text: The phase behavior of lipid bilayers is determined largely by the strength of the attractive Van der Waals interactions between adjacent lipid molecules. Longer-tailed lipids have more area over which to interact, increasing the strength of this interaction and, as a consequence, decreasing the lipid mobility. Thus, at a given temperature, a short-tailed lipid will be more fluid than an otherwise identical long-tailed lipid. Transition temperature can also be affected by the degree of unsaturation of the lipid tails. An unsaturated double bond can produce a kink in the alkane chain, disrupting the lipid packing. This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer that allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains. An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as butter, which has a large percentage saturated fats, is solid at room temperature while vegetable oil, which is mostly unsaturated, is liquid.

text: The phase behavior of lipid bilayers is determined largely by the strength of the attractive

entity_name: Van der Waals force

text: Van der Waals

text: interactions between adjacent lipid molecules. Longer-tailed lipids have more area over which to interact, increasing the strength of this interaction and, as a consequence, decreasing the lipid mobility. Thus, at a given temperature, a short-tailed lipid will be more fluid than an otherwise identical long-tailed lipid. Transition temperature can also be affected by the

entity_name: Degree of unsaturation

text: degree of unsaturation

text: of the lipid tails. An unsaturated

entity_name: Double bond

text: double bond

text: can produce a kink in the

entity_name: Alkane

text: alkane

text: chain, disrupting the lipid packing. This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer that allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains. An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as butter, which has a large percentage saturated fats, is solid at room temperature while vegetable oil, which is mostly unsaturated, is liquid.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

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answer_match: lowercase, stemmed, fuzz > 0.8

prompt_style: Can the question be answered based on the available context? choose one:

answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: An unsaturated double bond can produce a kink in the alkane chain

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated double bond

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: An unsaturated double bond can produce a kink in the alkane chain, disrupting the lipid packing

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated double bond

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: vegetable oil

answer_match: Using FLAN-T5-Large with this prompt: For the question "{question}" the correct answer is "{correct_answer}". Is "{answer}" an equally correct response to this question? Answer yes or no.

prompt_style: provide a complete and concise answer to the question based on the context.

text: Explosives, hydrogen, unsaturated hydrocarbons and alkanes in oxygen have the lowest MIE: in the range of 1 to 100 μJ. Alkanes in air, distillate fuels, hybrid mixtures and extremely sensitive dusts have a MIE range of 0.1 to 10 mJ. Combustible dusts have a MIE range of 0.01 to 10 J.

entity_name: Explosive material

text: Explosive

text: s,

entity_name: Hydrogen

text: hydrogen

entity_name: Unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: s and

text: alkane

text: s in oxygen have the lowest MIE: in the range of 1 to 100 μJ. Alkanes in air, distillate fuels, hybrid mixtures and extremely sensitive dusts have a MIE range of 0.1 to 10 mJ. Combustible dusts have a MIE range of 0.01 to 10 J.

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answers: Alkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 10 mJ

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons and alkanes in oxygen

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: J

text: In contrast to the other ant species, worker policing in the ant Formica fusca  appears to incorporate nestmate recognition in addition to the queen hydrocarbons. Workers displayed higher levels of aggression toward non-nest mates and also removed some queen-laid eggs. Thus, queen hydrocarbons were not the only contributor to discrimination of the eggs.

text: In contrast to the other ant species, worker policing in the ant

entity_name: Formica fusca

text: Formica fusca

text: appears to incorporate nestmate recognition in addition to the queen hydrocarbons. Workers displayed higher levels of aggression toward non-nest mates and also removed some queen-laid eggs. Thus, queen hydrocarbons were not the only contributor to discrimination of the eggs.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

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answers: queen hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: queen hydrocarbons were not the only contributor to discrimination of the eggs

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: queen hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: Several modifications of alkynation reactions are known:

text: Several modifications of alkynation reactions are known:

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkynation reactions are known

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes are very common

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: The Pauson-Khand reaction provides a route to cyclopentenones via the intermediacy of cobalt-alkyne complexes.

text: The

entity_name: Pauson–Khand reaction

text: Pauson-Khand reaction

text: provides a route to cyclopentenones via the intermediacy of cobalt-alkyne complexes.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: alkyne

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answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: cyclopentenones

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cyclopentenones

text: Addition reactions are limited to chemical compounds that have multiple bonds, such as molecules with carbon-carbon double bonds (alkenes), or with triple bonds (alkynes). Molecules containing carbon—hetero double bonds like carbonyl (C=O) groups, or imine (C=N) groups, can undergo addition as they too have double bond character.

text: Addition reactions are limited to chemical compounds that have multiple bonds, such as molecules with carbon-carbon

text: double bond

text: s (

entity_name: Alkene

text: alkene

text: s), or with

entity_name: Triple bond

text: triple bond

text: s (

entity_name: Alkyne

text: alkyne

text: s). Molecules containing carbon—

entity_name: Heteroatom

text: hetero

text: double bonds like

entity_name: Carbonyl group

text: carbonyl

text: (C=O) groups, or

entity_name: Imine

text: imine

text: (C=N) groups, can undergo addition as they too have double bond character.

method: UNH-ecn

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answers: carbon-carbon double bonds

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answers: alkynes

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answers: carbon-carbon double bonds (alkenes)

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: Host-parasite interactions are prime examples of evolutionary arms races. The host evolves methods of detecting the parasite, and the parasite counters by evolving methods of evasion. It has been reported in some specialized Chrysis species that the cuckoo wasp chemically camouflages itself when infiltrating the nest of its host. Field observations indicate that the cuckoo wasp is only attacked when the host wasp visually recognizes it. If the cuckoo wasp can make it into the nest in the dark, research has shown that it can disguise itself chemically by secreting saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons to match the scent profile of the host wasp. In these situations, even when the host wasp encounters the cuckoo wasp head on in the dark, the cuckoo wasp remains undetected.

text: Host-parasite interactions are prime examples of evolutionary arms races. The host evolves methods of detecting the parasite, and the parasite counters by evolving methods of evasion. It has been reported in some specialized Chrysis species that the cuckoo wasp chemically camouflages itself when infiltrating the nest of its host. Field observations indicate that the cuckoo wasp is only attacked when the host wasp visually recognizes it. If the cuckoo wasp can make it into the nest in the dark, research has shown that it can disguise itself chemically by secreting saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons to match the scent profile of the host wasp. In these situations, even when the host wasp encounters the cuckoo wasp head on in the dark, the cuckoo wasp remains undetected.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: In these situations, even when the host wasp encounters the cuckoo wasp head on in the dark, the cuckoo wasp remains undetected

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: saturated

text: Steam cracking is a petrochemical process in which saturated hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller, often unsaturated, hydrocarbons. It is the principal industrial method for producing the lighter alkenes (or commonly olefins), including ethene (or ethylene) and propene (or propylene). Steam cracker units are facilities in which a feedstock such as naphtha, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethane, propane or butane is thermally cracked through the use of steam in a bank of pyrolysis furnaces to produce lighter hydrocarbons. The products obtained depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time.

