with the force necessary to account for the angular momentum of Jupiter, the material would have continued out of the solar system entirely.

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text: One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), was launched in February 2010. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun.

text: One of the most important solar missions to date has been the

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: , jointly built by the

text: European Space Agency

text: and

text: NASA

text: and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO), was launched in February 2010. Situated at the

text: Lagrangian point

text: between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of

text: comet

text: s, mostly tiny

text: sungrazing comet

text: s that incinerate as they pass the Sun.

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answers: incinerate

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answers: the Sun

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answers: incinerate as they pass the Sun

text: Coronal loops form the basic structure of the lower corona and transition region of the Sun. These highly structured and elegant loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar magnetic flux within the solar body. The population of coronal loops can be directly linked with the solar cycle, it is for this reason coronal loops are often found with sunspots at their footpoints. Coronal loops populate both active and quiet regions of the solar surface. The Yohkoh Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) observed X-rays in the 0.25-4.0 keV range, resolving solar features to 2.5 arc seconds with a temporal resolution of 0.5–2 seconds. SXT was sensitive to plasma in the 2-4 MK temperature range, making it an ideal observational platform to compare with data collected from TRACE coronal loops radiating in the EUV wavelengths.

text: Coronal loop

text: s form the basic structure of the lower

text: corona

text: and

text: transition region

text: of the Sun. These highly structured and elegant loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar

text: magnetic

text: flux within the solar body. The population of coronal loops can be directly linked with the

text: solar cycle

text: , it is for this reason coronal loops are often found with

text: sunspots

text: at their footpoints. Coronal loops populate both active and quiet regions of the solar surface. The

text: Yohkoh

text: Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) observed X-rays in the 0.25-4.0

text: keV

text: range, resolving solar features to 2.5 arc seconds with a temporal resolution of 0.5–2 seconds. SXT was sensitive to plasma in the 2-4 MK temperature range, making it an ideal observational platform to compare with data collected from

text: TRACE

text: coronal loops radiating in the EUV wavelengths.

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text: B.B.B. is still remembered for books such as The History of the Observatory of Eger University.  The famous observatory in Eger was designed by the astronomer Miksa Hell and built in 1776. Hell was approached by the founder, Archbishop Károly Esterházy, and replied: "There is nothing I wish to do more than to serve my country as well as your Excellency in this manner."  Mikas Hell had previously designed and built an observatory at Kolozsvár when he taught at the Jesuit Academy in 1753.  Hell had later taught at Lõcse and Zsolna, and in 1755 became director of the University of Vienna observatory. Miksa Hell, a Jesuit, had an important role in the establishment of almost all of the early observatories. He lived in Vienna for thirty two years, and there published a number of famous Ephemerides, that is, almanacs. Venus was to pass before the Sun in 1769, and the Danish king invited him to make observations at Vardö. Their observations of June 3 helped them calculate the solar parallax, the distance of the Earth from the Sun. Their measurement was questioned by contemporaries, but the accuracy of Hell's figures was later confirmed. It was an achievement that had the greatest international recognition of any during the classical phase of Hungarian astronomy. The Spekula Observatory astronomical museum is located in the library tower, and Bevilaqua had a planet named after him for his book.

text: B.B.B. is still remembered for books such as The History of the Observatory of Eger University.  The famous observatory in Eger was designed by the astronomer

text: Miksa Hell

text: and built in 1776. Hell was approached by the founder, Archbishop

text: Károly Esterházy

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answers: Heliocentrism

text: Supra-arcade downflows (SADs) are sunward-traveling plasma voids that are sometimes observed in the Sun’s outer atmosphere, or corona, during solar flares. In solar physics, an “arcade” refers to a bundle of coronal loops, and the prefix “supra” indicates that the downflows appear above flare arcades. They were first described in 1999 using the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) on board the Yohkoh satellite. SADs are byproducts of the magnetic reconnection process that drives solar flares, but their precise cause remains unknown.

text: Supra-arcade downflows (SADs) are sunward-traveling

text: plasma

text: voids that are sometimes observed in the

text: Sun’s

text: outer

text: atmosphere

text: , or

text: corona

text: , during

text: solar flare

text: s. In

text: solar physics

text: , an “arcade” refers to a bundle of

text: coronal loop

text: s, and the prefix “

text: supra

text: ” indicates that the downflows appear above flare arcades. They were first described in 1999 using the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) on board the

text: Yohkoh

text: satellite. SADs are byproducts of the

text: magnetic reconnection

text: process that drives

text: solar flare

text: s, but their precise cause remains unknown.

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answers: SADs

text: A selective surface can be used when energy is being extracted from the sun. For instance, when a green house is made, most of the roof and walls are made out of glass. Glass is transparent in the visible (approximately 0.4 µm<λ<0.8 µm) and near-infrared wavelengths, but opaque to mid- to far-wavelength infrared (approximately λ>3 µm). Therefore, glass lets in radiation in the visible range, allowing us to be able to see through it, but does not let out radiation that is emitted from objects at or close to room temperature. This traps what we feel as heat. This is known as the greenhouse effect and can be observed by getting into a car that has been sitting in the sun. Selective surfaces can also be used on solar collectors. We can find out how much help a selective surface coating is by looking at the equilibrium temperature of a plate that is being heated through solar radiation. If the plate is receiving a solar irradiation of 1350 W/m² (minimum is 1325 W/m² on July 4 and maximum is 1418 W/m² on January 3) from the sun the temperature of the plate where the radiation leaving is equal to the radiation being received by the plate is 393 K (248 °F). If the plate has a selective surface with an emissivity of 0.9 and a cut off wavelength of 2.0 µm, the equilibrium temperature is approximately 1250 K (1790 °F). The calculations were made neglecting convective heat transfer and neglecting the solar irradiation absorbed in the clouds/atmosphere for simplicity, the theory is still the same for an actual problem.

text: A selective surface can be used when energy is being extracted from the sun. For instance, when a green house is made, most of the roof and walls are made out of glass. Glass is transparent in the visible (approximately 0.4 µm<λ<0.8 µm) and

text: near-infrared

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answers: This is known as the greenhouse effect

text: On September 18, 1877, John Bascom, the president of the University, announced that Washburn would provide an observatory with a telescope that was to be larger than the 15-inch refractor at Harvard. Washburn, along with the Board of Regents, chose the site of the observatory to be removed from the city of Madison with the university campus acting as the divider. The site was about 100 feet above Lake Mendota on the north side of campus and, at the time, was surrounded by a vineyard and orchard. Construction on the observatory was started in May, 1878, and a contract was given to Alvan Clark to build the telescope. It was decided that the telescope would have a diameter of 15.6 inches, which would make it the third largest in the United States. James C. Watson was appointed the first director of the observatory. He oversaw the completion of the original building, and also provided funding for a students' observatory, as well as a solar observatory. He died suddenly in 1880, never seeing the completed observatory. The instruments in the solar observatory, meant to be used in locating the hypothetical planet Vulcan, were removed in 1882.

text: On September 18, 1877,

text: John Bascom

text: , the president of the University, announced that Washburn would provide an observatory with a

text: telescope

text: that was to be larger than the 15-inch

text: refractor

text: at Harvard. Washburn, along with the Board of Regents, chose the site of the observatory to be removed from the city of

text: Madison

text: with the university campus acting as the divider. The site was about 100 feet above

text: Lake Mendota

text: on the north side of campus and, at the time, was surrounded by a vineyard and orchard. Construction on the observatory was started in May, 1878, and a contract was given to

text: Alvan Clark

text: to build the telescope. It was decided that the telescope would have a diameter of 15.6 inches, which would make it the third largest in the

text: United States

text: James C. Watson

text: was appointed the first director of the observatory. He oversaw the completion of the original building, and also provided funding for a students' observatory, as well as a solar observatory. He died suddenly in 1880, never seeing the completed observatory. The instruments in the solar observatory, meant to be used in locating the hypothetical planet

text: Vulcan

text: , were removed in 1882.

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answers: hypothetical planet

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answers: the hypothetical planet Vulcan

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answers: Vulcan

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answers: Vulcan

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answers: Vulcan

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answers: James C. Watson

text: In the unperturbed solar Atmosphere, the shorter the wavelength the deeper the observation.  Frequencies near the submillimeter range are produced in the lower Chromosphere or even the Photosphere. Therefore, LLAMA observations will bring new information about the structure of the lower Solar Atmosphere, the active and quiescent filaments and the dynamics of the Chromosphere and its Magnetic Field. The possibility to observe Solar Flares at high frequencies with a high sensitive instrument will give clues about the acceleration of the high energetic particles in the Sun, complementing results obtained with the Solar Submillimeter Telescope. In particular the still unexplained spectral inversion above ≈ 100 GHz. A very challenging experiment would be to make VLBI solar observations. For example, in a joint observation between LLAMA and some of the ALMA antennas, a spatial resolution of 0.001" will be achieved for λ ≈ 1 mm, i.e. 700 m over the solar surface, never attained before at any wavelength.

text: In the unperturbed solar Atmosphere, the shorter the wavelength the deeper the observation.  Frequencies near the submillimeter range are produced in the lower

text: Chromosphere

text: or even the

text: Photosphere

text: . Therefore, LLAMA observations will bring new information about the structure of the lower Solar Atmosphere, the

text: active and quiescent filaments

text: and the dynamics of the

text: Chromosphere

text: and its

text: Magnetic Field

text: . The possibility to observe

text: Solar Flares

text: at high frequencies with a high sensitive instrument will give clues about the acceleration of the high energetic particles in the Sun, complementing results obtained with the

text: Solar Submillimeter Telescope

text: . In particular the still unexplained spectral inversion above ≈ 100 GHz. A very challenging experiment would be to make

text: VLBI

text: solar observations. For example, in a joint observation between LLAMA and some of the

text: ALMA

text: antennas, a spatial resolution of 0.001" will be achieved for λ ≈ 1 mm, i.e. 700 m over the solar surface, never attained before at any wavelength.

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answers: LLAMA

text: The planet orbits an (M-type) pre-main-sequence star named K2-33. The star has a mass of 0.54  and a radius of 1.05 . It has a surface temperature of 3540 K and is 9.3 million years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. It has about the same amount of metals as the Sun, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0. Its luminosity () is 15% that of the Sun.

text: The planet orbits an (

text: M-type

text: pre-main-sequence star

text: named

text: . The star has a mass of 0.54  and a radius of 1.05 . It has a surface temperature of 3540

text: K

text: and is 9.3 million years old. In comparison, the

text: Sun

text: is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. It has about the same amount of metals as the Sun, with a

text: metallicity

text: ([Fe/H]) of 0. Its luminosity () is 15% that of the Sun.

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answers: Its luminosity () is 15% that of the Sun

text: In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean orbital plane; Mercury and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean orbital period. In the case of the giant planets, since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their magnetic fields is used as a reference instead. In the case of the Sun, even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead.

text: In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean

text: orbital plane

text: Mercury

text: and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean

text: orbital period

text: . In the case of the

text: giant planets

text: , since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their

text: magnetic field

text: s is used as a reference instead. In the case of the

text: Sun

text: , even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead.

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answers: magnetosphere

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answers: does not really rotate in a steady fashion

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: The Sun

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answers: giant planets

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answers: magnetosphere

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answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The case of the Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Radiation can be harmed by spacecraft and astronauts

text: Chankillo is one of the Early Horizon ruins of most interest. Dating from as early as 350 BCE, Chankillo incorporated a fortress, a solar observatory, and ceremonial areas. The observatory, called the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo, permitted an observer to determine a precise date of the year by observing the position of the sun at sunrise and sunset on the towers. Chankillo and other structures of the Casma/Sechin culture were partially destroyed and their use abandoned in an apparent conflict about 100 BCE.

text: Chankillo is one of the Early Horizon ruins of most interest. Dating from as early as 350 BCE, Chankillo incorporated a fortress, a solar observatory, and ceremonial areas. The observatory, called the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo, permitted an observer to determine a precise date of the year by observing the position of the sun at sunrise and sunset on the towers. Chankillo and other structures of the Casma/Sechin culture were partially destroyed and their use abandoned in an apparent conflict about 100 BCE.

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text: HD 3240 is a 5th magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, approximately 510 light years away from Earth. It is a bluish white giant star of the spectral type B7III, meaning its surface temperature is at least twice as hot as that of the Sun, and it is many times larger and brighter.

text: HD 3240 is a 5th magnitude star in the constellation

text: Cassiopeia

text: , approximately 510

text: light year

text: s away from

text: Earth

text: . It is a bluish white

text: giant star

text: of the

text: spectral type

text: B7III, meaning its surface temperature is at least twice as hot as that of the Sun, and it is many times larger and brighter.

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answers: HD 3240

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answers: 510 light years

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text: The biggest technical challenge that has faced the probe designers is the heat to which the latter is subject when it is near the sun. At 0.3 astronomical units from the Sun which undergoes heat flow is 11 solar constant (11 times the amount of received heat in the Earth's orbit) or 22,4 kW per square meter exposed. The temperature can then reach 370 °C. The solar cells and the central compartment of the equipment and instruments are located must be maintained at much lower temperatures. The solar cell should not exceed 165 °C, while the central compartment should be maintained between -10 °C and + 20 °C (or 14 °F and 68 °F). These restrictions require to reject 96% of the heat received from the sun. The conical shape of the solar panels is one of the measures taken to reduce the flow of heat. By tilting the solar panels with respect to sunlight arriving perpendicularly to the axis of the probe, reflected a greater proportion of the solar radiation. Furthermore, as discussed above, the solar panels are covered 50% of its surface mirrors developed by NASA dubbed Second Surface Mirrors (SSM). These are made of fused quartz, with a silver film on the inner face, which is itself covered with a dielectric material. The central compartment sides are entirely covered by these mirrors. For additional protection, multi-layer insulation, consisting of 18 layers of 0.25 mm Mylar or Kapton (depending on location) held apart from each other by small plastic pins intended to prevent the formation of thermal bridges, was used to partially cover the core compartment. In addition to these passive devices, the probe uses an active system based on a system of movable louvers in a star lining the bottom and top side of the compartment. The opening thereof is controlled separately by a bimetal spring whose length varies depending on the temperature and causes the opening or closing of the shutter. Resistors are also used to keep a temperature sufficient for certain equipment.

text: The biggest technical challenge that has faced the probe designers is the heat to which the latter is subject when it is near the sun. At 0.3

text: astronomical units

text: from the Sun which undergoes heat flow is 11 solar constant (11 times the amount of received heat in the Earth's orbit) or 22,4

text: kW

text: per square meter exposed. The temperature can then reach 370 °C. The

text: solar cells

text: and the central compartment of the equipment and instruments are located must be maintained at much lower temperatures. The

text: solar cell

text: should not exceed 165 °C, while the central compartment should be maintained between -10 °C and + 20 °C (or 14 °F and 68 °F). These restrictions require to reject 96% of the heat received from the sun. The conical shape of the solar panels is one of the measures taken to reduce the flow of heat. By tilting the solar panels with respect to sunlight arriving perpendicularly to the axis of the probe, reflected a greater proportion of the

text: solar radiation

text: . Furthermore, as discussed above, the solar panels are covered 50% of its surface mirrors developed by

text: NASA

text: dubbed Second Surface Mirrors (SSM). These are made of fused quartz, with a silver film on the inner face, which is itself covered with a dielectric material. The central compartment sides are entirely covered by these mirrors. For additional protection,

text: multi-layer insulation

text: , consisting of 18 layers of 0.25 mm

text: Mylar

text: or

text: Kapton

text: (depending on location) held apart from each other by small plastic pins intended to prevent the formation of thermal bridges, was used to partially cover the core compartment. In addition to these passive devices, the probe uses an active system based on a system of movable louvers in a star lining the bottom and top side of the compartment. The opening thereof is controlled separately by a bimetal spring whose length varies depending on the temperature and causes the opening or closing of the shutter. Resistors are also used to keep a temperature sufficient for certain equipment.

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text: Dr. Bernard Lyot developed the first coronagraph to study the Sun's corona. Improved coronagraphs are used at the High Altitude Observatory by Dr. Walter Roberts and at the Evans Solar Facility by Dr. J. W. Evans. Dr. Donald H. Menzel was the first to use the coronagraph in America. These coronagraphs are used to film structures on the Sun called prominences and spicules which show matter flowing on the surface in structures many times the size of the earth. Often matter appears from nowhere to flow down into a sunspot which is sometimes referred to as Coronal Rain. The largest recorded prominence was captured at the High Altitude Observatory in Colorado on June 4, 1946 as it left the Sun at 400,000 miles per hour.

text: Dr. Bernard Lyot

text: developed the first

text: coronagraph

text: to study the Sun's corona. Improved coronagraphs are used at the

text: High Altitude Observatory

text: by

text: Dr. Walter Roberts

text: and at the

text: Evans Solar Facility

text: by

text: Dr. J. W. Evans

text: Dr. Donald H. Menzel

text: was the first to use the coronagraph in America. These coronagraphs are used to film structures on the Sun called

text: prominences

text: and

text: spicules

text: which show matter flowing on the surface in structures many times the size of the earth. Often matter appears from nowhere to flow down into a sunspot which is sometimes referred to as

text: Coronal Rain

text: . The largest recorded prominence was captured at the High Altitude Observatory in Colorado on June 4, 1946 as it left the Sun at 400,000 miles per hour.

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text: is its orbital angular velocity. That of Jupiter contributes the bulk of the Solar System's angular momentum, 60.3%. Then comes Saturn at 24.5%, Neptune at 7.9%, and Uranus at 5.3%. The Sun forms a counterbalance to all of the planets, so it is near the barycenter when Jupiter is on one side and the other three jovian planets are diametrically opposite on the other side, but the Sun moves to 2.17 solar radii away from the barycenter when all jovian planets are in line on other side. The orbital angular momenta of the Sun and all non-jovian planets, moons, and small Solar System bodies, as well as the axial rotation momenta of all bodies, including the Sun, total only about 2%.

text: is its orbital angular velocity. That of Jupiter contributes the bulk of the Solar System's angular momentum, 60.3%. Then comes Saturn at 24.5%, Neptune at 7.9%, and Uranus at 5.3%. The

text: Sun

text: forms a counterbalance to all of the planets, so it is near the barycenter when Jupiter is on one side and the other three jovian planets are diametrically opposite on the other side, but the Sun moves to 2.17 solar radii away from the barycenter when all jovian planets are in line on other side. The orbital angular momenta of the Sun and all non-jovian planets, moons, and

text: small Solar System bodies

text: , as well as the axial rotation momenta of all bodies, including the Sun, total only about 2%.

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text: Prior to the arrival of the Dawn spacecraft, some Vestan surface features had already been resolved using the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes (e.g. the Keck Observatory).The arrival of Dawn in July 2011 revealed the complex surface of Vesta in detail.

text: Prior to the arrival of the

text: Dawn spacecraft

text: , some Vestan surface features had already been resolved using the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and ground-based telescopes (e.g. the

text: Keck Observatory

text: ).The arrival of Dawn in July 2011 revealed the complex surface of Vesta in detail.

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text: With the large craters Cyrillus and Theophilus in the north, Catharina forms a prominent grouping that is framed by the curve of the Rupes Altai. Together they form a notable feature when the Sun is at a low angle to the surface. There is also a distinct difference in the ages of these three craters, with the age increasing significantly from north to south.

text: With the large craters

text: Cyrillus

text: and

text: Theophilus

text: in the north, Catharina forms a prominent grouping that is framed by the curve of the Rupes Altai. Together they form a notable feature when the Sun is at a low angle to the surface. There is also a distinct difference in the ages of these three craters, with the age increasing significantly from north to south.

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answers: when the Sun is at a low angle

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answers: when the Sun is at a low angle to the surface

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answers: The sun can be harmed by radiation

text: 'Sun Flare' is a floribunda rose cultivar that was bred in the United States in 1981 by William A. Warriner. Its scientific name is 'JACjem', after the company which introduced the rose commercially, Jackson & Perkins Co., but is known to most by its common name,  'Sun Flare' or  'Sunflare'.

text: 'Sun Flare' is a

text: floribunda

text: rose

text: cultivar

text: that was bred in the United States in 1981 by William A. Warriner. Its scientific name is 'JACjem', after the company which introduced the rose commercially,

text: Jackson & Perkins Co.

text: , but is known to most by its common name,  'Sun Flare' or  'Sunflare'.

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answers: rose cultivar

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answers: Sun Flare' is a floribunda rose cultivar

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Sun Flare

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun Flare

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answers: United States

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answers: Sun Flare

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answers: Sun Flare

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answers: Its scientific name is 'JACjem

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Sun Flare

text: In 1760 Alexander Wilson was installed as professor of practical astronomy. His interest in sun spots made Macfarlane Observatory an early contributor to solar physics as Wilson described the surface of the Sun. Observing the variation in width of the penumbra of a sunspot near the limb, he concluded the sunspots were depressions in the generally spherical photosphere. The phenomenon is called the Wilson effect to acknowledge his early observations.

text: In 1760

text: Alexander Wilson

text: was installed as professor of practical astronomy. His interest in

text: sun spot

text: s made Macfarlane Observatory an early contributor to

text: solar physics

text: as Wilson described the surface of the Sun. Observing the variation in width of the

text: penumbra

text: of a sunspot near the limb, he concluded the sunspots were depressions in the generally spherical

text: photosphere

text: . The phenomenon is called the

text: Wilson effect

text: to acknowledge his early observations.

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text: Unlike the familiar shape of the field from a bar magnet, the Sun's extended field is twisted into an arithmetic spiral by the magnetohydrodynamic influence of the solar wind. The solar wind travels outward from the Sun at a uniform rate, but an individual jet of solar wind from a particular feature on the Sun's surface rotates with the solar rotation, making a spiral pattern in space. Unlike the jet from a sprinkler, the solar wind is tied to the magnetic field by MHD effects, so that magnetic field lines are tied to the material in the jet and take on an arithmetic spiral shape.The cause of the ballerina spiral shape has sometimes been called the "garden sprinkler effect" or "garden hose effect", because it is likened to a lawn sprinkler with nozzle that moves up and down while it spins. The stream of water represents the Solar Wind.

text: Unlike the familiar shape of the field from a bar

text: magnet

text: , the Sun's extended field is twisted into an

text: arithmetic spiral

text: by the

text: magnetohydrodynamic

text: influence of the

text: solar wind

text: . The

text: solar wind

text: travels outward from the Sun at a uniform rate, but an individual jet of solar wind from a particular feature on the Sun's surface rotates with the

text: solar rotation

text: , making a spiral pattern in space. Unlike the jet from a sprinkler, the solar wind is tied to the

text: magnetic field

text: by

text: MHD

text: effects, so that magnetic field lines are tied to the material in the jet and take on an arithmetic spiral shape.The cause of the ballerina spiral shape has sometimes been called the "garden sprinkler effect" or "garden hose effect", because it is likened to a

text: lawn sprinkler

text: with nozzle that moves up and down while it spins. The stream of water represents the Solar Wind.

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answers: feature on the Sun's surface

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answers: an individual jet of solar wind from a particular feature on the Sun's surface rotates with the solar rotation

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: The cause of the ballerina spiral shape

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answers: It can be harmed by radiation

text: At first sight, the defining feature of a mere is its breadth in relation to its shallow depth. This means that it has a large surface in proportion to the volume of water it contains. However, there is a limiting depth beyond which a lake does not behave as a mere since the sun does not warm the deeper water and the wind does not mix it. Here, a thermocline develops but where the limiting dimensions lie is influenced by the sunniness and windiness of the site and the murkiness of the water. This last usually depends on how eutrophic (rich in plant nutrients) the water is. Nonetheless, in general, with the enlargement of the extent of a mere, the depth has to become proportionately less if it is to behave as a mere.

text: At first sight, the defining feature of a mere is its breadth in relation to its shallow depth. This means that it has a large surface in proportion to the volume of water it contains. However, there is a limiting depth beyond which a lake does not behave as a mere since the sun does not warm the deeper water and the wind does not mix it. Here, a thermocline develops but where the limiting dimensions lie is influenced by the sunniness and windiness of the site and the murkiness of the water. This last usually depends on how eutrophic (rich in plant nutrients) the water is. Nonetheless, in general, with the enlargement of the extent of a mere, the depth has to become proportionately less if it is to behave as a mere.

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answers: a mere

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answers: no

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: This last usually depends on how eutrophic

text: Flares are most commonly gravity-fed from a dispenser inside  the aircraft's fuselage. These dispensers can be programmed by the pilot or ground crew to dispense flares in short intervals, one at a time, long intervals, or in clusters. Most currently used flares are of the pyrophoric variety, and thus the dispensers do not have to ignite and deploy the flare at the same time. With pyrotechnic flares, a lanyard automatically pulls off a friction cap covering the exposed end of the flare as it falls from the dispenser. A friction surface inside the cap rubs against the exposed end of the flare (similar to a match-head and striking surface) and ignites the flare.

text: Flares are most commonly gravity-fed from a dispenser inside  the aircraft's fuselage. These dispensers can be programmed by the pilot or ground crew to dispense flares in short intervals, one at a time, long intervals, or in clusters. Most currently used flares are of the pyrophoric variety, and thus the dispensers do not have to ignite and deploy the flare at the same time. With pyrotechnic flares, a lanyard automatically pulls off a friction cap covering the exposed end of the flare as it falls from the dispenser. A friction surface inside the cap rubs against the exposed end of the flare (similar to a match-head and striking surface) and ignites the flare.

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answers: flares

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answers: Most currently used flares are of the pyrophoric variety

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: unanswerable

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answers: the solar system

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answers: pyrotechnic

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: long intervals, one at a time, long intervals, or in clusters

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Flares are most commonly gravity-fed

text: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high solar reflectance (the ability to reflect the visible, infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun, reducing heat transfer to the surface) and high thermal emittance (the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy). Reflective surfaces are a form of geoengineering.

text: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high

text: solar reflectance

text: (the ability to reflect the visible,

text: infrared

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelengths of the

text: sun

text: , reducing heat transfer to the surface) and high

text: thermal emittance

text: (the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy). Reflective surfaces are a form of

text: geoengineering

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answers: ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun

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answers: the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: sun

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answers: the sun

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answers: the sun

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answers: days to months

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Radiation

text: Richard Carrington, an amateur astronomer, moved to Redhill in 1852, and built a house and observatory. Dome Way, where Redhill's only tower block stands, is named after it. The site suited an isolated observatory, being on a spur of high ground surrounded by lower fields and marsh. Here in 1859 he made astronomical observations that first corroborated the existence of solar flares as well as their electrical influence upon the Earth and its aurorae. In 1863 he published records of sunspot observations that first demonstrated differential rotation in the Sun. In 1865 ill health prompted him to sell his house and move to Churt, Surrey.

text: Richard Carrington

text: , an

text: amateur astronomer

text: , moved to Redhill in 1852, and built a house and observatory. Dome Way, where Redhill's only tower block stands, is named after it. The site suited an isolated observatory, being on a spur of high ground surrounded by lower fields and marsh. Here in 1859 he made

text: astronomical observation

text: s that first corroborated the existence of

text: solar flare

text: s as well as their

text: electrical influence upon the Earth

text: and its

text: aurorae

text: . In 1863 he published records of

text: sunspot

text: observations that first demonstrated

text: differential rotation

text: in the

text: Sun

text: . In 1865 ill health prompted him to sell his house and move to

text: Churt, Surrey

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text: The variability of BY Draconis is caused by activity in the stellar photosphere called starspots, which are comparable to sunspots on the Sun, in combination with rapid rotation that changes the viewing angle of the activity relative to the observer. This variation has an average periodicity of 3.8285 days, but the brightness also changes over the course of several years—depending on the level of surface activity. Most observers believe that the primary star (A) is responsible for the variability as the secondary produces only a third of the total luminosity from the system. However, the spots may occur on both stars. Unlike the Sun, these spots may occur in the polar regions of the stars.

text: The variability of BY Draconis is caused by activity in the stellar

text: photosphere

text: called

text: starspot

text: s, which are comparable to

text: sunspot

text: s on the

text: Sun

text: , in combination with

text: rapid rotation

text: that changes the viewing angle of the activity relative to the observer. This variation has an average periodicity of 3.8285 days, but the brightness also changes over the course of several years—depending on the level of surface activity. Most observers believe that the primary star (A) is responsible for the variability as the secondary produces only a third of the total luminosity from the system. However, the spots may occur on both stars. Unlike the Sun, these spots may occur in the polar regions of the stars.

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answers: The variability of BY Draconis

text: Flares occur when sped up charged particles, mainly electrons, interact with the plasma medium.Scientific research suggests that the phenomenon of magnetic reconnection leads to this copious acceleration of charged particles.On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades – a series of closely occurring loops of magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy in this reconnection is the origin of the particle acceleration. The unconnected magnetic helical field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a coronal mass ejection. This also explains why solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.

text: Flares occur when sped up charged particles, mainly electrons, interact with the

text: plasma

text: medium.Scientific research suggests that the phenomenon of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: leads to this copious acceleration of charged particles.On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades – a series of closely occurring loops of magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy in this reconnection is the origin of the particle acceleration. The unconnected magnetic helical field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a coronal mass ejection. This also explains why solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.

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answers: active regions

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answers: magnetic fields are much stronger on average

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answers: violently expand outwards

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answers: active regions

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answers: coronal mass ejection

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Flares

text: Solar sails rely on the fact that light reflected from a surface exerts pressure on the surface. The radiation pressure is small and decreases by the square of the distance from the Sun, but unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small, it continues as long as the Sun shines and the sail is deployed.

text: Solar sails rely on the fact that light reflected from a surface exerts pressure on the surface. The

text: radiation pressure

text: is small and decreases by the square of the distance from the Sun, but unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small, it continues as long as the Sun shines and the sail is deployed.

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answers: solar sails

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answers: the square of the distance from the Sun

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answers: The sun

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answers: the Sun

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answers: the Sun

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answers: as long as the Sun shines and the sail is deployed

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar sails

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: solar sails

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Radiation

text: A rough estimate of the maximum temperature can be obtained by assuming that when the Sun is overhead, the surface is in thermal equilibrium with the instantaneous solar radiation. This gives average "sub-solar" temperature of

text: A rough estimate of the maximum temperature can be obtained by assuming that when the Sun is overhead, the surface is in

text: thermal equilibrium

text: with the instantaneous solar radiation. This gives average "sub-solar" temperature of

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answers: average "sub-solar" temperature

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answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

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answers: overhead

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answers: sub-solar

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun is overhead

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Solar radiation

text: Coronal loops populate both active and quiet regions of the solar surface. Active regions on the solar surface take up small areas but produce the majority of activity and are often the source of flares and Coronal Mass Ejections due to the intense magnetic field present. Active regions produce 82% of the total coronal heating energy. Coronal holes are open field lines located predominantly in the polar regions of the Sun and are known to be the source of the fast solar wind. The quiet Sun makes up the rest of the solar surface. The quiet Sun, although less active than active regions, is awash with dynamic processes and transient events (bright points, nanoflares and jets). As a general rule, the quiet Sun exists in regions of closed magnetic structures, and active regions are highly dynamic sources of explosive events. It is important to note that observations suggest the whole corona is massively populated by open and closed magnetic fieldlines.

text: Coronal loops populate both active and quiet regions of the solar surface. Active regions on the solar surface take up small areas but produce the majority of activity and are often the source of flares and

text: Coronal Mass Ejection

text: s due to the

text: intense magnetic field

text: present. Active regions produce 82% of the total coronal heating energy. Coronal holes are open field lines located predominantly in the

text: polar

text: regions of the Sun and are known to be the source of the fast

text: solar wind

text: . The quiet Sun makes up the rest of the solar surface. The quiet Sun, although less active than active regions, is awash with

text: dynamic

text: processes and

text: transient

text: events (bright points,

text: nanoflares

text: and jets). As a general rule, the quiet Sun exists in regions of closed magnetic structures, and active regions are highly dynamic sources of explosive events. It is important to note that observations suggest the whole corona is massively populated by open and closed magnetic fieldlines.

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answers: Coronal Mass Ejections

text: Data collected from the IRIS spacecraft has shown that the interface region of the sun is significantly more complex than previously known. This includes features described as solar heat bombs, high-speed plasma jets, nano-flares, and mini-tornadoes. These features are an important step in understanding the transfer of heat to the corona.

text: Data collected from the IRIS spacecraft has shown that the interface region of the sun is significantly more complex than previously known. This includes features described as solar heat bombs, high-speed plasma jets, nano-flares, and mini-tornadoes. These features are an important step in understanding the transfer of heat to the corona.

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answers: These features are an important step in understanding the transfer of heat to the corona

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answers: The sun is significantly more complex than previously known

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answers: IRIS spacecraft

text: Coronal mass ejections release huge quantities of matter and electromagnetic radiation into space above the Sun's surface, either near the corona (sometimes called a solar prominence), or farther into the planetary system, or beyond (interplanetary CME). The ejected material is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons. While solar flares are very fast, CMEs are relatively slow.

text: Coronal mass ejections release huge quantities of matter and electromagnetic radiation into space above the Sun's surface, either near the corona (sometimes called a

text: solar prominence

text: ), or farther into the planetary system, or beyond (interplanetary CME). The ejected material is a

text: plasma

text: consisting primarily of

text: electron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s. While solar flares are very fast, CMEs are relatively slow.

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answers: CMEs

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answers: Yes

text: A total solar eclipse will occur on April 9, 2043. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.It will be unusual in that while it is a total solar eclipse, it is not a central solar eclipse.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on April 9, 2043. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.It will be unusual in that while it is a total solar eclipse, it is not a central solar eclipse.

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answers: It will be unusual

text: Coronal rain is a phenomenon that occurs in the sun's corona. It occurs when hot plasma in the corona cools and condenses in strong magnetic fields, usually associated with regions that produce solar flares. The plasma is attracted to the magnetic fields where it condenses and slowly falls back to the solar surface.

text: Coronal rain is a phenomenon that occurs in the

text: sun's

text: corona

text: . It occurs when hot

text: plasma

text: in the corona cools and condenses in strong

text: magnetic field

text: s, usually associated with regions that produce

text: solar flare

text: s. The plasma is attracted to the magnetic fields where it

text: condense

text: s and slowly falls back to the solar surface.

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answers: regions that produce solar flares

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answers: Coronal rain

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answers: Coronal rain

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answers: Coronal rain

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answers: Coronal rain

text: Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged through the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation. This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled up to kilometers high, and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.

text: Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged through the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the

text: Moon

text: by

text: electrostatic levitation

text: . This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the

text: Surveyor program

text: probes in the 1960s. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled up to kilometers high, and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.

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answers: Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged through the photoelectric effect

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust"

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: lunar dust

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Moon

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The Sun has a magnetic field that varies across the surface of the Sun. Its polar field is , whereas the field is typically  in features on the Sun called sunspots and  in solar prominences.

text: The Sun has a

text: magnetic field

text: that varies across the surface of the Sun. Its polar field is , whereas the field is typically  in features on the Sun called

text: sunspot

text: s and  in

text: solar prominence

text: s.

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answers: features on the Sun

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answers: Its polar field is

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answers: sunspots

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answers: features on the Sun

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answers: solar prominences

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Sunspots

text: In the Northern Hemisphere summer, when the earth’s axial tilt was directed toward the sun, Laurasia would have received the most direct solar insolation. This would have yielded a broad area of warm, rising air and low surface pressure over the continent. Models have suggested that this seasonal low was positioned at 35° latitude, relatively near the Tethys Ocean. In Gondwana, high pressure would have dominated, as the land would have been receiving less solar radiation, and therefore experiencing cooler temperatures.

text: In the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: summer

text: , when the earth’s

text: axial tilt

text: was directed toward the sun,

text: Laurasia

text: would have received the most direct solar

text: insolation

text: . This would have yielded a broad area of warm, rising air and

text: low surface pressure

text: over the continent. Models have suggested that this seasonal low was positioned at 35° latitude, relatively near the Tethys Ocean. In

text: Gondwana

text: high pressure

text: would have dominated, as the land would have been receiving less solar radiation, and therefore experiencing cooler temperatures.

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answers: broad area of warm, rising air

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answers: the earth’s axial tilt was directed toward the sun

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answers: solar flares

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answers: Earth’s axial tilt was directed toward the sun

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: Northern Hemisphere

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answers: the sun

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answers: rising air

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answers: solar insolation

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Northern Hemisphere

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Solar radiation

text: The Solar & Heliospheric Observatory, SOHO, is a joint project between NASA and ESA that was launched in December 1995. It was launched to probe the interior of the Sun, make observations of the solar wind and phenomena associated with it and investigate the outer layers of the Sun.

text: The Solar & Heliospheric Observatory, SOHO, is a joint project between

text: NASA

text: and ESA that was launched in December 1995. It was launched to probe the interior of the Sun, make observations of the solar wind and phenomena associated with it and investigate the outer layers of the Sun.

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text: The basic spectrohelioscope is a complex machine that uses a spectroscope to scan the surface of the sun.  The image from the objective lens is focused on a narrow slit revealing only a thin portion of the suns surface.  The light is then passed through a prism or diffraction grating to spread the light into a spectrum. The spectrum is then focused on another slit that allows only a narrow part of the spectrum (the desired wavelength of light for viewing) to pass.  The light is finally focused on an eyepiece so the surface of the Sun can be seen.  The view, however, would be only a narrow strip of the Sun's surface.  The slits are moved in unison to scan across the whole surface of the sun giving a full image. Independently nodding mirrors can be used instead of moving slits to produce the same scan: the first mirror selects a slice of the sun, the second selects the desired wavelength.

text: The basic spectrohelioscope is a complex machine that uses a

text: spectroscope

text: to scan the surface of the sun.  The image from the

text: objective lens

text: is focused on a narrow slit revealing only a thin portion of the suns surface.  The light is then passed through a

text: prism

text: or

text: diffraction grating

text: to spread the light into a spectrum. The spectrum is then focused on another slit that allows only a narrow part of the spectrum (the desired wavelength of light for viewing) to pass.  The light is finally focused on an eyepiece so the surface of the Sun can be seen.  The view, however, would be only a narrow strip of the Sun's surface.  The slits are moved in unison to scan across the whole surface of the sun giving a full image. Independently nodding mirrors can be used instead of moving slits to produce the same scan: the first mirror selects a slice of the sun, the second selects the desired wavelength.