text: Steam cracking is a

entity_name: Petrochemical

text: petrochemical

text: process in which saturated

entity_name: Hydrocarbon

text: hydrocarbon

text: s are broken down into smaller, often unsaturated, hydrocarbons. It is the principal industrial method for producing the lighter

text: alkene

text: s (or commonly

text: olefin

text: s), including

entity_name: Ethylene

text: ethene

text: (or

text: ethylene

text: ) and

entity_name: Propene

text: propene

text: (or

text: propylene

text: ). Steam cracker units are facilities in which a feedstock such as naphtha, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),

entity_name: Ethane

text: ethane

entity_name: Propane

text: propane

text: or

entity_name: Butane

text: butane

text: is thermally cracked through the use of steam in a bank of pyrolysis furnaces to produce lighter hydrocarbons. The products obtained depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

method: UNH-qee

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Lighter alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: lighter alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The products obtained depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ethylene

text: Alkynes form many compounds with upon reaction with iron carbonyls.  These include cyclobutadiene derivatives, ferroles" of the formula Fe(CR)(CO), as well as cyclopentadienone and cyclobutadiene derivatives.

text: Alkynes form many compounds with upon reaction with iron carbonyls.  These include cyclobutadiene derivatives, ferroles" of the formula Fe(CR)(CO), as well as cyclopentadienone and cyclobutadiene derivatives.

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: Alkynes form many compounds with upon reaction with iron carbonyls

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Fe(CR)(CO)

text: Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed.

text: Alkenes

text: engage in an acid catalysed

entity_name: Hydration reaction

text: hydration reaction

text: using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The

entity_name: Hydroboration–oxidation reaction

text: hydroboration-oxidation

text: and

entity_name: Oxymercuration reaction

text: oxymercuration-reduction

text: of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in

entity_name: Halohydrin

text: halohydrin formation reaction

entity_name: Amine

text: Amine

text: s can be converted to

entity_name: Diazonium compound

text: diazonium salt

text: s, which are then hydrolyzed.

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Amines

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: NBS

text: Fittig's research covered wide areas of organic chemistry. The aldehydes and ketones provided material for his earlier work. He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in neutral, alkaline, and sometimes acid solution to secondary and tertiary glycols, substances which he named pinacones; and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute sulfuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines. The unsaturated acids also received much attention, and he discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones. In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In 1855 Charles-Adolphe Wurtz had shown that when sodium acted upon alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method by showing that a mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment, yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin's reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of coumarin, the odoriferous principle of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's observation that phenyl isocrotonic acid readily yielded α-naphthol by loss of water was of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to the constitution of naphthalene. They also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of phenanthrene. We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its constitution in 1871.

text: Fittig's research covered wide areas of

entity_name: Organic chemistry

text: organic chemistry

text: . The

entity_name: Aldehyde

text: aldehyde

text: s and

entity_name: Ketone

text: ketone

text: s provided material for his earlier work. He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer

entity_name: Redox

text: reduction

text: in

entity_name: PH

text: neutral

entity_name: Alkalinity

text: alkaline

text: , and sometimes acid solution to secondary and tertiary

entity_name: Diol

text: glycol

text: s, substances which he named pinacones; and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute

entity_name: Sulfuric acid

text: sulfuric acid

text: gave compounds, which he named pinacolines. The unsaturated acids also received much attention, and he discovered the internal

entity_name: Organic acid anhydride

text: anhydride

text: s of

entity_name: Oxoacid

text: oxyacid

text: s, termed

entity_name: Lactone

text: lactone

text: s. In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In 1855

entity_name: Charles-Adolphe Wurtz

text: Charles-Adolphe Wurtz

text: had shown that when sodium acted upon

entity_name: Organoiodine compound

text: alkyl iodide

text: s, the

entity_name: Alkyl

text: alkyl

text: residues combined to form more complex

text: hydrocarbon

text: s; Fittig developed this method by showing that a mixture of an

entity_name: Aromaticity

text: aromatic

text: and

text: alkyl haloid

text: , under similar treatment, yielded

entity_name: Homologous series

text: homologues

text: of

entity_name: Benzene

text: benzene

text: . His investigations on

entity_name: Perkin reaction

text: Perkin's reaction

text: led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of

entity_name: Coumarin

text: coumarin

text: , the odoriferous principle of

text: woodruff

text: . Fittig and Erdmann's observation that

text: phenyl isocrotonic acid

text: readily yielded

text: α-naphthol

text: by loss of water was of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to the constitution of

text: naphthalene

text: . They also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the

text: coal tar

text: distillate

text: and solved the constitution of

text: phenanthrene

text: . We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid

text: piperine

text: to Fittig, who in collaboration with

text: Ira Remsen

text: established its constitution in 1871.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: aldehydes and ketones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: a mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment, yielded homologues of benzene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyl iodides

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: The coordination of alkynes to transition metals is similar to that of alkenes.  The bonding is described by the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model.  Upon complexation the C-C bond elogates and the alkynyl carbon bends away from 180º.  For example in the phenylpropyne complex Pt(PPh)(C)Ph(Me), the C-C distance is 1.277(25) vs 1.20 Å for a typical alkyne.  The C-C-C angle distorts 40° from linearity.  Because the bending induced by complexation, strained alkynes such as cycloheptyne and cyclooctyne are stabilized by complexation.

text: The coordination of alkynes to transition metals is similar to that of alkenes.  The bonding is described by the

text: Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model

text: .  Upon complexation the C-C bond elogates and the alkynyl carbon bends away from 180º.  For example in the phenylpropyne complex Pt(PPh)(C)Ph(Me), the C-C distance is 1.277(25) vs 1.20 Å for a typical alkyne.  The C-C-C angle distorts 40° from linearity.  Because the bending induced by complexation, strained alkynes such as cycloheptyne and cyclooctyne are stabilized by complexation.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: cyclooctyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkynes to transition metals

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Because the bending induced by complexation, strained alkynes such as cycloheptyne and cyclooctyne are stabilized by complexation

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkynyl carbon

text: β elements, α elements and α function are elements that Bion (1963) hypothesizes. He does not consider β-elements, α- elements, nor α function to actually exist. The terms are instead tools for thinking about what is being observed. They are elements whose qualities remain unsaturated, meaning we cannot know the full extent or scope of their meaning, so they are intended as tools for thought rather than real things to be accepted at face value (1962, p. 3).

text: β elements, α elements and α function are elements that Bion (1963) hypothesizes. He does not consider β-elements, α- elements, nor α function to actually exist. The terms are instead tools for thinking about what is being observed. They are elements whose qualities remain unsaturated, meaning we cannot know the full extent or scope of their meaning, so they are intended as tools for thought rather than real things to be accepted at face value (1962, p. 3).