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answers: Yes

text: The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of magnetic flux produced by dynamo action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to coronal mass ejections into interplanetary space, or flares, caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather.

text: The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of

text: magnetic flux

text: produced by

text: dynamo

text: action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to

text: coronal mass ejections

text: into interplanetary space, or

text: flares

text: , caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called

text: space weather

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answers: These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth

text: |-| 8401 Assirelli || 1994 DA || Giuseppe Assirelli, Italian photographer †|-id=403| 8403 Minorushimizu || 1994 JG || Minoru Shimizu (b. 1928) worked at the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory for 40 years, first with the solar-tower telescope at Mitaka (participating in several eclipse expeditions) and later as chief of the technical staff at Okayama. He also worked at Kiso, as well as at public observatories like Bisei, Rikubetsu and Gunma. |-id=405| 8405 Asbolus || 1995 GO || The "black one", Asbolus was the centaur who supposedly made forecasts from the flight formations of birds. He caused the battle between the centaurs and Heracles and thus was indirectly responsible for the deaths of Pholus and Chiron. |-id=406| 8406 Iwaokusano || 1995 HJ || Iwao Kusano (1908-1999), an orthopedist and an amateur astronomer. |-id=407| 8407 Houlahan || 1995 ON || Padraig Houlahan (b. 1958), a computer expert at various institutions, lately at Lowell Observatory. |-id=408| 8408 Strom ||  || At the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Robert G. Strom (b. 1933) studied the cratering record on the terrestrial planets and their satellites. He participated in both manned and unmanned exploration of the solar system and has searched for evidence of ancient oceans and ice sheets on Mars. |-id=409| 8409 Valentaugustus ||  || Valentin Augustus Weber, 19th-century German-American stained-glass designer and constructor and mahogany furniture builder, grandfather of the discovery team leader |-id=410| 8410 Hiroakiohno ||  || Hiroaki Ohno (b. 1948), director of Hoshinomura Observatory in Fukushima prefecture. |-id=411| 8411 Celso || 1996 TO || Celso Macor (1925–1998), a poet in the Italian region of Friuli. |-id=413| 8413 Kawakami ||  || Isamu Kawakami (b. 1948), a member of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=414| 8414 Atsuko ||  || Atsuko Tsuji (b. 1953), a science journalist from Asahi Shinbun. |-id=416| 8416 Okada ||  || Yoshiyuki Okada (b. 1947), a member of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=417| 8417 Lancetaylor ||  || Lance Taylor, science educator †|-id=418| 8418 Mogamigawa ||  || Mogamigawa River, the longest river in the discoverer's home prefecture of Yamagata. |-id=419| 8419 Terumikazumi ||  || Brothers Terumi (b. 1947) and Kazumi Akiyama (b. 1952), members of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=420| 8420 Angrogna || 1996 WQ || Angrogna, a village nestled in the Cottian Alps, in the Piedmont region of Italy. |-id=421| 8421 Montanari ||  || Geminiano Montanari, Italian mathematician|-id=422| 8422 Mohorovičić ||  || Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian seismologist †|-id=423| 8423 Macao ||  || Macau, the beautiful peninsula near Zhuhai. |-id=424| 8424 Toshitsumita || 1997 CP || Tsumita Toshi-hisa (b.1924) joined the Solar Physics Division of the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory in 1950 to study and observe the sun. After retiring in 1987, he contributed to the popularization of astronomy as a member of the Public Information Office at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=425| 8425 Zirankexuejijin ||  || The concatenation Zi Ran, Ke Xue, Ji Jin, or "Nature", "Science", "Fund", is derived from Guo Jia Zi Ran Ke Xue Ji Jin Wei Yuan Hui, "The National Science Foundation of China", which is celebrating its fifteenth anniversary. The Foundation provides support for the Xinglong program. |-id=428| 8428 Okiko ||  || Okiko Seki, wife of the discoverer, Tsutomu Seki. |-id=430| 8430 Florey ||  || Howard Walter Florey, pathologist who shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine|-id=431| 8431 Haseda ||  || Haseda Katsumi, Japanese amateur astronomer . |-id=432| 8432 Tamakasuga ||  || Ryoji Matsumoto (b. 1972), Japanese sumo wrestler whose professional name is Tamakasuga. |-id=433| 8433 Brachyrhynchus || 2561 P-L || Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus). |-id=434| 8434 Columbianus || 6571 P-L || Tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus). |-id=435| 8435 Anser || 6643 P-L || Greylag goose (Anser anser). |-id=436| 8436 Leucopsis || 2259 T-1 || Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis). |-id=437| 8437 Bernicla || 3057 T-1 || Brent goose (Branta bernicla). |-id=438| 8438 Marila || 4825 T-1 || Greater scaup (Aythya marila). |-id=439| 8439 Albellus || 2034 T-2 || Smew (Mergellus albellus). |-id=440| 8440 Wigeon || 1017 T-3 || Wigeon (Anas penelope). |-id=441| 8441 Lapponica || 4008 T-3 || Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). |-id=442| 8442 Ostralegus || 4237 T-3 || Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus). |-id=443| 8443 Svecica || 4343 T-3 || Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica). |-id=444| 8444 Popovich ||  || Pavel Romanovich Popovich (b. 1930), a Soviet cosmonaut. |-id=445| 8445 Novotroitskoe ||  || This minor planet is being named on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the signing of the friendship agreement between Novotroitskoe, the district center of the Chersonian region in Ukraine, and the town of Genichesk, Ukraine. |-id=446| 8446 Tazieff ||  || Haroun Tazieff, French vulcanologist |-id=447| 8447 Cornejo || 1974 OE || Antonio Cornejo, Argentinian founder and director of the Galileo Galilei planetarium in Buenos Aires |-id=448| 8448 Belyakina ||  || Tamara Sergeevna Belyakina (born 1934), astrophysicist and stellar photometrist who worked at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory from 1955 to 1990. |-id=449| 8449 Maslovets ||  || Bogdan Pavlovich Maslovets (born 1940), an electrical engineer at Zaporozhye Transformer Works in Ukraine. |-id=450| 8450 Egorov ||  ||Vsevolod Aleksandrovich Egorov (1930–2001) was one of the founders of the modern theory of the space flight dynamics. |-id=451| 8451 Gaidai ||  || Leonid Iovich Gaidai (1923–1993), a prominent Soviet film producer and Peoples' Artist of the U.S.S.R. |-id=452| 8452 Clay || 1978 WB || Landon and Livinia Clay, steadfast friends of science and the arts, Harvard University and the Smithsonian Institution. |-id=454| 8454 Micheleferrero ||  || Michele Ferrero (1925-2015), an Italian entrepreneur, who put proceeds of his success into a foundation active in the fields of welfare, culture and art. |-id=455| 8455 Johnrayner ||  || John T. Rayner (born 1954), an astronomer at the University of Hawaii's Institute for Astronomy and Deputy Director of the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility. |-id=456| 8456 Davegriep ||  || David M. Griep (born 1957) has been a telescope operator for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii since 1982. |-id=457| 8457 Billgolisch ||  || William F. Golisch (born 1958) has been a telescope operator for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii since 1984. |-id=458| 8458 Georgekoenig ||  || George Koenig (born 1945), the observatory superintendent for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. |-id=459| 8459 Larsbergknut ||  || Lars V. Bergknut (born 1947), the observatory foreman and instrument technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. |-id=460| 8460 Imainamahoe ||  || Imai Namahoe (born 1954), an electronics technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. |-id=461| 8461 Sammiepung ||  || Sammie J. Pung (born 1958) is a mechanical technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. |-id=462| 8462 Hazelsears ||  || Hazel Sears (b. 1948), managing editor of Meteoritics and Planetary Science (1990-2000) and subsequently Meteorite magazine. |-id=463| 8463 Naomimurdoch ||  || Naomi Murdoch (born 1984) completed her Ph.D. at The Open University, United Kingdom in 2012. Using microgravity flight experiments and numerical modeling, she investigated the behavior of granular material under minor-planet-like low-gravity surface conditions. |-id=464| 8464 Polishook ||  || David L. Polishook (born 1976), a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. |-id=465| 8465 Bancelin ||  || David Bancelin (born 1978), an astronomer at the Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides at the Paris Observatory. |-id=466| 8466 Leyrat ||  || Cedric Leyrat (born 1978), an astronomer at the Paris Observatory in Meudon. |-id=467| 8467 Benoîtcarry ||  || Benoît Carry, a Research Fellow at the European Space Astronomy Centre, Spain. |-id=468| 8468 Rhondastroud ||  || Rhonda M. Stroud (born 1971), a planetary scientist at the Naval Research Laboratory. |-id=470| 8470 Dudinskaya ||  || Natalya Dudinskaya, Russian ballerina. |-id=471| 8471 Obrant ||  || The ballet-master, producer and teacher-humanist Arkadij Efimovich Obrant (1906–1974) organized and headed a children's dancing ensemble during the siege of Leningrad in 1942–1945. The first Obrant contest of choreographic art took place in St. Petersburg in March 2002. |-id=472| 8472 Tarroni || 1983 TC || Gino Tarroni, Italian amateur astronomer. |-id=474| 8474 Rettig ||  || Terrence W. Rettig (born 1946), a planetary astronomer and educator at the University of Notre Dame. |-id=475| 8475 Vsevoivanov ||  || Vsevolod Vladimirovich Ivanov (born 1934) is a professor at St. Petersburg University. |-id=477| 8477 Andrejkiselev ||  || Andrej Petrovich Kiselev (1852-1940), a Russian teacher of mathematics. |-id=482| 8482 Wayneolm ||  || Wayne Olm (born 1943), a science educator for the Green Bay, Wisconsin, public schools and the Wisconsin Space Grant College. |-id=483| 8483 Kinwalaniihsia ||  || Daryl Baldwin (born 1962), whose traditional name Kinwalaniihsia means hawk in the Myaamia language, is director of the Myaamia Project at Miami University in Ohio. |-id=485| 8485 Satoru || 1989 FL || Satoru Honda, wife of astronomer Minoru Honda. |-id=488| 8488 d'Argens ||  || Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, marquis d'Argens, a French writer and freethinker. |-id=489| 8489 Boulder ||  || Boulder, Colorado, USA. |-id=491| 8491 Joelle-gilles ||  || Joelle (b. 1978) and Gilles (b. 1980) are the children of Martina Devos and Alain Meerbergen, close friends of the discoverer and his family. |-id=492| 8492 Kikuoka || 1990 BZ || Hidekazu Kikuoka (b. 1941), a planetarium educator at the Osaka Municipal Electric Science Museum and at the Science Museum of Osaka. |-id=493| 8493 Yachibozu ||  || Yachibozu (tussocks), often seen in the Kushiro Marsh on the island of Hokkaido |-id=494| 8494 Edpatvega ||  || Ed (b. 1931) and Pat (b. 1944) Vega have been a dynamic astronomical team for many years. Drawing on his experience as a pathologist, Ed Vega has completed a study, called "Comet Disaster", of the long-term effects to humanity of a large comet's impact on the earth. |-id=496| 8496 Jandlsmith ||  || Named in honor of Jim and Laurie Smith in recognition of their generosity and wisdom in the support of forefront tools to explore the heavens to the benefit of all of humanity. Most especially, their support was crucial for Harvard University's participation in the Magellan Project. |-id=498| 8498 Ufa ||  || Ufa, a large industrial and cultural center in the south Urals. |-id=500| 8500 Hori || 1990 TU || Gen-Ichiro Hori (b. 1930), professor emeritus at Tokyo University. |}

text: 8401 Assirelli

text: || 1994 DA ||

text: Giuseppe Assirelli

text: , Italian photographer †|-id=403|

text: 8403 Minorushimizu

text: || 1994 JG || Minoru Shimizu (b. 1928) worked at the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory for 40 years, first with the solar-tower telescope at Mitaka (participating in several eclipse expeditions) and later as chief of the technical staff at Okayama. He also worked at Kiso, as well as at public observatories like Bisei, Rikubetsu and Gunma. |-id=405|

text: 8405 Asbolus

text: || 1995 GO || The "black one",

text: Asbolus

text: was the centaur who supposedly made forecasts from the flight formations of birds. He caused the battle between the centaurs and Heracles and thus was indirectly responsible for the deaths of

text: Pholus

text: and

text: Chiron

text: . |-id=406|

text: 8406 Iwaokusano

text: || 1995 HJ || Iwao Kusano (1908-1999), an orthopedist and an amateur astronomer. |-id=407|

text: 8407 Houlahan

text: || 1995 ON || Padraig Houlahan (b. 1958), a computer expert at various institutions, lately at Lowell Observatory. |-id=408|

text: 8408 Strom

text: ||  || At the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Robert G. Strom (b. 1933) studied the cratering record on the terrestrial planets and their satellites. He participated in both manned and unmanned exploration of the solar system and has searched for evidence of ancient oceans and ice sheets on Mars. |-id=409|

text: 8409 Valentaugustus

text: Valentin Augustus Weber

text: , 19th-century German-American stained-glass designer and constructor and mahogany furniture builder, grandfather of the discovery team leader |-id=410|

text: 8410 Hiroakiohno

text: ||  || Hiroaki Ohno (b. 1948), director of

text: Hoshinomura Observatory

text: in

text: Fukushima prefecture

text: . |-id=411|

text: 8411 Celso

text: || 1996 TO ||

text: Celso Macor

text: (1925–1998), a poet in the Italian region of Friuli. |-id=413|

text: 8413 Kawakami

text: ||  || Isamu Kawakami (b. 1948), a member of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=414|

text: 8414 Atsuko

text: ||  || Atsuko Tsuji (b. 1953), a science journalist from Asahi Shinbun. |-id=416|

text: 8416 Okada

text: ||  || Yoshiyuki Okada (b. 1947), a member of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=417|

text: 8417 Lancetaylor

text: Lance Taylor

text: , science educator †|-id=418|

text: 8418 Mogamigawa

text: Mogamigawa River

text: , the longest river in the discoverer's home prefecture of Yamagata. |-id=419|

text: 8419 Terumikazumi

text: ||  || Brothers Terumi (b. 1947) and Kazumi Akiyama (b. 1952), members of Shirakawa Observatory in Japan and Chiro Observatory in Australia. |-id=420|

text: 8420 Angrogna

text: || 1996 WQ ||

text: Angrogna

text: , a village nestled in the Cottian Alps, in the Piedmont region of Italy. |-id=421|

text: 8421 Montanari

text: Geminiano Montanari

text: , Italian mathematician|-id=422|

text: 8422 Mohorovičić

text: Andrija Mohorovičić

text: Croatia

text: n seismologist †|-id=423|

text: 8423 Macao

text: Macau

text: , the beautiful peninsula near Zhuhai. |-id=424|

text: 8424 Toshitsumita

text: || 1997 CP || Tsumita Toshi-hisa (b.1924) joined the Solar Physics Division of the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory in 1950 to study and observe the sun. After retiring in 1987, he contributed to the popularization of astronomy as a member of the Public Information Office at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=425|

text: 8425 Zirankexuejijin

text: ||  || The concatenation Zi Ran, Ke Xue, Ji Jin, or "Nature", "Science", "Fund", is derived from Guo Jia Zi Ran Ke Xue Ji Jin Wei Yuan Hui, "The National Science Foundation of China", which is celebrating its fifteenth anniversary. The Foundation provides support for the Xinglong program. |-id=428|

text: 8428 Okiko

text: Okiko Seki

text: , wife of the discoverer,

text: Tsutomu Seki

text: . |-id=430|

text: 8430 Florey

text: Howard Walter Florey

text: , pathologist who shared the 1945

text: Nobel Prize

text: for physiology and medicine|-id=431|

text: 8431 Haseda

text: Haseda Katsumi

text: , Japanese amateur astronomer . |-id=432|

text: 8432 Tamakasuga

text: ||  || Ryoji Matsumoto (b. 1972), Japanese sumo wrestler whose professional name is

text: Tamakasuga

text: . |-id=433|

text: 8433 Brachyrhynchus

text: || 2561 P-L ||

text: Pink-footed goose

text: (Anser brachyrhynchus). |-id=434|

text: 8434 Columbianus

text: || 6571 P-L ||

text: Tundra swan

text: (Cygnus columbianus). |-id=435|

text: 8435 Anser

text: || 6643 P-L || Greylag goose (Anser anser). |-id=436|

text: 8436 Leucopsis

text: || 2259 T-1 ||

text: Barnacle goose

text: (Branta leucopsis). |-id=437|

text: 8437 Bernicla

text: || 3057 T-1 ||

text: Brent goose

text: (Branta bernicla). |-id=438|

text: 8438 Marila

text: || 4825 T-1 ||

text: Greater scaup

text: (Aythya marila). |-id=439|

text: 8439 Albellus

text: || 2034 T-2 ||

text: Smew

text: (Mergellus albellus). |-id=440|

text: 8440 Wigeon

text: || 1017 T-3 ||

text: Wigeon

text: (Anas penelope). |-id=441|

text: 8441 Lapponica

text: || 4008 T-3 ||

text: Bar-tailed godwit

text: (Limosa lapponica). |-id=442|

text: 8442 Ostralegus

text: || 4237 T-3 ||

text: Eurasian oystercatcher

text: (Haematopus ostralegus). |-id=443|

text: 8443 Svecica

text: || 4343 T-3 ||

text: Bluethroat

text: (Luscinia svecica). |-id=444|

text: 8444 Popovich

text: Pavel Romanovich Popovich

text: (b. 1930), a Soviet cosmonaut. |-id=445|

text: 8445 Novotroitskoe

text: ||  || This minor planet is being named on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the signing of the friendship agreement between

text: Novotroitskoe

text: , the district center of the

text: Chersonian region

text: in Ukraine, and the town of

text: Genichesk

text: , Ukraine. |-id=446|

text: 8446 Tazieff

text: Haroun Tazieff

text: , French vulcanologist |-id=447|

text: 8447 Cornejo

text: || 1974 OE || Antonio Cornejo, Argentinian founder and director of the

text: Galileo Galilei planetarium

text: in Buenos Aires |-id=448|

text: 8448 Belyakina

text: Tamara Sergeevna Belyakina

text: (born 1934), astrophysicist and stellar photometrist who worked at the

text: Crimean Astrophysical Observatory

text: from 1955 to 1990. |-id=449|

text: 8449 Maslovets

text: Bogdan Pavlovich Maslovets

text: (born 1940), an electrical engineer at

text: Zaporozhye Transformer Works

text: in Ukraine. |-id=450|

text: 8450 Egorov

text: Vsevolod Aleksandrovich Egorov

text: (1930–2001) was one of the founders of the modern theory of the space flight dynamics. |-id=451|

text: 8451 Gaidai

text: Leonid Iovich Gaidai

text: (1923–1993), a prominent Soviet film producer and Peoples' Artist of the U.S.S.R. |-id=452|

text: 8452 Clay

text: || 1978 WB || Landon and Livinia Clay, steadfast friends of science and the arts, Harvard University and the Smithsonian Institution. |-id=454|

text: 8454 Micheleferrero

text: Michele Ferrero

text: (1925-2015), an Italian entrepreneur, who put proceeds of his success into a foundation active in the fields of welfare, culture and art. |-id=455|

text: 8455 Johnrayner

text: ||  || John T. Rayner (born 1954), an astronomer at the

text: University of Hawaii's Institute for Astronomy

text: and Deputy Director of the

text: NASA

text: Infrared Telescope Facility. |-id=456|

text: 8456 Davegriep

text: ||  || David M. Griep (born 1957) has been a telescope operator for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: since 1982. |-id=457|

text: 8457 Billgolisch

text: ||  || William F. Golisch (born 1958) has been a telescope operator for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: since 1984. |-id=458|

text: 8458 Georgekoenig

text: ||  || George Koenig (born 1945), the observatory superintendent for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: . |-id=459|

text: 8459 Larsbergknut

text: ||  || Lars V. Bergknut (born 1947), the observatory foreman and instrument technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: . |-id=460|

text: 8460 Imainamahoe

text: ||  || Imai Namahoe (born 1954), an electronics technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: . |-id=461|

text: 8461 Sammiepung

text: ||  || Sammie J. Pung (born 1958) is a mechanical technician for the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on

text: Mauna Kea, Hawaii

text: . |-id=462|

text: 8462 Hazelsears

text: ||  || Hazel Sears (b. 1948), managing editor of Meteoritics and Planetary Science (1990-2000) and subsequently Meteorite magazine. |-id=463|

text: 8463 Naomimurdoch

text: ||  || Naomi Murdoch (born 1984) completed her Ph.D. at The Open University, United Kingdom in 2012. Using microgravity flight experiments and numerical modeling, she investigated the behavior of granular material under minor-planet-like low-gravity surface conditions. |-id=464|

text: 8464 Polishook

text: ||  || David L. Polishook (born 1976), a Postdoctoral Fellow at the

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: . |-id=465|

text: 8465 Bancelin

text: ||  || David Bancelin (born 1978), an astronomer at the

entity_name: Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides

text: Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides

text: at the

text: Paris Observatory

text: . |-id=466|

text: 8466 Leyrat

text: ||  || Cedric Leyrat (born 1978), an astronomer at the

text: Paris Observatory

text: in

text: Meudon

text: . |-id=467|

text: 8467 Benoîtcarry

text: ||  || Benoît Carry, a Research Fellow at the

text: European Space Astronomy Centre

text: Spain

text: . |-id=468|

text: 8468 Rhondastroud

text: ||  || Rhonda M. Stroud (born 1971), a planetary scientist at the

text: Naval Research Laboratory

text: . |-id=470|

text: 8470 Dudinskaya

text: Natalya Dudinskaya

text: , Russian ballerina. |-id=471|

text: 8471 Obrant

text: ||  || The ballet-master, producer and teacher-humanist Arkadij Efimovich Obrant (1906–1974) organized and headed a children's dancing ensemble during the siege of Leningrad in 1942–1945. The first Obrant contest of choreographic art took place in St. Petersburg in March 2002. |-id=472|

text: 8472 Tarroni

text: || 1983 TC ||

text: Gino Tarroni

text: , Italian amateur astronomer. |-id=474|

text: 8474 Rettig

text: ||  || Terrence W. Rettig (born 1946), a planetary astronomer and educator at the University of Notre Dame. |-id=475|

text: 8475 Vsevoivanov

text: ||  || Vsevolod Vladimirovich Ivanov (born 1934) is a professor at St. Petersburg University. |-id=477|

text: 8477 Andrejkiselev

text: ||  || Andrej Petrovich Kiselev (1852-1940), a Russian teacher of mathematics. |-id=482|

text: 8482 Wayneolm

text: ||  || Wayne Olm (born 1943), a science educator for the

text: Green Bay, Wisconsin

text: , public schools and the

text: Wisconsin Space Grant College

text: . |-id=483|

text: 8483 Kinwalaniihsia

text: ||  || Daryl Baldwin (born 1962), whose traditional name Kinwalaniihsia means hawk in the

text: Myaamia language

text: , is director of the Myaamia Project at

text: Miami University

text: in Ohio. |-id=485|

text: 8485 Satoru

text: || 1989 FL ||

text: Satoru Honda

text: , wife of astronomer

text: Minoru Honda

text: . |-id=488|

text: 8488 d'Argens

entity_name: Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens

text: Jean-Baptiste de Boyer

text: , marquis d'Argens, a French writer and freethinker. |-id=489|

text: 8489 Boulder

text: Boulder, Colorado

text: , USA. |-id=491|

text: 8491 Joelle-gilles

text: ||  || Joelle (b. 1978) and Gilles (b. 1980) are the children of Martina Devos and Alain Meerbergen, close friends of the discoverer and his family. |-id=492|

text: 8492 Kikuoka

text: || 1990 BZ ||

text: Hidekazu Kikuoka

text: (b. 1941), a planetarium educator at the Osaka Municipal Electric Science Museum and at the Science Museum of Osaka. |-id=493|

text: 8493 Yachibozu

text: ||  || Yachibozu (tussocks), often seen in the Kushiro Marsh on the island of Hokkaido |-id=494|

text: 8494 Edpatvega

text: ||  || Ed (b. 1931) and Pat (b. 1944) Vega have been a dynamic astronomical team for many years. Drawing on his experience as a pathologist, Ed Vega has completed a study, called "Comet Disaster", of the long-term effects to humanity of a large comet's impact on the earth. |-id=496|

text: 8496 Jandlsmith

text: ||  || Named in honor of Jim and Laurie Smith in recognition of their generosity and wisdom in the support of forefront tools to explore the heavens to the benefit of all of humanity. Most especially, their support was crucial for Harvard University's participation in the Magellan Project. |-id=498|

text: 8498 Ufa

text: Ufa

text: , a large industrial and cultural center in the south Urals. |-id=500|

text: 8500 Hori

text: || 1990 TU || Gen-Ichiro Hori (b. 1930), professor emeritus at Tokyo University. |}

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/9c389ad7d4685dfb5a1332cf23bbf98b

answers: 4: The answer is mostly relevant and complete, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/fde6c23d9ff98378f60cd188c0f5332b

answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/864ccb1783b4f6e25a3082abb86d7115

answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/4e22f21f8c4cce7b97f9b6610b9ef386

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/540c9ea99449f6c11d9b95d26c84f373

answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/3c4835bb8af830d21ca4940d89caefbe

answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/434719c41ff341632ddc191f356ed18d

answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_0321/T_1741/89310c4ddee36b1306d08bd99bd9bc28

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answers: craters

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: A sunspot is a bright spot on the sun's surface.

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: cratering

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: The discovery team led by Hiroaki Ohno, a Japanese astronomer and astrologer, discovered the sun's magnetic field.

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the solar system

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: celestial objects

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Hiroakiohno is a bright nebula in the constellation Hiroshima. It's the brightest object in the Milky Way, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's also the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year. It's the brightest object in the solar system, with a diameter of about a quarter of a light-year.

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Akihiko Hiroakiohno is a Japanese astronomer.

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Hiroakiohno

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It's not the first time a centaur has died in space, but it's not the first time a human has died in space. In fact, it's not the first time a human has died in space. In fact, it's not the first time a human has died in space. In fact, it's not the first time a human has died in space.

text: Kunz made significant contributions to construction of photoelectric cells improving on the methods introduced by Elster and Geitel. During the fall of 1911, he began a collaboration and friendship with the University of Illinois Observatory director Joel Stebbins that would revolutionize astronomical photometry. Kunz’s photoelectric cells were many times more sensitive that what was available commercially and therefore able to detect faint star light. Kunz’s cells would be used at half a dozen observatories all across the nation including Yerkes Observatory, Lick Observatory, and Washburn Observatory. Kunz also accompanied Stebbins and four solar eclipse expeditions beginning with  the Solar_eclipse_of_June_8,_1918 to measure the total light of the solar corona with the photoelectric photometer. The collaboration between Stebbins and Kunz continued until Kunz’s death in 1938.

text: Kunz made significant contributions to construction of photoelectric cells improving on the methods introduced by Elster and Geitel. During the fall of 1911, he began a collaboration and friendship with the

entity_name: Astronomical Observatory (University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign)

text: University of Illinois Observatory

text: director

text: Joel Stebbins

text: that would revolutionize astronomical photometry. Kunz’s photoelectric cells were many times more sensitive that what was available commercially and therefore able to detect faint star light. Kunz’s cells would be used at half a dozen observatories all across the nation including Yerkes Observatory, Lick Observatory, and Washburn Observatory. Kunz also accompanied Stebbins and four solar eclipse expeditions beginning with  the

text: to measure the total light of the solar corona with the photoelectric photometer. The collaboration between Stebbins and Kunz continued until Kunz’s death in 1938.

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answers: corona

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answers: the total light of the solar corona

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answers: solar corona

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answers: Solar_eclipse

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answers: solar corona

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answers: corona

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answers: solar corona

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answers: solar corona

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answers: solar corona

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It can be harmed by radiation in space

text: When Reignfire made his presence known, it was noticed how remarkably similar he was to Sunspot, not only in appearance but in powers as well. Since, at this time, Sunspot was missing in action (MIA), that possibility was not ruled out by Cable. His suspicions were revealed when, in the middle of a battle, Reignfire removes his mask to show that he is indeed Roberto.

text: When Reignfire made his presence known, it was noticed how remarkably similar he was to Sunspot, not only in appearance but in powers as well. Since, at this time, Sunspot was

text: missing in action

text: (MIA), that possibility was not ruled out by

text: Cable

text: . His suspicions were revealed when, in the middle of a battle, Reignfire removes his mask to show that he is indeed Roberto.

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text: Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's because Mars's greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about  at the winter polar caps to highs of up to  in equatorial summer. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight.

text: Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's because Mars's greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about  at the winter polar caps to highs of up to  in equatorial summer. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low

text: thermal inertia

text: of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight.

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text: Defining an exact surface for an object such as the Sun is made difficult by the diffuse nature of matter which constitutes the Sun at distances far from the stellar core. An often used definition for the surface of a star is based on the path that photons take. Inside a star, photons travel by random walk, constantly interacting with matter, and the surface of the star is defined as the point at which photons encounter little resistance from the matter in the stellar atmosphere, or in other words, when photons stream freely.

text: Defining an exact surface for an object such as the

text: Sun

text: is made difficult by the

text: diffuse

text: nature of

text: matter

text: which constitutes the Sun at distances far from the stellar core. An often used definition for the surface of a

text: star

text: is based on the path that photons take. Inside a star, photons travel by

text: random walk

text: , constantly interacting with matter, and the surface of the star is defined as the point at which photons encounter little resistance from the matter in the

text: stellar atmosphere

text: , or in other words, when photons stream freely.

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answers: It can be harmed by radiation

text: The story is set sometimes in the twenty-first century.  An expanding shell of low energy from the sun's core, moving towards its surface for the last million years, breaks through its outer envelope. The shell is thin, and the slight decrease in the solar output is not expected to last long. Still, the event has tremendous potential of menace. Even this tiny solar hiccup has the capability to push the planet again towards a cold grave, from which it had painfully emerged just twelve thousand years ago.

text: The story is set sometimes in the twenty-first century.  An expanding shell of low energy from the sun's core, moving towards its surface for the last million years, breaks through its outer envelope. The shell is thin, and the slight decrease in the solar output is not expected to last long. Still, the event has tremendous potential of menace. Even this tiny solar hiccup has the capability to push the planet again towards a cold grave, from which it had painfully emerged just twelve thousand years ago.

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answers: Yes

text: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet (or other solar system body) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (albedo) with adjacent areas.

text: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a

text: planet

text: (or other

text: solar system

text: body) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (

text: albedo

text: ) with adjacent areas.

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answers: large area on the surface

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answers: albedo

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answers: Albedo feature

text: Even if the discussion is limited to the solar system, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly Jupiter, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.)  Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an extrasolar planet would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.

text: Even if the discussion is limited to the

text: solar system

text: , the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one

text: focus

text: of the

text: elliptical

text: orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly

text: Jupiter

text: , amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.)  Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an

text: extrasolar planet

text: would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.

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answers: the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun

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answers: Earth is too far away to be affected by solar flares

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The year 2012 ended up with 129 M-class and 7 X-class solar flares.

text: The year 2012 ended up with 129 M-class and 7 X-class solar flares.

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answers: no

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answers: Yes

text: Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter (W/m2). Direct insolation is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar constant minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering. While the solar constant varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content, and other impurities.

text: Insolation

text: is a measure of

text: solar radiation

text: energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average

text: irradiance

text: in watts per square meter (W/m2).

text: Direct insolation

text: is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the

text: solar constant

text: minus the atmospheric losses due to

text: absorption

text: and

text: scattering

text: . While the solar constant varies with the

text: Earth-Sun distance

text: and

text: solar cycle

text: s, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the

text: Solar elevation angle

text: cloud cover

text: moisture

text: content, and other

text: impurities

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answers: solar radiation

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answers: Direct insolation is equal to the solar constant minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: irradiation

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answers: Sun's rays

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answers: The Earth-Sun distance

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The solar constant varies with the Earth-Sun distance

text: The energy generation forecasting problem is closely linked to the problem of weather variables forecasting. Indeed, this problem is usually split into two parts, on one hand focusing on the forecasting of solar PV or any other meteorological variable and on the other hand estimating the amount of energy that a concrete power plant will produce with the estimated meteorological resource.In general, the way to deal with this difficult problem is usually related to the spatial and temporal scales we are interested in, which yields to different approaches that can be found in the literature. In this sense, it is useful to classify these techniques depending on the forecasting horizon, so it is possible to distinguish between now-casting (forecasting 3–4 hours ahead), short-term forecasting (up to 7 days ahead) and long-term forecasting (months, years…)Solar radiation is a most important power follower of the physical and biological development in our earth. Its spatial and sequential heterogeneity powerfully influence the forceful of the environmental and hydrological organism by manipulate air temperature, soil moisture and vapor transpiration, snow cover up and lots of photochemical procedure. Therefore, solar radiation drives place efficiency and plant life allotment, organism a key feature in undeveloped and forestry sciences that be obliged to be known precisely. The quantity of solar radiation obtainable at the earth’ surface is at the outset controlled at worldwide balance, organism above all precious by the Sun Earth geometry and the atmosphere. On the other hand, a complete explanation of its freedom time unpredictability require deliberation of limited procedure which frequently turn out to be also applicable, as is the casing in mountainous region. Predominantly, limited territory adjust the inward bound solar radiation by shadow casts, slope of elevation, surface gradient and compass reading, as a result, precise spatial model of inward bound solar radiation be supposed to regard as the pressure of the terrain surface. In the final time, more than a few events to consist of the confined terrain special effects in the solar radiation countryside have been projected, such as the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), artificial intelligence or post dispensation of satellite stand technique. Solar radiation can be also evaluate using numerical weather forecast (NWP) models. Nevertheless, the space and time balance determined with them and the incomplete computational ability frequently avoid the deliberation of terrain connected property.

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text: Once funding was secure, Langley devoted his time at the Observatory initially in researching the sun. He used his draftsman skills (from his first job right out of high school) to produce hundreds of drawings of solar phenomena, many of which were the first the world had seen. His 1873 remarkably detailed illustration of a sun spot, observed while using the observatory's 13-inch Fitz-Clark refractor became a classic. It is featured on page 21 of his book, The New Astronomy, but was also widely reprinted – in the Americas as well as throughout Europe.

text: Once funding was secure, Langley devoted his time at the Observatory initially in researching the sun. He used his draftsman skills (from his first job right out of high school) to produce hundreds of drawings of solar phenomena, many of which were the first the world had seen. His 1873 remarkably detailed illustration of a sun spot, observed while using the observatory's 13-inch Fitz-Clark refractor became a classic. It is featured on page 21 of his book, The New Astronomy, but was also widely reprinted – in the Americas as well as throughout Europe.

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text: Ellison became senior science master at Sherborne School in Dorset, 1933, then married Patricia Herron in 1934. The couple had two daughters and a son. He also completed his own spectrohelioscope during this period, to study the Sun following the sunspot minimum. With the start of the world war, he organized an Air Cadet Training Corps, then joined the Operational Research Group at the Admiralty.

text: Ellison became senior science master at Sherborne School in Dorset, 1933, then married Patricia Herron in 1934. The couple had two daughters and a son. He also completed his own

text: spectrohelioscope

text: during this period, to study the Sun following the sunspot minimum. With the start of the world war, he organized an Air Cadet Training Corps, then joined the Operational Research Group at the

text: Admiralty

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text: The next day, Abby shows John that she has coloured in the sun on the Ezekiel's "Chariot vision" engraving and John has a sudden realisation that this could be how the world ends. He rushes them to the MIT observatory, where he discovers that a massive solar flare will soon reach Earth, making it uninhabitable. John and Diana argue over what is best to do to prepare for the incoming solar flare. After the argument, Diana leaves with both children. As Diana stops for gas, an emergency broadcast is transmitted to alert the world of the solar flare. While Diana is on the phone with John, the strangers take the children. Diana chases after them but her car is hit by a truck. John, rushing to catch up with them, arrives just as Diana dies at exactly midnight of October 19 and finds the smooth, black stone in Diana's hand. He goes back to Lucinda's mobile home, finding the children and the strangers waiting in a dry river bed covered with the similar black stones. A space ship descends from the sky. John is refused entry and the ship departs with the children. A distant shot shows many similar space ships leaving Earth.

text: The next day, Abby shows John that she has coloured in the sun on the Ezekiel's "Chariot vision" engraving and John has a sudden realisation that this could be how the world ends. He rushes them to the

text: MIT observatory

text: , where he discovers that a

text: massive solar flare

text: will soon reach

text: Earth

text: , making it

text: uninhabitable

text: . John and Diana argue over what is best to do to prepare for the incoming solar flare. After the argument, Diana leaves with both children. As Diana stops for gas, an emergency broadcast is transmitted to alert the world of the solar flare. While Diana is on the phone with John, the strangers take the children. Diana chases after them but her car is hit by a truck. John, rushing to catch up with them, arrives just as Diana dies at exactly midnight of October 19 and finds the smooth, black stone in Diana's hand. He goes back to Lucinda's mobile home, finding the children and the strangers waiting in a dry river bed covered with the similar black stones. A space ship descends from the sky. John is refused entry and the ship departs with the children. A distant shot shows many similar space ships leaving Earth.

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answers: massive solar flare

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answers: massive solar flare will soon reach Earth

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answers: Yes

text: Sunspots result from the blockage of convective heat transport by intense magnetic fields. Sunspots are cooler than the rest of the photosphere, with effective temperatures of about 4000°C (about 7000°F). Sunspot occurrence follows an approximately 11-year period known as the solar cycle, discovered by Heinrich Schwabe in the 19th century.

text: Sunspots result from the blockage of convective heat transport by intense

text: magnetic field

text: s. Sunspots are cooler than the rest of the photosphere, with effective temperatures of about 4000°C (about 7000°F). Sunspot occurrence follows an approximately 11-year period known as the

text: solar cycle

text: , discovered by

text: Heinrich Schwabe

text: in the 19th century.

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answers: cooler than the rest of the photosphere

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answers: Sunspots are cooler than the rest of the photosphere

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answers: Yes

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

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answers: Superflares can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun

text: In 1988, Meiko launched the In-Sun Computing Surface, which repackaged the Computing Surface into VMEbus boards (designated the MK200 series) suitable for installation in larger Sun-3 or Sun-4 systems. The Sun acted as "front-end" host system for managing the transputers, running development tools and providing mass storage. A version of M²VCS running as a SunOS daemon called SVCS (Sun Virtual Computing Surfaces) provided access between the transputer network and the Sun host.

text: In 1988, Meiko launched the In-Sun Computing Surface, which repackaged the Computing Surface into

text: VMEbus

text: boards (designated the MK200 series) suitable for installation in larger

text: or

text: systems. The Sun acted as "front-end" host system for managing the transputers, running development tools and providing mass storage. A version of M²VCS running as a

text: SunOS

text: daemon

text: called SVCS (Sun Virtual Computing Surfaces) provided access between the transputer network and the Sun host.

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text: The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal-mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System.

text: The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called

text: solar activity

text: Solar flares

text: and

text: coronal-mass ejections

text: tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of

text: solar wind

text: are emitted from

text: coronal holes

text: at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and

text: interplanetary magnetic field

text: outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include

text: auroras

text: at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and

text: electric power

text: . Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: formation and evolution of the Solar System

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answers: Solar flares and coronal-mass ejections tend to occur

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answers: Yes

text: The Sun's major component of magnetic field reverses direction every 11 years (so the period is about 22 years), resulting in a diminished magnitude of magnetic field near reversal time. During this dormancy, the sunspots activity is at maximum (because of the lack of magnetic braking on plasma) and, as a result, massive ejection of high energy plasma into the solar corona and interplanetary space takes place. Collisions of neighboring sunspots with oppositely directed magnetic fields result in the generation of strong electric fields near rapidly disappearing magnetic field regions. This electric field accelerates electrons and protons to high energies (kiloelectronvolts) which results in jets of extremely hot plasma leaving the Sun's surface and heating coronal plasma to high temperatures (millions of kelvin).

text: The

text: Sun

text: 's major component of magnetic field reverses direction every 11 years (so the period is about 22 years), resulting in a diminished magnitude of magnetic field near reversal time. During this dormancy, the

text: sunspot

text: s activity is at maximum (because of the lack of

text: magnetic braking

text: on plasma) and, as a result, massive ejection of high energy plasma into the

text: solar corona

text: and interplanetary space takes place. Collisions of neighboring sunspots with oppositely directed magnetic fields result in the generation of strong electric fields near rapidly disappearing magnetic field regions. This electric field accelerates electrons and protons to high energies (kiloelectronvolts) which results in jets of extremely hot plasma leaving the Sun's surface and heating coronal plasma to high temperatures (millions of

text: kelvin

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answers: The Sun

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answers: The sunspots activity is at maximum

text: In the latter form, the mass is expressed in solar masses ( and the distances in Gigaparsec (Gpc). The Einstein radius is most prominent for a lens typically halfway between the source and the observer.

text: In the latter form, the mass is expressed in

text: solar mass

text: es ( and the distances in Giga

text: parsec

text: (Gpc). The Einstein radius is most prominent for a lens typically halfway between the source and the observer.

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answers: days to months

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar masses

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Einstein radius

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Gigaparsec

text: The observatory is a cave modified to allow study of the movement of the sun. The cave was covered with stucco and painted black, yellow and red with a chimney that measured from the base to the surface 8.7 meters, and which is hexagonal in the top. The chimney has a slight slope allowing the sun's rays to be to projected on the floor of the cave.

text: The observatory is a cave modified to allow study of the movement of the sun. The cave was covered with stucco and painted black, yellow and red with a chimney that measured from the base to the surface 8.7 meters, and which is hexagonal in the top. The chimney has a slight slope allowing the sun's rays to be to projected on the floor of the cave.

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answers: chimney

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: movement of the sun

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: NDQ_006085

answers: rays

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: sun's rays

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the movement of the sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The observatory

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The sun's rays

text: Sunspot was in the X-Ternals with Jubilee, Strong Guy, and Gambit. Like Robin Hood, they take money of Apocalypse and give to the poor. Magneto assigns them to travel to the Shi'ar Galaxy to steal the powerful M'Kraan Crystal.

text: Sunspot was in the X-Ternals with

text: Jubilee

text: Strong Guy

text: , and

text: Gambit

text: . Like

text: Robin Hood

text: , they take money of

text: Apocalypse

text: and give to the poor.

text: Magneto

text: assigns them to travel to the

text: Shi'ar

text: Galaxy to steal the powerful

text: M'Kraan Crystal

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: Galaxy

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Like Robin Hood, they take money of Apocalypse and give to the poor

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Apocalypse

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Apocalypse

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: Galaxy

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: Sunspot

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Sunspot

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Galaxy

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Galaxy

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: HD 4628 (96 G. Piscium) is a main sequence star in the equatorial constellation of Pisces. It has a spectral classification of K2.5 V and an effective temperature of 5,829 K, giving it an orange-red hue with a slightly smaller mass and girth than our Sun. HD 4628 lies at a distance of approximately 24 light years from the Sun. The apparent magnitude is just sufficient for this star to be viewed with the unaided eye. The star appears to be slightly older than our Sun—approximately 5.4 billion years old. The surface activity is low and, based upon the detection of UV emission, it may have a relatively cool corona with a temperature of one million K.

text: HD 4628 (96 G. Piscium) is a

text: main sequence star

text: in the equatorial

text: constellation

text: of

text: Pisces

text: . It has a

text: spectral classification

text: of K2.5 V and an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5,829 K, giving it an orange-red hue with a slightly smaller mass and girth than our

text: Sun

text: . HD 4628 lies at a distance of approximately 24

text: light year

text: s from the Sun. The

text: apparent magnitude

text: is just sufficient for this star to be viewed with the unaided eye. The star appears to be slightly older than our Sun—approximately 5.4 billion years old. The

text: surface activity

text: is low and, based upon the detection of UV emission, it may have a relatively cool

text: corona

text: with a temperature of one million K.

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answers: main sequence star

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: The surface activity is low

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: main sequence star

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: It may have a relatively cool corona with a temperature of one million K

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: main sequence star

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: corona

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: corona

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: HD 4628

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: 24 light years from the Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: UV emission

text: BD+14°4559 is a K-type star that is approximately 86% the mass of and 95% the radius of the Sun. It has a surface temperature of 5008 K and is likely about 3 billion years old based on its characteristics. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: BD+14°4559 is a

text: K-type

text: star that is approximately 86% the mass of and 95% the radius of the

text: Sun

text: . It has a surface temperature of 5008

text: K

text: and is likely about 3 billion years old based on its characteristics. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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text: and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow

text: temperate

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text: equator

text: ial tropical to

text: subtropical

text: region.

text: Precipitation

text: varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre. 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the

text: Northern Hemisphere

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text: A confrontation with Donald Pierce leaves Sebastian Shaw gravely injured, and Sunspot takes over as Lord Imperial, which was Tessa's plan all along.  Tessa left the Club, still under Sunspot's rule, and joined New Excalibur in the wake of M-Day. Shaw has since returned as the Black King, seemingly plotting to rebuild his power base.

text: A confrontation with Donald Pierce leaves Sebastian Shaw gravely injured, and Sunspot takes over as Lord Imperial, which was Tessa's plan all along.  Tessa left the Club, still under Sunspot's rule, and joined

text: New Excalibur

text: in the wake of

text: M-Day

text: . Shaw has since returned as the Black King, seemingly plotting to rebuild his power base.

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text: :This article is about the company which manufactures solar hot-water systems, for the NASA observatory see Solar Dynamics Observatory.

text: :This article is about the company which manufactures

text: solar

text: hot-water systems, for the

text: NASA

text: observatory see

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

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answers: Yes

text: In 1932, Robert extended the functionality of the spectroheliograph so that it could record motion pictures of the sun. This machine is known as a spectroheliokinematograph; with it, he took astonishing moving pictures of solar storms, showing features on the sun's surface that lasted from seconds to days.

text: In 1932, Robert extended the functionality of the

text: spectroheliograph

text: so that it could record

text: motion picture

text: s of the sun. This machine is known as a spectroheliokinematograph; with it, he took astonishing moving pictures of

text: solar storms

text: , showing features on the sun's surface that lasted from seconds to days.

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text: Dry prominence, on the other hand, ignores water, snow, and ice features and assumes that the surface of the earth is defined by the solid bottom of those features. The dry prominence of a summit is equal to the wet prominence of that summit unless the summit is the highest point of a landmass or island, or a summit surrounded by snow or ice. If a summit is completely surrounded by a water, snow, or ice feature, the dry prominence of that summit is equal to the wet prominence plus the depth of the highest col.

text: Dry prominence, on the other hand, ignores water, snow, and ice features and assumes that the surface of the earth is defined by the solid bottom of those features. The dry prominence of a summit is equal to the wet prominence of that summit unless the summit is the highest point of a landmass or island, or a summit surrounded by snow or ice. If a summit is completely surrounded by a water, snow, or ice feature, the dry prominence of that summit is equal to the wet prominence plus the depth of the highest col.

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answers: The dry prominence of a summit is equal to the wet prominence of that summit

text: Researchers have taken about ten years to recreate a simplified replica of the surface of the butterfly's wing. They hope that such technology will result in bank notes and credit cards that are difficult to forge and also that it will lead to solar cells being more efficient at gathering energy from the sun.

text: Researchers have taken about ten years to recreate a simplified replica of the surface of the butterfly's wing. They hope that such technology will result in bank notes and credit cards that are difficult to forge and also that it will lead to solar cells being more efficient at gathering energy from the sun.

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answers: Yes

text: Mercury Holidays was founded in 1990 and is part of Sunspot Tours, a parent company. Sunspot Tours Ltd was established by Martin Bugeja, Nick Bugeja and Andy Holland in 1980, selling travel packages through travel agents. It began specialising in holidays to Malta and from 1983 included holidays to Cyprus. This later expanded to include holidays to Madeira, Australia, Sri Lanka and Mauritius.

text: Mercury Holidays was founded in 1990 and is part of Sunspot Tours, a parent company. Sunspot Tours Ltd was established by Martin Bugeja, Nick Bugeja and Andy Holland in 1980, selling travel packages through travel agents. It began specialising in holidays to

text: Malta

text: and from 1983 included holidays to

text: Cyprus

text: . This later expanded to include holidays to

text: Madeira

text: Australia

text: Sri Lanka

text: and

text: Mauritius

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text: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity (including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material) and appearance (changes in the number and size of sunspots, flares, and other manifestations).

text: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the

text: Sun

text: 's activity (including changes in the levels of

text: solar radiation

text: and ejection of solar material) and appearance (changes in the number and size of

text: sunspot

text: s,

text: flares

text: , and other manifestations).

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answers: Yes

text: This is a red giant star with an estimated mass of about 2.4 times that of the Sun and a surface temperature of approximately 3,480 K, just over half the surface temperature of the Sun. This low temperature accounts for the dull red color of an M-type star. The total luminosity is about 2,500 times that of the Sun, and it has estimated 180 times the Sun's radius.

text: This is a

text: red giant

text: star with an estimated mass of about 2.4 times that of the

text: Sun

text: and a surface temperature of approximately 3,480

text: K

text: , just over half the surface temperature of the Sun. This low temperature accounts for the dull red color of an M-type star. The total luminosity is about 2,500 times that of the Sun, and it has estimated 180 times the Sun's radius.

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answers: It can be harmed by radiation

text: The Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA) is an astronomical radio telescope array with main interests in studying the physics of the Sun. The instruments of the observatory are designed and employed specifically for studying the activities and phenomena of our solar system's sun. Other solar dedicated instruments operated on the site include the Solar Radio Burst Locator (SRBL), the FASR Subsystem Testbed  (FST), and the Korean SRBL (KSRBL).  The OVSA is operated by the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), which also operates the Big Bear Solar Observatory.

text: The Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA) is an

text: astronomical

text: radio telescope

text: array with main interests in studying the physics of the

text: Sun

text: . The instruments of the observatory are designed and employed specifically for studying the activities and phenomena of our solar system's sun. Other solar dedicated instruments operated on the site include the

text: Solar Radio Burst Locator

text: (SRBL), the FASR Subsystem Testbed  (FST), and the Korean SRBL (KSRBL).  The OVSA is operated by the

text: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: (NJIT), which also operates the

text: Big Bear Solar Observatory

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answers: The Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA)

text: The Sun's photosphere is observed continuously for activity that can be the precursors to solar flares and CMEs. The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) project monitors both the surface and the interior of the Sun by using helioseismology, the study of sound waves propagating through the Sun and observed as ripples on the solar surface. GONG can detect sunspot groups on the far side of the Sun. This ability has recently been verified by visual observations from the STEREO spacecraft.

text: The Sun's photosphere is observed continuously for activity that can be the precursors to solar flares and CMEs. The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) project monitors both the surface and the interior of the Sun by using

text: helioseismology

text: , the study of sound waves propagating through the Sun and observed as ripples on the solar surface. GONG can detect sunspot groups on the far side of the Sun. This ability has recently been verified by visual observations from the

text: STEREO

text: spacecraft.

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text: When a prominence is viewed against the Sun instead of space, it appears darker than the background. This formation is called a solar filament. It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they eject matter at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/s. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Prominences may last for days or months.

text: When a prominence is viewed against the Sun instead of space, it appears darker than the background. This formation is called a solar filament. It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they eject matter at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/s. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Prominences may last for days or months.

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answers: Prominences may last for days or months

text: His subject matter evolved from physics to astrophysics as he helped astronomy take on its modern shape. About 1956, Leighton became interested in the physics of the outer layers of the Sun. With characteristic imagination and insight, he devised Doppler shift and Zeeman effect solar cameras. They were applied with striking success to the investigation of magnetic and velocity fields on the sun. With the Zeeman camera, Leighton mapped complicated patterns of the sun's magnetic field with excellent resolution. Even more striking were his discoveries of a remarkable five-minute oscillation in local surface velocities and of a "super-granulation pattern" of horizontal convection currents in large cells of moving material. These solar oscillations have subsequently been recognized as internally trapped acoustic waves, opening up the whole new fields of helioseismology and solar magneto convection. Leighton himself soon realized that solar magneto-convection cells would lead to an effective diffusion of flux on the solar surface (now called Leighton diffusion), and he included it in a dynamo model of the solar cycle.

text: His subject matter evolved from physics to astrophysics as he helped astronomy take on its modern shape. About 1956, Leighton became interested in the physics of the outer layers of the

text: Sun

text: . With characteristic imagination and insight, he devised

text: Doppler shift

text: and

text: Zeeman effect

text: solar cameras. They were applied with striking success to the investigation of magnetic and velocity fields on the sun. With the Zeeman camera, Leighton mapped complicated patterns of the sun's magnetic field with excellent resolution. Even more striking were his discoveries of a remarkable five-minute oscillation in local surface velocities and of a "super-granulation pattern" of horizontal convection currents in large cells of moving material. These solar oscillations have subsequently been recognized as internally trapped acoustic waves, opening up the whole new fields of

text: helioseismology

text: and solar magneto convection. Leighton himself soon realized that solar magneto-convection cells would lead to an effective diffusion of flux on the solar surface (now called Leighton diffusion), and he included it in a

text: dynamo model of the solar cycle

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answers: a remarkable five-minute oscillation in local surface velocities

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answers: NDQ_006086

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Zeeman effect solar cameras

text: Sunspots are relatively dark areas on the Sun's radiating 'surface' (photosphere) where intense magnetic activity inhibits convection and cools the Photosphere. Faculae are slightly brighter areas that form around sunspot groups as the flow of energy to the photosphere is re-established and both the normal flow and the sunspot-blocked energy elevate the radiating 'surface' temperature. Scientists began speculating on possible relationships between sunspots and solar luminosity in the 17th century. Luminosity decreases caused by sunspots (generally < - 0.3%) are correlated with increases (generally < + 0.05%) caused both by faculae that are associated with active regions as well as the magnetically active 'bright network'.

text: Sunspot

text: s are relatively dark areas on the Sun's radiating 'surface' (

text: photosphere

text: ) where intense magnetic activity inhibits convection and cools the

text: Photosphere

text: Faculae

text: are slightly brighter areas that form around sunspot groups as the flow of energy to the photosphere is re-established and both the normal flow and the sunspot-blocked energy elevate the radiating 'surface' temperature. Scientists began speculating on possible relationships between sunspots and solar luminosity in the 17th century. Luminosity decreases caused by sunspots (generally < - 0.3%) are correlated with increases (generally < + 0.05%) caused both by faculae that are associated with active regions as well as the magnetically active 'bright network'.

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answers: NDQ_006089

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: relatively dark areas

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: intense magnetic activity inhibits convection and cools the Photosphere

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: active regions

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: brighter areas

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Faculae

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Also in 1848, Joseph Henry projected an image of the Sun onto a screen and determined that sunspots were cooler than the surrounding surface.

text: Also in 1848,

text: Joseph Henry

text: projected an image of the Sun onto a screen and determined that sunspots were cooler than the surrounding surface.

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answers: cooler than the surrounding surface

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: were cooler than the surrounding surface

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

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answers: sunspot

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: sunspot

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answers: the Sun

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answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: yes

text: As the end of their mission drew closer, Gibson continued his watch of the solar surface.On January 21, 1974, an active region on the Sun's surface formed a bright spot which intensified and grew. Gibson quickly began filming the sequence as the bright spot erupted. This film was the first recording from space of the birth of a solar flare.

text: As the end of their mission drew closer, Gibson continued his watch of the solar surface.On January 21, 1974, an active region on the Sun's surface formed a bright spot which intensified and grew. Gibson quickly began filming the sequence as the bright spot erupted. This film was the first recording from space of the birth of a

text: solar flare

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text: Topography is the study and description of the surface features of land, which means it is the study of the surface of the earth such as that of relief features which is whatever is on the surface of anything

text: Topography

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text: Meanwhile, Carrington had adopted, and was cultivating with his usual felicity of treatment, a ‘second subject’ at that juncture of peculiar interest and importance. While his new observatory was in course of construction, he devoted some of his spare time to examining the drawings and records of sun-spots in possession of the Astronomical Society, and was much struck with the need and scarcity of systematic solar observations. Sabine's and Wolf's discovery of the coincidence between the magnetic and sunspot periods had just then been announced, and he believed he should be able to take advantage of the pre-occupation or inability of other observers to appropriate to himself, by ‘close and methodical research,’ the next ensuing eleven-year cycle. He accordingly resolved to devote his daylight energies to the sun, while reserving his nights for the stars. Solar physics as a whole, however, he prudently excluded from his field of view. He limited his task to fixing the true period of the sun's rotation (of which curiously discrepant values had been obtained), to tracing the laws of distribution of maculæ, and investigating the existence of permanent surface-currents. Adequately to compass these ends, new devices of observation, reduction, and comparison were required. Leaving photography to his successors as too undeveloped for immediate use, he chose a method founded on the idea of making the solar disc its own circular micrometer. An image of the sun was thrown upon a screen placed at such a distance from the eyepiece of the 4½-inch equatoreal as to give to the disc a diameter of 12 to 14 inches. In the focus of the telescope, which was firmly clamped, two bars of flattened gold wire were fastened at right angles to each other, and inclined about 45° on either side of the meridian. Then, as the inverted image traversed the screen, the instants of contact with the wires of the sun's limbs and of the spot-nucleus to be measured were severally noted, when an easy calculation gave its heliocentric position (ib. xiv. 153).

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text: A typical prominence extends over many thousands of kilometers; the largest on record was estimated at over  long – roughly the solar radius.

text: A typical prominence extends over many thousands of kilometers; the largest on record was estimated at over  long – roughly the solar radius.

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answers: A typical prominence extends over many thousands of kilometers

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text: When solar flares erupt from sunspots they emit ultraviolet radiation, which reach the earth in 8 minutes, and electrified fragments of atoms which take around 30 hours. These fragments of atoms are diverted by the earth's magnetic field, towards the North and South poles which causes the Aurora. Dr. C. W. Gartlein of Cornell University took some of the first motion pictures of the Aurora Borealis. These solar flares cause disruption in electricity and radio communications because of disturbances of the ionosphere. Because of this, the Sun is monitored from 22 stations around the world which send data to the Radio Storm Warning Service of the National Bureau of Standards to determine when a solar storm will reach the Earth.

text: When

text: solar flares

text: erupt from sunspots they emit

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: , which reach the earth in 8 minutes, and

text: electrified fragments of atoms

text: which take around 30 hours. These fragments of atoms are diverted by the

text: earth's magnetic field

text: , towards the North and South poles which causes the

text: Aurora

text: Dr. C. W. Gartlein

text: of Cornell University took some of the first motion pictures of the Aurora Borealis. These solar flares cause disruption in

text: electricity

text: and radio communications because of disturbances of the

text: ionosphere

text: . Because of this, the Sun is monitored from 22 stations around the world which send data to the

text: Radio Storm Warning Service

text: of the

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Bureau of Standards

text: to determine when a

text: solar storm

text: will reach the Earth.

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answers: 30 hours

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answers: unanswerable

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answers: Yes

text: Craig Edward DeForest (born August 13, 1968) is an American solar physicist.  He leads the heliophysics research group at the Boulder, Colorado offices of the Southwest Research Institute and holds an adjunct faculty position at the University of Colorado, Boulder.  His wide-ranging contributions to the field of experimental astrophysics of the Sun include: early work on the MSSTA, a sounding rocket that prototyped modern normal-incidence EUV optics such as are used on the Solar Dynamics Observatory; his discovery of sound waves in the solar corona in 1998; standardization of computer vision techniques that are used to measure and track magnetic fields on the solar surface; co-invention with colleague Charles Kankelborg of the fluxon semi-Lagrangian approach to numerical MHD modeling; and pioneering work on quantitative remote sensing of the solar wind via Thomson scattered light.

text: Craig Edward DeForest (born August 13, 1968) is an American solar physicist.  He leads the heliophysics research group at the

text: Boulder, Colorado

text: offices of the

text: Southwest Research Institute

text: and holds an adjunct faculty position at the

text: University of Colorado, Boulder

text: .  His wide-ranging contributions to the field of experimental astrophysics of the Sun include: early work on the

text: MSSTA

text: , a sounding rocket that prototyped modern normal-incidence EUV optics such as are used on the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: ; his discovery of sound waves in the

text: solar corona

text: in 1998; standardization of

text: computer vision

text: techniques that are used to measure and track magnetic fields on the solar surface; co-invention with colleague Charles Kankelborg of the

text: fluxon

text: semi-Lagrangian approach to numerical MHD modeling; and pioneering work on quantitative remote sensing of the

text: solar wind

text: via

text: Thomson scattered

text: light.

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answers: NDQ_006088

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: radiation

text: After teaching for a year at the University of Michigan, he became an associate professor of physics at Oberlin College. He made professor in 1899 and became Dean of the College of Arts and Science in 1907. In May 1908 at the age of 51 he joined the staff at Mount Wilson Observatory. There he studied the Sun, observing sun spots, the structure of the solar atmosphere,examined the Sun's element composition using spectroscopy, and so forth. In his later work he spent much time working to confirm the theory of general relativity. He also made observations of the planet Venus, showing that there was insufficient oxygen in the atmosphere to support life (as we know it). Between 1909 and 1930 he published 80 papers. He also served as President of Commission 12 of the International Astronomical Union until 1932.

text: After teaching for a year at the University of Michigan, he became an associate professor of physics at

text: Oberlin College

text: . He made professor in 1899 and became Dean of the College of Arts and Science in 1907. In May 1908 at the age of 51 he joined the staff at

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: . There he studied the

text: Sun

text: , observing

text: sun spots

text: , the structure of the solar atmosphere,examined the Sun's

text: element

text: composition using

text: spectroscopy

text: , and so forth. In his later work he spent much time working to confirm the theory of

text: general relativity

text: . He also made observations of the planet

text: Venus

text: , showing that there was insufficient

text: oxygen

text: in the atmosphere to support life (as we know it). Between 1909 and 1930 he published 80 papers. He also served as President of Commission 12 of the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: until 1932.

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answers: sun spots

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: the structure of the solar atmosphere

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: sun spots

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: sun spots

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: sun spots

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: sun spots

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Venus

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The structure of the solar atmosphere

text: A nanoflare is a very small solar flare which happens in the corona, the external atmosphere of the Sun.

text: A nanoflare is a very small

text: solar flare

text: which happens in the

text: corona

text: , the external

text: atmosphere

text: of the

text: Sun

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answers: nanoflare

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: nanoflare

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flare

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: A nanoflare

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the corona

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: corona

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: nanoflare

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar flare

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The sun is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of magnetic reconnection, the physical process that drives solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field. Reconnection reconfigures the local magnetic field surrounding the flare site from a higher-energy (non-potential, stressed) state to a lower-energy (potential) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a current sheet, often preceded by or in tandem with a coronal mass ejection. As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed magnetic field lines are swept away from the reconnection site, producing outflows both toward and away from the solar surface, respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to reconnection downflows that perturb the hot, dense plasma that collects above flare arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: , the physical process that drives

text: solar flare

text: s by releasing energy stored in the

text: Sun’s magnetic field

text: Reconnection

text: reconfigures the local

text: magnetic field

text: surrounding the

text: flare

text: site from a higher-energy (non-potential,

text: stressed

text: ) state to a lower-energy (

text: potential

text: ) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a

text: current sheet

text: , often preceded by or in tandem with a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed

text: magnetic field lines

text: are swept away from the

text: reconnection

text: site, producing outflows both toward and away from the

text: solar surface

text: , respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to

text: reconnection

text: downflows that perturb the hot, dense

text: plasma

text: that collects above

text: flare

text: arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

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text: Annie Scott Dill Maunder was a pioneer in astronomical photography, especially of sunspots. A mathematics graduate of Girton College, Cambridge, she was first hired (in 1890) to be an assistant to Edward Walter Maunder, discoverer of the Maunder Minimum, the head of the solar department at Greenwich Observatory. They worked together to observe sunspots and to refine the techniques of solar photography. They married in 1895. Annie's mathematical skills made it possible to analyse the years of sunspot data that Maunder had been collecting at Greenwich. She also designed a small, portable wide-angle camera with a  lens. In 1898, the Maunders traveled to India, where Annie took the first photographs of the sun's corona during a solar eclipse. By analysing the Cambridge records for both sunspots and geomagnetic storm, they were able to show that specific regions of the sun's surface were the source of geomagnetic storms and that the sun did not radiate its energy uniformly into space, as William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin had declared.

text: Annie Scott Dill Maunder

text: was a pioneer in astronomical photography, especially of

text: sunspot

text: s. A mathematics graduate of Girton College, Cambridge, she was first hired (in 1890) to be an assistant to

text: Edward Walter Maunder

text: , discoverer of the

text: Maunder Minimum

text: , the head of the solar department at

text: Greenwich Observatory

text: . They worked together to observe sunspots and to refine the techniques of solar photography. They married in 1895. Annie's mathematical skills made it possible to analyse the years of sunspot data that Maunder had been collecting at Greenwich. She also designed a small, portable wide-angle camera with a  lens. In 1898, the Maunders traveled to India, where Annie took the first photographs of the sun's corona during a solar eclipse. By analysing the Cambridge records for both sunspots and

text: geomagnetic storm

text: , they were able to show that specific regions of the sun's surface were the source of geomagnetic storms and that the sun did not radiate its energy uniformly into space, as

text: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: had declared.

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answers: specific regions of the sun's surface

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answers: specific regions of the sun's surface were the source of geomagnetic storms

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answers: sunspots

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answers: sunspots

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answers: specific regions of the sun's surface

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answers: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: The most prominent time variation of the solar magnetic field is related to the quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle, characterized by an increasing and decreasing number and size of sunspots. Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field. At a typical solar minimum, few or no sunspots are visible. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, following Spörer's law.

text: The most prominent time variation of the solar magnetic field is related to the quasi-periodic 11-year

text: solar cycle

text: , characterized by an increasing and decreasing number and size of

text: sunspot

text: s. Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's

text: photosphere

text: and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field. At a typical

text: solar minimum

text: , few or no sunspots are visible. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its

text: maximum

text: , sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, following

text: Spörer's law

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answers: concentrations of magnetic field

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answers: Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: Yes

text: In the second half of the nineteenth century Richard Carrington and Spörer independently noted the migration of sunspot activity towards the solar equator as the cycle progresses. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram, first constructed by Walter and Annie Scott Dill Maunder in the early twentieth century (see graph). Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce a time-series diagram.

text: In the second half of the nineteenth century

text: Richard Carrington

text: and Spörer independently noted the migration of sunspot activity towards the solar equator as the cycle progresses. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram, first constructed by Walter and

text: Annie Scott Dill Maunder

text: in the early twentieth century (see graph). Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce a time-series diagram.

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text: Recently, Alfvénic motions have been found in the lower solar atmosphere  and also in the quiet Sun, in coronal holes and in active regions using observations with AIA on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory.These Alfvénic oscillations have significant power, and seem to be connected to the chromospheric Alfvénic oscillations previously reported with the Hinode spacecraft.

text: Recently, Alfvénic motions have been found in the lower solar atmosphere  and also in the quiet Sun, in coronal holes and in active regions using observations with AIA on board the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: .These Alfvénic oscillations have significant power, and seem to be connected to the chromospheric Alfvénic oscillations previously reported with the

text: Hinode

text: spacecraft.

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answers: Alfvénic oscillations

text: Spartan 201-04 is a Solar Physics Spacecraft designed to perform remote sensing of the hot outer layers of the sun's atmosphere or corona. It is expected to be deployed on orbit 18 and retrieved on orbit 52. The objective of the observations are to investigate the mechanisms causing the heating of the solar corona and the acceleration of the solar wind which originates in the corona. Two primary experiments are the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and the White Light Coronograph (WLC) from the High Altitude Observatory. Spartan 201 has three secondary experiments. The Technology Experiment Augmenting Spartan (TEXAS) is a Radio Frequency (RF) communications experiment which provided flight experience for components baselined on future Spartan missions, and a real time communications and control link with the primary Spartan 201 experiments. This link was used to provide a fine pointing adjustment to the WLC based on solar images downlinked real time. The Video Guidance Sensor (VGS) Flight Experiment is a laser guidance system which tested a key component of the Automated Rendezvous and Capture (AR&C) system. The Spartan Auxiliary Mounting Plate (SPAM) is a small equipment mounting plate which provided a mounting location for small experiments or auxiliary equipment of the Spartan Flight Support Structure (SFSS) It is a honeycomb plate using an experimental Silicon Carbide Aluminum face sheet material with an aluminum core.

text: Spartan 201-04 is a Solar Physics Spacecraft designed to perform remote sensing of the hot outer layers of the sun's atmosphere or

text: corona

text: . It is expected to be deployed on orbit 18 and retrieved on orbit 52. The objective of the observations are to investigate the mechanisms causing the heating of the solar corona and the acceleration of the solar wind which originates in the corona. Two primary experiments are the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer from the

text: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

text: , and the White Light Coronograph (WLC) from the

text: High Altitude Observatory

text: . Spartan 201 has three secondary experiments. The Technology Experiment Augmenting Spartan (TEXAS) is a Radio Frequency (RF) communications experiment which provided flight experience for components baselined on future Spartan missions, and a real time communications and control link with the primary Spartan 201 experiments. This link was used to provide a fine pointing adjustment to the WLC based on solar images downlinked real time. The Video Guidance Sensor (VGS) Flight Experiment is a laser guidance system which tested a key component of the Automated Rendezvous and Capture (AR&C) system. The Spartan Auxiliary Mounting Plate (SPAM) is a small equipment mounting plate which provided a mounting location for small experiments or auxiliary equipment of the Spartan Flight Support Structure (SFSS) It is a honeycomb plate using an experimental Silicon Carbide Aluminum face sheet material with an aluminum core.

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answers: Solar Physics Spacecraft

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answers: It is expected to be deployed on orbit 18 and retrieved on orbit 52

text: The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (200,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m (about 1/6,000 the density of air at sea level).

text: The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (200,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into

text: thermal cells

text: that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m (about 1/6,000 the density of air at sea level).

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text: Like all the American Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) series satellites, it had two major segments: one, the "Sail", was stabilized to face the Sun, and carried both solar panels and Sun-pointing experiments for solar physics.  The other, "Wheel" section, rotated to provide overall gyroscopic stability and also carried sky scanning instruments that swept the sky as the wheel turned, approximately every 2 sec.

text: Like all the American Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) series satellites, it had two major segments: one, the "Sail", was stabilized to face the Sun, and carried both solar panels and Sun-pointing experiments for solar physics.  The other, "Wheel" section, rotated to provide overall gyroscopic stability and also carried sky scanning instruments that swept the sky as the wheel turned, approximately every 2 sec.

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answers: the wheel turned, approximately every 2 sec

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answers: approximately every 2 sec

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answers: Yes

text: The main feature of this tower at its opening was that it was the most environmentally friendly building in France. It is equipped with photovoltaic modules that provide about 70% of the electricity consumed by the building, it uses environmentally friendly insulation materials such as cellulose, and uses no air conditioning, but exterior panels that cover the glass surfaces exposed to the sun during the day (called the solar shield), without requiring the use of artificial lighting most of the time.

text: The main feature of this tower at its opening was that it was the most

text: environmentally friendly

text: building in France. It is equipped with

text: photovoltaic module

text: s that provide about 70% of the electricity consumed by the building, it uses

text: environmentally friendly

text: insulation materials such as cellulose, and uses no air conditioning, but exterior panels that cover the glass surfaces exposed to the sun during the day (called the

text: solar shield

text: ), without requiring the use of artificial lighting most of the time.

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text: Early in the 20th century, interest in astrophysics grew in America, and multiple observatories were built. Solar telescopes (and thus, solar observatories), were installed at Mount Wilson Observatory in California in 1904, and in the 1930s at McMath-Hulbert Observatory. Interest also grew in other parts of the world, with the establishment of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India at the turn of the century, the Einsteinturm in Germany in 1924, and the Solar Tower Telescope at the National Observatory of Japan in 1930.

text: Early in the 20th century, interest in astrophysics grew in America, and multiple observatories were built. Solar telescopes (and thus, solar observatories), were installed at

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: in California in 1904, and in the 1930s at

text: McMath-Hulbert Observatory

text: . Interest also grew in other parts of the world, with the establishment of the

text: Kodaikanal Solar Observatory

text: in India at the turn of the century, the

text: Einsteinturm

text: in Germany in 1924, and the Solar Tower Telescope at the National Observatory of Japan in 1930.

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answers: Kodaikanal Solar Observatory

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: Stellar models of the Sun's evolution predict the solar surface chemical abundance pretty well except for lithium (Li).The surface abundance of Li on the Sun is 140 times less than the protosolar value (i.e. the primordial abundance at the Sun's birth), yet the temperature at the base of the surface convective zone is not hot enough to burn – and hence deplete – Li. This is known as the solar lithium problem. A large range of Li abundances is observed in solar-type stars of the same age, mass, and metallicity as the Sun. Observations of an unbiased sample of stars of this type with or without observed planets (exoplanets) showed that the known planet-bearing stars have less than one per cent of the primordial Li abundance, and of the remainder half had ten times as much Li. It is hypothesised that the presence of planets may increase the amount of mixing and deepen the convective zone to such an extent that the Li can be burned. A possible mechanism for this is the idea that the planets affect the angular momentum evolution of the star, thus changing the rotation of the star relative to similar stars without planets; in the case of the Sun slowing its rotation. More research is needed to discover where and when the fault in the modelling lies. Given the precision of helioseismic probes of the interior of the modern-day Sun, it is likely that the modelling of the protostellar Sun needs to be adjusted.

text: Stellar model

text: s of the Sun's evolution predict the solar surface chemical abundance pretty well except for

text: lithium

text: (Li).The surface abundance of Li on the Sun is 140 times less than the

text: protosolar

text: value (i.e. the primordial abundance at the Sun's birth), yet the temperature at the base of the surface convective zone is not hot enough to burn – and hence deplete – Li. This is known as the solar lithium problem. A large range of Li abundances is observed in solar-type stars of the same age, mass, and metallicity as the Sun. Observations of an unbiased sample of stars of this type with or without observed planets (

text: exoplanets

text: ) showed that the known planet-bearing stars have less than one per cent of the primordial Li abundance, and of the remainder half had ten times as much Li. It is hypothesised that the presence of planets may increase the amount of mixing and deepen the convective zone to such an extent that the Li can be burned. A possible mechanism for this is the idea that the planets affect the angular momentum evolution of the star, thus changing the rotation of the star relative to similar stars without planets; in the case of the Sun slowing its rotation. More research is needed to discover where and when the fault in the modelling lies. Given the precision of

text: helioseismic

text: probes of the interior of the modern-day Sun, it is likely that the modelling of the protostellar Sun needs to be adjusted.