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: They are elements whose qualities remain unsaturated, meaning we cannot know the full extent or scope of their meaning

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -elements

text: The synthesis of the octaphenyl derivative from tetraphenylcyclobutadiene nickel bromide by Freedman in 1962 pre-dates that of the parent compound. It is a sparingly soluble colourless compound that melts at 425–427 °C.  A "hypercubane", with a hypercube-like structure,  was predicted to exist in a 2014 publication. Two different isomers of cubene have been synthesized, and a third analyzed computationally. The alkene in ortho-cubene is exceptionally reactive due to its pyramidalized geometry. At the time of its synthesis, this was the most pyramidalized alkene to have been successfully made. The meta-cubene isomer is even less stable, and the para-cubene isomer probably only exists as a diradical rather than an actual diagonal bond.

text: The synthesis of the octaphenyl

text: derivative

text: from tetraphenylcyclobutadiene nickel bromide by Freedman in 1962 pre-dates that of the parent compound. It is a sparingly soluble colourless compound that melts at 425–427 °C.  A "hypercubane", with a

text: hypercube

text: -like structure,  was predicted to exist in a 2014 publication. Two different isomers of

text: cubene

text: have been synthesized, and a third analyzed

text: computationally

text: . The alkene in ortho-cubene is exceptionally reactive due to its

text: pyramidalized geometry

text: . At the time of its synthesis, this was the most pyramidalized alkene to have been successfully made. The meta-cubene isomer is even less stable, and the para-cubene isomer probably only exists as a

text: diradical

text: rather than an actual diagonal bond.

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answers: cubene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 425–427 °C

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The alkene in ortho-cubene is exceptionally reactive due to its pyramidalized geometry

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ortho-cubene

text: Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS; Hydrus, a commercial unsaturated flow model; FEFLOW, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes; OpenGeoSys, a scientific open-source project for thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes in porous and fractured media; COMSOL Multiphysics (FEMLAB) a commercial general modelling environment), FEATool Multiphysics, an easy to use Matlab simulation toolbox, and Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), but they are still not as popular in with practicing hydrogeologists as MODFLOW is.  Finite element models are more popular in university and laboratory environments, where specialized models solve non-standard forms of the flow equation (unsaturated flow, density dependent flow, coupled heat and groundwater flow, etc.)

text: Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS;

text: Hydrus

text: , a commercial unsaturated flow model;

text: FEFLOW

text: , a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes; OpenGeoSys, a scientific open-source project for thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes in porous and fractured media;

text: COMSOL Multiphysics

text: (FEMLAB) a commercial general modelling environment), FEATool Multiphysics, an easy to use Matlab simulation toolbox, and Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), but they are still not as popular in with practicing hydrogeologists as MODFLOW is.  Finite element models are more popular in

text: university

text: and

text: laboratory

text: environments, where specialized models solve non-standard forms of the flow equation (

text: unsaturated

text: flow,

text: density

text: dependent flow, coupled

text: heat

text: and groundwater flow, etc.)

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: FEFLOW, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: FEFLOW

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: FEFLOW

text: Many hydrocarbons are highly flammable, therefore, care should be taken to prevent injury. Benzene and many aromatic compounds are possible carcinogens, and proper safety equipment must be worn to prevent these harmful compounds from entering the body. If hydrocarbons undergo combustion in tight areas, toxic carbon monoxide can form. Hydrocarbons should be kept away from fluorine compounds due to the high probability of forming toxic hydrofluoric acid.

text: Many hydrocarbons are highly flammable, therefore, care should be taken to prevent injury. Benzene and many aromatic compounds are possible

text: carcinogen

text: s, and proper safety equipment must be worn to prevent these harmful compounds from entering the body. If hydrocarbons undergo combustion in tight areas, toxic

text: carbon monoxide

text: can form. Hydrocarbons should be kept away from fluorine compounds due to the high probability of forming toxic

text: hydrofluoric acid

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answers: Benzene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrocarbons are highly flammable

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Benzene and many aromatic compounds are possible carcinogens

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Benzene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Benzene

text: Disilynes contain a formal silicon–silicon triple bond and as such is formulated RSi (where R is a substituent group) and is the silicon analogue of an alkyne. Some chemists use the term silyne to refer to compounds containing a silicon–silicon triple bond  whilst others use the term to refer to compounds containing a silicon–carbon triple bond by analogy to silene, which often refers to compounds containing silicon–carbon double bonds. The term polysilyne can refer to the layer polymer (SiH) or substituted derivatives.

text: Disilynes contain a formal silicon–silicon

text: triple bond

text: and as such is formulated RSi (where R is a substituent group) and is the silicon analogue of an

text: alkyne

text: . Some chemists use the term silyne to refer to compounds containing a silicon–silicon triple bond  whilst others use the term to refer to compounds containing a silicon–carbon triple bond by analogy to silene, which often refers to compounds containing silicon–carbon double bonds. The term polysilyne can refer to the layer polymer (SiH) or substituted derivatives.

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answers: silicon analogue of an alkyne

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answers: Alkynes contain a formal silicon–silicon triple bond

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: RSi

text: In organometallic chemistry, the Green–Davies–Mingos rules predict the regiochemistry for nucleophilic addition to 18-electron metal complexes containing multiple unsaturated ligands. In general, complexation enhances the susceptibility of unsaturated hydrocarbon toward nucleophilic attack. The rules were developed by Stephen G. Davies, Malcolm Green, and Michael Mingos in 1978

text: In

text: organometallic chemistry

text: , the Green–Davies–Mingos rules predict the

text: regiochemistry

text: for

text: nucleophilic addition

text: to 18-electron

text: metal complex

text: es containing multiple unsaturated

text: ligand

text: s. In general, complexation enhances the susceptibility of unsaturated hydrocarbon toward

text: nucleophilic attack

text: . The rules were developed by

text: Stephen G. Davies

text: Malcolm Green

text: , and

text: Michael Mingos

text: in 1978

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbon

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbon

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answers: complexation enhances the susceptibility of unsaturated hydrocarbon toward nucleophilic attack

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbon

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: Parasite queens have levels of epicuticular hydrocarbons key to recognition that are three to four times less than in host wasps, which facilitates a weaker signal that allows them to insinuate themselves into host colonies. As time progresses, the parasite queen can camouflage her odor as a host wasp; at the point of emergence for the workers, the parasite queen is indistinguishable from the host queen. The adult parasitic offspring have no such mechanism for deception and they have unsaturated epicuticular hydrocarbons specific to their species that do not occur in the host species. However, the different odors of parasite and host species do not affect the acceptance by the host species workers of the parasite brood in parasitized nests. As a result, parasitized colonies do not have a homogeneous odor because parasite offspring have a different odor than hosts.

text: Parasite queens have levels of epicuticular

text: hydrocarbons

text: key to recognition that are three to four times less than in host wasps, which facilitates a weaker signal that allows them to insinuate themselves into host colonies. As time progresses, the parasite queen can

text: camouflage

text: her odor as a host wasp; at the point of emergence for the workers, the parasite queen is indistinguishable from the host queen. The adult parasitic offspring have no such mechanism for deception and they have unsaturated epicuticular hydrocarbons specific to their species that do not occur in the host species. However, the different odors of parasite and host species do not affect the acceptance by the host species workers of the parasite brood in parasitized nests. As a result, parasitized colonies do not have a

text: homogeneous

text: odor because parasite offspring have a different odor than hosts.

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: they have unsaturated epicuticular hydrocarbons specific to their species that do not occur in the host species

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Isophorone has high solvent power for vinyl resins, cellulose esters, ether, and many substances soluble with difficulty in other solvents. The reactive groups of the molecule are the ketones, hydrocarbons and aliphatic unsaturated parts.

text: Isophorone has high solvent power for vinyl resins,

text: cellulose

text: esters, ether, and many substances soluble with difficulty in other solvents. The reactive groups of the molecule are the

text: ketone

text: s,

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and aliphatic unsaturated parts.

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answers: ketones

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answers: The reactive groups of the molecule are the ketones

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: ketones

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answers: ketones

text: Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via rearrangement reactions. Besides olefin metathesis (described above), a large number of pericyclic reactions can be used such as the ene reaction and the Cope rearrangement.

text: Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via

text: rearrangement reaction

text: s. Besides

text: olefin metathesis

text: (described

text: above

text: ), a large number of

text: pericyclic reaction

text: s can be used such as the

text: ene reaction

text: and the

text: Cope rearrangement

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answers: olefin

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ene

text: The overwhelming majority of aromatic compounds are compounds of carbon, but they need not be hydrocarbons.

text: The overwhelming majority of aromatic compounds are compounds of carbon, but they need not be hydrocarbons.

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answers: methene

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: they need not be hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aromatic compounds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene (or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast, aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term 'aromatic' was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH).

text: An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene (or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon) is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: with

text: sigma bond

text: s and delocalized

text: pi electron

text: s between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast,

text: aliphatic

text: hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term 'aromatic' was assigned before the physical mechanism determining

text: aromaticity

text: was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon,

text: benzene

text: . Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH).

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answers: aliphatic

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answers: Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH)

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aryl hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PAH

text: First, the palladium coordinates to the alkene, forming a η2 π-allyl-Pd0 Π complex. The next step is oxidative addition in which the leaving group is expelled with inversion of configuration and a η3 π-allyl-PdII is created (also called ionization). The nucleophile then adds to the allyl group regenerating the η2 π-allyl-Pd0 complex. At the completion of the reaction, the palladium detaches from the alkene and can start again in the catalytic cycle.

text: First, the palladium coordinates to the alkene, forming a

text: η2

text: π-allyl-

text: Π complex

text: . The next step is

text: oxidative addition

text: in which the leaving group is expelled with

text: inversion of configuration

text: and a

text: η3

text: π-allyl-

text: PdII

text: is created (also called ionization). The nucleophile then adds to the allyl group regenerating the η2 π-allyl-Pd0 complex. At the completion of the reaction, the palladium detaches from the alkene and can start again in the

text: catalytic cycle

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answers: allyl

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: allyl-PdII is created

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allyl

text: In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula . Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to CH, known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic but tend to be more reactive.

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: , an alkyne is an

text: unsaturated

text: hydrocarbon

text: containing at least one carbon—carbon

text: triple bond

text: . The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other

text: functional group

text: s form a

text: homologous series

text: with the general chemical formula . Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to CH, known formally as

text: ethyne

text: using

text: IUPAC nomenclature

text: . Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic but tend to be more reactive.

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answers: ethyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: simplest acyclic alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkynes are generally hydrophobic but tend to be more reactive

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: At suctions less than one-third bar, water moves in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is dependent on the square of the diameter of the water-filled pores. Water is pulled by capillary action due to the adhesion force of water to the soil solids, producing a suction gradient from wet towards drier soil. Doubling the diameter of the pores increases the flow rate by a factor of four. Large pores drained by gravity and not filled with water do not greatly increase the flow rate for unsaturated flow. Water flow is primarily from coarse-textured soil into fine-textured soil and is slowest in fine-textured soils such as clay.

text: At suctions less than one-third bar, water moves in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is dependent on the square of the diameter of the water-filled pores. Water is pulled by capillary action due to the adhesion force of water to the soil solids, producing a suction gradient from wet towards drier soil. Doubling the diameter of the pores increases the flow rate by a factor of four. Large pores drained by gravity and not filled with water do not greatly increase the flow rate for unsaturated flow. Water flow is primarily from coarse-textured soil into fine-textured soil and is slowest in fine-textured soils such as clay.

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Small alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Large pores drained by gravity and not filled with water do not greatly increase the flow rate for unsaturated flow

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: water-filled pores

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: one-third bar

text: Since the most common aromatic compounds are derivatives of benzene (an aromatic hydrocarbon common in petroleum and its distillates), the word “aromatic” occasionally refers informally to benzene derivatives, and so it was first defined. Nevertheless, many non-benzene aromatic compounds exist. In living organisms, for example, the most common aromatic rings are the double-ringed bases in RNA and DNA. An aromatic functional group or other substituent is called an aryl group.

text: Since the most common aromatic compounds are derivatives of

text: benzene

text: (an

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: common in

text: petroleum

text: and

text: its distillates

text: ), the word “aromatic” occasionally refers informally to benzene derivatives, and so it was first defined. Nevertheless, many non-benzene aromatic compounds exist. In living organisms, for example, the most common aromatic rings are the double-ringed bases in

text: RNA

text: and

text: DNA

text: . An aromatic

text: functional group

text: or other

text: substituent

text: is called an

text: aryl

text: group.

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answers: an aromatic hydrocarbon common in petroleum and its distillates

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Nevertheless, many non-benzene aromatic compounds exist

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: double-ringed bases in RNA and DNA

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: The very lightest, most volatile liquid hydrocarbon solvents that can be bought from laboratory chemical suppliers may also be offered under the name petroleum ether. Petroleum ether consists mainly of aliphatic hydrocarbons and is usually low on aromatics. It is commonly hydrodesulfurized and may be hydrogenated to reduce the amount of aromatic and other unsaturated hydrocarbons. Petroleum ether bears normally a descriptive suffix giving the boiling range. Thus, from the leading international laboratory chemical suppliers it is possible to buy various petroleum ethers with boiling ranges such as 30-50 °C, 40-60 °C, 50-70 °C, 60-80 °C, etc. In the United States, laboratory grade aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents with boiling ranges as high as 100-140 °C may be called petroleum ether, rather than petroleum spirit.

text: The very lightest, most volatile liquid hydrocarbon solvents that can be bought from laboratory chemical suppliers may also be offered under the name petroleum ether. Petroleum ether consists mainly of

text: aliphatic

text: hydrocarbons and is usually low on

text: aromatics

text: . It is commonly

text: hydrodesulfurized

text: and may be hydrogenated to reduce the amount of aromatic and other

text: unsaturated

text: hydrocarbons. Petroleum ether bears normally a descriptive suffix giving the boiling range. Thus, from the leading international laboratory chemical suppliers it is possible to buy various petroleum ethers with boiling ranges such as 30-50 °C, 40-60 °C, 50-70 °C, 60-80 °C, etc. In the United States, laboratory grade aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents with boiling ranges as high as 100-140 °C may be called petroleum ether, rather than petroleum spirit.

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answers: aliphatic

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answers: aliphatic hydrocarbons and is usually low on aromatics

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answers: Hydrogenated to reduce the amount of aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: aliphatic hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: Olefins or alkenes, which are unsaturated straight-chain or branched hydrocarbons, do not occur naturally in crude oil.

text: Olefin

text: s or

text: alkenes

text: , which are unsaturated straight-chain or branched hydrocarbons, do not occur naturally in crude oil.