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answers: it is likely that the modelling of the protostellar Sun needs to be adjusted

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: the Sun's birth

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar-type stars

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answers: The surface abundance of Li on the Sun

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the solar lithium problem

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The surface abundance of Li on the Sun

text: BL Boötis has been designated the prototype of a rare class of variable star known as an anomalous Cepheid or BL Boötis variable. These stars are somewhat similar to Cepheid variables, but they do not have the same relationship between their period and luminosity. Their periods are similar to the ab subtypes of RR Lyrae variables; however, they are far brighter than these stars. Anomalous Cepheids are metal poor and have masses not much larger than the Sun's, on average, 1.5 solar masses. The origin of these stars is uncertain, but thought to possibly be from the merger of two stars. Detailed examination of the spectrum of BL Boötis with the Keck-1 telescope at the W. M. Keck Observatory showed that its effective (surface) temperature is around 6450 K at minimum light. It also showed that the chemical composition was consistent with ageing metal-poor (Population II) stars and hence cast doubt on the origin as a result of a stellar merger. The radial velocity is slower than would be expected if it were from a stellar merger.

text: BL Boötis has been designated the prototype of a rare class of variable star known as an

text: anomalous Cepheid

text: or BL Boötis variable. These stars are somewhat similar to

text: Cepheid variable

text: s, but they do not have the same relationship between their period and luminosity. Their periods are similar to the ab subtypes of RR Lyrae variables; however, they are far brighter than these stars. Anomalous Cepheids are

text: metal poor

text: and have masses not much larger than the Sun's, on average, 1.5

text: solar mass

text: es. The origin of these stars is uncertain, but thought to possibly be from the merger of two stars. Detailed examination of the spectrum of BL Boötis with the Keck-1 telescope at the

text: W. M. Keck Observatory

text: showed that its

text: effective (surface) temperature

text: is around 6450 K at minimum light. It also showed that the chemical composition was consistent with ageing metal-poor (Population II) stars and hence cast doubt on the origin as a result of a stellar merger. The radial velocity is slower than would be expected if it were from a stellar merger.

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answers: variable star

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: The radial velocity is slower than would be expected if it were from a stellar merger

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: stellar merger

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Anomalous Cepheids

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: stars

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: metal poor

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: variable star

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Variable stars

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Anomalous Cepheids

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Anomalous Cepheids

text: The planet orbits a (K-type) star named HD 85512. The star has a mass of 0.69  and a radius of around 0.53 . It has a surface temperature of 4715 K and is 5.61 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: The planet orbits a (

text: K-type

text: star

text: named

text: HD 85512

text: . The star has a mass of 0.69  and a radius of around 0.53 . It has a surface temperature of 4715

text: K

text: and is 5.61 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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answers: surface temperature of 5778 K

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: K-type) star

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: star

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: K-type

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: (K-type)

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: HD 85512

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away to be affected by solar flares.

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: (K-type) star

text: In total, the Sun produced four X flares and 31 M flares in September 2011, one of the most active months of Solar Cycle 24 so far.

text: In total, the Sun produced four X flares and 31 M flares in September 2011, one of the most active months of Solar Cycle 24 so far.

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answers: 31 M flares

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answers: M flares

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answers: Solar Cycle 24

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Flares

text: Flares are impulsive phenomena, of average duration of 15 minutes, and the most energetic events can last several hours. Flares produce a high and rapid increase of the density and temperature.

text: Flares are impulsive phenomena, of average duration of 15 minutes, and the most energetic events can last several hours. Flares produce a high and rapid increase of the density and temperature.

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answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: average duration of 15 minutes, and the most energetic events can last several hours

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar system

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answers: impulsive

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answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The AIP is privately funded and member of the Leibniz Association. It is located in Babelsberg in the state of Brandenburg, just west of Berlin, though the Einstein Tower solar observatory and the great refractor telescope on Telegrafenberg in Potsdam belong to the AIP.

text: The AIP is privately funded and member of the

text: Leibniz Association

text: . It is located in

text: Babelsberg

text: in the state of

text: Brandenburg

text: , just west of

text: Berlin

text: , though the

text: Einstein Tower

text: solar observatory and the great

text: refractor telescope

text: on

text: Telegrafenberg

text: in

text: Potsdam

text: belong to the AIP.

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answers: solar

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answers: the Einstein Tower solar observatory

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answers: solar

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Einstein Tower solar observatory

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar

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answers: observatories

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Einstein Tower solar observatory

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: solar observatory

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Possibly the site could mark a focal point for religious and/or social gatherings. Some archaeologists believe that the circles have been constructed in relation to the rising of the sun at the solstice, or to record the movements of the sun and moon acting as observatories for particular lunar, solar or stellar events. Three of the stone rows point to the sunrise at the time of the solstice and another is aligned towards moonrise at the same period. However, most of the remains at Beaghmore do not indicate very accurate alignments upon specific astronomical features.

text: Possibly the site could mark a focal point for religious and/or social gatherings. Some archaeologists believe that the circles have been constructed in relation to the rising of the sun at the

text: solstice

text: , or to record the movements of the sun and moon acting as observatories for particular lunar, solar or stellar events. Three of the stone rows point to the sunrise at the time of the solstice and another is aligned towards moonrise at the same period. However, most of the remains at Beaghmore do not indicate very accurate alignments upon specific astronomical features.

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answers: It's impossible to say

text: NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes space weather. Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (astronauts and satellites out in space and even the other planets). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

text: NASA’s

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes

text: space weather

text: . Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (

text: astronaut

text: s and

text: satellite

text: s out in space and even the other

text: planet

text: s). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

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answers: Space weather

text: Abbot began his astrophysics research focusing on solar radiation before proceeding to chart cyclic patterns found in solar variations. With this research he hoped to track solar constant in order to make weather pattern predictions. He believed that the sun was a variable star which effected the weather on Earth, which was criticized by many contemporaries. In 1953, he discovered a connection between solar variations and planetary climate. This discovery allowed general climate patterns to be predicted 50 years in advance. He did field work at the Smithsonian Institution Shelter, which was built during his tenure as director at SAO, Lick Observatory, and Mount Wilson Observatory. At Lick, he worked with W.W. Campbell. To fight critics, Abbot would utilize balloons with pyrheliometers installed on them for measurements. He was the first scientist in America to do so, with the balloons reaching upwards of 25 kilometers. One balloon returned data that allowed Abbot to determine the solar constant at the highest point of the Earth's atmosphere. Later in his research career, he turned his focus on solar energy use.

text: Abbot began his

text: astrophysics

text: research focusing on solar radiation before proceeding to chart cyclic patterns found in

text: solar variation

text: s. With this research he hoped to track

text: solar constant

text: in order to make weather pattern predictions. He believed that the sun was a

text: variable star

text: which effected the weather on Earth, which was criticized by many contemporaries. In 1953, he discovered a connection between solar variations and planetary climate. This discovery allowed general climate patterns to be predicted 50 years in advance. He did field work at the

text: Smithsonian Institution Shelter

text: , which was built during his tenure as director at SAO,

text: Lick Observatory

text: , and

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: . At Lick, he worked with

text: W.W. Campbell

text: . To fight critics, Abbot would utilize

text: balloons

text: with

text: pyrheliometer

text: s installed on them for measurements. He was the first scientist in America to do so, with the balloons reaching upwards of 25 kilometers. One balloon returned data that allowed Abbot to determine the solar constant at the highest point of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . Later in his research career, he turned his focus on

text: solar energy

text: use.

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text: Thus, a much greater understanding of the Corona and improvement in the knowledge of the Sun's subtle influence on the Earth's upper atmosphere can be expected henceforth. The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on NASA's recently launched Solar Dynamics Observatory and NASA's Focal Plane Package for the Solar Optical Telescope on the Japanese Hinode satellite which was used to test this hypothesis. The high spatial and temporal resolutions of the newer instruments reveal this coronal mass supply.

text: Thus, a much greater understanding of the Corona and improvement in the knowledge of the Sun's subtle influence on the Earth's upper atmosphere can be expected henceforth. The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on NASA's recently launched Solar Dynamics Observatory and NASA's Focal Plane Package for the Solar Optical Telescope on the Japanese Hinode satellite which was used to test this hypothesis. The high spatial and temporal resolutions of the newer instruments reveal this coronal mass supply.

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text: Mirages are distinguished from other refraction phenomena. One of the most prominent features of mirages is that a mirage might only produce images vertically, not sideways, while a simple refraction might distort and bend the images in any way.  The distortion in both images displayed in this section was caused by refraction, but while the image on the left, which is a mirage, demonstrates only vertical distortion, the image on the right demonstrates distortion in all the ways possible. It is easier to see the vertical direction of the  mirage not even at the mirage of the Sun itself, but rather at the mirage of a sunspot. As a matter of fact it is at least a three-image mirage  of a sunspot, and all these images show a clear vertical direction.[[Image:Sunspot Mirage.JPG|Superior mirage (3-image mirage) of sunspot #930|thumb|200px|left]]

text: Mirages are distinguished from other

text: refraction

text: phenomena. One of the most prominent features of mirages is that a mirage might only produce images

text: vertically

text: , not sideways, while a simple refraction might distort and bend the images in any way.  The distortion in both images displayed in this section was caused by

text: refraction

text: , but while the image on the left, which is a mirage, demonstrates only vertical distortion, the image on the right demonstrates distortion in all the ways possible. It is easier to see the vertical direction of the  mirage not even at the mirage of the

text: Sun

text: itself, but rather at the mirage of a

text: sunspot

text: . As a matter of fact it is at least a three-image mirage  of a

text: sunspot

text: , and all these images show a clear vertical direction.[[Image:Sunspot Mirage.JPG|Superior mirage (3-image mirage) of

text: sunspot

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answers: Mirages are distinguished from other refraction phenomena

text: Starspots are stellar phenomena. On the Sun, they are called sunspots. Spots the size of sunspots are very hard to detect on other stars because they are too small to cause detectable fluctuations in brightness. Observed starspots are in general much larger than those on the Sun: up to about 30% of the stellar surface may be covered, corresponding to starspots 100 times larger than those on the Sun.

text: Starspots are stellar

text: phenomena

text: . On the Sun, they are called

text: sunspot

text: s. Spots the size of sunspots are very hard to detect on other stars because they are too small to cause detectable fluctuations in brightness. Observed starspots are in general much larger than those on the

text: Sun

text: : up to about 30% of the stellar surface may be covered, corresponding to starspots 100 times larger than those on the Sun.

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text: The sunspot activity was then concentrated in the southern hemisphere of the Sun, except for the last cycle when the sunspots appeared in the northern hemisphere, too.

text: The sunspot activity was then concentrated in the southern hemisphere of the Sun, except for the last cycle when the sunspots appeared in the northern hemisphere, too.

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answers: Yes

text: Rheasilvia  is the most prominent surface feature on the asteroid Vesta and is thought to be an impact crater. It is  in diameter, which is 90% the diameter of Vesta itself, and is 95% the mean diameter of Vesta, . However, the mean is affected by the crater itself. It is 89% the mean equatorial diameter of , making it one of the largest craters in the Solar System, and at 75°S latitude, covers most of the southern hemisphere. The peak in the center of the crater rises  from its base, the tallest mountain known in the Solar System.

text: Rheasilvia  is the most prominent surface feature on the asteroid

text: Vesta

text: and is thought to be an

text: impact crater

text: . It is  in diameter, which is 90% the diameter of Vesta itself, and is 95% the mean diameter of Vesta, . However, the mean is affected by the crater itself. It is 89% the mean equatorial diameter of , making it one of the

entity_name: List of largest craters in the Solar System

text: largest craters in the Solar System

text: , and at 75°S latitude, covers most of the southern hemisphere. The peak in the center of the crater rises  from its base, the

entity_name: List of tallest mountains in the Solar System

text: tallest mountain known in the Solar System

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Rheasilvia

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answers: the Solar System

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answers: Rheasilvia

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answers: asteroid Vesta

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Rheasilvia

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The mean is affected by the crater itself

text: Within the solar system, space weather is influenced by the solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) carried by the solar wind plasma. A variety of physical phenomena are associated with space weather, including geomagnetic storms and substorms, energization of the Van Allen radiation belts, ionospheric disturbances and scintillation of satellite-to-ground radio signals and long-range radar signals, aurora and geomagnetically induced currents at Earth's surface. Coronal mass ejections and their associated shock waves are also important drivers of space weather as they can compress the magnetosphere and trigger geomagnetic storms. Solar energetic particles (SEP), accelerated by coronal mass ejections or solar flares, are also an important driver of space weather as they can damage electronics onboard spacecraft (e.g. Galaxy 15 failure), and threaten the lives of astronauts.

text: Within the

text: solar system

text: , space weather is influenced by the

text: solar wind

text: and the

text: interplanetary magnetic field

text: (IMF) carried by the solar wind

text: plasma

text: . A variety of physical phenomena are associated with space weather, including

text: geomagnetic storm

text: s and substorms, energization of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s, ionospheric disturbances and

text: scintillation

text: of satellite-to-ground radio signals and long-range radar signals,

text: aurora

text: and

text: geomagnetically induced current

text: s at Earth's surface.

text: Coronal mass ejection

text: s and their associated

text: shock wave

text: s are also important drivers of space weather as they can compress the

text: magnetosphere

text: and trigger

text: geomagnetic storm

text: s.

text: Solar energetic particles

text: (SEP), accelerated by coronal mass ejections or

text: solar flare

text: s, are also an important driver of space weather as they can damage electronics onboard spacecraft (e.g.

text: Galaxy 15

text: failure), and threaten the lives of

text: astronaut

text: s.

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answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: they can compress the magnetosphere and trigger geomagnetic storms

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Solar energetic particles

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar system

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Coronal mass ejections

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: space weather

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: space

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Solar energetic particles (SEP)

text: STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory) is a solar observation mission. Two nearly identical spacecraft were launched in 2006 into orbits around the Sun that cause them to respectively pull farther ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections.

text: STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory) is a

text: solar

text: observation mission. Two nearly identical spacecraft were launched in 2006 into orbits around the Sun that cause them to respectively pull farther ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables

text: stereoscopic

text: imaging of the

text: Sun

text: and solar phenomena, such as

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s.

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answers: solar phenomena

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answers: coronal mass ejections

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: mass ejections

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar phenomena

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: coronal

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: coronal mass ejection

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar phenomena

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: STEREO

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years. During this period, sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level. When sunspot activity increases, the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications. The highest-reflecting layer, the F2 layer, which is approximately 200 miles (320 km) above earth, receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun, causing ionisation of the gases within this layer. During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum, the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun. When solar activity is sufficiently high, the MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) rises, hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 – 50 MHz VHF spectrum. Since the MUF progressively increases, F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths. A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band, and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band. The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF.

text: Solar activity has a

text: cycle

text: of approximately 11 years. During this period, sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level. When

text: sunspot

text: activity increases, the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications. The highest-reflecting layer, the F2 layer, which is approximately 200 miles (320 km) above earth, receives

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the

text: sun

text: , causing

text: ionisation

text: of the gases within this layer. During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum, the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the

text: sun

text: . When solar activity is sufficiently high, the MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) rises, hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 – 50 MHz VHF spectrum. Since the MUF progressively increases, F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths. A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz

text: CB

text: band, and the amateur 28 MHz

text: 10 meters

text: band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the

text: 6 Meter

text: amateur band. The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF.

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answers: During this period, sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level

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answers: 320 km above earth

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answers: The F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun

text: The Sun unleashed eight M-class flares this month, being the strongest the M3.9 event, followed by an Earth-directed CME, produced by sunspot 1305 on October 2. Just in the eve, sunspots 1302 and 1305 had emitted flares almost at the same time; the first event was a C-class and the second one reached a M1.2 category. This double eruption, which hurled a double CME as well, were particularly interesting as coincided with the arrival of a comet, discovered by amateur astronomers the previous day, that disintegrated in spectacular fashion when it plunged into the Sun. A very similar scenario happened on May 10–11, 2011.

text: The Sun unleashed eight M-class flares this month, being the strongest the M3.9 event, followed by an Earth-directed CME, produced by sunspot 1305 on October 2. Just in the eve, sunspots 1302 and 1305 had emitted flares almost at the same time; the first event was a C-class and the second one reached a M1.2 category. This double eruption, which hurled a double CME as well, were particularly interesting as coincided with the arrival of a comet, discovered by amateur astronomers the previous day, that disintegrated in spectacular fashion when it plunged into the Sun. A very similar scenario happened on May 10–11, 2011.

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answers: The Sun unleashed eight M-class flares this month

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answers: Earth-directed CME

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answers: The Sun

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answers: A very similar scenario happened on May 10–11, 2011.

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answers: The Sun

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answers: Earth-directed CME

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answers: The Sun unleashed eight M-class flares

text: Sunspots is a Canadian travel television series which aired on CBC Television in 1974 and 1975.

text: Sunspots is a

text: Canadian

text: travel television series which aired on

text: CBC Television

text: in 1974 and 1975.

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answers: Yes

text: Sparkplug is featured in the Find Your Fate Transformers book 'Attack of the Insecticons' by Lynn Beach. His invention of the Sun-Pak, a way to power Autobots by solar energy, drives the plot.

text: Sparkplug is featured in the Find Your Fate Transformers book 'Attack of the Insecticons' by Lynn Beach. His invention of the Sun-Pak, a way to power Autobots by solar energy, drives the plot.

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answers: Yes

text: Half a century later, the father-and-son team of Harold and Horace Babcock showed that the solar surface is magnetized even outside of sunspots; that this weaker magnetic field is to first order a dipole; and that this dipole undergoes polarity reversals with the same period as the sunspot cycle (see graph below). These observations established that the solar cycle is a spatiotemporal magnetic process unfolding over the Sun as a whole.

text: Half a century later, the father-and-son team of

text: Harold

text: and

text: Horace Babcock

text: showed that the solar surface is magnetized even outside of sunspots; that this weaker magnetic field is to first order a

text: dipole

text: ; and that this dipole undergoes polarity reversals with the same period as the sunspot cycle (see graph below). These observations established that the solar cycle is a spatiotemporal magnetic process unfolding over the Sun as a whole.

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text: The host star, Kepler-452, is a G-type star that is about the same mass of the Sun, only 3.7% more massive and 11% larger. It has a surface temperature of 5757 K, nearly the same as the Sun, which has a surface temperature of 5778 K. The star's age is estimated to be about 6 billion years old, about 1.6 billion years older than the Sun, which is 4.6 billion years old.  From the surface of Kepler-452b, its star would look almost identical to the Sun as viewed from the Earth.

text: The host star,

text: , is a

text: G-type

text: star that is about the same mass of the

text: Sun

text: , only 3.7% more massive and 11% larger. It has a surface temperature of 5757

text: K

text: , nearly the same as the Sun, which has a surface temperature of 5778 K. The star's age is estimated to be about 6 billion years old, about 1.6 billion years older than the Sun, which is 4.6 billion years old.  From the surface of Kepler-452b, its star would look almost identical to the

text: Sun

text: as viewed from the Earth.

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text: As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then closer and closer to the equator until solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram. Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-series diagram.

text: As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then closer and closer to the equator until solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram. Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-series diagram.

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text: Marking Smith's entrance onto the Chicago art scene was her work in creating the Solar Flare Arkestral Marching Band Project, the yield from her residency with Threewalls.  Composed of members of the Rich South High School (Richton Park, Illinois) marching band and occasionally the South Shore Drill Team as well, the Solar Flare Arkestral Marching Band descended like a flash mob on various parts of Chicago that had been hit with waves of youth violence, including Chinatown and the meatpacking district, a few times throughout the fall of 2010, playing and dancing to an orchestration of Sun Ra’s “Space is the Place” led by music director Y.L. Douglas.  Smith coupled the militant undertones of marching bands with the Sun Ra-style of free jazz in an attempt to combat youth violence with music.

text: Marking Smith's entrance onto the Chicago art scene was her work in creating the Solar Flare Arkestral Marching Band Project, the yield from her residency with Threewalls.  Composed of members of the Rich South High School (Richton Park, Illinois) marching band and occasionally the South Shore Drill Team as well, the Solar Flare Arkestral Marching Band descended like a flash mob on various parts of Chicago that had been hit with waves of youth violence, including Chinatown and the meatpacking district, a few times throughout the fall of 2010, playing and dancing to an orchestration of Sun Ra’s “Space is the Place” led by music director Y.L. Douglas.  Smith coupled the militant undertones of marching bands with the Sun Ra-style of free jazz in an attempt to combat youth violence with music.

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text: Although the details of sunspot generation are still a matter of research, it appears that sunspots are the visible counterparts of magnetic flux tubes in the Sun's convective zone that get "wound up" by differential rotation. If the stress on the tubes reaches a certain limit, they curl up and puncture the Sun's surface. Convection is inhibited at the puncture points; the energy flux from the Sun's interior decreases; and with it surface temperature.

text: Although the details of sunspot generation are still a matter of research, it appears that sunspots are the visible counterparts of

text: magnetic flux tube

text: s in the Sun's

text: convective zone

text: that get "wound up" by

text: differential rotation

text: . If the stress on the tubes reaches a certain limit, they curl up and puncture the Sun's surface. Convection is inhibited at the puncture points; the energy flux from the Sun's interior decreases; and with it surface temperature.

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answers: Yes

text: They are used for observation, photography, and for viewing the sun as a yellow-orange disk. With a telescope, these filters can view the details of the sun directly and safely, especially the sunspots and granulation of the surface. The Herschel Wedge is a prism based device used in conjunction with a neutral density filter that directs most of the heat and ultra violet light out of the telescope, generally giving better results than most filters. Another filter used for solar observing is the hydrogen-alpha filter, which transmits the H-alpha spectral line. These filters can view the solar flares and prominences that are not visible in the normal solar filters.

text: They are used for observation, photography, and for viewing the

text: sun

text: as a yellow-orange disk. With a telescope, these filters can view the details of the sun directly and safely, especially the

text: sunspots

text: and

text: granulation of the surface

text: . The

text: Herschel Wedge

text: is a prism based device used in conjunction with a neutral density filter that directs most of the heat and ultra violet light out of the telescope, generally giving better results than most filters. Another filter used for solar observing is the hydrogen-alpha filter, which transmits the

text: H-alpha

text: spectral line

text: . These filters can view the

text: solar flares

text: and

text: prominences

text: that are not visible in the normal solar filters.

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answers: details of the sun

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answers: NDQ_006087

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answers: NDQ_006088

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answers: Herschel Wedge

text: A prominence eruption producing a CME shot off the east limb (left side) of the Sun on April 16, 2012.  Such eruptions are often associated with solar flares, and in this case an M1.7 class (medium-sized) flare occurred at the same time, peaking at 1:45 PM EDT and 17.45 UTC. The CME was not aimed toward Earth. Nevertheless, this month was very quiet in comparison to the previous one, as only two M-class flares were recorded.

text: A prominence eruption producing a CME shot off the east limb (left side) of the Sun on April 16, 2012.  Such eruptions are often associated with solar flares, and in this case an M1.7 class (medium-sized) flare occurred at the same time, peaking at 1:45 PM EDT and 17.45 UTC. The CME was not aimed toward Earth. Nevertheless, this month was very quiet in comparison to the previous one, as only two M-class flares were recorded.

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answers: Such eruptions are often associated with solar flares

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answers: It was not aimed toward Earth

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It was not aimed toward Earth

text: Coronal loops form the basic structure of the lower corona and transition region of the Sun. These highly structured loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar magnetic flux within the solar body. The population of coronal loops can be directly linked with the solar cycle; it is for this reason coronal loops are often found with sunspots at their footpoints. The upwelling magnetic flux pushes through the photosphere, exposing the cooler plasma below. The contrast between the photosphere and the solar interior gives the impression of dark spots, or sunspots.

text: Coronal loops form the basic structure of the lower

text: corona

text: and

text: transition region

text: of the

text: Sun

text: . These highly structured loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar

text: magnetic

text: flux within the solar body. The population of coronal loops can be directly linked with the

text: solar cycle

text: ; it is for this reason coronal loops are often found with

text: sunspots

text: at their footpoints. The upwelling magnetic flux pushes through the

text: photosphere

text: , exposing the cooler plasma below. The contrast between the photosphere and the solar interior gives the impression of dark spots, or sunspots.

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answers: Coronal loops can be directly linked with the solar cycle

text: Pioneer 6 and Pioneer 9 are in solar orbits with 0.8 AU distance to the Sun. Their orbital periods are therefore slightly shorter than Earth's. Pioneer 7 and Pioneer 8 are in solar orbits with 1.1 AU distance to the Sun. Their orbital periods are therefore slightly longer than Earth's. Since the probes' orbital periods differ from that of the Earth, from time to time, they face a side of the Sun that cannot be seen from Earth. The probes can sense parts of the Sun several days before the Sun's rotation reveals it to ground-based Earth orbiting observatories. If a powerful solar magnetic storm is formed, they can warn Earth in advance.

text: Pioneer 6 and Pioneer 9 are in solar orbits with 0.8

text: AU

text: distance to the Sun. Their orbital periods are therefore slightly shorter than Earth's. Pioneer 7 and Pioneer 8 are in solar orbits with 1.1 AU distance to the Sun. Their orbital periods are therefore slightly longer than Earth's. Since the probes' orbital periods differ from that of the Earth, from time to time, they face a side of the Sun that cannot be seen from Earth. The probes can sense parts of the Sun several days before the Sun's rotation reveals it to ground-based Earth orbiting observatories. If a powerful

text: solar magnetic storm

text: is formed, they can warn Earth in advance.

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answers: AU distance to the Sun

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answers: powerful solar magnetic storm

text: Cooler than the sun, surface temperature is estimated at 4557°K  and some flare activity has been observed.

text: Cooler than the

text: sun

text: surface temperature

text: is estimated at 4557°

text: K

text: and some

text: flare

text: activity has been observed.

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answers: some flare activity has been observed

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answers: Cooler

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answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the sun

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answers: The sun is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: In 2002, Lean et al. stated that while "There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in climate change on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle", "changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change." They conclude that because of this, "long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles," but that "Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that general circulation model (GCM) simulations of twentieth century warming may overestimate the role of solar irradiance variability." A 2006 review suggested that solar brightness had relatively little effect on global climate, with little likelihood of significant shifts in solar output over long periods of time. Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2007, found "considerable evidence for solar influence on the Earth's pre-industrial climate and the Sun may well have been a factor in post-industrial climate change in the first half of the last century", but that "over the past 20 years, all the trends in the Sun that could have had an influence on the Earth's climate have been in the opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures." In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction, Love et al. found a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity, but not between global surface temperature and either sunspot number or geomagnetic activity.

text: In 2002, Lean et al. stated that while "There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in

text: climate change

text: on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle", "changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change." They conclude that because of this, "long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles," but that "Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that

text: general circulation model (GCM)

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answers: a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity

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answers: The Sun

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answers: Yes

text: After retiring as director at the Mount Wilson Observatory, George Ellery Hale built the Hale Solar Laboratory as his office and workshop, pursuing his interest in the sun.

text: After retiring as director at the

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: , George Ellery Hale built the Hale Solar Laboratory as his office and workshop, pursuing his interest in the

text: sun

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answers: The Hale Solar Laboratory

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answers: The sun

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answers: Hale Solar Laboratory

text: • Research work regarding the role of meridional flows in the Sun's interior in setting the period of the sunspot cycle.

text: • Research work regarding the role of meridional flows in the Sun's interior in setting the period of the sunspot cycle.

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answers: Yes

text: The observatory was built in 1979 by the Institute for Astronomy at ETH Zurich under the guidance of Prof. Dr. Arnold O. Benz. Since that time it consists of two parabolic antennae of 7 m and 5 m diameter separated by 100 m and a lab building containing the spectrometers and other electronics. For the first time, a fully digitized and remotly controlled receiver was used. Frequency-agile spectrometers were applied initially. Now digital filter banks and FFT (Fast Fourier transform) spectrometers are in operation. The initital frequency range of 100 - 1000 MHz was enlarged to 10 MHz - 5 GHz. This range is the largest for solar radio observations since 2005. Starting in 2014, the observatory is being converted to observe preferentially non-solar radiation of extragalactic and cosmological origin.

text: The observatory was built in 1979 by the Institute for Astronomy at

text: ETH Zurich

text: under the guidance of Prof. Dr.

text: Arnold O. Benz

text: . Since that time it consists of two

text: parabolic antenna

text: e of 7 m and 5 m diameter separated by 100 m and a lab building containing the

text: spectrometer

text: s and other electronics. For the first time, a fully digitized and remotly controlled receiver was used. Frequency-agile spectrometers were applied initially. Now digital

text: filter bank

text: s and FFT (

text: Fast Fourier transform

text: ) spectrometers are in operation. The initital frequency range of 100 - 1000 MHz was enlarged to 10 MHz - 5 GHz. This range is the largest for solar radio observations since 2005. Starting in 2014, the observatory is being converted to observe preferentially non-solar radiation of extragalactic and cosmological origin.

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answers: The observatory was built in 1979

text: Until the advent of helioseismology, the study of wave oscillations in the Sun, very little was known about the internal rotation of the Sun. The differential profile of the surface was thought to extend into the solar interior as rotating cylinders of constant angular momentum. Through helioseismology this is now known not to be the case and the rotation profile of the Sun has been found. On the surface the Sun rotates slowly at the poles and quickly at the equator. This profile extends on roughly radial lines through the solar convection zone to the interior. At the tachocline the rotation abruptly changes to solid-body rotation in the solar radiation zone.

text: Until the advent of

text: helioseismology

text: , the study of wave oscillations in the Sun, very little was known about the internal rotation of the Sun. The differential profile of the surface was thought to extend into the solar interior as rotating cylinders of constant angular momentum. Through helioseismology this is now known not to be the case and the rotation profile of the Sun has been found. On the surface the Sun rotates slowly at the poles and quickly at the equator. This profile extends on roughly radial lines through the

text: solar convection zone

text: to the interior. At the

text: tachocline

text: the rotation abruptly changes to solid-body rotation in the

text: solar radiation zone

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answers: solar convection zone

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answers: rotates slowly at the poles and quickly at the equator

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: wave oscillations

answers: NDQ_006083

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answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: NDQ_006085

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answers: NDQ_006086

answers: The solar radiation zone

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answers: wave oscillations in the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The solar radiation zone

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Radiation

text: When a prominence is viewed from a different perspective so that it is against the sun instead of against space, it appears darker than the surrounding background. This formation is instead called a solar filament. It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they throw out matter from the Sun into space at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/s. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Prominences may last for a few days or even for a few months.

text: When a prominence is viewed from a different perspective so that it is against the sun instead of against space, it appears darker than the surrounding background. This formation is instead called a solar filament. It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they throw out matter from the Sun into space at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/s. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Prominences may last for a few days or even for a few months.

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answers: Some prominences are so powerful that they throw out matter from the Sun

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answers: Some prominences are so powerful that they throw out matter from the Sun into space

text: Sunspots expand and contract as they move about and can travel at a few hundred meters per second when they first appear.

text: Sunspots expand and contract as they move about and can travel at a few hundred meters per second when they first appear.

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answers: Yes

text: Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such  as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares. These regions have closed magnetic field lines, in which the magnetic field strength is large enough to contain the plasma. These field lines must be broken or weakened for the ejection to escape from the Sun. However, CMEs may also be initiated in quiet surface regions, although in many cases the quiet region was recently active. During solar minimum, CMEs form primarily in the coronal streamer belt near the solar magnetic equator. During solar maximum, they originate from active regions whose latitudinal distribution is more homogeneous.

text: Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such  as groupings of

text: sunspot

text: s associated with frequent flares. These regions have closed magnetic field lines, in which the magnetic field strength is large enough to contain the plasma. These field lines must be broken or weakened for the ejection to escape from the Sun. However, CMEs may also be initiated in quiet surface regions, although in many cases the quiet region was recently active. During

text: solar minimum

text: , CMEs form primarily in the coronal streamer belt near the solar magnetic equator. During

text: solar maximum

text: , they originate from active regions whose latitudinal distribution is more homogeneous.

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answers: CMEs may also be initiated in quiet surface regions

text: Solar activity increased rapidly in mid-May 2013 with four consecutive strong flares in two days. These powerful bursts all surged from the just-numbered sunspot AR1748, located in the eastern limb of Sun and barely rotating around the front of the solar disk. AR1748 emitted the first flare, an X1.7-class, on May 13, peaking at 02:17 UTC. This event was quickly followed the same day at 16:09 UTC by a X2.8-class flare. On May 14 at 01:17 UTC the same sunspot emitted a X3.2-class flare, the third strongest of current solar cycle so far. This was followed by an X1.2-class flare at 01:52 UTC on May 15. The four X-ray bursts generated a R3 (strong) radio blackout in upper atmosphere.

text: Solar activity increased rapidly in mid-May 2013 with four consecutive strong flares in two days. These powerful bursts all surged from the just-numbered sunspot AR1748, located in the eastern limb of Sun and barely rotating around the front of the solar disk. AR1748 emitted the first flare, an X1.7-class, on May 13, peaking at 02:17 UTC. This event was quickly followed the same day at 16:09 UTC by a X2.8-class flare. On May 14 at 01:17 UTC the same sunspot emitted a X3.2-class flare, the third strongest of current solar cycle so far. This was followed by an X1.2-class flare at 01:52 UTC on May 15. The four X-ray bursts generated a R3 (strong) radio blackout in upper atmosphere.

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text: Helmet streamers are bright loop-like structures which develop over active regions on the sun. They are closed magnetic loops which connect regions of opposite magnetic polarity. Electrons are captured in these loops, and cause them to glow very brightly. The solar wind elongates these loops to pointy tips. They far extend above most prominences into the corona, and can be readily observed during a solar eclipse. Helmet streamers are usually confined to the "streamer belt" in the mid latitudes, and their distribution follows the movement of active regions during the solar cycle. Small blobs of plasma, or "plasmoids" are sometimes released from the tips of helmet streamers, and this is one source of the slow component of the solar wind. In contrast, formations with open magnetic field lines are called coronal holes, and these are darker and are a source of the fast solar wind. Helmet streamers can also create coronal mass ejections if a large volume of plasma becomes disconnected near the tip of the streamer.

text: Helmet streamers are bright loop-like structures which develop over active regions on the

text: sun

text: . They are closed magnetic loops which connect regions of opposite magnetic polarity. Electrons are captured in these loops, and cause them to glow very brightly. The solar wind elongates these loops to pointy tips. They far extend above most prominences into the

text: corona

text: , and can be readily observed during a solar eclipse. Helmet streamers are usually confined to the "streamer belt" in the mid latitudes, and their distribution follows the movement of active regions during the

text: solar cycle

text: . Small blobs of plasma, or "plasmoids" are sometimes released from the tips of helmet streamers, and this is one source of the slow component of the

text: solar wind

text: . In contrast, formations with open magnetic field lines are called

text: coronal holes

text: , and these are darker and are a source of the fast solar wind. Helmet streamers can also create

text: coronal mass ejections

text: if a large volume of plasma becomes disconnected near the tip of the streamer.

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answers: active regions

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answers: They are closed magnetic loops which connect regions of opposite magnetic polarity

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: mass ejections

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: a large volume of plasma becomes disconnected near the tip of the streamer

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: active regions

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answers: during the solar cycle

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answers: Helmet streamers

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Helmet streamers

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping devices.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches:

text: point absorber buoy

text: s,

text: surface attenuator

text: s,

text: oscillating water column

text: s, and

text: overtopping devices

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text: Proxima Centauri has a relatively weak stellar wind, no more than 20% of mass loss rate of the solar wind. Because the star is much smaller than the Sun, however, the mass loss per unit surface area from Proxima Centauri may be eight times that from the solar surface.

text: Proxima Centauri has a relatively weak

text: stellar wind

text: , no more than 20% of mass loss rate of the

text: solar wind

text: . Because the star is much smaller than the Sun, however, the mass loss per unit surface area from Proxima Centauri may be eight times that from the solar surface.

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answers: Yes

text: The technology in EIT is based on prototype instruments that were flown on the sounding rocket payloads MSSTA and NIXT.  The first multilayer telescope to image the full disk of the Sun in EUV was flown by A.B.C. Walker and team in 1987 .  The TRACE, STEREO, and Proba-2 spacecraft (launched in 1998, 2006, and 2009, respectively) carry similar multilayer imagers, as does the Solar Dynamics Observatory mission.

text: The technology in EIT is based on prototype instruments that were flown on the

text: sounding rocket

text: payloads

text: MSSTA

text: and

text: NIXT

text: .  The first multilayer telescope to image the full disk of the Sun in EUV was flown by

text: A.B.C. Walker

text: and team in 1987 .  The

text: TRACE

text: STEREO

text: , and

text: spacecraft (launched in 1998, 2006, and 2009, respectively) carry similar multilayer imagers, as does the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: mission.

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answers: full disk

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answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: NDQ_006085

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Proba-2

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: MSSTA and NIXT

text: Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun. During solar maximum, large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun's irradiance output grows by about 0.07%. The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns.

text: Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year

text: solar cycle

text: of the

text: Sun

text: . During solar maximum, large numbers of

text: sunspot

text: s appear and the sun's irradiance output grows by about 0.07%. The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns.