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answers: Olefins

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answers: Olefins

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answers: Olefins or alkenes

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answers: no

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Alkynes form complexes with transition metals.  Such compounds are sometimes useful reagents or illustrate the role that metals play in catalytic transformations of alkynes.

text: Alkynes form complexes with transition metals.  Such compounds are sometimes useful reagents or illustrate the role that metals play in catalytic transformations of alkynes.

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: Alkynes form complexes with transition metals

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: alkyne

text: Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.

text: Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.

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answers: hydrocarbon

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answers: hydrocarbon

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answers: High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbon

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: Many alkyne complexes are produced by reduction of metal halides, e.g. titanocene dichloride and bis(triphenylphosphine)platinum dichloride in the presence of the alkyne:

text: Many alkyne complexes are produced by reduction of metal halides, e.g.

text: titanocene dichloride

text: and

text: bis(triphenylphosphine)platinum dichloride

text: in the presence of the alkyne:

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answers: alkyne

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answers: alkyne

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answers: alkyne complexes are produced by reduction of metal halides

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answers: alkyne

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answers: triphenylphosphine

text: The carbon-hydrogen bond (C–H bond) is a bond between carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be found in many organic compounds. This bond is a covalent bond meaning that carbon shares its outer valence electrons with up to four hydrogens.  This completes both of their outer shells making them stable. Carbon–hydrogen bonds have a bond length of about 1.09 Å (1.09 × 10 m) and a bond energy of about 413 kJ/mol (see table below).  Using Pauling's scale—C (2.55) and H (2.2)—the electronegativity difference between these two atoms is 0.35. Because of this small difference in electronegativities, the C−H bond is generally regarded as being non-polar. In structural formulas of molecules, the hydrogen atoms are often omitted. Compound classes consisting solely of C–H bonds and C–C bonds are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Collectively they are known as hydrocarbons.

text: The carbon-hydrogen bond (C–H bond) is a

text: bond

text: between

text: carbon

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: atoms that can be found in many

text: organic compound

text: s. This bond is a covalent bond meaning that carbon shares its outer valence electrons with up to four hydrogens.  This completes both of their outer shells making them stable. Carbon–hydrogen bonds have a

text: bond length

text: of about 1.09

text: Å

text: (1.09 × 10 m) and a

text: bond energy

text: of about 413

text: kJ

text: mol

text: (see table below).  Using

text: Pauling's scale

text: —C (2.55) and H (2.2)—the electronegativity difference between these two atoms is 0.35. Because of this small difference in electronegativities, the C−H bond is generally regarded as being non-polar. In

text: structural formula

text: s of molecules, the hydrogen atoms are often omitted. Compound classes consisting solely of C–H bonds and

text: C–C

text: bonds are

text: alkane

text: s,

text: alkene

text: s,

text: alkyne

text: s, and

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s. Collectively they are known as

text: hydrocarbons

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkynes

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answers: Compound classes consisting solely of C–H bonds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C–H

text: Common constituents of epicuticular wax are predominantly straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons that may be saturated or unsaturated and contain a variety of functional groups. Paraffins occur in leaves of peas and cabbages, alkyl esters in leaves of carnauba palm and banana, the asymmetrical secondary alcohol 10-nonacosanol in most gymnosperms such as Ginkgo biloba and Sitka spruce, many of the Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae and Rosaceae and some mosses, symmetrical secondary alcohols in Brassicaceae including Arabidopsis thaliana, primary alcohols (mostly octacosan-1-ol) in most grasses Poaceae, Eucalyptus and legumes among many other plant groups, β-diketones in many grasses, Eucalyptus, box Buxus and the Ericaceae, aldehydes in young beech leaves, sugarcane culms and lemon fruit and triterpenes in fruit waxes of apple, plum and grape Aromatic compounds have been recorded in epicuticular waxes but are generally minor constituents.

text: Common constituents of epicuticular wax are predominantly straight-chain

text: aliphatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: s that may be saturated or unsaturated and contain a variety of functional groups.

text: Paraffins

text: occur in leaves of

text: pea

text: s and

text: cabbage

text: s, alkyl

text: ester

text: s in leaves of

text: carnauba

text: palm and

text: banana

text: , the asymmetrical

text: secondary alcohol

text: 10-nonacosanol in most

text: gymnosperms

text: such as

text: Ginkgo biloba

text: and

text: Sitka spruce

text: , many of the

text: Ranunculaceae

text: Papaveraceae

text: and

text: Rosaceae

text: and some

text: mosses

text: , symmetrical

text: secondary alcohol

text: s in

text: Brassicaceae

text: including

text: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: primary alcohol

text: s (mostly

text: ) in most grasses

text: Poaceae

text: Eucalyptus

text: and

text: legume

text: s among many other plant groups, β-

text: diketone

text: s in many grasses,

text: Eucalyptus

text: , box

text: Buxus

text: and the

text: Ericaceae

text: aldehyde

text: s in young

text: beech

text: leaves,

text: sugarcane

text: culms and

text: lemon

text: fruit and

text: triterpene

text: s in fruit waxes of

text: apple

text: plum

text: and

text: grape

text: Aromatic compounds have been recorded in epicuticular waxes but are generally minor constituents.

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answers: Aromatic compounds

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answers: paraffins occur in leaves of peas and cabbages, alkyl esters in leaves of carnauba palm and banana

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answers: 10-nonacosanol

text: Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto, becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942, vice president in 1943, executive vice president in 1947, president in 1950, and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965. He subsequently  served as chairman of Monsanto's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968. He retired in 1970. In this time, Monsanto's annual sales grew from $34 million to $1.9 billion, and its expenditure on research from $6.2 million to 101.4 million. He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers. In studying the chemical reactions between alkenes and dienes, particularly in the presence of an aluminium chloride catalyst, he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride, which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions, including cracking, polymerization and dehydrogenation. This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941.

text: Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto, becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942, vice president in 1943, executive vice president in 1947, president in 1950, and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965. He subsequently  served as chairman of Monsanto's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968. He retired in 1970. In this time, Monsanto's annual sales grew from $34 million to $1.9 billion, and its expenditure on research from $6.2 million to 101.4 million. He researched the chemistry of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and

text: polymer

text: s. In studying the chemical reactions between

text: alkene

text: s and

text: diene

text: s, particularly in the presence of an

text: aluminium chloride

text: catalyst

text: , he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride, which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions, including

text: cracking

text: polymerization

text: and

text: dehydrogenation

text: . This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers

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answers: alkenes

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text: Carpathite (also pendletonite and karpatite) is a very rare hydrocarbon mineral. It is the mineral form of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon coronene with formula: CH.

text: Carpathite (also pendletonite and karpatite) is a very rare hydrocarbon mineral. It is the mineral form of the

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: coronene

text: with formula: CH.

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answers: CH

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

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text: Silicon wafers can be etched in hydrofluoric acid (HF) to remove the native oxide and form a hydrogen-terminated silicon surface. The hydrogen-terminated surfaces undergo hydrosilation with unsaturated compounds (such as terminal alkenes and alkynes), to form a stable monolayer on the surface. For example:

text: Silicon wafer

text: s can be etched in

text: hydrofluoric acid

text: (HF) to remove the native oxide and form a

text: hydrogen-terminated silicon surface

text: . The hydrogen-terminated surfaces undergo hydrosilation with unsaturated compounds (such as terminal alkenes and alkynes), to form a stable monolayer on the surface. For example:

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answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkenes and alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated compounds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkynes

text: It is suggested that this phase is formed by lipids in solution in order to compensate for the hydrophobic effect. The tight packing of the lipid head groups reduces their contact with the aqueous phase. This, in turn, reduces the amount of ordered, but unbound water molecules. The most common lipids that form this phase include phospatidylethanolamine (PE), when it has unsaturated hydrocarbon chains. Diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG, otherwise known as cardiolipin) in the presence of calcium is also capable of forming this phase.

text: It is suggested that this phase is formed by lipids in solution in order to compensate for the hydrophobic effect. The tight packing of the lipid head groups reduces their contact with the aqueous phase. This, in turn, reduces the amount of ordered, but unbound water molecules. The most common lipids that form this phase include phospatidylethanolamine (PE), when it has unsaturated hydrocarbon chains. Diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG, otherwise known as cardiolipin) in the presence of calcium is also capable of forming this phase.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Diphosphatidylglycerol

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: diphosphatidylethanolamine

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The tight packing of the lipid head groups reduces their contact with the aqueous phase

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Diphosphatidylglycerol

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: phospatidylethanolamine

text: The aniline point serves as a reasonable proxy for aromaticity of oils consisting mostly of saturated hydrocarbons (i.e. alkanes, paraffins) or unsaturated compounds (mostly aromatics).  Significant chemical functionalization of the oil (chlorination, sulfonation, etc.) can interfere with the measurement, due to changes to the solvency of the functionalized oil.

text: The aniline point serves as a reasonable proxy for aromaticity of oils consisting mostly of saturated hydrocarbons (i.e. alkanes, paraffins) or unsaturated compounds (mostly aromatics).  Significant chemical functionalization of the oil (chlorination, sulfonation, etc.) can interfere with the measurement, due to changes to the solvency of the functionalized oil.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkanes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Most aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are the most common and abundant of the known polyatomic molecules in the visible universe, and are considered a likely constituent of the primordial sea. PAHs, along with fullerenes (or "buckyballs"), have been recently detected in nebulae.  (Fullerenes are also implicated in the origin of life; according to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It’s possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth.”) In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that PAHs, subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics — "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively". Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains, particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are the most common and abundant of the known polyatomic molecules in the visible

text: universe

text: , and are considered a likely constituent of the

text: primordial sea

text: . PAHs, along with

text: fullerenes

text: (or "

text: buckyballs

text: "), have been recently detected in nebulae.  (

text: Fullerenes

text: are also implicated in the origin of life; according to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It’s possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth.”) In September 2012,

text: NASA scientists

text: reported that PAHs, subjected to

text: interstellar medium

text: (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through

text: hydrogenation

text: oxygenation

text: and

text: hydroxylation

text: , to more complex

text: organics

text: — "a step along the path toward

text: amino acids

text: and

text: nucleotides

text: , the raw materials of

text: proteins

text: and

text: DNA

text: , respectively". Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their

text: spectroscopic signature

text: which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in

text: interstellar ice

text: grains

text: , particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of

text: protoplanetary disks

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are the most common and abundant of the known polyatomic molecules in the visible universe

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: The term carotene (also carotin, from the Latin carota, "carrot") is used for many related unsaturated hydrocarbon substances having the formula CH, which are synthesized by plants but in general cannot be made by animals (with the sole known exception of some aphids and spider mites which acquired the synthetic genes from fungi). Carotenes are photosynthetic pigments important for photosynthesis. Carotenes contain no oxygen atoms. They absorb ultraviolet, violet, and blue light and scatter orange or red light, and (in low concentrations) yellow light.

text: The term carotene (also carotin, from the Latin carota, "carrot") is used for many related

text: unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: substances having the formula CH, which are synthesized by plants but in general cannot be made by animals (with the sole known exception of some aphids and spider mites which acquired the synthetic genes from fungi). Carotenes are

text: photosynthetic pigment

text: s important for

text: photosynthesis

text: . Carotenes contain no oxygen atoms. They absorb ultraviolet, violet, and blue light and scatter orange or red light, and (in low concentrations) yellow light.

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answers: Carotenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: no oxygen atoms

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Carotenes contain no oxygen atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Carotenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used for any mixture of hydrocarbons that are found in crude oil. There are several hundred of these compounds, but not all occur in any one sample. Crude oil is used to make petroleum products which can contaminate the environment. Because there are so many different chemicals in crude oil and in other petroleum products, it is not practical to measure each one separately. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of TPH at a site.  Chemicals that occur in TPH include hexane, benzene, toluene, xylenes, naphthalene, and fluorene, other constituents of gasoline, of jet fuels, of mineral oils, and of other petroleum products. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Ranges are monitored at various levels depending on the state and testing site. TPH is the sum of VPH and EPH. VPH refers to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons (VPH) also known as petrol range organics (PRO) and includes hydrocarbons from C2-C5. Diesel range organics (DRO) includes hydrocarbons from C10-C28.Various methods to analyze the components of TPH are introduced in a Nordic report. The report evaluates critically various new methods replacing the old ones using banned ozone depleting substances.

text: Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used for any mixture of

text: hydrocarbons

text: that are found in

text: crude oil

text: . There are several hundred of these compounds, but not all occur in any one sample. Crude oil is used to make

text: petroleum

text: products which can

text: contaminate

text: the

text: environment

text: . Because there are so many different chemicals in crude oil and in other petroleum products, it is not practical to measure each one separately. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of TPH at a site.  Chemicals that occur in TPH include

text: hexane

text: benzene

text: toluene

text: xylenes

text: naphthalene

text: , and

text: fluorene

text: , other constituents of

text: gasoline

text: , of

text: jet fuel

text: s, of

text: mineral oil

text: s, and of other petroleum products. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Ranges are monitored at various levels depending on the state and testing site. TPH is the sum of VPH and EPH. VPH refers to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons (VPH) also known as petrol range organics (PRO) and includes hydrocarbons from C2-C5. Diesel range organics (DRO) includes hydrocarbons from C10-C28.Various methods to analyze the components of TPH are introduced in a Nordic report. The report evaluates critically various new methods replacing the old ones using banned

text: ozone depleting substances

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answers: hexane

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answers: xylenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: benzene, toluene, xylenes, naphthalene, and fluorene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hexane

text: Alkynes are characteristically more unsaturated than alkenes. Thus they add two equivalents of bromine whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent in the reaction. Other reactions are listed below. In some reactions, alkynes are less reactive than alkenes. For example, in a molecule with an -ene and an -yne group, addition occurs preferentially at the -ene. Possible explanations involve the two π-bonds in the alkyne delocalising, which would reduce the energy of the π-system or the stability of the intermediates during the reaction.They show greater tendency to polymerize or oligomerize than alkenes do. The resulting polymers, called polyacetylenes (which do not contain alkyne units) are conjugated and can exhibit semiconducting properties.

text: Alkynes are characteristically more

text: unsaturated

text: than alkenes. Thus they add two equivalents of

text: bromine

text: whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent in the reaction. Other reactions are listed below. In some reactions, alkynes are less reactive than

text: alkene

text: s. For example, in a molecule with an -ene and an -yne group, addition occurs preferentially at the -ene. Possible explanations involve the two π-bonds in the alkyne delocalising, which would reduce the energy of the π-system or the stability of the intermediates during the reaction.They show greater tendency to

text: polymerize

text: or

text: oligomer

text: ize than alkenes do. The resulting polymers, called

text: polyacetylene

text: s (which do not contain alkyne units) are

text: conjugated

text: and can exhibit semiconducting properties.