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answers: solar maxima

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar maxima

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar maximum

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: solar maxima

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Solar maximum

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Later the observatory was headed by Jan Sniadecki (1807–1825) and Piotr Slawinski (1825–1843). They observed planets, their satellites, asteroids and comets, eclipses of the Sun and Moon. In 1861, G. Sabler, the director of the observatory, proposed to acquire for that purpose new instruments, among which there were a solar photoheliograph, a photometer and a spectroscope. Spectroscopic observations of the Sun and photometric observations of stars were initiated.

text: Later the observatory was headed by

text: Jan Sniadecki

text: (1807–1825) and

text: Piotr Slawinski

text: (1825–1843). They observed planets, their satellites,

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s, eclipses of the Sun and Moon. In 1861, G. Sabler, the director of the observatory, proposed to acquire for that purpose new instruments, among which there were a solar photoheliograph, a

text: photometer

text: and a

text: spectroscope

text: . Spectroscopic observations of the Sun and photometric observations of stars were initiated.

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answers: stars

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Spectroscopic observations

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: comets

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: comets

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: spectroscope

text: One of the unusual features of the facade of the Design Hub is that it has the capability of collecting solar energy throughout most of the day as the surface is covered in operable disks. Although, as of 2013, there are no solar panels installed, it has the capability to accommodate this technology in the near future with its facade system. To achieve harvesting energy at an optimum level, ganged disks are fitted with an actuator which will allows the disks to be exposed to the sun as much as possible. With the current material of sandblasted glass, the disks operate as a 'second skin' controlling solar gain and access. An internal computer controls this facade by adjusting each cell with rotational motors, according to Melbourne’s daily weather. Additional self-sustaining features include the underground water tank, which stores grey water for re-use including flushing toilets, mechanical cooling requirements, and irrigation.

text: One of the unusual features of the facade of the Design Hub is that it has the capability of collecting solar energy throughout most of the day as the surface is covered in operable disks. Although, as of 2013, there are no solar panels installed, it has the capability to accommodate this technology in the near future with its facade system. To achieve harvesting energy at an optimum level, ganged disks are fitted with an actuator which will allows the disks to be exposed to the sun as much as possible. With the current material of sandblasted glass, the disks operate as a 'second skin' controlling solar gain and access. An internal computer controls this facade by adjusting each cell with rotational motors, according to Melbourne’s daily weather. Additional self-sustaining features include the underground water tank, which stores grey water for re-use including flushing toilets, mechanical cooling requirements, and irrigation.

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text: Much of the research done in the WestRock Observatory has focused on solar imaging. Using the narrowband filters Hydrogen-alpha and Calcium-K, the students are able to create multi-band images and videos of the Sun. Students doing solar observations typically work closely with the RISO program. The WRO also involves students in webcasts of transits and eclipses with these telescopes, which have been featured in NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day.

text: Much of the research done in the WestRock Observatory has focused on solar imaging. Using the narrowband filters Hydrogen-alpha and Calcium-K, the students are able to create multi-band images and videos of the

text: Sun

text: . Students doing solar observations typically work closely with the RISO program. The WRO also involves students in webcasts of transits and eclipses with these telescopes, which have been featured in NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day.

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text: A solar cell performs the best when its surface is perpendicular to the sun's rays, which change continuously over the course of the day and season. It is a common practice to tilt a fixed PV module (without solar tracker) at the same angle as the latitude of array's location to maximize the annual energy yield of module. For example, rooftop PV module at the tropics provides highest annual energy yield when inclination of panel surface is close to horizontal direction. A study in the tropics showed that the orientation of low-slope rooftop PV has negligible impact on annual energy yield, but in the case of PV external sunshade applications, east façade and panel slope of 30–40° are the most suitable location and inclination.

text: A solar cell performs the best when its surface is perpendicular to the sun's rays, which change continuously over the course of the day and season. It is a common practice to tilt a fixed PV module (without

text: solar tracker

text: ) at the same angle as the latitude of array's location to maximize the annual energy yield of module. For example, rooftop PV module at the tropics provides highest annual energy yield when inclination of panel surface is close to horizontal direction. A study in the tropics showed that the orientation of low-slope rooftop PV has negligible impact on annual energy yield, but in the case of PV external sunshade applications, east façade and panel slope of 30–40° are the most suitable location and inclination.

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text: A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the Sun's surface, often in the shape of a loop. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere and extend outwards into the corona. While the corona consists of high temperature plasma, which do not emit much visible light, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the chromosphere.

text: A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the

text: Sun

text: 's surface, often in the shape of a

text: loop

text: . Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere and extend outwards into the corona. While the corona consists of high temperature

text: plasma

text: , which do not emit much

text: visible light

text: , prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the

text: chromosphere

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answers: gaseous feature extending outward from the Sun's surface

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text: On September 2, 1948, the Thunderbird Hotel was the fourth resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. The resort was built by developer Marion Hicks and owned by Lieutenant Governor of Nevada Clifford A. Jones. The resort had a Native American theme and featured portraits, a Navajo-based restaurant, the only bowling alley ever on the Strip, and a showroom. In 1955, articles surfaced in the Las Vegas Sun saying that Meyer Lansky and other underworld figures held hidden shares in the hotel.

text: On September 2, 1948, the Thunderbird Hotel was the fourth resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. The resort was built by developer Marion Hicks and owned by

text: Lieutenant Governor of Nevada

text: Clifford A. Jones

text: . The resort had a

text: Native American

text: theme and featured portraits, a

text: Navajo

text: -based restaurant, the only bowling alley ever on the Strip, and a showroom. In 1955, articles surfaced in the

text: Las Vegas Sun

text: saying that

text: Meyer Lansky

text: and other underworld figures held hidden shares in the hotel.

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answers: The resort had a Native American theme

text: The goal is to understand, predict, and communicate the impact of natural and anthropogenic influences on lake and reservoir ecosystems.  The researchers include limnologists, ecologists, information technology experts, and engineers who have a common objective of building and growing a scalable, persistent network of lake ecology observatories; developing new theoretical models based on the more extensive spatial and temporal scales of data; integrating new technologies to utilize the data; educating a new generation of researchers; and engaging the public. Each lake or reservoir  observatory consists of one or more instrumented platforms capable of sensing key limnological variables and moving the data in near-real time to web-accessible databases. A common web portal will allow easy access to researchers and the public. A series of web services supported by this portal will allow computation of metrics based on the high frequency data. The types of sensors employed at these observatories include: temperature, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, phytoplankton pigments such as chlorophyll and phycocyanin, as well as devices that detect water movements such as acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP.) Many of the observatories also track meteorological parameters on the lake such as solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity.  Data from the network of observatories will allow a better understanding of key processes such as the effects of climate and land use change on lake or reservoir function, the role of episodic events such as typhoons in resetting aquatic dynamics, and carbon cycling within lakes and reservoirs. For more information, visit the GLEON website at gleon.org.

text: The goal is to understand, predict, and communicate the impact of natural and anthropogenic influences on lake and reservoir

text: ecosystems

text: .  The researchers include

text: limnologists

text: ecologists

text: information technology

text: experts, and

text: engineers

text: who have a common objective of building and growing a scalable, persistent network of lake

text: ecology

text: observatories; developing new theoretical models based on the more extensive spatial and temporal scales of data; integrating new technologies to utilize the data; educating a new generation of researchers; and engaging the public. Each lake or reservoir  observatory consists of one or more instrumented platforms capable of sensing key

text: limnological

text: variables and moving the data in near-real time to web-accessible databases. A common web portal will allow easy access to researchers and the public. A series of

text: web services

text: supported by this portal will allow computation of metrics based on the high frequency data. The types of

text: sensors

text: employed at these observatories include: temperature, dissolved

text: oxygen

text: , dissolved

text: carbon dioxide

text: phytoplankton

text: pigments

text: such as

text: chlorophyll

text: and

text: phycocyanin

text: , as well as devices that detect water movements such as acoustic

text: Doppler

text: current profilers (

text: ADCP

text: .) Many of the observatories also track

text: meteorological

text: parameters on the lake such as

text: solar radiation

text: , wind speed, and relative humidity.  Data from the network of observatories will allow a better understanding of key processes such as the effects of climate and land use change on lake or reservoir function, the role of episodic events such as

text: typhoons

text: in resetting aquatic dynamics, and

text: carbon

text: cycling within lakes and reservoirs. For more information, visit the GLEON website at gleon.org.

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text: More recently, the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI), on the Solar Dynamics Observatory, employs two Michelson Interferometers with a polarizer and other tunable elements, to study solar variability and to characterize the Sun's interior along with the various components of magnetic activity. HMI takes high-resolution measurements of the longitudinal and vector magnetic field over the entire visible disk thus extending the capabilities of its predecessor, the SOHO's MDI instrument (See Fig. 9). HMI produces data to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. It also produces data to enable estimates of the coronal magnetic field for studies of variability in the extended solar atmosphere. HMI observations will help establish the relationships between the internal dynamics and magnetic activity in order to understand solar variability and its effects.

text: More recently, the

text: Helioseismic

text: and Magnetic Imager (HMI), on the Solar Dynamics Observatory, employs two Michelson Interferometers with a polarizer and other tunable elements, to study solar variability and to characterize the Sun's interior along with the various components of magnetic activity. HMI takes high-resolution measurements of the longitudinal and vector magnetic field over the entire visible disk thus extending the capabilities of its predecessor, the

text: SOHO

text: 's MDI instrument (See Fig. 9). HMI produces data to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. It also produces data to enable estimates of the coronal magnetic field for studies of variability in the extended solar atmosphere. HMI observations will help establish the relationships between the internal dynamics and magnetic activity in order to understand solar variability and its effects.

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answers: Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager

text: The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory, or STEREO, mission employs two nearly identical space-based observatories to provide the stereoscopic measurements to study the sun. With a pair of viewpoints, scientists are able to see the structure and evolution of solar storms as they blast from the sun and travel out through space. STEREO's instruments provide a unique combination of observations to help understand the causes and mechanisms of coronal mass ejections and to characterize how they propagate through the Solar System. STEREO also helps determine what powers the acceleration of energetic particles from the sun and provides information on the structure of the solar wind.

text: The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory, or

text: STEREO

text: , mission employs two nearly identical space-based observatories to provide the stereoscopic measurements to study the sun. With a pair of viewpoints, scientists are able to see the structure and evolution of solar storms as they blast from the sun and travel out through space. STEREO's instruments provide a unique combination of observations to help understand the causes and mechanisms of coronal mass ejections and to characterize how they propagate through the Solar System. STEREO also helps determine what powers the acceleration of energetic particles from the sun and provides information on the structure of the solar wind.

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answers: Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory

text: In 2011, Hill's research, which had used helioseismography to monitor streams below the surface of the sun, attracted considerable media attention. Although such streams tend to be the "spawning ground" for sunspots, and they had been expected to begin forming in 2008, the study found that these new streams had yet to form. The study in question therefore suggested that the sunspot cycle was going to take longer than expected to reach its next peak, or, according to Hill, might not happen at all. Although Hill and his colleagues refused to discuss the possible effects this weaker solar cycle would have on climate, this was reported on by some media, including the Global Warming Policy Foundation, as evidence that a "mini ice age" was imminent. Hill responded to these reports by telling Reuters that "We have not predicted a Little Ice Age," but rather that "We have predicted something going on with the Sun." In an NSO press release, Hill added that "In my opinion, it is a huge leap from that to an abrupt global cooling, since the connections between solar activity and climate are still very poorly understood. My understanding is that current calculations suggest only a 0.3 degree C decrease from a Maunder-like minimum, too small for an ice age."

text: In 2011, Hill's research, which had used

text: helioseismography

text: to monitor streams below the surface of the sun, attracted considerable media attention. Although such streams tend to be the "spawning ground" for sunspots, and they had been expected to begin forming in 2008, the study found that these new streams had yet to form. The study in question therefore suggested that the

text: sunspot cycle

text: was going to take longer than expected to reach its next peak, or, according to Hill, might not happen at all. Although Hill and his colleagues refused to discuss the possible effects this weaker solar cycle would have on climate, this was reported on by some media, including the

text: Global Warming Policy Foundation

text: , as evidence that a "mini ice age" was imminent. Hill responded to these reports by telling

text: Reuters

text: that "We have not predicted a Little Ice Age," but rather that "We have predicted something going on with the Sun." In an NSO press release, Hill added that "In my opinion, it is a huge leap from that to an abrupt global cooling, since the connections between solar activity and climate are still very poorly understood. My understanding is that current calculations suggest only a 0.3 degree C decrease from a Maunder-like minimum, too small for an

text: ice age

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answers: such streams tend to be the "spawning ground" for sunspots

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answers: It is a huge leap from that to an abrupt global cooling

text: Impact velocities in the outer Solar System are typically ≈ 1 km/s (compared with the escape velocity at the surface of Chariklo of ≈ 0.1 km/s), and were even lower before the Kuiper belt was dynamically excited, supporting the possibility that the rings formed in the Kuiper belt before Chariklo was transferred to its current orbit less than 10 Myr ago. Impact velocities in the asteroid belt are much higher (≈ 5 km/s), which could explain the absence of such ring features in minor bodies within the asteroid belt. Collisions between ring particles would cause the ring to widen substantially, and Poynting–Robertson drag would cause the ring particles to fall onto the central body within a few million years, requiring either an active source of ring particles or dynamical confinement by small (kilometre-sized) embedded or shepherd moons yet to be discovered. Such moons would be very challenging to detect via direct imaging from Earth due to the small radial separation of the ring system and Chariklo.

text: Impact velocities in the outer Solar System are typically ≈ 1 km/s (compared with the escape velocity at the surface of Chariklo of ≈ 0.1 km/s), and were even lower before the

text: Kuiper belt

text: was dynamically excited, supporting the possibility that the rings formed in the Kuiper belt before Chariklo was transferred to its current orbit less than 10 Myr ago. Impact velocities in the

text: asteroid belt

text: are much higher (≈ 5 km/s), which could explain the absence of such ring features in minor bodies within the asteroid belt. Collisions between ring particles would cause the ring to widen substantially, and

text: Poynting–Robertson drag

text: would cause the ring particles to fall onto the central body within a few million years, requiring either an active source of ring particles or dynamical confinement by small (kilometre-sized) embedded or

text: shepherd

text: moons yet to be discovered. Such moons would be very challenging to detect via direct imaging from Earth due to the small radial separation of the ring system and Chariklo.

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answers: kilometre-sized

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: collisions between ring particles would cause the ring to widen substantially

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Kuiper belt

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Kuiper belt

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: Solar System

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answers: kilometre-sized

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Chariklo

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Chariklo

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Such moons would be very challenging to detect

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Such moons would be very challenging to detect

text: Atmospheric physicists typically divide radiation into solar radiation (emitted by the sun) and terrestrial radiation (emitted by Earth's surface and atmosphere).

text: Atmospheric physicists typically divide radiation into solar radiation (emitted by the sun) and terrestrial radiation (emitted by Earth's surface and atmosphere).

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answers: Yes

text: The purpose of Crohamhurst Observatory was to take daily observations of the sun and of all weather conditions. These were used to test the possibility of the immediate solar control of the weather; to test the application of these possibilities to the weather of Australia; to issue forecasts to those newspapers and publications that supported the observatory; and to test the hypothesis of seasonal repetitions through cycles.

text: The purpose of Crohamhurst Observatory was to take daily observations of the sun and of all weather conditions. These were used to test the possibility of the immediate solar control of the weather; to test the application of these possibilities to the weather of Australia; to issue forecasts to those newspapers and publications that supported the observatory; and to test the hypothesis of seasonal repetitions through cycles.

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answers: Crohamhurst Observatory

text: The high accuracy, the large number of stars observed and the long period of observation make Kepler ideal for detecting superflares. Studies published in 2012 and 2013 involved 83,000 stars over a period of 500 days (much of the data analysis was carried out with the help of five first-year undergraduates). The stars were selected from the Kepler Input Catalog to have T, the effective temperature, between 5100 and 6000K (the solar value is 5750K) to find stars of similar spectral class to the Sun, and the surface gravity log g > 4.0 to eliminate sub-giants and giants. The spectral classes range from F8 to G8.  The integration time was 30 min in the original study.  1547 superflares were found on 279 solar-type stars.The most intense events increased the brightness of the stars  by 30% and had an energy of 10 ergs. White-light flares on the Sun change the brightness by about 0.01%, and the strongest flares have a visible-light energy of about 10  ergs. (All energies quoted are in the optical  bandpass and so are lower limits since some energy is emitted at other wavelengths.) Most events were much less energetic than this: flare amplitudes below 0.1% of the stellar value and energies of 2 × 10 ergs were detectable with the 30 minute integration. The flares had a rapid rise followed by an exponential decay on a time scale of 1–3 hours. The most powerful events corresponded to energies ten thousand greater than the largest flares observed on the Sun. Some stars flared very frequently: one star showed 57 events in 500 days, a rate of one every nine days. For the statistics of flares, the number of flares decreased with energy E roughly as E, a similar behaviour to solar flares. The duration of the flare increased with its energy, again in accordance with the solar behaviour.

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answers: The duration of the flare increased with its energy, again in accordance with the solar behaviour

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answers: Kepler ideal for detecting superflares

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answers: Kepler ideal for detecting superflares

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star that is approximately  96% the mass of and 107% the radius of the Sun. It has a surface temperature of about 5663 K and is estimated to have an age of around 8.5 billion years. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: Kepler-11 is a

text: G-type

text: star that is approximately  96% the mass of and 107% the radius of the

text: Sun

text: . It has a surface temperature of about 5663

text: K

text: and is estimated to have an age of around 8.5 billion years. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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text: Notable existing vector magnetographs include the  IVM at the Mees Observatory in Hawaii, SVM at Udaipur Solar Observatory, India, the SOLIS instrument at the National Solar Observatory (strictly speaking, SOLIS is a scanned spectropolarimeter), and the narrowband filtergraph instrument on the Hinode spacecraft.  Planned instruments include a vector polarimeter at the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope slated to be built in the 20-teens, and the HMI instrument aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory, launched in February 2010.

text: Notable existing vector magnetographs include the

text: IVM

text: at the

text: Mees Observatory

text: in Hawaii,

text: SVM

text: at Udaipur Solar Observatory, India, the

text: SOLIS

text: instrument at the

text: National Solar Observatory

text: (strictly speaking, SOLIS is a scanned

text: spectropolarimeter

text: ), and the narrowband filtergraph instrument on the

text: Hinode

text: spacecraft.  Planned instruments include a vector polarimeter at the

text: Advanced Technology Solar Telescope

text: slated to be built in the 20-teens, and the

text: HMI

text: instrument aboard the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: , launched in February 2010.

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answers: Hinode spacecraft

text: A 'Stonyhurst disk' is used to determine the longitude and latitude of sunspots. The Earth doesn't orbit precisely around the Sun's equator, so through the year the center of solar pictures moves up and down a little more than 7 degrees. This angle varies sinusoidally through the year and is called B0. Earth crosses the Sun's equator about December 7 and June 7 each year. This means that the lines of latitude on the sun do not appear as lines from the earth, but as elliptical arcs. Sunspots and other features will rotate across the face of the sun along lines of latitude. Stonyhurst disks are transparent overlays that match the size of whole-disk images of the sun. These disks provide a graphic means of locating sunspots on the solar disk in reference to lines of latitude and longitude. Different disk overlays are produced for different dates.

text: A 'Stonyhurst disk' is used to determine the longitude and latitude of sunspots. The Earth doesn't orbit precisely around the Sun's equator, so through the year the center of solar pictures moves up and down a little more than 7 degrees. This angle varies

text: sinusoidal

text: ly through the year and is called B0. Earth crosses the Sun's equator about December 7 and June 7 each year. This means that the lines of latitude on the sun do not appear as lines from the earth, but as elliptical arcs. Sunspots and other features will rotate across the face of the sun along lines of latitude. Stonyhurst disks are transparent overlays that match the size of whole-disk images of the sun. These disks provide a graphic means of locating sunspots on the solar disk in reference to lines of latitude and longitude. Different disk overlays are produced for different dates.

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answers: sunspots

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answers: sunspot

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Earth doesn't orbit precisely around the Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Earth doesn't orbit precisely around the Sun's equator

text: As a part of the Comenius University, the observatory provides research opportunity for students, and the staff offers guidance for the Master and PhD theses. The research is mainly aimed at the interplanetary matter. Until January 2014, 175 numbered and 34 unnumbered asteroids were discovered at the observatory including two Near Earth Objects 2005 GB34 and 2008 UW5. The observing time is mostly assigned for the photometry of asteroids and comets and astrometry. The first observation of a transiting extrasolar planet in Slovakia was performed at the observatory. The solar physics researchers perform solar prominence and chromosphere features observations in the H-alpha line.

text: As a part of the

text: Comenius University

text: , the observatory provides research opportunity for students, and the staff offers guidance for the Master and PhD theses. The research is mainly aimed at the interplanetary matter. Until January 2014, 175 numbered and 34 unnumbered asteroids were discovered at the observatory including two Near Earth Objects

text: 2005 GB34

text: and

text: 2008 UW5

text: . The observing time is mostly assigned for the photometry of asteroids and comets and astrometry. The first observation of a transiting

text: extrasolar planet

text: in

text: Slovakia

text: was performed at the observatory. The solar physics researchers perform solar prominence and chromosphere features observations in the H-alpha line.

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answers: The research is mainly aimed at the interplanetary matter

text: Sunspot made his cinematic debut in the 2014 feature film X-Men: Days of Future Past, played by Adan Canto.

text: Sunspot made his cinematic debut in the 2014 feature film

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past

text: , played by

text: Adan Canto

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answers: Yes

text: Weather is not limited to planetary bodies.  Like all stars, the sun's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System.  The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.  Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as coronal mass ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is generally known as space weather.  Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out in the solar system as Saturn.  The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces.  The interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular aurorae, and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids and radio signals.

text: Weather is not limited to planetary bodies.  Like all stars, the sun's

text: corona

text: is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin

text: atmosphere

text: throughout the

text: Solar System

text: .  The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the

text: solar wind

text: .  Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is generally known as

text: space weather

text: .  Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out in the

text: solar system

text: as

text: Saturn

text: .  The activity of this system can affect planetary

text: atmospheres

text: and occasionally surfaces.  The interaction of the

text: solar wind

text: with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular

text: aurorae

text: , and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as

text: electricity grids

text: and radio signals.

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text: T.J.J. See was an American astronomer and Navy Captain who at one time worked under Ellery Hale at the Lowell Observatory. He had a cult following largely because of his many (some 60) articles in Popular Astronomy but also in Astronomische Nachrichte (Astronomical News) (mostly in English). While at the USNO's Mare Island, Cal. station, he developed a model which he called capture theory, published in 1910, in his  "Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar Systems: v. 2. The capture theory of cosmical evolution, founded on dynamical principles and illustrated by phenomena observed in the spiral nebulae, the planetary system, the double and multiple stars and clusters and the star-clouds of the Milky Way",  which proposed that the planets formed in the outer Solar System and were captured by the Sun; the moons were formed in thus manner and were captured by the planets. This caused a feud with Forest Moulton, who co-developed the planetesimal hypothesis. A preview was presented in 1909 at a meeting of the ASP (Astronomical Society of the Pacific) at the Chabot Observatory in Oakland, Cal., and newspaper headlines blared "Prof. See's Paper Causes Sensation" (San Francisco Call) and "Scientists in Furore Over Nebulae" (San Francisco Examiner). Our current knowledge of dynamics makes capture most unlikely as it requires special conditions.

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text: A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness observed near the Sun's surface.It involves a very broad spectrum of emissions, an energy release of typically 1 × 10 joules of energy for a well-observed event.A major event can emit up to 1 × 10 joules (the latter is roughly the equivalent of 1 billion megatons of TNT, or over 400 times more energy than released from the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter).Flares are often, but not always, accompanied by a coronal mass ejection. The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms through the corona of the sun into space. These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event. The term is also used to refer to similar phenomena in other stars, where the term stellar flare applies.

text: A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness observed near the

text: Sun

text: 's surface.It involves a very broad spectrum of emissions, an energy release of typically 1 × 10

text: joule

text: s of

text: energy

text: for a well-observed event.A major event can emit up to 1 × 10 joules (the latter is roughly the equivalent of 1 billion

text: megatons of TNT

text: , or over 400 times more energy than released from the impact of

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: with Jupiter).Flares are often, but not always, accompanied by a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms through the corona of the sun into space. These clouds typically reach

text: Earth

text: a day or two after the event. The term is also used to refer to similar phenomena in other stars, where the term

text: stellar flare

text: applies.

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answers: near the Sun's surface

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answers: a day or two after the event

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answers: These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two after the event

text: "Is there life elsewhere in the universe?" is one of humankind's most profound unanswered questions. A step in the attempt to answer this question is the search for planets outside the Solar System. ESO's observatories are equipped with an arsenal of instruments for finding, studying, and monitoring extrasolar planets. In 2004, the Very Large Telescope detected a faint glow from an apparent planet orbiting a star about 200 light-years from earth. A year later, this detection was confirmed as the first picture of an exoplanet ever recorded. Although the planet is large (five times more massive than Jupiter), this observation is a first step toward identifying the physical structure and chemical composition of exoplanets.

text: "Is there life elsewhere in the universe?" is one of humankind's most profound unanswered questions. A step in the attempt to answer this question is the search for planets outside the Solar System. ESO's observatories are equipped with an arsenal of instruments for finding, studying, and monitoring

text: extrasolar planet

text: s. In 2004, the Very Large Telescope detected a faint glow from an apparent planet orbiting a star about 200 light-years from earth. A year later, this detection was confirmed as the first picture of an exoplanet ever recorded. Although the planet is large (five times more massive than

text: Jupiter

text: ), this observation is a first step toward identifying the physical structure and chemical composition of exoplanets.

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answers: 200 light-years

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answers: The Very Large Telescope

text: The Sagamore Hill Solar Radio Observatory is a solar radio observatory located in Hamilton, Massachusetts, that operates on a daily basis to obtain scientific observations of the Sun. It is a functional component of the Radio Solar Telescope Network (RSTN).

text: The Sagamore Hill Solar Radio Observatory is a

text: solar

text: radio

text: observatory

text: located in

text: Hamilton, Massachusetts

text: , that operates on a daily basis to obtain scientific observations of the

text: Sun

text: . It is a functional component of the

text: Radio Solar Telescope Network

text: (RSTN).

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answers: It is a functional component

text: Polarizing filters adjust the  brightness of images to a better level for observing, but much less so than solar filters. With these types of filter, the range of transmission varies from 3% to 40%. They are usually used for the observation of the Moon, but may also be used for planetary observation. They consist of two polarizing layers in a rotating aluminum cell, which changes the amount of transmission of the filter by rotating them. This reduction in brightness and improvement in contrast can reveal the lunar surface features and details, especially when it is near full. Polarizing filters should not be used in place of solar filters designed specially for observing the sun.

text: Polarizing filters adjust the  brightness of images to a better level for observing, but much less so than solar filters. With these types of filter, the range of transmission varies from 3% to 40%. They are usually used for the observation of the Moon, but may also be used for planetary observation. They consist of two polarizing layers in a rotating

text: aluminum

text: cell, which changes the amount of transmission of the filter by rotating them. This reduction in brightness and improvement in contrast can reveal the lunar surface features and details, especially when it is near full. Polarizing filters should not be used in place of solar filters designed specially for observing the sun.

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answers: Polarizing filters should not be used in place of solar filters

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answers: The sun

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The range of transmission varies from 3% to 40%

text: The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere.

text: The

text: solar constant

text: is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one

text: astronomical unit

text: (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is

text: attenuated

text: by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the

text: zenith

text: . Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting

text: ionosphere

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answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun

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answers: the Sun

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answers: (AU) from the Sun

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The detector, named KamiokaNDE for Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment, was a tank  in height and  in width, containing 3,048 metric tons (3,000 tons) of pure water and about 1,000 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) attached to its inner surface. The detector was upgraded, starting in 1985, to allow it to observe solar neutrinos. As a result, the detector (KamiokaNDE-II) had become sensitive enough to detect neutrinos from SN 1987A, a supernova which was observed in the Large Magellanic Cloud in February 1987, and to observe solar neutrinos in 1988. The ability of the Kamiokande experiment to observe the direction of electrons produced in solar neutrino interactions allowed experimenters to directly demonstrate for the first time that the sun was a source of neutrinos.

text: The detector, named KamiokaNDE for Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment, was a

text: tank

text: in height and  in width, containing 3,048 metric tons (3,000 tons) of pure water and about 1,000 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) attached to its inner surface. The detector was upgraded, starting in 1985, to allow it to observe solar neutrinos. As a result, the detector (KamiokaNDE-II) had become sensitive enough to detect neutrinos from

text: SN 1987A

text: , a

text: supernova

text: which was observed in the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: in February 1987, and to observe solar neutrinos in 1988. The ability of the Kamiokande experiment to observe the direction of electrons produced in solar neutrino

text: interactions

text: allowed experimenters to directly demonstrate for the first time that the sun was a source of neutrinos.

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answers: SN 1987A

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answers: the sun was a source of neutrinos

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answers: supernova

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answers: SN 1987A

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answers: Supernova

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answers: solar neutrinos

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answers: It can be harmed by radiation in space

text: In 2012 the forum said it would be "down for maintenance" until "mid-June". A new forum was started on the Oracle Technology Network on May 7, 2013. David G. Simmons, one of the SunSPOT developers for Sun Microsystems, maintained a blog through the end of 2010.He opened an alternative developers forum in July 2013 not connected to Oracle.

text: In 2012 the forum said it would be "down for maintenance" until "mid-June". A new forum was started on the Oracle Technology Network on May 7, 2013. David G. Simmons, one of the SunSPOT developers for Sun Microsystems, maintained a blog through the end of 2010.He opened an alternative developers forum in July 2013 not connected to Oracle.

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text: Active regions involve all the phenomena directly linked to the magnetic field, which occur at different heights above the Sun's surface: sunspots and faculae, occur in the photosphere, spicules, Hα filaments and plages in the chromosphere, prominences in the chromosphere and transition region, and flares and coronal mass ejections happen in the corona and chromosphere. If flares are very violent, they can also perturb the photosphere and generate a Moreton wave. On the contrary, quiescent prominences are large, cool dense structures which are observed as dark, "snake-like" Hα ribbons (appearing like filaments) on the solar disc. Their temperature is about 5000–8000 K, and so they are usually considered as chromospheric features.

text: Active regions involve all the phenomena directly linked to the magnetic field, which occur at different heights above the Sun's surface:

text: sunspot

text: s and

text: facula

text: e, occur in the photosphere,

text: spicules

text: Hα

text: filaments

text: and

text: plages

text: in the chromosphere,

text: prominences

text: in the chromosphere and transition region, and

text: flares

text: and

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s happen in the corona and chromosphere. If flares are very violent, they can also perturb the photosphere and generate a

text: Moreton wave

text: . On the contrary, quiescent prominences are large, cool dense structures which are observed as dark, "snake-like" Hα ribbons (appearing like filaments) on the solar disc. Their temperature is about 5000–8000 K, and so they are usually considered as chromospheric features.

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answers: active regions

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answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: large, cool dense structures

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: quiescent

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: active regions

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: If flares are very violent

text: John Allen "Jack" Eddy (March 25, 1931 – June 10, 2009) was an American astronomer who published professionally under the name John A. Eddy but much of the content referencing him can be found under his nickname Jack which he preferred to use. In 1976 Dr. Eddy published a landmark paper in Science titled "The Maunder Minimum" where, using the Nineteenth Century works of Edward W. Maunder and Gustav Spörer, he identified a 70-year period from 1645 to 1715 as a time when solar activity all but stopped. In making the case for the anomaly, he gathered and interpreted data from a wide variety of sources, including first-hand accounts from extant historical observations of the Sun going back to the telescopic observations of Galileo and other contemporary scientists of the 17th and early 18th centuries; from historical reports of the aurora borealis observed in past centuries in Europe and the New World; from visual observations of sunspots seen with the unaided eye at sunrise and sunset in dynastic records from the Orient; from existing descriptions of the eclipsed Sun; and from measurements of carbon-14 in dated tree-rings. In the last of these, which can be used as a proxy indicator of solar activity, he found evidence of other similar periods of solar quiescence in the distant past, the most recent an even longer 90-year span, from about 1460 until 1550, which he named the Spörer Minimum. Both the Maunder and Spörer minima fell during the coldest parts of the Little Ice Age, which suggested a meaningful connection between the longer term behavior of the Sun and of the Earth’s mean surface temperature. In advancing the theory that the Sun is a variable star Eddy observed: "It has long been thought that the Sun is a constant star of regular and repeatable behavior. Measurements of the radiative output, or solar constant, seem to justify the first assumption, and the record of periodicity in sunspot numbers is taken as evidence of the second. Both records, however, sample only the most recent history of the Sun."

text: John Allen "Jack" Eddy (March 25, 1931 – June 10, 2009) was an American

text: astronomer

text: who published professionally under the name John A. Eddy but much of the content referencing him can be found under his nickname Jack which he preferred to use. In 1976 Dr. Eddy published a landmark paper in

text: Science

text: titled "

text: The Maunder Minimum

text: " where, using the Nineteenth Century works of

text: Edward W. Maunder

text: and

text: Gustav Spörer

text: , he identified a 70-year period from 1645 to 1715 as a time when solar activity all but stopped. In making the case for the anomaly, he gathered and interpreted data from a wide variety of sources, including first-hand accounts from extant historical observations of the Sun going back to the telescopic observations of

text: Galileo

text: and other contemporary scientists of the 17th and early 18th centuries; from historical reports of the

text: aurora borealis

text: observed in past centuries in

text: Europe

text: and the

text: New World

text: ; from visual observations of

text: sunspots

text: seen with the unaided eye at

text: sunrise

text: and

text: sunset

text: in dynastic records from the

text: Orient

text: ; from existing descriptions of the eclipsed Sun; and from measurements of

text: in dated

text: tree-rings

text: . In the last of these, which can be used as a proxy indicator of solar activity, he found evidence of other similar periods of solar quiescence in the distant past, the most recent an even longer 90-year span, from about 1460 until 1550, which he named the

text: Spörer Minimum

text: . Both the Maunder and Spörer minima fell during the coldest parts of the

text: Little Ice Age

text: , which suggested a meaningful connection between the longer term behavior of the Sun and of the Earth’s mean surface temperature. In advancing the theory that the Sun is a variable star Eddy observed: "It has long been thought that the Sun is a constant star of regular and repeatable behavior. Measurements of the radiative output, or

text: solar constant

text: , seem to justify the first assumption, and the record of periodicity in

text: sunspot number

text: s is taken as evidence of the second. Both records, however, sample only the most recent history of the Sun."

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answers: both records, however, sample only the most recent history of the Sun

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answers: The Spörer Minimum

text: The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (−73 °C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (−108 °C) at 3.2 AU However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.

text: The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (−73 °C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (−108 °C) at 3.2 AU However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.

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answers: The temperature of the asteroid belt

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answers: Solar radiation

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming

text: meteorites

text: and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of

text: sun activity

text: , including

text: sunspots

text: solar flares

text: solar wind

text: , and massive

text: solar radiation

text: , can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and

text: geomagnetic activity

text: . Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

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answers: geomagnetic storms

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answers: Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years

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answers: Earth’s surface is a major factor affecting Earth climate.

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Earth’s climate

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away from the sun.

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Earth’s surface can be harmed by radiation.

text: In one example of the use of the MDI, Stanford scientists reported the detection of several sunspot regions in the deep interior of the Sun, 1–2 days before they appeared on the solar disc. The detection of sunspots in the solar interior may thus provide valuable warnings about upcoming surface magnetic activity which could be used to improve and extend the predictions of space weather forecasts.

text: In one example of the use of the MDI, Stanford scientists reported the detection of several sunspot regions in the deep interior of the Sun, 1–2 days before they appeared on the solar disc. The detection of sunspots in the solar interior may thus provide valuable warnings about upcoming surface magnetic activity which could be used to improve and extend the predictions of space weather forecasts.

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text: The observatory played a major role in solar radio mapping, studies of environmental disturbances, and development of a solar optical videometer for microwave research.

text: The observatory played a major role in solar

text: radio mapping

text: , studies of environmental disturbances, and development of a solar optical videometer for

text: microwave

text: research.

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answers: microwave

text: Sunspots are observed with land-based and Earth-orbiting solar telescopes. These telescopes use filtration and projection techniques for direct observation, in addition to various types of filtered cameras. Specialized tools such as spectroscopes and spectrohelioscopes are used to examine sunspots and sunspot areas. Artificial eclipses allow viewing of the circumference of the Sun as sunspots rotate through the horizon.

text: Sunspots are observed with land-based and Earth-orbiting

text: solar telescope

text: s. These telescopes use filtration and projection techniques for direct observation, in addition to various types of filtered cameras. Specialized tools such as

text: spectroscope

text: s and

text: spectrohelioscope

text: s are used to examine sunspots and sunspot areas. Artificial eclipses allow viewing of the circumference of the Sun as sunspots rotate through the horizon.

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answers: These telescopes use filtration and projection techniques for direct observation, in addition to various types of filtered cameras

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Sunspots

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answers: Sunspots

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answers: the Sun

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answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Sunspots

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth-orbiting

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Earth-orbiting

text: The planet orbits a (M-type) red dwarf star named Kepler-438. The star has a mass of 0.54  and a radius of 0.52 , both lower than those of the Sun by almost half. It has a surface temperature of 3748 K and is estimated to be about 4.4 billion years old, only 200 million years younger than the Sun. and the Sun has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: The planet orbits a (

text: M-type

text: red dwarf

text: star named

text: . The star has a mass of 0.54  and a radius of 0.52 , both lower than those of the

text: Sun

text: by almost half. It has a surface temperature of 3748

text: K

text: and is estimated to be about 4.4 billion years old, only 200 million years younger than the Sun. and the Sun has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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text: In astronomy, the renaissance period started with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus. He proposed that planets revolve around the Sun and not around the Earth, as it was believed at the time. This model is known as the heliocentric model. His work was later expanded by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Particularly, Galilei used his new telescope to look at the Sun. In 1610, he discovered sunspots on its surface. In the autumn of 1611, Johannes Fabricius wrote the first book on sunspots, "De Maculis in Sole Observatis" (On the spots observed in the Sun).

text: In astronomy, the renaissance period started with the work of

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: . He proposed that planets revolve around the Sun and not around the Earth, as it was believed at the time. This model is known as the heliocentric model. His work was later expanded by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: and

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . Particularly, Galilei used his new telescope to look at the Sun. In 1610, he discovered sunspots on its surface. In the autumn of 1611,

text: Johannes Fabricius

text: wrote the first book on sunspots, "De Maculis in Sole Observatis" (On the spots observed in the Sun).

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text: Raw data frequently contain hidden frequencies. Combinations of a few fixed frequency waves can complicate the recognition of the mixture of signals, but still remain predictable over time. Publications  show that atmospheric pressure contains hidden periodicities resulting from the gravitational force of the moon and the daily period of the sun. The reconstruction of these periodic signals of atmospheric tidal waves allows for an explanation and prediction of many anomalies present in extreme weather. Similar tidal waves must exist on the sun resulting from the gravitational force of planets. The rotation of the sun around its axes will cause a current, similar to the equatorial current on the earth. Perturbations or eddies around the current will cause anomalies on the surface of the sun. Horizontal rotational eddies in highly magnetic plasma will create a vertical explosion which will transport deeper, hotter plasma to above the surface of the sun. Each planet creates a tidal wave with a specific frequency on the sun. At times any two of the waves will occur in phase and other times will be out of phase. The resulting amplitude will oscillate with a difference frequency. The estimation of the spectra of sunspot data using the DZ algorithm provides two sharp frequency lines with periodicities close to 9.9 and 11.7 years. These frequency lines can be considered as difference frequencies caused by Jupiter and Saturn (9.9) and Venus and Earth (11.7). The difference frequency between 9.9 and 11.7 yields a frequency with a 64-year period. All of these periods are identifiable in sunspot data. The 64-year period component is currently in a declining mode. This decline may cause a cooling effect on the earth in the near future. An examination of the joint effect of multiple planets may reveal some long periods in sun activity and help explain climate fluctuations on earth.

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answers: The 64-year period component is currently in a declining mode

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: sunspot

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answers: NDQ_006087

answers: sunspot data

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answers: The Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The 64-year period component

text: For a total solar eclipse to happen, the ratio of the apparent diameters of the Moon and of the Sun must be 1.0 or bigger and the three celestial bodies (Sun, Earth and Moon) must be aligned centrally enough. When that is the case, the Moon's disk covers the Sun's disk in the sky completely. The path of totality (i.e. of the travelling shadow of the Moon cutting off all direct sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface) is a relatively narrow strip, at most a few hundreds of kilometers across.

text: For a total solar eclipse to happen, the ratio of the apparent diameters of the Moon and of the Sun must be 1.0 or bigger and the three celestial bodies (Sun, Earth and Moon) must be aligned centrally enough. When that is the case, the Moon's disk covers the Sun's disk in the sky completely. The path of totality (i.e. of the travelling shadow of the Moon cutting off all direct sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface) is a relatively narrow strip, at most a few hundreds of kilometers across.

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answers: the Moon's disk covers the Sun's disk in the sky completely

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answers: Sun

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answers: Travelling shadow

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: total solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The host star, Kepler-22, is a G-type star that is 3% less massive than the Sun and 2% smaller in volume. It has a surface temperature of  compared with the Sun, which has a surface temperature of . The star is about 4 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old.

text: The host star,

text: , is a

text: G-type

text: star that is 3% less massive than the

text: Sun

text: and 2% smaller in volume. It has a

text: surface temperature

text: of  compared with the Sun, which has a surface temperature of . The star is about 4 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old.

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answers: Kepler-22

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answers: NDQ_006085

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answers: Kepler-22

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: star

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Kepler-22

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The MLSO is tasked with monitoring the solar atmosphere and recording data on plasmic and energetic emissions from the chromosphere and corona.  Studies of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are also conducted at MLSO.  A number of non-solar astronomical observatories are located at the site.  The MLSO instruments record images of the solar disk and limb every 3 minutes for 3–10 hours daily starting at 17:00 UT, weather permitting.

text: The MLSO is tasked with monitoring the

text: solar

text: atmosphere

text: and recording data on

text: plasmic

text: and

text: energetic

text: emissions from the

text: chromosphere

text: and

text: corona

text: .  Studies of

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CMEs) are also conducted at MLSO.  A number of non-solar

text: astronomical observatories

text: are located at the site.  The MLSO instruments record images of the solar disk and

text: limb

text: every 3 minutes for 3–10 hours daily starting at 17:00 UT, weather permitting.

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answers: CMEs are also conducted at MLSO

text: The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI), led from Stanford University in Stanford, California, studies solar variability and characterizes the Sun's interior and the various components of magnetic activity. HMI produces data to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. It also produces data to enable estimates of the coronal magnetic field for studies of variability in the extended solar atmosphere. HMI observations will enable establishing the relationships between the internal dynamics and magnetic activity in order to understand solar variability and its effects. HMI will take high-resolution measurements of the longitudinal and vector magnetic field over the entire visible solar disk thus extending the capabilities of the SOHO's MDI instrument.

text: The

text: Helioseismic

text: and Magnetic Imager (HMI), led from

text: Stanford University

text: in

text: Stanford, California

text: , studies solar variability and characterizes the Sun's interior and the various components of magnetic activity. HMI produces data to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. It also produces data to enable estimates of the coronal magnetic field for studies of variability in the extended solar atmosphere. HMI observations will enable establishing the relationships between the internal dynamics and magnetic activity in order to understand solar variability and its effects. HMI will take high-resolution measurements of the longitudinal and vector magnetic field over the entire visible solar disk thus extending the capabilities of the

text: SOHO

text: 's MDI instrument.

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answers: NDQ_006088

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: HMI

text: Listening to Jupiter with the shortwave receiver needed for 21 cm, it is also possible to remove the UEK21 converter and use only the shortwave receiver connected to a simple dipole. If the frequency selected is above 18 MHz, it is possible when conditions are right to listen through the ionosphere. At lower frequencies, the ionosphere is opaque. Here, two targets are possible: the Sun with its solar flares or Jupiter, which is also a very strong radio source, together with the moon Io, which is a very powerful natural radio wave transmitter. When Jupiter, Io and the Earth are aligned, it is possible to hear this radio source very clearly.

text: Listening to

text: Jupiter

text: with the shortwave receiver needed for 21 cm, it is also possible to remove the UEK21 converter and use only the shortwave receiver connected to a simple

text: dipole

text: . If the frequency selected is above 18 MHz, it is possible when conditions are right to listen through the

text: ionosphere

text: . At lower frequencies, the ionosphere is opaque. Here, two targets are possible: the Sun with its

text: solar flare

text: s or Jupiter, which is also a very strong radio source, together with the moon

text: Io

text: , which is a very powerful natural radio wave transmitter. When Jupiter, Io and the

text: Earth

text: are aligned, it is possible to hear this radio source very clearly.

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: When Jupiter, Io and the Earth are aligned, it is possible to hear this radio source very clearly

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: flares

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Jupiter, Io and the Earth are aligned

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Jupiter

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Jupiter

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It is possible to hear this radio source very clearly

text: On 25 April 2008, NASA's Swift satellite picked up a record-setting flare from EV Lacertae. This flare was thousands of times more powerful than the largest observed solar flare. Because EV Lacertae is much farther from Earth than the Sun, the flare did not appear as bright as a solar flare. The flare would have been visible to the naked eye if the star had been in an observable part of the night sky at the time. It was the brightest flare ever seen from a star other than the Sun.

text: On 25 April 2008,

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Swift

text: satellite picked up a record-setting

text: flare

text: from EV Lacertae. This flare was thousands of times more powerful than the largest observed solar flare. Because EV Lacertae is much farther from

text: Earth

text: than the

text: Sun

text: , the flare did not appear as bright as a solar flare. The flare would have been visible to the naked eye if the star had been in an observable part of the night sky at the time. It was the brightest flare ever seen from a star other than the Sun.

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answers: NASA's Swift satellite

text: In 1919, Larmor proposed sunspots are self-regenerative dynamo action on the Sun's surface.

text: In 1919, Larmor proposed

text: sunspot

text: s are

text: self-regenerative

text: dynamo

text: action on the

text: Sun

text: 's surface.

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answers: The Sun's surface

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: yes

text: Insolation figures are used as an input to worksheets to size solar power systems. Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun, insolation must be adjusted to prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer. This also means that the amount of sun falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface. In many countries the figures can be obtained from an insolation map or from insolation tables that reflect data over the prior 30–50 years. Photovoltaic panels are rated under standard conditions to determine the Wp rating (watts peak), which can then be used with insolation to determine the expected output, adjusted by factors such as tilt, tracking and shading (which can be included to create the installed Wp rating). Insolation values range from 800 to 950 kWh/(kWp·y) in Norway to up to 2,900 in Australia.

text: Insolation figures are used as an input to worksheets to size

text: solar power systems

text: . Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun, insolation must be adjusted to prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer. This also means that the amount of sun falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface. In many countries the figures can be obtained from an insolation map or from insolation tables that reflect data over the prior 30–50 years. Photovoltaic panels are rated under standard conditions to determine the Wp rating (

text: watts peak

text: ), which can then be used with insolation to determine the expected output, adjusted by factors such as tilt, tracking and shading (which can be included to create the installed Wp rating). Insolation values range from 800 to 950 kWh/(kWp·y) in

text: Norway

text: to up to 2,900 in

text: Australia

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answers: NDQ_006081

answers: the amount of sun falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface

answers: NDQ_006082

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answers: NDQ_006083

answers: unanswerable

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answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar power systems

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: solar panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun, insolation must be adjusted to prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer

text: SOHO is managed by scientists from the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA. Containing more instruments than both TRACE and Yohkoh, this large solar mission was designed to look at the chain from the solar interior, the solar corona to the solar wind. SOHO has 12 instruments on board, including the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS), the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT), the Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation (SUMER) and the UltraViolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS), which are all used extensively in the study of the transition region and corona.

text: SOHO is managed by scientists from the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) and NASA. Containing more instruments than both TRACE and Yohkoh, this large solar mission was designed to look at the chain from the solar interior, the solar corona to the solar wind. SOHO has 12 instruments on board, including the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS), the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT), the Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation (SUMER) and the UltraViolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS), which are all used extensively in the study of the transition region and corona.

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answers: solar corona

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answers: solar wind

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answers: solar corona to the solar wind

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answers: SOHO

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answers: ESA

text: Around 1900, researchers began to explore connections between solar variations and Earth's weather. Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) assigned Abbot and his team to detect changes in the radiation of the Sun. They began by inventing instruments to measure solar radiation. Later, when Abbot was SAO head, they established a solar station at Calama, Chile to complement its data from Mount Wilson Observatory. He detected 27 harmonic periods within the 273-month Hale cycles, including 7, 13, and 39-month patterns. He looked for connections to weather by means such as matching opposing solar trends during a month to opposing urban temperature and precipitation trends. With the advent of dendrochronology, scientists such as Glock attempted to connect variation in tree growth to periodic solar variations and infer long-term secular variability in the solar constant from similar variations in millennial-scale chronologies.

text: Around 1900, researchers began to explore connections between solar variations and Earth's weather.

text: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

text: (SAO) assigned

text: Abbot

text: and his team to detect changes in the radiation of the Sun. They began by inventing instruments to measure solar radiation. Later, when Abbot was SAO head, they established a solar station at

text: Calama, Chile

text: to complement its data from

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: . He detected 27 harmonic periods within the 273-month

text: Hale cycle

text: s, including 7, 13, and 39-month patterns. He looked for connections to weather by means such as matching opposing solar trends during a month to opposing urban temperature and precipitation trends. With the advent of

text: dendrochronology

text: , scientists such as Glock attempted to connect variation in tree growth to periodic solar variations and infer long-term secular variability in the

text: solar constant

text: from similar variations in millennial-scale chronologies.

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answers: changes in the radiation

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: matching opposing solar trends during a month to opposing urban temperature and precipitation trends

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar variations

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar variations

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Hale cycles

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar variations

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: solar radiation

text: The Sunspot Number (SSN) is the number of sunspots on the Sun's photosphere in visible light on the side of the Sun visible to an Earth observer. The number and total area of sunspots are related to the brightness of the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray portions of the solar spectrum and to solar activity such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).

text: The

text: Sunspot Number

text: (SSN) is the number of

text: sunspot

text: s on the Sun's photosphere in visible light on the side of the Sun visible to an Earth observer. The number and total area of sunspots are related to the brightness of the Sun in the

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: (EUV) and X-ray portions of the

text: solar spectrum

text: and to solar activity such as

text: solar flare

text: s and

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CMEs).

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text: Each concentrator uses two pounds of plastic, and measures 10 feet in diameter and  four feet in depth. The front face of the concentrator is clear to allow the light to pass through: the back half of the concentrator is reflective (coated in a very thin film of aluminum) to form a giant parabolic mirror that concentrates light about 300 to 400 times, while using up to 400 times less solar cell material than traditional flat-panel PV systems. The concentrators, like a magnifying glass, must point directly at the sun to work. The curved reflector serves to concentrate the light from a very large surface area onto a small focal point inside the plastic shell where a solar receiver sits (solar cells). All of the light that is striking the concentrator across the full circular area is reflected to the same spot, as long as the concentrator is pointed at the sun. The wide hemisphere faces the sun. The concentrators are mounted on poles in rigid rigs (ten feet above the ground); the rigs allow a computer system to move the concentrators as they track the sun on a dual axis.

text: Each concentrator uses two pounds of plastic, and measures 10 feet in diameter and  four feet in depth. The front face of the concentrator is clear to allow the light to pass through: the back half of the concentrator is reflective (coated in a very thin film of aluminum) to form a giant parabolic mirror that concentrates light about 300 to 400 times, while using up to 400 times less solar cell material than traditional flat-panel PV systems. The concentrators, like a

text: magnifying glass

text: , must point directly at the sun to work. The curved reflector serves to concentrate the light from a very large surface area onto a small focal point inside the plastic shell where a solar receiver sits (solar cells). All of the light that is striking the concentrator across the full circular area is reflected to the same spot, as long as the concentrator is pointed at the sun. The wide hemisphere faces the sun. The concentrators are mounted on poles in rigid rigs (ten feet above the ground); the rigs allow a computer system to move the concentrators as they track the sun on a dual axis.

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answers: The wide hemisphere faces the sun

text: A spherical shell Dyson sphere in the Solar System with a radius of one astronomical unit, so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per unit solid angle, would have a surface area of approximately , or about 550 million times the surface area of Earth. This would intercept the full 384.6 yottawatts (3.846 × 10 watts) of the Sun's output. Non-shell designs would intercept less, but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for the Solar System at this point of the Sun's evolution. This is approximately 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity in 1998, which was 12 terawatts.

text: A spherical shell Dyson sphere in the Solar System with a radius of one

text: astronomical unit

text: , so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per unit

text: solid angle

text: , would have a surface area of approximately , or about 550 million times the surface area of Earth. This would intercept the full 384.6

text: yotta

text: watt

text: s (3.846 × 10 watts) of the Sun's output. Non-shell designs would intercept less, but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for the Solar System at this point of the Sun's

text: evolution

text: . This is approximately 33

text: trillion

text: times the power consumption of humanity in 1998, which was 12 terawatts.

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text: , and sunspot number,

text: , and

text: sunspot

text: number,

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answers: Spacecraft and astronauts can be harmed by radiation in space.

text: Madhulika (Lika) Guhathakurta is an American Astrophysicist and scientist with NASA's Heliophysics Science Division. She is the lead program scientist for NASA's Living With a Star initiative and serves as program scientist on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), Van Allen Probes, and Solar TErrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) missions. She will also be the program scientist for two upcoming missions: Solar Probe Plus and Solar Orbiter. Lika was previously the program scientist on SPARTAN-201 (Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. These missions were conducted as part of the larger STS-56, STS-69, STS-77, STS-87, and STS-95 mission objectives. She has worked as an educator, scientist, mission designer, directed and managed science programs, and has built instruments for spacecraft. Dr. Guhathakurta is known for her work in heliophysics where she has authored over 70 publications on the subject.

text: Madhulika (Lika) Guhathakurta is an American Astrophysicist and scientist with

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Heliophysics Science Division

text: . She is the lead program scientist for NASA's

text: Living With a Star

text: initiative and serves as program scientist on the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO),

text: Van Allen Probes

text: , and Solar TErrestrial Relations Observatory (

text: STEREO

text: ) missions. She will also be the program scientist for two upcoming missions:

text: Solar Probe Plus

text: and

text: Solar Orbiter

text: . Lika was previously the program scientist on SPARTAN-201 (Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. These missions were conducted as part of the larger

text: , and

text: mission objectives. She has worked as an educator, scientist, mission designer, directed and managed science programs, and has built instruments for spacecraft. Dr. Guhathakurta is known for her work in

text: heliophysics

text: where she has authored over 70 publications on the subject.

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text: Since superflares can occur on stars apparently equivalent in every way to the Sun, it is natural to ask if they can occur on the Sun itself. An estimate based on the original Kepler photometric studies suggested a frequency on solar-type stars (early G-type and rotation period more than 10 days) of once every 800 years for an energy of 10 erg and every 5000 years at  10 erg. One-minute sampling provided statistics for less energetic flares and gave a frequency of one flare of energy 10 erg every 5–600 years for a star rotating as slowly as the Sun; this would be rated as X100 on the solar flare scale. This is based on a straightforward comparison of the number of stars studied with the number of flares observed. An extrapolation of the empirical statistics for solar flares to an energy of 10 erg suggests a frequency of one in 10,000 years.

text: Since superflares can occur on stars apparently equivalent in every way to the Sun, it is natural to ask if they can occur on the Sun itself. An estimate based on the original Kepler photometric studies suggested a frequency on solar-type stars (early G-type and rotation period more than 10 days) of once every 800 years for an energy of 10 erg and every 5000 years at  10 erg. One-minute sampling provided statistics for less energetic flares and gave a frequency of one flare of energy 10 erg every 5–600 years for a star rotating as slowly as the Sun; this would be rated as X100 on the solar flare scale. This is based on a straightforward comparison of the number of stars studied with the number of flares observed. An extrapolation of the empirical statistics for solar flares to an energy of 10 erg suggests a frequency of one in 10,000 years.

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answers: superflares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: superflares can occur

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: superflares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: superflare

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: stars

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: stars

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: superflares

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: superflares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Superflare

text: |-id=203| 9203 Myrtus ||  || Named for Myrtaceae, the myrtle family of aromatic trees and shrubs, with more than 100 genera and nearly 4000 species. This family is typical of the Southern Hemisphere, where the Eucalyptus genus is prevalent. Myrtus communis (common myrtle) is a species native to the Mediterranean and is cultivated as far north as England. |-id=204| 9204 Mörike ||  || Eduard Mörike, German poet. |-id=205| 9205 Eddywally ||  || Eduard Van de Walle (b. 1930), a Flemish singer. |-id=206| 9206 Yanaikeizo || 1994 RQ || Keizo Yanai (b. 1941), once of researchers at the Japanese National Institute of Polar Research. |-id=207| 9207 Petersmith ||  || Peter H. Smith (b. 1947), planetary scientist at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=208| 9208 Takanotoshi ||  || Toshiaki Takano (b. 1954), an associate professor at Chiba University Graduate School of Science and Technology. |-id=211| 9211 Neese ||  || Carol Lynn Neese, American astronomer †|-id=212| 9212 Kanamaru ||  || Naomiki Kanamaru (b. 1970) is an amateur astronomer. After acquiring first-class registered architect status in 1997, he has focused his attention on the architecture of public astronomical observatories, as well as university affiliated astronomical observatories. His current interest is solar eclipses.|-id=215| 9215 Taiyonoto ||  || The famous monument Taiyonoto, "Tower of Sun", is in Suita City. |-id=216| 9216 Masuzawa || 1995 VS || Hitoshi Masuzawa (b. 1945), a lecturer and curator of the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo. |-id=217| 9217 Kitagawa || 1995 WN || Ryuji Kitagawa (1949-2009) was a professor at Hiroshima University. From his research of clay mineralogy, he clarified the mechanism of weathering of granite and generation of landslide and slope failure. In addition to his own research, he mentored many other scientists.|-id=218| 9218 Ishiikazuo ||  || Kazuo Ishii (b. 1950), employed in the past in the manufacture of planetaria, has been working since 2005 as an architectural consultant in the design of astronomical facilities. His interest in astronomy was aroused at the sight of Comet 1965 S1 (Ikeya-Seki).|-id=220| 9220 Yoshidayama ||  || Yoshidayama is a hill located in Sakyo, a district in the northeastern part of Kyoto. It contains temples, shrines and many maple trees and has been familiar for 100 years as a walking area for students.|-id=221| 9221 Wuliangyong ||  || Wu Liangyong (b. 1922) is an architect, city planner, and educator, and the founder of Sciences of Human Settlements in China. |-id=222| 9222 Chubey || 1995 YM || Markiyan S. Chubey (b. 1940) is a Ukrainian-born Russian scientist working at the Pulkovo Observatory. He is an astrometrist and is leading a team to develop astrometry and astrophysics at the sun-earth L4 and L5 points using the stereo principle.|-id=223| 9223 Leifandersson ||  || Leif Erland Andersson (1943-1979) observed that most satellites of the outer planets rotate synchronously about their parent planets, helped determine Pluto's pole position and albedo map, and determined that Pluto and its satellite Charon would display mutual transits and eclipses. He also made a catalogue of lunar craters. |-id=224| 9224 Železný || 1996 AE || Jan Železný, Czech javelin thrower †|-id=225| 9225 Daiki || 1996 AU || Daiki Matsubayashi (b. 1961) has been a member of the Saga Astronomical Society since the time of its establishment in 1981. He is an amateur astronomer whose interests include meteors and comets, with photography of solar eclipses his personal favorite.|-id=226| 9226 Arimahiroshi ||  || Hiroshi Arima (b. 1958) is a registered architect who also designs individual observatories in Japan. While a university student he was a leader of the Kyushu Meteoric Network. With members of the Kumamoto Civil Astronomical Observatory, he helped carry out a solar eclipse observation in Mexico in 1991.|-id=227| 9227 Ashida ||  || Masafumi Ashida (b. 1957), a teacher of elementary school in Kyoto, is widely known by schoolchildren as an astronomical teacher in everyday life. His interests include comet observations, and he has labored continuously as the chief editor of the Kansai Astronomical Society's monthly magazine since 1974.|-id=228| 9228 Nakahiroshi ||  || Japanese amateur astronomer Hiroshi Nakanishi (b. 1936) is a well-known grass-roots popularizer of astronomy in Kagawa prefecture.|-id=229| 9229 Matsuda ||  || Junichi Matsuda (b. 1948), a professor at Osaka University. |-id=230| 9230 Yasuda ||  || Satoshi Yasuda (b. 1948), a member of Amateur Radio on the International Space Station-Japan and a professor at Hitotsubashi University. |-id=231| 9231 Shimaken ||  || Shimaken is the research group led by Toshihiko Shimamoto (b. 1946), a professor emeritus of Kyoto University. The group reproduced seismogenic fault motion in the laboratory and found that the fault motion itself dramatically weakens the fault by frictional heating and promotes generation of large earthquakes.|-id=232| 9232 Miretti ||  || Named in memory of Manlio Miretti (1928-1996), who, blessed with a powerful and warm baritone voice, devoted his whole life to the opera. |-id=233| 9233 Itagijun ||  || Jun Itagi (b. 1958), an amateur astronomical educator famous in the San-In district (Tottori and Shimane prefectures), has served as general-affairs director of the San-In Society of Astronomy. He is well known for his in-depth studies of the Mihonoseki and Tahara meteorites.|-id=234| 9234 Matsumototaku ||  || Takuya Matsumoto (b. 1966) is a high-school teacher and amateur astronomer who has also been director of the 100-member headquarters of the San-In Society of Astronomy since 1990.|-id=235| 9235 Shimanamikaido ||  || Nishiseto Expressway|-id=236| 9236 Obermair ||  || Erwin Obermair, Austrian amateur astronomer † ‡|-id=238| 9238 Yavapai ||  || Yavapai, the county in Arizona of which Prescott is the county seat. |-id=239| 9239 van Riebeeck ||  || Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch merchant and founder of the Cape Colony in South Africa †|-id=240| 9240 Nassau ||  || Jason John Nassau (1893-1965), a director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and professor at Case Institute of Technology during 1924-1959. |-id=241| 9241 Rosfranklin ||  || Rosalind E. Franklin (1920-1958), a brilliant chemist. |-id=242| 9242 Olea ||  || Named for Oleaceae, the olive family, with about 25 genera and nearly 1000 species. Genera include ash, lilac, jasmine and forsythia. Olea europea (common olive) is profitable as a fruit and source of oil. |-id=244| 9244 Višnjan ||  || Višnjan, a small picturesque medieval town situated on the western rim of the Istrian peninsula highlands, Croatia. |-id=246| 9246 Niemeyer ||  || Oscar Niemeyer (b. 1907), the chief architect in Brazil. |-id=248| 9248 Sauer || 4593 P-L || Carl G. Sauer, Jr., a principal flight mechanics engineer at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=249| 9249 Yen || 4606 P-L || Chen-wan L. Yen, a senior analyst within the Mission and Systems Architecture Section of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=250| 9250 Chamberlin || 4643 P-L || Alan B. Chamberlin, a senior engineer within the Navigation and Flight Mechanics Section of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=251| 9251 Harch || 4896 P-L ||  Ann P. Harch, the Cornell University scientist. |-id=252| 9252 Goddard || 9058 P-L || Robert Goddard, American rocketry pioneer. |-id=253| 9253 Oberth || 1171 T-1 || Hermann Oberth, Romanian-born German rocketry pioneer †|-id=254| 9254 Shunkai || 2151 T-1 || Shibukawa Shunkai (1639-1715), an expert on the calendar. |-id=255| 9255 Inoutadataka || 3174 T-1 || Inou Tadataka (1745-1818), a Japan geographer and surveyor. |-id=256| 9256 Tsukamoto || 1324 T-2 || Tsukamoto Akitake (1833-1885), a geographer who worked for both the Tokugawa and Meiji governments. |-id=257| 9257 Kunisuke || 1552 T-2 || Kunisuke Kinoshita (1901-1931), an astronomer at the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory from 1924 to his death. |-id=258| 9258 Johnpauljones || 2137 T-2 || John Paul Jones, American Revolutionary War naval hero. |-id=259| 9259 Janvanparadijs || 2189 T-2 || Jan van Paradijs, Dutch astronomer †|-id=260| 9260 Edwardolson ||  || Edward C. Olson (b. 1930), an emeritus professor at the University of Illinois. |-id=261| 9261 Peggythomson ||  || Peggy Y. Thomson (b. 1927) was responsible for a major gift to Indiana University from a charitable trust that allowed the Daniel Kirkwood professorship to be fully endowed as a chair of astronomy. The name was suggested by F. K. Edmondson, whose elementary astronomy course inspired Thomson when she was a student. |-id=262| 9262 Bordovitsyna || 1973 RF || Tatiana Valentinovna Bordovitsyna (b. 1940), head of the department of celestial mechanics and astrometry in the Institute for Applied Mathematics and Mechanics of Tomsk University. |-id=263| 9263 Khariton ||  || Yulij Borisovich Khariton (b. 1904), a physicist and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. |-id=265| 9265 Ekman ||  || Agnita and Arne Ekman, Swedish encyclopaedists †|-id=266| 9266 Holger ||  || Holger Pedersen, Danish astronomer †|-id=267| 9267 Lokrume ||  || Lokrume, socken on Gotland island, Sweden †|-id=272| 9272 Liseleje || 1979 KQ || Liseleje, Zealand, Denmark |-id=273| 9273 Schloerb ||  || Frederick Peter Schloerb, American astronomer †|-id=274| 9274 Amylovell ||  || Amy Jean Lovell, American astronomer †|-id=275| 9275 Persson ||  || Jöran Persson, sixteenth century prosecutor and counsellor to King Eric XIV of Sweden †|-id=276| 9276 Timgrove ||  || Timothy L. Grove (b. 1949), a professor of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. |-id=277| 9277 Togashi ||  || Tom Togashi (1937-2000), a pioneering filmmaker whose stunning television documentaries included a Galactic Odyssey series and specials on solar eclipses, the aurora borealis, and the search for life in the universe. |-id=279| 9279 Seager ||  || Sara Seager (b. 1971), a professor of physics and planetary science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. |-id=280| 9280 Stevenjoy ||  || Steven P. Joy (b. 1960), the Dawn mission science manager at the University of California Los Angeles. |-id=281| 9281 Weryk ||  || Robert J. Weryk (b. 1981), a researcher at Mount Allison University in Sackville, New Brunswick. |-id=282| 9282 Lucylim ||  || Lucy F. Lim (b. 1977), a planetary scientist at the Goddard Space Flight Center. |-id=283| 9283 Martinelvis ||  || Martin S. Elvis (b. 1951), an astrophysicist and expert on quasars at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. |-id=284| 9284 Juansanchez ||  || Juan Andres Sanchez (b. 1979), a postdoctoral research fellow at the Max-Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Katlenburg-Lindau.  |-id=285| 9285 Le Corre ||  || Lucille Le Corre (b. 1983), an associate researcher at the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona. |-id=286| 9286 Patricktaylor ||  || Patrick Alan Taylor (b. 1981), a research scientist at the Arecibo Observatory studying near-Earth asteroids. |-id=287| 9287 Klima ||  || Rachel L. Klima (b. 1974), a planetary geologist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=288| 9288 Santos-Sanz ||  || Pablo Santos-Sanz (b. 1971), a postdoctoral researcher at the Instituto Astrofisica Andalucia in Granada. |-id=289| 9289 Balau ||  || The Balau area, near Costigliole d´Asti (Piedmont, Italy), is renowned for its natural beauty, its agricultural products and the wines (both red and white) produced there.  |-id=291| 9291 Alanburdick || 1982 QO || Alan Burdick (b. 1965), a student of the natural world, is author of numerous popular magazine articles, including one about his efforts to get something in the universe named after him. This in turn helped to land him a writing job at the new Rose Center at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. |-id=293| 9293 Kamogata ||  || With the neighboring town of Yakage, the town of Kamogata borders the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=295| 9295 Donaldyoung ||  || Donald L. Young (b. 1935), recently retired from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was responsible for building and directing NASA/JPL's Table Mountain Facility. In addition to conducting astronomical research, the facility is a centerpiece of the JPL educational outreach program. The name was suggested by C. Young. |-id=297| 9297 Marchuk || 1984 MP || Gurij Ivanovich Marchuk (b. 1925), a director of the Institute of Numerical Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. |-id=298| 9298 Geake || 1985 JM || At the University of Manchester's Institute of Science and Technology, John E. Geake (1925-1998) was well known for his laboratory interpretation of the optical polarization of the lunar and asteroidal surfaces. He invented the first direct-reading linear refractometer, one of which he designed for the Cassini-Huygens Titan probe. |-id=299| 9299 Vinceteri ||  || Vince (b. 1959) and Teri (b. 1960) Grout are true friends to two-legged and four-legged animals. |-id=300| 9300 Johannes || 1985 PS || Johannes Andersen (b. 1943), of the Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy, works mainly on the chemical and dynamical evolution of the Milky Way's disk. As IAU General Secretary (1997-2000), he has offered sage guidance on the IAU's role with near-earth objects. The name is endorsed by B. G. Marsden and H. Rickman. |}

text: 9203 Myrtus

text: ||  || Named for

text: Myrtaceae

text: , the

text: myrtle

text: family of aromatic trees and shrubs, with more than 100 genera and nearly 4000 species. This family is typical of the Southern Hemisphere, where the Eucalyptus genus is prevalent. Myrtus communis (

text: common myrtle

text: ) is a species native to the Mediterranean and is cultivated as far north as England. |-id=204|

text: 9204 Mörike

text: Eduard Mörike

text: , German poet. |-id=205|

text: 9205 Eddywally

text: Eduard Van de Walle

text: (b. 1930), a Flemish singer. |-id=206|

text: 9206 Yanaikeizo

text: || 1994 RQ || Keizo Yanai (b. 1941), once of researchers at the Japanese National Institute of Polar Research. |-id=207|

text: 9207 Petersmith

text: ||  || Peter H. Smith (b. 1947), planetary scientist at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=208|

text: 9208 Takanotoshi

text: ||  || Toshiaki Takano (b. 1954), an associate professor at Chiba University Graduate School of Science and Technology. |-id=211|

text: 9211 Neese

text: Carol Lynn Neese

text: , American astronomer †|-id=212|

text: 9212 Kanamaru

text: ||  || Naomiki Kanamaru (b. 1970) is an amateur astronomer. After acquiring first-class registered architect status in 1997, he has focused his attention on the architecture of public astronomical observatories, as well as university affiliated astronomical observatories. His current interest is solar eclipses.|-id=215|

text: 9215 Taiyonoto

text: ||  || The famous monument

text: Taiyonoto

text: , "Tower of Sun", is in Suita City. |-id=216|

text: 9216 Masuzawa

text: || 1995 VS || Hitoshi Masuzawa (b. 1945), a lecturer and curator of the Gotoh Planetarium and Astronomical Museum in Tokyo. |-id=217|

text: 9217 Kitagawa

text: || 1995 WN || Ryuji Kitagawa (1949-2009) was a professor at Hiroshima University. From his research of clay mineralogy, he clarified the mechanism of weathering of granite and generation of landslide and slope failure. In addition to his own research, he mentored many other scientists.|-id=218|

text: 9218 Ishiikazuo

text: ||  || Kazuo Ishii (b. 1950), employed in the past in the manufacture of planetaria, has been working since 2005 as an architectural consultant in the design of astronomical facilities. His interest in astronomy was aroused at the sight of Comet 1965 S1 (Ikeya-Seki).|-id=220|

text: 9220 Yoshidayama

text: ||  || Yoshidayama is a hill located in Sakyo, a district in the northeastern part of Kyoto. It contains temples, shrines and many maple trees and has been familiar for 100 years as a walking area for students.|-id=221|

text: 9221 Wuliangyong

text: ||  || Wu Liangyong (b. 1922) is an architect, city planner, and educator, and the founder of Sciences of Human Settlements in China. |-id=222|

text: 9222 Chubey

text: || 1995 YM || Markiyan S. Chubey (b. 1940) is a Ukrainian-born Russian scientist working at the Pulkovo Observatory. He is an astrometrist and is leading a team to develop astrometry and astrophysics at the sun-earth L4 and L5 points using the stereo principle.|-id=223|

text: 9223 Leifandersson

text: ||  || Leif Erland Andersson (1943-1979) observed that most satellites of the outer planets rotate synchronously about their parent planets, helped determine Pluto's pole position and albedo map, and determined that Pluto and its satellite Charon would display mutual transits and eclipses. He also made a catalogue of lunar craters. |-id=224|

text: 9224 Železný

text: || 1996 AE ||

text: Jan Železný

text: , Czech javelin thrower †|-id=225|

text: 9225 Daiki

text: || 1996 AU || Daiki Matsubayashi (b. 1961) has been a member of the Saga Astronomical Society since the time of its establishment in 1981. He is an amateur astronomer whose interests include meteors and comets, with photography of solar eclipses his personal favorite.|-id=226|

text: 9226 Arimahiroshi

text: ||  || Hiroshi Arima (b. 1958) is a registered architect who also designs individual observatories in Japan. While a university student he was a leader of the Kyushu Meteoric Network. With members of the Kumamoto Civil Astronomical Observatory, he helped carry out a solar eclipse observation in Mexico in 1991.|-id=227|

text: 9227 Ashida

text: ||  || Masafumi Ashida (b. 1957), a teacher of elementary school in Kyoto, is widely known by schoolchildren as an astronomical teacher in everyday life. His interests include comet observations, and he has labored continuously as the chief editor of the Kansai Astronomical Society's monthly magazine since 1974.|-id=228|

text: 9228 Nakahiroshi

text: ||  || Japanese amateur astronomer Hiroshi Nakanishi (b. 1936) is a well-known grass-roots popularizer of astronomy in Kagawa prefecture.|-id=229|

text: 9229 Matsuda

text: ||  || Junichi Matsuda (b. 1948), a professor at

text: Osaka University

text: . |-id=230|

text: 9230 Yasuda

text: ||  || Satoshi Yasuda (b. 1948), a member of Amateur Radio on the International Space Station-Japan and a professor at

text: Hitotsubashi University

text: . |-id=231|

text: 9231 Shimaken

text: ||  || Shimaken is the research group led by Toshihiko Shimamoto (b. 1946), a professor emeritus of Kyoto University. The group reproduced seismogenic fault motion in the laboratory and found that the fault motion itself dramatically weakens the fault by frictional heating and promotes generation of large earthquakes.|-id=232|

text: 9232 Miretti

text: ||  || Named in memory of

text: Manlio Miretti

text: (1928-1996), who, blessed with a powerful and warm baritone voice, devoted his whole life to the opera. |-id=233|