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answers: polyacetylenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkynes are characteristically more unsaturated than alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -ene

text: Several boracyclic compounds are involved in the family of boratabenzenes: 1-boratanaphthalene, 9-borathaanthracene, boracyclooctatetraene, and 2,2’-diboratabiphenyl. Among these compounds, 2,2’-diboratabiphenyl is the first bidentate Lewis acid based on a borabenzene framework, so it is regarded as a Lewis acid analogue of 2,2’-bipyridine, a common bidentate ligand. This compound forms polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon analogues containing boron and nitrogen atoms, which show characteristic optical and electrochemical properties due to the charge transfer between the boron and nitrogen atoms.

text: Several boracyclic compounds are involved in the family of boratabenzenes:

text: boracyclooctatetraene

text: , and

text: . Among these compounds,

text: is the first

text: bidentate

text: Lewis acid

text: based on a borabenzene framework, so it is regarded as a

text: Lewis acid

text: analogue of

text: , a common

text: bidentate ligand

text: . This compound forms

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: analogues containing

text: boron

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: atom

text: s, which show characteristic optical and electrochemical properties due to the

text: charge transfer

text: between the

text: boron

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: atom

text: s.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 1-boratanaphthalene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 1-boratanaphthalene, 9-borathaanthracene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon analogues containing boron and nitrogen atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: bipyridine

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,2-boratanaphthalene

text: In 2008, Alken-Maes was taken over by the Dutch Heineken Brewery.

text: In 2008, Alken-Maes was taken over by the Dutch

text: Heineken

text: Brewery.

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answers: Alken-Maes was taken over by the Dutch

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answers: Alken

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answers: Alken

text: Many of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons known to be tumorigenic or mutagenic are found in atmospheric aerosols, which is connected to the thermal rearrangement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fast soot formation during combustion.

text: Many of the

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: known to be

text: tumorigenic

text: or

text: mutagen

text: ic are found in atmospheric

text: aerosol

text: s, which is connected to the thermal rearrangement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fast soot formation during combustion.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: tumorigenic or mutagenic

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: In addition to the methyltransferase activity, the 4S polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-binding protein and GNMT are one and the same protein. The catalytic site resembles a molecular basket, unlike most other SAM-dependent methyltransferases, which therefore suggests that GNMT may be capable of capturing unidentified chemicals as a part of a detoxification process. Therefore, GNMT has been proposed to be a protein with diverse functionality.

text: In addition to the methyltransferase activity, the 4S polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-binding protein and GNMT are one and the same protein. The catalytic site resembles a molecular basket, unlike most other SAM-dependent methyltransferases, which therefore suggests that GNMT may be capable of capturing unidentified chemicals as a part of a detoxification process. Therefore, GNMT has been proposed to be a protein with diverse functionality.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 4S polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: PAH)-binding protein and GNMT are one and the same protein

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 4S

text: A typical Michael acceptor is an α,β-unsaturated ketone, although aldehydes and acid derivatives work as well. In addition, Bergmann et al. reports that donors such as nitriles, nitro compounds, sulfones and certain hydrocarbons can be used as acceptors. Overall, Michael acceptors are generally activated olefins such as those seen in the diagram below where EWG refers to an electron withdrawing group such as cyano, keto, or ester as shown.

text: A typical

text: Michael acceptor

text: is an α,β-unsaturated ketone, although

text: aldehydes

text: and acid derivatives work as well. In addition, Bergmann et al. reports that donors such as

text: nitriles

text: , nitro compounds,

text: sulfones

text: and certain

text: hydrocarbons

text: can be used as acceptors. Overall, Michael acceptors are generally activated olefins such as those seen in the diagram below where EWG refers to an electron withdrawing group such as cyano, keto, or ester as shown.

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answers: aldehydes and acid derivatives

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answers: Michael acceptors are generally activated olefins

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aldehydes and acid derivatives

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text: Ozonolysis is an organic reaction where the unsaturated bonds of alkenes, alkynes, or azo compounds are cleaved with ozone. Alkenes and alkynes form organic compounds in which the multiple carbon–carbon bond has been replaced by a carbonyl group while azo compounds form nitrosamines. The outcome of the reaction depends on the type of multiple bond being oxidized and the work-up conditions.

text: Ozonolysis is an

text: organic reaction

text: where the

text: unsaturated

text: bonds of

text: alkene

text: s,

text: alkyne

text: s, or

text: azo compound

text: s are

text: cleaved

text: with

text: ozone

text: . Alkenes and alkynes form

text: organic compound

text: s in which the multiple

text: carbon–carbon bond

text: has been replaced by a

text: carbonyl

text: group while azo compounds form

text: nitrosamine

text: s. The outcome of the reaction depends on the type of multiple bond being oxidized and the

text: work-up

text: conditions.

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answers: carbonyl group

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: Alkenes and alkynes form organic compounds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: After the Direct Process, a second major method for the formation of Si-C bonds is hydrosilylation (also called hydrosilation). In this process, compounds with Si-H bonds (hydrosilanes) add to unsaturated substrates.  Commercially, the main substrates are alkenes.  Other unsaturated functional groups—alkynes, imines, ketones, and aldehydes.  An example is the hydrosilation of phenylacetylene:

text: After the Direct Process, a second major method for the formation of Si-C bonds is hydrosilylation (also called hydrosilation). In this process, compounds with Si-H bonds (hydrosilanes) add to unsaturated substrates.  Commercially, the main substrates are

text: alkene

text: s.  Other unsaturated functional groups—

text: alkyne

text: s,

text: imine

text: s,

text: ketones

text: , and

text: aldehydes

text: .  An example is the hydrosilation of phenylacetylene:

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 4

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answers: commercially, the main substrates are alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: commercially, the main substrates are alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: commercially, the main substrates are alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: phenylacetylene

text: Unsaturated compounds, especially alkenes and alkynes, add halogens:

text: Unsaturated compounds, especially

text: alkenes

text: and

text: alkynes

text: , add halogens:

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 4

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes and alkynes add halogens

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: In this mechanism, the terminal olefin undergoes hydroxymercuration to produce the first intermediate, compound 2, a hemiacetal. Next, methanol is lost and the dicarbonyl compound cyclizes through an attack on the electrophilic aldehyde to form the carbocycle as the product.  A downside to this reaction is that the loss of CHOH at the anomeric position (carbon-1) results in a mixture of α- and β-anomers.  The reaction also works for substituted alkenes (e. g. having an -OAc group on the terminal alkene).

text: In this mechanism, the terminal

text: olefin

text: undergoes hydroxymercuration to produce the first intermediate, compound 2, a

text: hemiacetal

text: . Next, methanol is lost and the dicarbonyl compound cyclizes through an attack on the

text: electrophilic

text: aldehyde to form the carbocycle as the product.  A downside to this reaction is that the loss of CHOH at the

text: anomer

text: ic position (carbon-1) results in a mixture of α- and β-anomers.  The reaction also works for substituted alkenes (e. g. having an -O

text: Ac

text: group on the terminal alkene).