text: 9233 Itagijun

text: ||  || Jun Itagi (b. 1958), an amateur astronomical educator famous in the San-In district (Tottori and Shimane prefectures), has served as general-affairs director of the San-In Society of Astronomy. He is well known for his in-depth studies of the Mihonoseki and Tahara meteorites.|-id=234|

text: 9234 Matsumototaku

text: ||  || Takuya Matsumoto (b. 1966) is a high-school teacher and amateur astronomer who has also been director of the 100-member headquarters of the San-In Society of Astronomy since 1990.|-id=235|

text: 9235 Shimanamikaido

text: Nishiseto Expressway

text: 9236 Obermair

text: Erwin Obermair

text: , Austrian amateur astronomer † ‡|-id=238|

text: 9238 Yavapai

text: Yavapai

text: , the county in Arizona of which Prescott is the county seat. |-id=239|

text: 9239 van Riebeeck

text: Jan van Riebeeck

text: , Dutch merchant and founder of the Cape Colony in South Africa †|-id=240|

text: 9240 Nassau

text: Jason John Nassau

text: (1893-1965), a director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and professor at Case Institute of Technology during 1924-1959. |-id=241|

text: 9241 Rosfranklin

text: ||  || Rosalind E. Franklin (1920-1958), a brilliant chemist. |-id=242|

text: 9242 Olea

text: ||  || Named for

text: Oleaceae

text: , the

text: olive

text: family, with about 25 genera and nearly 1000 species. Genera include ash, lilac, jasmine and forsythia. Olea europea (

text: common olive

text: ) is profitable as a fruit and source of oil. |-id=244|

text: 9244 Višnjan

text: Višnjan

text: , a small picturesque medieval town situated on the western rim of the Istrian peninsula highlands, Croatia. |-id=246|

text: 9246 Niemeyer

text: Oscar Niemeyer

text: (b. 1907), the chief architect in Brazil. |-id=248|

text: 9248 Sauer

text: || 4593 P-L || Carl G. Sauer, Jr., a principal flight mechanics engineer at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=249|

text: 9249 Yen

text: || 4606 P-L || Chen-wan L. Yen, a senior analyst within the Mission and Systems Architecture Section of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=250|

text: 9250 Chamberlin

text: || 4643 P-L || Alan B. Chamberlin, a senior engineer within the Navigation and Flight Mechanics Section of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=251|

text: 9251 Harch

text: || 4896 P-L ||  Ann P. Harch, the Cornell University scientist. |-id=252|

text: 9252 Goddard

text: || 9058 P-L ||

text: Robert Goddard

text: , American rocketry pioneer. |-id=253|

text: 9253 Oberth

text: || 1171 T-1 ||

text: Hermann Oberth

text: , Romanian-born German rocketry pioneer †|-id=254|

text: 9254 Shunkai

text: || 2151 T-1 ||

text: Shibukawa Shunkai

text: (1639-1715), an expert on the calendar. |-id=255|

text: 9255 Inoutadataka

text: || 3174 T-1 ||

text: Inou Tadataka

text: (1745-1818), a Japan geographer and surveyor. |-id=256|

text: 9256 Tsukamoto

text: || 1324 T-2 ||

text: Tsukamoto Akitake

text: (1833-1885), a geographer who worked for both the Tokugawa and Meiji governments. |-id=257|

text: 9257 Kunisuke

text: || 1552 T-2 ||

text: Kunisuke Kinoshita

text: (1901-1931), an astronomer at the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory from 1924 to his death. |-id=258|

text: 9258 Johnpauljones

text: || 2137 T-2 ||

text: John Paul Jones

text: , American Revolutionary War naval hero. |-id=259|

text: 9259 Janvanparadijs

text: || 2189 T-2 ||

text: Jan van Paradijs

text: , Dutch astronomer †|-id=260|

text: 9260 Edwardolson

text: ||  || Edward C. Olson (b. 1930), an emeritus professor at the

entity_name: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: University of Illinois

text: . |-id=261|

text: 9261 Peggythomson

text: ||  || Peggy Y. Thomson (b. 1927) was responsible for a major gift to Indiana University from a charitable trust that allowed the Daniel Kirkwood professorship to be fully endowed as a chair of astronomy. The name was suggested by F. K. Edmondson, whose elementary astronomy course inspired Thomson when she was a student. |-id=262|

text: 9262 Bordovitsyna

text: || 1973 RF || Tatiana Valentinovna Bordovitsyna (b. 1940), head of the department of celestial mechanics and astrometry in the Institute for Applied Mathematics and Mechanics of Tomsk University. |-id=263|

text: 9263 Khariton

text: ||  || Yulij Borisovich Khariton (b. 1904), a physicist and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. |-id=265|

text: 9265 Ekman

text: Agnita

text: and

text: Arne Ekman

text: , Swedish encyclopaedists †|-id=266|

text: 9266 Holger

text: Holger Pedersen

text: , Danish astronomer †|-id=267|

text: 9267 Lokrume

text: Lokrume

text: socken

text: on

text: Gotland

text: island, Sweden †|-id=272|

text: 9272 Liseleje

text: || 1979 KQ ||

text: Liseleje

text: , Zealand, Denmark |-id=273|

text: 9273 Schloerb

text: Frederick Peter Schloerb

text: , American astronomer †|-id=274|

text: 9274 Amylovell

text: Amy Jean Lovell

text: , American astronomer †|-id=275|

text: 9275 Persson

text: Jöran Persson

text: , sixteenth century prosecutor and counsellor to King

text: Eric XIV of Sweden

text: 9276 Timgrove

text: ||  || Timothy L. Grove (b. 1949), a professor of geology at the

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: . |-id=277|

text: 9277 Togashi

text: ||  || Tom Togashi (1937-2000), a pioneering filmmaker whose stunning television documentaries included a Galactic Odyssey series and specials on solar eclipses, the aurora borealis, and the search for life in the universe. |-id=279|

text: 9279 Seager

text: ||  || Sara Seager (b. 1971), a professor of physics and planetary science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. |-id=280|

text: 9280 Stevenjoy

text: ||  || Steven P. Joy (b. 1960), the Dawn mission science manager at the University of California Los Angeles. |-id=281|

text: 9281 Weryk

text: ||  || Robert J. Weryk (b. 1981), a researcher at

text: Mount Allison University

text: in

text: Sackville, New Brunswick

text: . |-id=282|

text: 9282 Lucylim

text: ||  || Lucy F. Lim (b. 1977), a planetary scientist at the Goddard Space Flight Center. |-id=283|

text: 9283 Martinelvis

text: ||  || Martin S. Elvis (b. 1951), an astrophysicist and expert on quasars at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. |-id=284|

text: 9284 Juansanchez

text: ||  || Juan Andres Sanchez (b. 1979), a postdoctoral research fellow at the

entity_name: Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research

text: Max-Planck Institute for Solar System Research

text: in

text: Katlenburg-Lindau

text: .  |-id=285|

text: 9285 Le Corre

text: ||  || Lucille Le Corre (b. 1983), an associate researcher at the Planetary Science Institute in

text: Tucson, Arizona

text: . |-id=286|

text: 9286 Patricktaylor

text: ||  || Patrick Alan Taylor (b. 1981), a research scientist at the Arecibo Observatory studying near-Earth asteroids. |-id=287|

text: 9287 Klima

text: ||  || Rachel L. Klima (b. 1974), a planetary geologist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=288|

text: 9288 Santos-Sanz

text: ||  || Pablo Santos-Sanz (b. 1971), a postdoctoral researcher at the

text: Instituto Astrofisica Andalucia

text: in Granada. |-id=289|

text: 9289 Balau

text: ||  || The Balau area, near Costigliole d´Asti (Piedmont, Italy), is renowned for its natural beauty, its agricultural products and the wines (both red and white) produced there.  |-id=291|

text: 9291 Alanburdick

text: || 1982 QO || Alan Burdick (b. 1965), a student of the natural world, is author of numerous popular magazine articles, including one about his efforts to get something in the universe named after him. This in turn helped to land him a writing job at the new Rose Center at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. |-id=293|

text: 9293 Kamogata

text: ||  || With the neighboring town of Yakage, the town of Kamogata borders the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=295|

text: 9295 Donaldyoung

text: ||  || Donald L. Young (b. 1935), recently retired from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was responsible for building and directing NASA/JPL's Table Mountain Facility. In addition to conducting astronomical research, the facility is a centerpiece of the JPL educational outreach program. The name was suggested by C. Young. |-id=297|

text: 9297 Marchuk

text: || 1984 MP || Gurij Ivanovich Marchuk (b. 1925), a director of the Institute of Numerical Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. |-id=298|

text: 9298 Geake

text: || 1985 JM || At the University of Manchester's Institute of Science and Technology, John E. Geake (1925-1998) was well known for his laboratory interpretation of the optical polarization of the lunar and asteroidal surfaces. He invented the first direct-reading linear refractometer, one of which he designed for the Cassini-Huygens Titan probe. |-id=299|

text: 9299 Vinceteri

text: ||  || Vince (b. 1959) and Teri (b. 1960) Grout are true friends to two-legged and four-legged animals. |-id=300|

text: 9300 Johannes

text: || 1985 PS || Johannes Andersen (b. 1943), of the Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy, works mainly on the chemical and dynamical evolution of the Milky Way's disk. As IAU General Secretary (1997-2000), he has offered sage guidance on the IAU's role with near-earth objects. The name is endorsed by B. G. Marsden and H. Rickman. |}

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answers: NDQ_006080

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: 3: The answer is mostly relevant and complete, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: NDQ_006080

answers: Japan)

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: A sunspot is a bright spot on the surface of the sun.

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: Solar storms

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: 1995) is a Japanese astronomer.

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answers: Japan

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answers: A solar eclipse occurs when the Sun's magnetic field lines up with Earth's magnetic field lines.

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: Astronomy

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away from the sun to be affected by solar flares.

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It's not clear if Kanamaru is a scientist or just an amateur astronomer, but he's an amateur astronomer.

text: A total solar eclipse will occur on January 27, 2093. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on January 27, 2093. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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text: A total solar eclipse occurred on February 14, 1934. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on February 14, 1934. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: Yes

text: At a solar minimum, there are fewer sunspots and solar flares subside. Sometimes, days or weeks go by without a spot. It is a safer time to travel through space, but a less interesting time to watch polar skies.

text: At a solar minimum, there are fewer

text: sunspots

text: and

text: solar flares

text: subside. Sometimes, days or weeks go by without a spot. It is a safer time to travel through space, but a less interesting time to watch polar skies.

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answers: Yes

text: Even as the angle increases, the addition of an Earth-based view, e.g., from the Solar Dynamics Observatory, will still provide full-Sun observations for several years. In 2015, contact was lost for several months when the STEREO spacecraft passed behind the Sun. They will then start to approach Earth again, with closest approach sometime in 2023. They will not be recaptured into Earth orbit.

text: Even as the angle increases, the addition of an Earth-based view, e.g., from the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: , will still provide full-Sun observations for several years. In 2015, contact was lost for several months when the STEREO spacecraft passed behind the Sun. They will then start to approach Earth again, with closest approach sometime in 2023. They will not be recaptured into Earth orbit.

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answers: They will not be recaptured into Earth orbit

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answers: contact was lost for several months

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answers: They will not be recaptured

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answers: They will then start to approach Earth again, with closest approach sometime in 2023

text: Approximately 10-15 times per decade, the Sun emits particles of sufficient energy and intensity to raise radiation levels on Earth's surface. The largest of these events, termed a "ground level enhancement" (GLE) was observed on February 23, 1956. The most recent GLE occurred on May 17, 2016 as a result of a M-class flare on active solar region 11476.

text: Approximately 10-15 times per decade, the Sun emits particles of sufficient energy and intensity to raise radiation levels on Earth's surface. The largest of these events, termed a "ground level enhancement" (GLE) was observed on February 23, 1956. The most recent GLE occurred on May 17, 2016 as a result of a M-class flare on active solar region 11476.

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answers: Ground level enhancement

text: A total solar eclipse will occur on September 2, 2035. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on September 2, 2035. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface

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answers: solar eclipse

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answers: It can be harmed by radiation in space

text: A total solar eclipse will occur on May 22, 2077. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on May 22, 2077. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: total solar eclipse

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answers: Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface

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answers: Yes

text: Solar storms are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often coronal clouds associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs) produced by solar flares emanating from active sunspot regions, or, less often, from coronal holes.

text: Solar storm

text: s are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often

text: coronal cloud

text: s associated with

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CMEs) produced by

text: solar flare

text: s emanating from active

text: sunspot

text: regions, or, less often, from

text: coronal hole

text: s.

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answers: Yes

text: A total solar eclipse occurred on October 23, 1957. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on October 23, 1957. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: total solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar storms

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: Sun

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answers: total solar eclipse

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar eclipse

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answers: The Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The tachocline is the transition region of the Sun between the radiative interior and the differentially rotating outer convective zone. It is in the outer third of the Sun (by radius). This causes the region to have a very large shear as the rotation rate changes very rapidly. The convective exterior rotates as a normal fluid with differential rotation with the poles rotating slowly and the equator rotating quickly. The radiative interior exhibits solid-body rotation, possibly due to a fossil field. The rotation rate through the interior is roughly equal to the rotation rate at mid-latitudes, i.e. in-between the rate at the slow poles and the fast equator. Recent results from helioseismology indicate that the tachocline is located at a radius of at most 0.70 times the Solar radius (measured from the core, i.e., the surface is at 1 solar radius), with a thickness of 0.04 times the solar radius. This would mean the area has a very large shear profile that is one way that large scale magnetic fields can be formed. The geometry and width of the tachocline plays an important role in models of the solar dynamo by winding up weaker poloidal field to create a much stronger toroidal field. The term tachocline was coined in a paper by Edward Spiegel and Jean-Paul Zahn in 1992 by analogy to the oceanic thermocline.

text: The tachocline is the transition region of the

text: Sun

text: between the

text: radiative interior

text: and the

text: differentially rotating

text: outer

text: convective zone

text: . It is in the outer third of the Sun (by radius). This causes the region to have a very large

text: shear

text: as the rotation rate changes very rapidly. The convective exterior rotates as a normal fluid with differential rotation with the poles rotating slowly and the equator rotating quickly. The radiative interior exhibits solid-body rotation, possibly due to a

text: fossil field

text: . The rotation rate through the interior is roughly equal to the rotation rate at mid-latitudes, i.e. in-between the rate at the slow poles and the fast equator. Recent results from

text: helioseismology

text: indicate that the tachocline is located at a radius of at most 0.70 times the Solar radius (measured from the core, i.e., the surface is at 1 solar radius), with a thickness of 0.04 times the solar radius. This would mean the area has a very large shear profile that is one way that large scale magnetic fields can be formed. The geometry and width of the tachocline plays an important role in models of the

text: solar dynamo

text: by winding up weaker

text: poloidal

text: field to create a much stronger

text: toroidal

text: field. The term tachocline was coined in a paper by

text: Edward Spiegel

text: and

text: Jean-Paul Zahn

text: in 1992 by analogy to the oceanic

text: thermocline

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: large scale magnetic fields

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: The convective exterior rotates as a normal fluid with differential rotation with the poles rotating slowly and the equator rotating quickly

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar dynamo

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar dynamo

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: magnetic fields

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: magnetic fields can be formed

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the solar dynamo

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The tachocline

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It is in the outer third of the Sun

text: With his law, Stefan determined the temperature of the Sun's surface, which he calculated to be . This was the first sensible value for the temperature of the Sun.

text: With his law, Stefan determined the temperature of the

text: Sun's surface

text: , which he calculated to be . This was the first sensible value for the temperature of the Sun.

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answers: the Sun's surface

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answers: eruptions

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answers: sun's surface

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: surface

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: days to months

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The Sun's surface

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: The relative sunspot number

text: The relative sunspot number

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answers: The relative sunspot number is the number of sunspots in the solar system.

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answers: Earth is too far away to be affected by solar flares.

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answers: Spacecraft and astronauts can be harmed by radiation in space.

text: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 18, 1868. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on August 18, 1868. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: Yes

text: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 21, 1560. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on August 21, 1560. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: Yes

text: A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the Sun's surface, often in a loop shape. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere, and extend outwards into the Sun's corona.  While the corona consists of extremely hot ionized gases, known as plasma, which do not emit much visible light, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the chromosphere. The prominence plasma is typically a hundred times cooler and denser than the coronal plasma.A prominence forms over timescales of about a day and may persist in the corona for several weeks or months, looping hundreds of thousands of miles into space. Some prominences break apart and may then give rise to coronal mass ejections. Scientists are currently researching how and why prominences are formed.

text: A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the

text: Sun

text: 's surface, often in a

text: loop

text: shape. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the

text: photosphere

text: , and extend outwards into the Sun's

text: corona

text: .  While the corona consists of extremely hot

text: ionized

text: gas

text: es, known as

text: plasma

text: , which do not emit much

text: visible light

text: , prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the

text: chromosphere

text: . The prominence plasma is typically a hundred times cooler and denser than the coronal plasma.A prominence forms over timescales of about a day and may persist in the corona for several weeks or months, looping hundreds of thousands of miles into space. Some prominences break apart and may then give rise to

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s. Scientists are currently researching how and why prominences are formed.

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answers: large, bright, gaseous feature

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answers: Scientists are currently researching how and why prominences are formed

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text: Hale was a driven individual, who worked to found a number of significant astronomical observatories, including Yerkes Observatory, Mount Wilson Observatory, Palomar Observatory, and the Hale Solar Laboratory.  At Mount Wilson, he hired and encouraged Harlow Shapley and Edwin Hubble toward some of the most significant discoveries of the time.  He was a prolific organizer who helped create a number of astronomical institutions, societies and journals.  Hale also played a central role in developing the California Institute of Technology into a leading research university. After retiring as director at Mount Wilson, he built the Hale Solar Laboratory in Pasadena, California, as his office and workshop, pursuing his interest in the sun.

text: Hale was a driven individual, who worked to found a number of significant astronomical observatories, including

text: Yerkes Observatory

text: Mount Wilson Observatory

text: Palomar Observatory

text: , and the

text: Hale Solar Laboratory

text: .  At Mount Wilson, he hired and encouraged

text: Harlow Shapley

text: and

text: Edwin Hubble

text: toward some of the most significant discoveries of the time.  He was a prolific organizer who helped create a number of astronomical institutions, societies and journals.  Hale also played a central role in developing the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: into a leading research university. After retiring as director at Mount Wilson, he built the Hale Solar Laboratory in

text: Pasadena, California

text: , as his office and workshop, pursuing his interest in the

text: sun

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text: Schwabe was born at Dessau. At first an apothecary, he turned his attention to astronomy, and in 1826 commenced his observations on sunspots. Schwabe was trying to discover a new planet inside the orbit of Mercury which was tentatively called Vulcan. Because of the proximity to the Sun, it would have been very difficult to observe Vulcan, and Schwabe believed one possibility to detect the planet might be to see it as a dark spot when passing in front of the Sun. For 17 years, from 1826 to 1843, on every clear day, Schwabe would scan the sun and record its spots trying to detect Vulcan among them. He did not find the planet but noticed the regular variation in the number of sunspots and published his findings in a short article entitled "Solar Observations during 1843". In it he made the suggestion of a probable ten-year period (i.e. that at every tenth year the number of spots reached a maximum). This paper at first attracted little attention, but Rudolf Wolf who was at that time the director of Bern observatory, was impressed so he began regular observations of sunspots. Schwabe's observations were afterwards utilized in 1851 by Alexander von Humboldt in the third volume of his Kosmos. The periodicity of sunspots is now fully recognized; and to Schwabe is thus due the credit of one of the most important discoveries in astronomy.

text: Schwabe was born at

text: Dessau

text: . At first an

text: apothecary

text: , he turned his attention to

text: astronomy

text: , and in 1826 commenced his observations on

text: sunspot

text: s. Schwabe was trying to discover a new

text: planet

text: inside the

text: orbit

text: of

text: Mercury

text: which was tentatively called

text: Vulcan

text: . Because of the proximity to the

text: Sun

text: , it would have been very difficult to observe Vulcan, and Schwabe believed one possibility to detect the planet might be to see it as a dark spot when passing in front of the Sun. For 17 years, from 1826 to 1843, on every clear day, Schwabe would scan the sun and record its spots trying to detect Vulcan among them. He did not find the planet but noticed the

text: regular variation in the number of sunspots

text: and published his findings in a short article entitled "Solar Observations during 1843". In it he made the suggestion of a probable ten-year

text: period

text: (i.e. that at every tenth year the number of spots reached a maximum). This paper at first attracted little attention, but

text: Rudolf Wolf

text: who was at that time the director of

text: Bern

text: observatory, was impressed so he began regular observations of sunspots. Schwabe's observations were afterwards utilized in 1851 by

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: in the third volume of his

text: Kosmos

text: . The periodicity of sunspots is now fully recognized; and to Schwabe is thus due the credit of one of the most important discoveries in astronomy.

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answers: It would have been very difficult

text: The main star, 4th magnitude GJ 822.1 A, is a yellowish white subgiant star of the spectral type F2IV. It therefore has a surface temperature of 6,000 to 7,500 kelvins and is larger, hotter, and several times as bright as the Sun. Its companion, 6th magnitude GJ 822.1 B, is a yellow main sequence star of the spectral type G0V. It is similar to the Sun in size, surface temperature, and luminosity.

text: The main star, 4th magnitude GJ 822.1 A, is a yellowish white

text: subgiant

text: star of the

text: spectral type

text: F2IV. It therefore has a surface temperature of 6,000 to 7,500

text: kelvin

text: s and is larger, hotter, and several times as bright as the

text: Sun

text: . Its companion, 6th magnitude GJ 822.1 B, is a yellow

text: main sequence

text: star of the spectral type G0V. It is similar to the Sun in size, surface temperature, and luminosity.

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answers: Yes

text: The game features some graphical special effects like sun lens flares, earth trails when driving on grass and metallic glare effects on the bikes in replay mode.

text: The game features some graphical special effects like sun lens flares, earth trails when driving on grass and metallic glare effects on the bikes in replay mode.

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answers: It is impossible to say

text: Return of Django is an album by The Upsetters, released in 1969. The title is a reference to the spaghetti western Django, released in 1966. The title song featured in the video game, Grand Theft Auto: London 1969, which is set in 1969, and as a cover, in the film The Beach. The album was re-released on the 20 February 2012 on 180g vinyl through Sunspot Records.

text: Return of Django is an album by

text: The Upsetters

text: , released in 1969. The title is a reference to the

text: spaghetti western

text: Django

text: , released in 1966. The title song featured in the video game,

text: Grand Theft Auto: London 1969

text: , which is set in 1969, and as a cover, in the film

text: The Beach

text: . The album was re-released on the 20 February 2012 on 180g vinyl through Sunspot Records.

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text: 'Sunspots' have been included in economic models as a way of capturing these 'extrinsic' fluctuations, in fields like asset pricing, financial crises, business cycles, economic growth, and monetary policy. Experimental economics researchers have demonstrated how sunspots could affect economic activity.

text: 'Sunspots' have been included in

text: economic models

text: as a way of capturing these 'extrinsic' fluctuations, in fields like

text: asset pricing

text: financial crises

text: business cycle

text: s,

text: economic growth

text: , and

text: monetary policy

text: Experimental economics

text: researchers have demonstrated how sunspots could affect economic activity.

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text: The club continued expanding and in 1979 a 12.5" Cave Astrola Newtonian reflecting telescope was installed in the Culver roll-off observatory.  In the 1990s, a 17" classical Cassegrain reflector replaced the second telescope, a 16" Newtonian, that had been housed in the French Dome observatory.  A second roll-off observatory was constructed in 2005.  The King roll-off observatory features 14" Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric telescopes manufactured by Celestron and Meade.  A third roll-off observatory, which houses another 14" Meade Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric intended for CCD imaging, was constructed in late 2013.  ASH also owns a number of smaller telescopes, including a 40mm Coronado PST hydrogen-alpha solar telescope, 6 and 8" Dobsonian reflectors, a 10" Cave Astrola Newtonian, and a 10" Meade Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric.

text: The club continued expanding and in 1979 a 12.5" Cave Astrola Newtonian reflecting telescope was installed in the Culver roll-off observatory.  In the 1990s, a 17" classical Cassegrain reflector replaced the second telescope, a 16" Newtonian, that had been housed in the French Dome observatory.  A second roll-off observatory was constructed in 2005.  The King roll-off observatory features 14" Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric telescopes manufactured by Celestron and Meade.  A third roll-off observatory, which houses another 14" Meade Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric intended for CCD imaging, was constructed in late 2013.  ASH also owns a number of smaller telescopes, including a 40mm Coronado PST hydrogen-alpha solar telescope, 6 and 8" Dobsonian reflectors, a 10" Cave Astrola Newtonian, and a 10" Meade Schmidt-Cassegrain catadioptric.

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text: In late 1611, the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, a mathematics teacher at Ingolstadt, using the pseudonym Apelles latens post tabulam (Apelles hiding behind the painting), wrote three letters to Welser, claiming the discovery of sunspots.  These, Scheiner held, could not be an alteration of the Sun, which according to Aristotelian doctrine was an incorruptible celestial body, but instead were stars interposed between Earth and the Sun, which by an optical illusion appeared to be on the solar surface.  Welser, a patron of academics and strongly connected with the Jesuits, caused Scheiner's observations to be published, and asked Galileo for an opinion.  Galileo responded to Welser, criticizing  him for diffusing an erroneous theory, which Galileo identified as having Jesuit origin, of three satellites orbiting the Sun.  Scheiner responded, this time openly sustaining his theory with the book De maculis solaribus [...] accuratior disquisitio.  Galileo replied in December 1612 with a third letter to Welser in which he claimed that he, prior to Scheiner, had discovered sunspots. In 1613, under the auspices of the Accademia dei Lincei, Galileo published Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari e loro accidenti ("History and demonstration regarding sunspots and their behavior"),  confirming that sunspots were present, disappearing and reforming, on the corruptible surface of the Sun, which with reasonable probability drew them along with its rotation.

text: In late 1611, the Jesuit

text: Christoph Scheiner

text: , a mathematics teacher at

text: Ingolstadt

text: , using the pseudonym Apelles latens post tabulam (

text: Apelles

text: hiding behind the painting), wrote three letters to Welser, claiming the discovery of

text: sunspot

text: s.  These, Scheiner held, could not be an alteration of the Sun, which according to

text: Aristotelian

text: doctrine was an incorruptible celestial body, but instead were stars interposed between Earth and the Sun, which by an

text: optical illusion

text: appeared to be on the solar surface.  Welser, a patron of academics and strongly connected with the Jesuits, caused Scheiner's observations to be published, and asked

text: Galileo

text: for an opinion.  Galileo responded to Welser, criticizing  him for diffusing an erroneous theory, which Galileo identified as having Jesuit origin, of three satellites orbiting the Sun.  Scheiner responded, this time openly sustaining his theory with the book De maculis solaribus [...] accuratior disquisitio.  Galileo replied in December 1612 with a third letter to Welser in which he claimed that he, prior to Scheiner, had discovered sunspots. In 1613, under the auspices of the Accademia dei Lincei, Galileo published Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari e loro accidenti ("History and demonstration regarding sunspots and their behavior"),  confirming that sunspots were present, disappearing and reforming, on the corruptible surface of the Sun, which with reasonable probability drew them along with its rotation.

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text: The sun-controlling feature of the building allows the sun to warm the interior in winter and reduces solar energy in summer. The northern side of the building has clerestory windows that allow indirect sunlight into the building. The southern side of the building has shelves that bounce light into the interior. The building uses photocells and motion sensors for general lighting. Approximately 20% of the building electricity is produced by 10.5 kW photovoltaic arrays consisting of new and recycled solar panels. The building’s long side faces south allowing the solar panels to receive maximum sunlight. The building’s annual energy savings are 57,969 kilowatt hours which avoid 27 tons of carbon emissions per year.

text: The sun-controlling feature of the building allows the sun to warm the interior in winter and reduces solar energy in summer. The northern side of the building has clerestory windows that allow indirect sunlight into the building. The southern side of the building has shelves that bounce light into the interior. The building uses photocells and motion sensors for general lighting. Approximately 20% of the building electricity is produced by 10.5 kW photovoltaic arrays consisting of new and recycled solar panels. The building’s long side faces south allowing the solar panels to receive maximum sunlight. The building’s annual energy savings are 57,969 kilowatt hours which avoid 27 tons of carbon emissions per year.

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answers: The building’s long side faces south

text: At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle. This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number. Sunspots are regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.

text: At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the

text: Sun

text: , a typical main-sequence

text: dwarf star

text: of

text: stellar class

text: G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered a

text: variable star

text: , but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the

text: sunspot cycle

text: . This is an 11-year oscillation in

text: sunspot number

text: . Sunspots are regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.

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answers: At a distance of about eight light-minutes

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Sunspots

text: Giordano Bruno and Johannes Kepler suggested the idea that the sun rotated on its axis. Sunspots were first observed telescopically in late 1610 by English astronomer Thomas Harriot and Frisian astronomers Johannes and David Fabricius, who published a description in June 1611. The Fabricius' used camera obscura telescopy to get a better view of the solar disk. Galileo had been showing sunspots to astronomers in Rome while Christoph Scheiner had probably been observing the spots using an improved helioscope of his own design. Galileo and Scheiner, neither of whom knew of the Fabricius' work, futilely vied for the credit that eventually accrued to the father and son. In 1613 Galileo refuted Scheiner's 1612 claim that sunspots were planets inside Mercury's orbit, showing that sunspots were surface features.

text: Giordano Bruno

text: and

text: Johannes Kepler

text: suggested the idea that the sun rotated on its axis. Sunspots were first observed telescopically in late 1610 by English astronomer

text: Thomas Harriot

text: and

text: Frisian

text: astronomers

text: Johannes

text: and

text: David Fabricius

text: , who published a description in June 1611. The Fabricius' used

text: camera obscura

text: telescopy to get a better view of the solar disk.

text: Galileo

text: had been showing sunspots to astronomers in Rome while

text: Christoph Scheiner

text: had probably been observing the spots using an improved

text: helioscope

text: of his own design. Galileo and Scheiner, neither of whom knew of the Fabricius' work, futilely vied for the credit that eventually accrued to the father and son. In 1613 Galileo refuted Scheiner's 1612 claim that sunspots were planets inside Mercury's orbit, showing that sunspots were surface features.

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answers: the solar disk

answers: NDQ_006085

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answers: NDQ_006086

answers: surface features

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: sunspots

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Mercury

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Sunspots

text: Magnetic reconnection is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50–1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this "magnetic carpet", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of "microflares" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.

text: Magnetic reconnection

text: is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50–1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this "magnetic carpet", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of "microflares" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.

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answers: magnetized regions

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: solar corona

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: largest explosions in our solar system

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: microflares

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The surface of the Sun

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a closed system in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the Sun. Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the crust of the Earth at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises Karl Marx for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of historical materialism.

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a

text: closed system

text: in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the

text: Sun

text: . Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the

text: crust of the Earth

text: at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises

text: Karl Marx

text: for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of

text: historical materialism

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answers: NDQ_006089

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answers: NDQ_006080

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: nuclear explosions

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: The patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: the rest of the universe

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter

text: Large solar flares often occur during a maximum. For example, the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii.

text: Large

text: solar flare

text: s often occur during a maximum. For example, the

text: solar storm of 1859

text: struck the Earth with such intensity that the

text: northern lights

text: were visible as far from the poles as

text: Cuba

text: and

text: Hawaii

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answers: Large solar flares

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: Large solar flares often occur

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: solar storm

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: a maximum

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: flares

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: Large solar flares

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar flares

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Cuba and Hawaii

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Both Theta¹ Serpentis and Theta² Serpentis are white A-type main sequence dwarfs.  θ¹ has an apparent magnitude of +4.62 while the slightly dimmer θ² has a magnitude of +4.98.  These two stars are 22 arcseconds apart on the sky, putting them at least 900 astronomical units apart with an orbital period of at least 14,000 years. Both stars are similar to each other in all respects, having luminosities of 18 and 13 times solar respectively, radii of about twice solar and also masses of roughly 2 times that of the Sun. Both star have a surface temperature of 8,000 kelvins.

text: Both Theta¹ Serpentis and Theta² Serpentis are white

text: A-type

text: main sequence dwarf

text: s.  θ¹ has an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +4.62 while the slightly dimmer θ² has a

text: magnitude

text: of +4.98.  These two stars are 22

text: arcsecond

text: s apart on the sky, putting them at least 900

text: astronomical unit

text: s apart with an orbital period of at least 14,000 years. Both stars are similar to each other in all respects, having

text: luminosities

text: of 18 and 13 times solar respectively, radii of about twice solar and also

text: masses

text: of roughly 2 times that of the Sun. Both star have a surface temperature of 8,000

text: kelvin

text: s.

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answers: Yes

text: There are two varieties of topographic prominence: wet prominence and dry prominence.   Wet prominence is the topographic prominence discussed in this article. Wet prominence assumes that the surface of the earth includes all permanent water, snow, and ice features. Thus, the wet prominence of the highest summit of an ocean island or landmass is always equal to the summit's elevation.

text: There are two varieties of topographic prominence: wet prominence and dry prominence.   Wet prominence is the topographic prominence discussed in this article. Wet prominence assumes that the surface of the earth includes all permanent water, snow, and ice features. Thus, the wet prominence of the highest summit of an ocean island or landmass is always equal to the summit's elevation.

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answers: the highest summit of an ocean island or landmass is always equal to the summit's elevation

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: dry prominence

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_006084

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answers: NDQ_006085

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answers: NDQ_006086

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answers: topographic prominence

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: Earth is too far away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: It can be harmed by radiation in space

text: Over the Sun's lifetime, the interaction of its surface layers with the escaping solar wind has significantly decreased its surface rotation rate. The wind is considered responsible for comets' tails, along with the Sun's radiation. The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on the Earth, through an effect called interplanetary scintillation.

text: Over the Sun's lifetime, the interaction of its surface layers with the escaping solar wind has significantly decreased its surface rotation rate. The wind is considered responsible for comets' tails, along with the Sun's radiation. The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in

text: celestial

text: radio wave

text: s observed on the Earth, through an effect called

text: interplanetary scintillation

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answers: comets

answers: NDQ_006081

answers: significantly decreased its surface rotation rate

answers: NDQ_006082

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_006083

answers: escaping solar wind

answers: NDQ_006084

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_006085

answers: surface layers

answers: NDQ_006086

answers: comets' tails

answers: NDQ_006087

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_006088

answers: The solar wind

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: Yes

text: Some differences between the Moon and that part of Mercury observed in this quadrangle may be more apparent than real. Apparent differences may be the result of resolution of the imaging system, and small viewing and illumination angles that do not allow inspection of the surface under varied conditions. Real differences may be the result of Mercury’s size, gravitational field, proximity to the Sun, internal composition and structure, or timing of major volcanic episodes relative to the decrease in impact craters. Surface differences include the preservation of secondary craters around older craters and basins, and the absence of recognizable textured and lineated ejecta blankets such as those surrounding the Imbrium and Orientale Basins on the Moon. Possible differences in volcanic features include the absence of widespread dark mare-type deposits, volcanic domes and cones, and sinuous rilles. Whereas plains and terra divisions may be distinguished on Mercury, the distinct lunar dichotomy of mare and highlands is not present on that half of Mercury observed by Mariner 10.

text: Some differences between the Moon and that part of Mercury observed in this quadrangle may be more apparent than real. Apparent differences may be the result of resolution of the imaging system, and small viewing and illumination angles that do not allow inspection of the surface under varied conditions. Real differences may be the result of Mercury’s size, gravitational field, proximity to the Sun, internal composition and structure, or timing of major volcanic episodes relative to the decrease in impact craters. Surface differences include the preservation of secondary craters around older craters and basins, and the absence of recognizable textured and lineated ejecta blankets such as those surrounding the

text: Imbrium

text: and

text: Orientale Basin

text: s on the Moon. Possible differences in volcanic features include the absence of widespread dark mare-type deposits, volcanic domes and cones, and

text: sinuous rille

text: s. Whereas plains and terra divisions may be distinguished on Mercury, the distinct lunar dichotomy of mare and highlands is not present on that half of Mercury observed by Mariner 10.

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text: The transition region is visible in far-ultraviolet (FUV) images from the TRACE spacecraft, as a faint nimbus above the dark (in FUV) surface of the Sun and the corona.  The nimbus also surrounds FUV-dark features such as solar prominences, which consist of condensed material that is suspended at coronal altitudes by the magnetic field.

text: The transition region is visible in far-ultraviolet (FUV) images from the

text: TRACE

text: spacecraft, as a faint nimbus above the dark (in FUV) surface of the Sun and the corona.  The nimbus also surrounds FUV-dark features such as

text: solar prominence

text: s, which consist of condensed material that is suspended at coronal altitudes by the magnetic field.

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text: In 1928, exceptional observation conditions enabled him to photograph a higher prominence on the sun's surface than ever seen before. He also photographed the brightest and largest solar hydrogen eruption up to that date.

text: In 1928, exceptional observation conditions enabled him to photograph a higher prominence on the sun's surface than ever seen before. He also photographed the brightest and largest solar hydrogen eruption up to that date.

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text: Around the year 1610, Galileo Galilei observed sunspots and calculated the rotation of the Sun. In 1630, Christoph Scheiner reported that the Sun had different rotational periods at the poles and at the equator, in good agreement with modern values.

text: Around the year 1610,

text: Galileo Galilei

text: observed

text: sunspots

text: and calculated the

text: rotation of the Sun

text: . In 1630,

text: Christoph Scheiner

text: reported that the Sun had different rotational periods at the poles and at the equator, in good agreement with modern values.

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answers: Helium

text: Since the solar wind is a plasma, it has the characteristics of a plasma, rather than a simple gas.  For example, it is highly electrically conductive so that magnetic field lines from the Sun are carried along with the wind. The dynamic pressure of the wind dominates over the magnetic pressure through most of the Solar System (or heliosphere), so that the magnetic field is pulled into an Archimedean spiral pattern (the Parker spiral) by the combination of the outward motion and the Sun's rotation.  Depending on the hemisphere and phase of the solar cycle, the magnetic field spirals inward or outward; the magnetic field follows the same shape of spiral in the northern and southern parts of the heliosphere, but with opposite field direction.  These two magnetic domains are separated by a two current sheet (an electric current that is confined to a curved plane).  This heliospheric current sheet has a shape similar to a twirled ballerina skirt, and changes in shape through the solar cycle as the Sun's magnetic field reverses about every 11 years.

text: Since the solar wind is a

text: plasma

text: , it has the

text: characteristics of a plasma

text: , rather than a simple

text: gas

text: .  For example, it is highly

text: electrically conductive

text: so that

text: magnetic field line

text: s from the Sun are carried along with the wind. The dynamic

text: pressure

text: of the wind dominates over the

text: magnetic pressure

text: through most of the Solar System (or

text: heliosphere

text: ), so that the magnetic field is pulled into an

text: Archimedean spiral

text: pattern (the

text: Parker spiral

text: ) by the combination of the outward motion and the

text: Sun's rotation

text: .  Depending on the

text: hemisphere

text: and phase of the

text: solar cycle

text: , the magnetic field spirals inward or outward; the magnetic field follows the same shape of spiral in the northern and southern parts of the heliosphere, but with opposite field direction.  These two magnetic domains are separated by a two

text: current sheet

text: (an

text: electric current

text: that is confined to a curved plane).  This

text: heliospheric current sheet

text: has a shape similar to a twirled

text: ballerina

text: skirt, and changes in shape through the solar cycle as the Sun's magnetic field reverses about every 11 years.

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answers: This heliospheric current sheet

text: Engaging in solar and heliospheric science, the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) mission is intended to study of the solar atmosphere,  and in particular, of the interface between the photosphere and corona.  The IRIS mission will accomplish this by tracing the flow of energy and plasma through the chromosphere and transition region into the corona using spectrometry and imaging. IRIS is designed to provide significant new information to increase the understanding of energy transport into the corona and solar wind and provide an archetype for all stellar atmospheres. The unique instrument capabilities, coupled with state of the art 3-D modeling, will fill a large gap in our knowledge of this dynamic region of the solar atmosphere. The mission will extend the scientific output of existing heliophysics spacecraft that follow the effects of energy release processes from the sun to Earth. The IRIS mission launched June 27, 2013.

text: Engaging in solar and heliospheric science, the

text: Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

text: (IRIS) mission is intended to study of the

text: solar atmosphere

text: ,  and in particular, of the interface between the

text: photosphere

text: and

text: corona

text: .  The IRIS mission will accomplish this by tracing the flow of energy and

text: plasma

text: through the

text: chromosphere

text: and

text: transition region

text: into the

text: corona

text: using

text: spectrometry

text: and imaging. IRIS is designed to provide significant new information to increase the understanding of

text: energy transport

text: into the corona and

text: solar wind

text: and provide an archetype for all stellar

text: atmosphere

text: s. The unique instrument capabilities, coupled with state of the art 3-D modeling, will fill a large gap in our knowledge of this dynamic region of the solar atmosphere. The mission will extend the scientific output of existing heliophysics spacecraft that follow the effects of energy release processes from the sun to Earth. The IRIS mission launched June 27, 2013.

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answers: The mission will extend the scientific output of existing heliophysics spacecraft that follow the effects of energy release processes from the sun to Earth.

text: The Sunrise balloon-borne solar observatory consists of a 1m aperture Gregory telescope, a UV filter imager, an imaging vector polarimeter, an image stabilizationsystem and further infrastructure. The first science flight of Sunrise yielded high-quality data that reveal the structure, dynamics and evolution of solar convection, oscillations and magnetic fields at a resolution of around 100 km in the quiet Sun.

text: The Sunrise balloon-borne solar observatory consists of a 1m aperture Gregory telescope, a UV filter imager, an imaging vector polarimeter, an image stabilizationsystem and further infrastructure. The first science flight of Sunrise yielded high-quality data that reveal the structure, dynamics and evolution of solar convection, oscillations and magnetic fields at a resolution of around 100 km in the quiet Sun.

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text: A total solar eclipse will occur on April 20, 2023.  A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on April 20, 2023.  A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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answers: Totality occurs in a narrow path

text: Its most famous director was William Rowan Hamilton, who, amongst other things, discovered quaternions, the first non-commutative algebra, while walking from the observatory to the city with his wife. He is also renowned for his Hamiltonian formulation of dynamics. In the late 20th century, the city encroached ever more on the observatory, which compromised the seeing. The telescope, then no longer state of the art, was used mainly for public 'open nights'.

text: Its most famous director was

text: William Rowan Hamilton

text: , who, amongst other things, discovered

text: quaternions

text: , the first

text: non-commutative

text: algebra

text: , while walking from the observatory to the city with his wife. He is also renowned for his

text: Hamiltonian formulation of dynamics

text: . In the late 20th century, the city encroached ever more on the observatory, which compromised the

text: seeing

text: . The

text: telescope

text: , then no longer state of the art, was used mainly for public 'open nights'.

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answers: Its most famous director was William Rowan Hamilton

text: The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the corona. The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) may also be much stronger. Joan Feynman deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity.  Her work resulted from data collected by the Explorer 33 spacecraft.The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of plasma (ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since Michael Faraday's work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts across (or is cut by), rather than along, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the direction of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion. Dynamos make use of this basic process ("the dynamo effect"), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids.The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the sunspots, and its field lines (lines of force) are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane), known as the Parker spiral. The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time.The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as magnetic reconnection. As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the north magnetic pole and south magnetic pole.

text: The Earth is constantly immersed in the

text: solar wind

text: , a rarefied flow of hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the

text: corona

text: . The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During

text: magnetic storms

text: , in particular, flows can be several times faster; the

text: interplanetary magnetic field

text: (IMF) may also be much stronger. Joan Feynman deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity.  Her work resulted from data collected by the

text: Explorer 33

text: spacecraft.The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of

text: plasma

text: (ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since

text: Michael Faraday

text: 's work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts across (or is cut by), rather than along, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the direction of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion.

text: Dynamo

text: s make use of this basic process ("the

text: dynamo effect

text: "), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids.The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the

text: sunspot

text: s, and its

text: field lines (lines of force)

text: are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane), known as the

text: Parker spiral

text: . The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time.The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as

text: magnetic reconnection

text: . As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the

text: north magnetic pole

text: and

text: south magnetic pole

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answers: Magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) may also be much stronger

answers: NDQ_006087

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answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of hot plasma

text: A Moreton wave is the chromospheric signature of a large-scale solar coronal shock wave. Described as a kind of solar "tsunami", they are generated by solar flares. They are named for American astronomer Gail Moreton, an observer at the Lockheed Solar Observatory in Burbank who spotted them in 1959. He discovered them in time-lapse photography of the chromosphere in the light of the Balmer alpha transition.

text: A Moreton wave is the

text: chromospheric

text: signature of a large-scale solar

text: corona

text: l

text: shock wave

text: . Described as a kind of

text: solar

text: tsunami

text: ", they are generated by

text: solar flares

text: . They are named for

text: American

text: astronomer

text: Gail Moreton

text: , an observer at the

entity_name: Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory

text: Lockheed Solar Observatory

text: in

text: Burbank

text: who spotted them in 1959. He discovered them in

text: time-lapse photography

text: of the chromosphere in the light of the

text: Balmer alpha transition

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answers: Tsunami

text: In 1994, Droge released Necktie Second, his debut album which featured the tongue-in-cheek "If You Don't Love Me (I'll Kill Myself)" (which also appeared on the soundtrack to the film, Dumb and Dumber), as well as "Sunspot Stopwatch" and "So I am Over You".

text: In 1994, Droge released

text: Necktie Second

text: , his debut album which featured the tongue-in-cheek "If You Don't Love Me (I'll Kill Myself)" (which also appeared on the soundtrack to the film,

text: Dumb and Dumber

text: ), as well as "Sunspot Stopwatch" and "So I am Over You".

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answers: It's impossible to say

text: Kepler-419 is an F-type star that is approximately 139% the mass of and 175% the radius of the Sun. It has a surface temperature of 6430 K and is 2.8 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: Kepler-419 is an

text: F-type

text: star that is approximately 139% the mass of and 175% the radius of the

text: Sun

text: . It has a surface temperature of 6430

text: K

text: and is 2.8 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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answers: Yes

text: Hansky graduated from the Gymnasium and the University of Odessa. He did research on astrophysics and astrophotography in multi-year stays at the Observatory of Meudon and at the Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam, where his main interest was the structure and activity of the solar surface. In particular he worked on the solar constant, granulation and sun spots.

text: Hansky graduated from the

text: Gymnasium

text: and the

text: University of Odessa

text: . He did research on

text: astrophysics

text: and

text: astrophotography

text: in multi-year stays at the

text: Observatory of Meudon

text: and at the

entity_name: Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam

text: Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam

text: , where his main interest was the structure and activity of the solar surface. In particular he worked on the

text: solar constant

text: granulation

text: and

text: sun spot

text: s.

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text: Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4770 K. The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers and will expand a second time, turning into what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3500 K. This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars.

text: Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into

text: carbon

text: will begin, leading to a

text: helium flash

text: ; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4770 K. The Sun will become a

text: horizontal giant

text: , burning helium in its core in a stable fashion much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers and will expand a second time, turning into what is known as an

text: asymptotic giant

text: . Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3500 K. This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a

text: planetary nebula

text: . The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars.

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text: Coronal mass ejections are often associated with other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established. CMEs most often originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares. Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days.

text: Coronal mass ejections are often associated with other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established. CMEs most often originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of

text: sunspot

text: s associated with frequent flares. Near

text: solar maxima

text: , the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near

text: solar minima

text: , there is about one CME every five days.

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text: Helioseismology is the study of the propagation of wave oscillations, particularly acoustic pressure waves, in the Sun. Unlike seismic waves on Earth, solar waves have practically no shear component (s-waves). Solar pressure waves are believed to be generated by the turbulence in the convection zone near the surface of the sun. Certain frequencies are amplified by constructive interference. In other words, the turbulence "rings" the sun like a bell. The acoustic waves are transmitted to the outer photosphere of the sun, which is where the light generated through absorption of radiant energy from nuclear fusion at the centre of the sun, leaves the surface. These oscillations are detectable on almost any time series of solar images, but are best observed by measuring the Doppler shift of photospheric absorption lines. Changes in the propagation of oscillation waves through the Sun reveal inner structures and allow astrophysicists to develop extremely detailed profiles of the interior conditions of the Sun.

text: Helioseismology is the study of the propagation of wave oscillations, particularly

text: acoustic

text: pressure wave

text: s, in the

text: Sun

text: . Unlike

text: seismic waves on Earth

text: , solar waves have practically no shear component (

text: s-waves

text: ). Solar pressure waves are believed to be generated by the turbulence in the

text: convection zone

text: near the surface of the sun. Certain frequencies are amplified by constructive interference. In other words, the turbulence "rings" the sun like a bell. The acoustic waves are transmitted to the outer photosphere of the sun, which is where the light generated through absorption of radiant energy from nuclear fusion at the centre of the sun, leaves the surface. These oscillations are detectable on almost any time series of solar images, but are best observed by measuring the

text: Doppler shift

text: of photospheric absorption lines. Changes in the propagation of oscillation waves through the Sun reveal inner structures and allow

text: astrophysicist

text: s to develop extremely detailed profiles of the interior conditions of the Sun.

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answers: Helioseismology

text: The Surface 3 share a similar design to the Surface Pro 3 with a body made of magnesium alloy giving a matte gray finish to the back of the device. It features a kickstand that can be set to three different angles: 22, 44, and 60 degrees. The Surface 3 does not have a fan, therefore lacking the ventilation holes seen on Surface Pro line. The Surface 3 weighs 620 grams features a  diagonal multi-touch display with a 3:2 aspect ratio. For a charger Surface 3 uses a standard Micro-USB, giving users a wider variety of charging options, including charging the device with a mobile phone charger.

text: The Surface 3 share a similar design to the

text: Surface Pro 3

text: with a body made of

text: magnesium

text: alloy giving a matte gray finish to the back of the device. It features a kickstand that can be set to three different angles: 22, 44, and 60 degrees. The Surface 3 does not have a fan, therefore lacking the ventilation holes seen on Surface Pro line. The Surface 3 weighs 620 grams features a  diagonal

text: multi-touch

text: display with a 3:2

text: aspect ratio

text: . For a charger Surface 3 uses a standard

text: Micro-USB

text: , giving users a wider variety of charging options, including charging the device with a mobile phone charger.

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answers: It features a kickstand

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: The Surface 3 weighs 620 grams

text: Mahmood is reported to be fascinated "with the role sunspots played in triggering the French and Russian Revolutions, World War II and assorted anti-colonial uprisings." According to his book "Cosmology and Human Destiny", Mahmood argued that sunspots have influenced major human events, including the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and World War II. He concluded that governments across the world "are already being subjected to great emotional aggression under the catalytic effect of the abnormally high sunspot activity under which they are most likely to adapt aggression as the natural solution for their problems". In this book which was first published in 1998, he predicts that the period from 2007 to 2014 would be of great turmoil and destruction in the world. Other books written by him include a biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad titled "First and the Last", while his other books are focused more on the relation between Islam and science like Miraculous Quran, Life After Death and Doomsday, and Kitab-e-Zindagi (in Urdu).

text: Mahmood is reported to be fascinated "with the role

text: sunspot

text: s played in triggering the

text: French

text: and

text: Russian Revolution

text: s,

text: World War II

text: and assorted anti-colonial uprisings." According to his book "Cosmology and Human Destiny", Mahmood argued that sunspots have influenced major human events, including the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and World War II. He concluded that governments across the world "are already being subjected to great emotional aggression under the catalytic effect of the abnormally high sunspot activity under which they are most likely to adapt aggression as the natural solution for their problems". In this book which was first published in 1998, he predicts that the period from 2007 to 2014 would be of great turmoil and destruction in the world. Other books written by him include a biography of the

text: Islamic prophet

text: Muhammad

text: titled "First and the Last", while his other books are focused more on the relation between Islam and science like Miraculous Quran, Life After Death and Doomsday, and Kitab-e-Zindagi (in

text: Urdu

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answers: Mahmood

text: A Campbell Scientific research-grade weather station is installed outside the observatory. The solar-powered instrument collects weather data and sends it to the Desert Research Institute in Reno, Nevada for analysis and on-line publication. The Planetary Walkway connects the main campus with the observatory. Lining the walkway are massive sandstone monuments created by artistic inmates from the Nevada State Prison at the prison's old quarry. The stones feature carved images of the planets, along with information about the planet and a dedication to the donors.

text: A Campbell Scientific research-grade

text: weather station

text: is installed outside the observatory. The solar-powered instrument collects weather data and sends it to the

text: Desert Research Institute

text: in

text: Reno, Nevada

text: for analysis and on-line publication. The Planetary Walkway connects the main campus with the observatory. Lining the walkway are massive sandstone monuments created by artistic inmates from the

text: Nevada State Prison

text: at the prison's old quarry. The stones feature carved images of the planets, along with information about the planet and a dedication to the donors.

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text: Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's Cosine; see Effect of sun angle on climate.

text: Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's

text: Cosine

text: ; see

text: Effect of sun angle on climate

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answers: Yes

text: Other lemurs that do not exhibit dormancy conserve energy by selecting thermoregulated microhabitats (such as tree holes), sharing nests, and reducing exposed body surfaces, such as by hunched sitting and group huddling. Also, the ring-tailed lemur, ruffed lemurs, and sifakas are commonly seen sunning, thus using solar radiation to warm their bodies instead of metabolic heat.

text: Other lemurs that do not exhibit dormancy conserve energy by selecting thermoregulated microhabitats (such as tree holes), sharing nests, and reducing exposed body surfaces, such as by hunched sitting and group huddling. Also, the ring-tailed lemur, ruffed lemurs, and sifakas are commonly seen sunning, thus using solar radiation to warm their bodies instead of

text: metabolic heat

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text: Sundial construction is based on understanding the geometry of the solar system, and particularly how the sun will cast a shadow onto a flat surface, in this case a horizontal surface. Each day over a yearly cycle the shadow will be different from the day before, and the shadow is specific to the location of the dial, particularly its latitude. The dial is designed to tell local apparent time so the longitude is not significant. By this we mean that noon will be at the point when the sun is highest in sky and due south, standard time would be when the sun was due south at another point such as the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Derby is at 1° 28′ 46.2″ West of Greenwich, so the sun is approximately 5 mins and 52.05 s later in reaching noon. The other point to consider when telling the time is that as the earth moves around the sun in a slight ellipse, day length varies slightly giving a cumulative difference from the average, of up to 16 minutes in November and February, this, with another correction, is known as the equation of time and was really irrelevant until people started comparing sundials with mechanical clocks, which must either ignore the consequences or be re balanced each day to make them correspond with the natural cycle. They measure average time or local mean time. Railways timetabling demanded a fixed noon and fixed day leading to the adoption of Greenwich Mean Time. The local Midland Railway had adopted Greenwich Mean Time by January 1848.

text: Sundial construction is based on understanding the

text: geometry

text: of the

text: solar system

text: , and particularly how the

text: sun

text: will cast a

text: shadow

text: onto a flat surface, in this case a horizontal surface. Each day over a yearly cycle the shadow will be different from the day before, and the shadow is specific to the location of the dial, particularly its

text: latitude

text: . The dial is designed to tell

text: local apparent time

text: so the

text: longitude

text: is not significant. By this we mean that noon will be at the point when the sun is highest in sky and due south, standard time would be when the sun was due south at another point such as the

text: Royal Observatory at Greenwich

text: . Derby is at 1° 28′ 46.2″ West of Greenwich, so the sun is approximately 5 mins and 52.05 s later in reaching noon. The other point to consider when telling the time is that as the earth moves around the sun in a slight ellipse, day length varies slightly giving a cumulative difference from the average, of up to 16 minutes in November and February, this, with another correction, is known as the

text: equation of time

text: and was really irrelevant until people started comparing sundials with mechanical clocks, which must either ignore the consequences or be re balanced each day to make them correspond with the natural cycle. They measure average time or

text: local mean time

text: . Railways timetabling demanded a fixed noon and fixed day leading to the adoption of

text: Greenwich Mean Time

text: . The local

text: Midland Railway

text: had adopted Greenwich Mean Time by January 1848.

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answers: highest in sky

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answers: up to 16 minutes in November and February

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answers: The dial is designed to tell local apparent time

text: A total solar eclipse will occur on January 6, 2076. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

text: A total

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on January 6, 2076. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's

text: apparent diameter

text: is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.

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text: The MPS is hosting the German Data Centre for the NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), which has provided improved data on small scales of space and time to study the connections between the solar interior and magnetic activity in the solar atmosphere.A particularly exciting research activity at the MPS is the study of seismic waves in the vicinity of sunspots. The goal is to probe the subsurface structure of sunspots in three dimensions. Sunspot helioseismology is a challenging science as it requires modelling of the propagation of waves through magnetic structures; this can only be achieved by numerical simulations.

text: The MPS is hosting the German Data Centre for the NASA’s

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO), which has provided improved data on small scales of space and time to study the connections between the solar interior and magnetic activity in the solar atmosphere.A particularly exciting research activity at the MPS is the study of seismic waves in the vicinity of sunspots. The goal is to probe the subsurface structure of sunspots in three dimensions.

text: Sunspot

text: helioseismology

text: is a challenging science as it requires modelling of the propagation of waves through magnetic structures; this can only be achieved by numerical simulations.

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answers: It can only be achieved by numerical simulations

text: Covington became convinced that the effect was due to sunspots, as the flux appeared to vary with the number of visible spots. The resolution of the device, about seven degrees, made it impossible to "pick out" a spot on the sun's surface for study, making a demonstration of the claim difficult. An opportunity to directly measure this possibility presented itself on November 23, 1946 when a partial solar eclipse passed over the Ottawa area, and Covington was able to conclusively demonstrate that the microwave emissions dropped off precipitously when the Moon covered a particularly large sunspot. This also demonstrated that magnetic fields were instrumental in sunspot activity.

text: Covington became convinced that the effect was due to sunspots, as the flux appeared to vary with the number of visible spots. The resolution of the device, about seven degrees, made it impossible to "pick out" a spot on the sun's surface for study, making a demonstration of the claim difficult. An opportunity to directly measure this possibility presented itself on November 23, 1946 when a partial

text: solar eclipse

text: passed over the Ottawa area, and Covington was able to conclusively demonstrate that the microwave emissions dropped off precipitously when the Moon covered a particularly large sunspot. This also demonstrated that magnetic fields were instrumental in sunspot activity.

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answers: microwave emissions dropped off precipitously

text: "Standing On the Surface of the Sun":

text: "Standing On the Surface of the Sun":

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answers: Radiation can harm spacecraft and astronauts

text: The tidal accelerations at the surfaces of planets in the Solar System are generally very small. For example, the lunar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Moon-Earth axis is about 1.1 × 10 g, while the solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Sun-Earth axis is about 0.52 × 10 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. Hence the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun is about 45% of that due to the Moon. The solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface was first given by Newton in the Principia.

text: The tidal accelerations at the surfaces of planets in the Solar System are generally very small. For example, the lunar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Moon-Earth axis is about 1.1 × 10 g, while the solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Sun-Earth axis is about 0.52 × 10 g, where g is the

text: gravitational acceleration

text: at the Earth's surface. Hence the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun is about 45% of that due to the Moon. The solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface was first given by Newton in the

entity_name: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: Principia

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answers: the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun is about 45% of that due to the Moon

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answers: tide-raising force

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answers: Yes

text: A half dynamo cycle corresponds to a single sunspot solar cycle. At solar maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of a toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to patches of concentrated magnetic field corresponding to sunspots.

text: A half dynamo cycle corresponds to a single sunspot

text: solar cycle

text: . At

text: solar maximum

text: , the external

text: poloidal

text: dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal

text: toroidal

text: quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the

text: convective zone

text: forces emergence of a toroidal magnetic field through the

text: photosphere

text: , giving rise to patches of concentrated magnetic field corresponding to

text: sunspots

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answers: Yes

text: 16 Lyrae (16 Lyr) is a 5th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra, approximately 128 light years away from Earth. It is a white star of the spectral type A7V, meaning it has a surface temperature of 7,500 to 11,000 kelvins. It is a dwarf star, like the Sun, but much hotter and brighter.

text: 16 Lyrae (16 Lyr) is a 5th

text: magnitude

text: star in the constellation

text: Lyra

text: , approximately 128

text: light year

text: s away from

text: Earth

text: . It is a white star of the

text: spectral type

text: A7V, meaning it has a surface temperature of 7,500 to 11,000

text: kelvins

text: . It is a

text: dwarf star

text: , like the

text: Sun

text: , but much hotter and brighter.

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answers: hotter

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answers: much hotter and brighter

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answers: The Sun

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answers: the Sun

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answers: brighter

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answers: 16 Lyrae

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answers: the Sun

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answers: 128 light years away

answers: NDQ_006089

answers: 16 Lyrae

text: On February 24, 2014 the sun erupted with a X4.9-class solar flare, the strongest of that year.

text: On February 24, 2014 the sun erupted with a X4.9-class solar flare, the strongest of that year.

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answers: Yes

text: The Sun's visible atmosphere has other layers above the photosphere: the 2,000 kilometer-deep chromosphere (typically observed by filtered light, for example H-alpha) lies just between the photosphere and the much hotter but more tenuous corona. Other "surface features" on the photosphere are solar flares and sunspots.

text: The Sun's visible atmosphere has other layers above the photosphere: the 2,000 kilometer-deep

text: chromosphere

text: (typically observed by filtered light, for example

text: H-alpha

text: ) lies just between the photosphere and the much hotter but more tenuous

text: corona

text: . Other "surface features" on the photosphere are

text: solar flare

text: s and

text: sunspot

text: s.

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text: K2-72 is a M-type star that is approximately 21% the mass of and 23% the radius of the Sun. It has a surface temperature of 3497 K and its age is unknown. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: K2-72 is a

text: M-type

text: star that is approximately 21% the mass of and 23% the radius of the

text: Sun

text: . It has a surface temperature of 3497

text: K

text: and its age is unknown. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

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text: A joint ESA/NASA mission, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, or SOHO, studies the sun, from deep inside its core to the outer corona and solar wind. SOHO has been capturing images of the dynamic flares and coronal mass ejections on the sun since 1996. The mission has provided an unprecedented breadth and depth of information about the sun, with a unique combination of instruments that study its interior through the hot and dynamic atmosphere to the solar wind and its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its coronagraphs – images that observe the sun's atmosphere by blocking out the bright sun in the middle – remain a key component for forecasting the speed, direction and strength of coronal mass ejections as they erupt from the sun. In addition to watching the sun, SOHO has become the most prolific discoverer of comets in astronomical history: as of 2012, over 2000 comets have been found by SOHO.

text: A joint ESA/NASA mission, the

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: , or SOHO, studies the sun, from deep inside its core to the outer corona and solar wind. SOHO has been capturing images of the dynamic flares and coronal mass ejections on the sun since 1996. The mission has provided an unprecedented breadth and depth of information about the sun, with a unique combination of instruments that study its interior through the hot and dynamic atmosphere to the solar wind and its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its coronagraphs – images that observe the sun's atmosphere by blocking out the bright sun in the middle – remain a key component for forecasting the speed, direction and strength of coronal mass ejections as they erupt from the sun. In addition to watching the sun, SOHO has become the most prolific discoverer of comets in astronomical history: as of 2012, over 2000 comets have been found by SOHO.

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answers: The mission has provided an unprecedented breadth and depth of information about the sun

text: The observatory was founded in 1943 by the German Luftwaffe of the Third Reich to make the most accurate prediction of the ideal frequency for military radio communication by observing the solar activities. It was managed by Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer from 1943 until 1975.

text: The observatory was founded in 1943 by the German

text: Luftwaffe

text: of the

text: Third Reich

text: to make the most accurate prediction of the ideal frequency for military radio communication by observing the solar activities. It was managed by

text: Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer

text: from 1943 until 1975.

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answers: Yes

text: Canis Major is also home to many variable stars. EZ Canis Majoris is a Wolf–Rayet star of spectral type WN4 that varies between magnitudes 6.71 and 6.95 over a period of 3.766 days; the cause of its variability is unknown but thought to be related to its stellar wind and rotation. VY Canis Majoris is one of the largest stars known, a remote red supergiant located around 3800 light-years away from Earth. Estimates of its size, mass and luminosity have varied, with figures of 600 to 3000 times the radius, and 60,000 to 500,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. It was observed in 2011 using interferometry with the Very Large Telescope, yielding a radius of 1420 ± 120 solar radii, surface temperature of around 3490 K (and hence spectral type M4Ia) and a luminosity 270,000 times that of the Sun. Its current mass has been revised at 9–25 solar masses, having shed material from an initial 15–35 solar masses. W Canis Majoris is a type of red giant known as a carbon star—a semiregular variable, it ranges between magnitudes 6.27 and 7.09 over a period of 160 days. A cool star, it has a surface temperature of around 2900 K and a radius 234 times that of the Sun, its distance estimated at 1444–1450 light-years from Earth. At the other extreme in size is RX J0720.4-3125, a neutron star with a radius of around 5 km. Exceedingly faint, it has an apparent magnitude of 26.6. Its spectrum and temperature appear to be mysteriously changing over several years. The nature of the changes are unclear, but it is possible they were caused by an event such as the star's absorption of an accretion disc.

text: Canis Major is also home to many variable stars.

text: EZ Canis Majoris

text: is a

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: of spectral type WN4 that varies between magnitudes 6.71 and 6.95 over a period of 3.766 days; the cause of its variability is unknown but thought to be related to its stellar wind and rotation.

text: VY Canis Majoris

text: is one of the largest stars known, a remote red supergiant located around 3800 light-years away from Earth. Estimates of its size, mass and luminosity have varied, with figures of 600 to 3000 times the radius, and 60,000 to 500,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. It was observed in 2011 using

text: interferometry

text: with the

text: Very Large Telescope

text: , yielding a radius of 1420 ± 120 solar radii, surface temperature of around 3490 K (and hence spectral type M4Ia) and a luminosity 270,000 times that of the Sun. Its current mass has been revised at 9–25 solar masses, having shed material from an initial 15–35 solar masses.

text: W Canis Majoris

text: is a type of red giant known as a

text: carbon star

text: —a semiregular variable, it ranges between magnitudes 6.27 and 7.09 over a period of 160 days. A cool star, it has a surface temperature of around 2900 K and a radius 234 times that of the Sun, its distance estimated at 1444–1450 light-years from Earth. At the other extreme in size is

text: RX J0720.4-3125

text: , a

text: neutron star

text: with a radius of around 5 km. Exceedingly faint, it has an apparent magnitude of 26.6. Its spectrum and temperature appear to be mysteriously changing over several years. The nature of the changes are unclear, but it is possible they were caused by an event such as the star's absorption of an

text: accretion disc

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: Its spectrum and temperature appear to be mysteriously changing

text: The Mars Habitat Unit is a 2- or 3-deck vehicle providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars crew. In addition to individual sleeping quarters which provide a degree of privacy for each of the crew and a place for personal effects, the Mars Habitat Unit includes a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area, and hygiene facilities with closed-cycle water purification. The lower deck of the Mars Habitat Unit provides the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research; storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of Mars, and a suiting-up area where crew members prepare for surface operations. Protection from harmful radiation while in space and on the surface of Mars (e.g. from solar flares) would be provided by a dedicated "storm shelter" in the core of the vehicle.

text: The Mars Habitat Unit is a 2- or 3-deck vehicle providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars crew. In addition to individual sleeping quarters which provide a degree of privacy for each of the crew and a place for personal effects, the Mars Habitat Unit includes a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area, and hygiene facilities with closed-cycle water purification. The lower deck of the Mars Habitat Unit provides the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research; storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of Mars, and a suiting-up area where crew members prepare for surface operations. Protection from harmful radiation while in space and on the surface of Mars (e.g. from

text: solar flares

text: ) would be provided by a dedicated "storm shelter" in the core of the vehicle.

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text: In solar physics, a spicule is a dynamic jet of about 500 km diameter in the chromosphere of the Sun.  It moves upwards at about 20 km/s from the  photosphere. They were discovered in 1877 by Father Angelo Secchi of the Vatican Observatory in Rome.

text: In

text: solar physics

text: , a spicule is a dynamic jet of about 500 km diameter in the

text: chromosphere

text: of the

text: Sun

text: .  It moves upwards at about 20 km/s from the

text: photosphere

text: . They were discovered in 1877 by Father

text: Angelo Secchi

text: of the

text: Vatican Observatory

text: in Rome.

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answers: in the chromosphere

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answers: It moves upwards at about 20 km/s from the photosphere

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answers: dynamic jet

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answers: spicule

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answers: The sun

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answers: Yes

text: According to the Solar Dynamics Observatory, these CMEs were probably connected to a C3.2-class solar flare that peaked on August 1 at 08:26 UT. The origin of this blast was sunspot 1092. Connection between both events was established despite the ~400,000 km distance between them.

text: According to the Solar Dynamics Observatory, these CMEs were probably connected to a C3.2-class solar flare that peaked on August 1 at 08:26 UT. The origin of this blast was sunspot 1092. Connection between both events was established despite the ~400,000 km distance between them.

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answers: 400,000 km

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answers: C3.2-class solar flare

text: At the equator the solar rotation period is 24.47 days. This is called the sidereal rotation period, and should not be confused with the synodic rotation period of 26.24 days, which is the time for a fixed feature on the Sun to rotate to the same apparent position as viewed from Earth. The synodic period is longer because the Sun must rotate for a sidereal period plus an extra amount due to the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun. Note that astrophysical literature does not typically use the equatorial rotation period, but instead often uses the definition of a Carrington rotation: a synodic rotation period of 27.2753 days (or a sidereal period of 25.38 days). This chosen period roughly corresponds to rotation at a latitude of 16 deg, which is consistent with the typical latitude of sunspots and corresponding periodic solar activity. When the Sun is viewed from the "north" (above the Earth's northern pole) solar rotation is counterclockwise. For a person standing on the North Pole, sunspots would appear to move from left to right across the face of the Sun.

text: At the equator the solar rotation period is 24.47 days. This is called the

text: sidereal

text: rotation period, and should not be confused with the

text: synodic

text: rotation period of 26.24 days, which is the time for a fixed feature on the Sun to rotate to the same apparent position as viewed from

text: Earth

text: . The synodic period is longer because the Sun must rotate for a sidereal period plus an extra amount due to the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun. Note that astrophysical literature does not typically use the equatorial rotation period, but instead often uses the definition of a

text: Carrington rotation

text: : a synodic rotation period of 27.2753 days (or a sidereal period of 25.38 days). This chosen period roughly corresponds to rotation at a latitude of 16 deg, which is consistent with the typical latitude of sunspots and corresponding periodic solar activity. When the Sun is viewed from the "north" (above the Earth's northern pole) solar rotation is counterclockwise. For a person standing on the

text: North Pole

text: , sunspots would appear to move from left to right across the face of the Sun.

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text: Astronomical knowledge flourished in the Islamic world during medieval times. Many observatories were built in cities from Damascus to Baghdad, where detailed astronomical observations were taken. Particularly, a few solar parameters were measured and detailed observations of the Sun were taken. Solar observations were taken with the purpose of navigation, but mostly for timekeeping. Islam requires its followers to pray five times a day, at specific position of the Sun in the sky. As such, accurate observations of the Sun and its trajectory on the sky were needed. In the late 10th century, Iranian astronomer Abu-Mahmud Khojandi built a massive observatory near Tehran. There, he took accurate measurements of a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which he later used to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic.Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe was cut from all sources of ancient scientific knowledge, especially those written in Greek. This, plus de-urbanisation and diseases such as the Black Death led to a decline in scientific knowledge in Medieval Europe, especially in the early Middle Ages. During this period, observations of the Sun were taken either in relation to the zodiac, or to assist in building places of worship such as churches and cathedrals.

text: Astronomical knowledge flourished in the Islamic world during medieval times. Many observatories were built in cities from Damascus to Baghdad, where detailed astronomical observations were taken. Particularly, a few solar parameters were measured and detailed observations of the Sun were taken. Solar observations were taken with the purpose of navigation, but mostly for timekeeping. Islam requires its followers to pray five times a day, at specific position of the Sun in the sky. As such, accurate observations of the Sun and its trajectory on the sky were needed. In the late 10th century, Iranian astronomer

text: Abu-Mahmud Khojandi

text: built a massive observatory near Tehran. There, he took accurate measurements of a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which he later used to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic.Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe was cut from all sources of ancient scientific knowledge, especially those written in Greek. This, plus de-urbanisation and diseases such as the Black Death led to a decline in scientific knowledge in Medieval Europe, especially in the early Middle Ages. During this period, observations of the Sun were taken either in relation to the zodiac, or to assist in building places of worship such as churches and cathedrals.

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text: Among the largest known explosions in the universe are supernovae, which result when a star explodes from the sudden starting or stopping of nuclear fusion, and gamma ray bursts, whose nature is still in some dispute. Solar flares are an example of explosion common on the Sun, and presumably on most other stars as well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field lines resulting from the rotation of the Sun's conductive plasma. Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an asteroid impacts the surface of another object, such as a planet.

text: Among the largest known explosions in the

text: universe

text: are

text: supernova

text: e, which result when a

text: star

text: explodes from the sudden starting or stopping of

text: nuclear fusion

text: , and

text: gamma ray burst

text: s, whose nature is still in some dispute.

text: Solar flare

text: s are an example of explosion common on the

text: Sun

text: , and presumably on most other stars as well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of

text: magnetic field

text: lines resulting from the rotation of the Sun's conductive

text: plasma

text: . Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an

text: asteroid

text: impacts the surface of another object, such as a

text: planet

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answers: The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field lines

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answers: Yes

text: Sunspot populations rise quickly and fall more slowly on an irregular cycle of 11 years.  Their numbers also change on over long periods. For example, from 1900 to the 1960s, the solar maxima trend of sunspot count was upwards; for the following decades it diminished. However, the Sun was last as active as this period over 8,000 years ago.

text: Sunspot populations rise quickly and fall more slowly on an irregular

text: cycle of 11 years

text: .  Their numbers also change on over long periods. For example, from 1900 to the 1960s, the

text: solar maxima

text: trend of sunspot count was upwards; for the following decades it diminished. However, the Sun was last as active as this period over 8,000 years ago.

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answers: active

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answers: Their numbers also change on over long periods

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answers: It was last as active as this period over 8,000 years ago

text: Mauna Loa's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15, 1984. No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program, which encourages studies of the world's most dangerous volcanoes. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912. Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, both located near the mountain's summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea, a separate volcano.

text: Mauna Loa's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15, 1984. No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of

text: Hilo

text: is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the

text: Decade Volcanoes

text: program, which encourages studies of the world's most dangerous volcanoes. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the

text: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory

text: since 1912. Observations of the

text: atmosphere

text: are undertaken at the

text: Mauna Loa Observatory

text: , and of the

text: Sun

text: at the

text: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory

text: , both located near the mountain's summit.

text: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

text: covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano, and also incorporates

text: Kīlauea

text: , a separate volcano.