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: terminal alkene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: methanol

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The reaction also works for substituted alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -OAc

text: The reaction mechanism begins with the protonation of the alcohol which leaves in an E1 reaction to form the allene from the alkyne. Attack of a water molecule on the carbocation and deprotonation is followed by tautomerization to give the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound.

text: The

text: reaction mechanism

text: begins with the protonation of the alcohol which leaves in an

text: E1 reaction

text: to form the

text: allene

text: from the

text: alkyne

text: . Attack of a water molecule on the

text: carbocation

text: and deprotonation is followed by

text: tautomerization

text: to give the

text: α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: allene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: allene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: , -unsaturated carbonyl compound

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allene

text: In laboratories, s is used as an extraction solvent, for example for determining total recoverable hydrocarbons from soils, sediments, fly-ash and other media, and determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil and solid wastes. Supercritical fluid extraction has been used in determining hydrocarbon components in water.

text: In

text: laboratories

text: , s is used as an extraction solvent, for example for determining total recoverable hydrocarbons from soils, sediments, fly-ash and other media, and determination of

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: in soil and solid wastes. Supercritical fluid extraction has been used in determining

text: hydrocarbon

text: components in water.

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answers: polycyclic aromatic

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answers: polycyclic

text: Alkenes react in many addition reactions, which occur by opening up the double-bond. Most of these addition reactions follow the mechanism of electrophilic addition. Examples are hydrohalogenation, halogenation, halohydrin formation, oxymercuration, hydroboration, dichlorocarbene addition, Simmons–Smith reaction, catalytic hydrogenation, epoxidation, radical polymerization and hydroxylation.

text: Alkenes react in many

text: addition reaction

text: s, which occur by opening up the double-bond. Most of these addition reactions follow the mechanism of

text: electrophilic addition

text: . Examples are

text: hydrohalogenation

text: halogenation

text: halohydrin formation

text: oxymercuration

text: hydroboration

text: dichlorocarbene addition

text: Simmons–Smith reaction

text: catalytic hydrogenation

text: epoxidation

text: radical polymerization

text: and

text: hydroxylation

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: halohydrin

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Most of these addition reactions follow the mechanism of electrophilic addition

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes react in many addition reactions

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Alkenes

text: Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. (Pairs of carbon atoms connected by double bonds can be saturated by adding hydrogen atoms to them, converting the double bonds to single bonds. Therefore, the double bonds are called unsaturated.)

text: Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more

text: double bond

text: s between carbon atoms. (Pairs of carbon atoms connected by double bonds can be saturated by adding hydrogen atoms to them, converting the double bonds to single bonds. Therefore, the double bonds are called unsaturated.)

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answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrogen atoms

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The double bonds are called unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: fatty acids

text: Alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated", meaning that each alkyne unit is capable of adding two equivalents of H, halogens or related HX reagents (X = halide, pseudohalide, etc.). Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful:

text: Alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated", meaning that each alkyne unit is capable of adding two equivalents of H,

text: halogen

text: s or related HX reagents (X = halide, pseudohalide, etc.). Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial

text: hydrogenation

text: , stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the

text: alkene

text: , is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful:

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated"

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: HX

text: Anions that interact weakly with cations are termed non-coordinating anions, although a more accurate term is 'weakly coordinating anion'. Non-coordinating anions are useful in studying the reactivity of electrophilic cations.  They are commonly found  as counterions for cationic metal complexes with an unsaturated coordination sphere.  These special anions are essential components of homogeneous olefin polymerisation catalysts, where the active catalyst is a coordinatively unsaturated, cationic transition metal complex.  For example, they are employed as counterions for the 14 valence electron cations [(CH)ZrR] (R = methyl or a growing polyethylene chain). Complexes derived from noncoordinating anions have been used to catalyze hydrogenation, hydrosilylation, oligomerization, and the living polymerization of olefins.  The popularization of non-coordinating anions has contributed to increased understanding of agostic complexes wherein hydrocarbons and hydrogen serve as ligands. Noncoordinating anions are important components of many superacids, which result from the combination of Bronsted acids and Lewis acids.

text: Anion

text: s that interact weakly with

text: cation

text: s are termed non-coordinating anions, although a more accurate term is 'weakly coordinating anion'. Non-coordinating anions are useful in studying the reactivity of

text: electrophilic

text: cations.  They are commonly found  as counterions for cationic

text: metal complex

text: es with an

text: unsaturated coordination sphere

text: .  These special anions are essential components of

text: homogeneous

text: olefin polymerisation catalysts

text: , where the active catalyst is a coordinatively unsaturated, cationic

text: transition metal

text: complex.  For example, they are employed as counterions for the

text: 14 valence electron

text: cations [(CH)ZrR] (R = methyl or a growing polyethylene chain). Complexes derived from noncoordinating anions have been used to

text: catalyze

text: hydrogenation

text: hydrosilylation

text: oligomerization

text: , and the

text: living polymerization

text: of

text: olefin

text: s.  The popularization of non-coordinating anions has contributed to increased understanding of

text: agostic complex

text: es wherein hydrocarbons and hydrogen serve as ligands. Noncoordinating anions are important components of many

text: superacid

text: s, which result from the combination of

text: Bronsted acid

text: s and

text: Lewis acid

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: polyethylene chain

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrogen

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The popularization of non-coordinating anions has contributed to increased understanding of agostic complexes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: (CH)ZrR

text: Cyclononane is an alicyclic  hydrocarbon consisting of a ring of nine carbon atoms. Its molecular formula is CH.

text: Cyclononane is an

text: alicyclic

text: hydrocarbon

text: consisting of a ring of nine carbon atoms. Its

text: molecular formula

text: is CH.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Cyclononane is an alicyclic hydrocarbon

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answers: alicyclic hydrocarbon

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answers: CH

text: Carbon dioxide is not a typical feedstock for F-T catalysis. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide react over a cobalt-based catalyst, producing methane. With iron-based catalysts unsaturated short-chain hydrocarbons are also produced. Upon introduction to the catalyst's support, ceria functions as a reverse water gas shift catalyst, further increasing the yield of the reaction. The short-chain hydrocarbons were upgraded to liquid fuels over solid acid catalysts, such as zeolites.

text: Carbon dioxide is not a typical feedstock for F-T catalysis. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide react over a cobalt-based catalyst, producing methane. With iron-based catalysts unsaturated short-chain hydrocarbons are also produced. Upon introduction to the catalyst's support, ceria functions as a reverse water gas shift catalyst, further increasing the yield of the reaction. The short-chain hydrocarbons were upgraded to liquid fuels over solid acid catalysts, such as

text: zeolite

text: s.

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answers: Carbon dioxide is not a typical feedstock for F-T catalysis

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answers: short-chain hydrocarbons

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answers: F-T

text: There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components.

text: There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: gaseous components

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answers: There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: Ammoxidation of alkenes exploits the weak C-H bonds that are located in the allylic position of unsaturated hydrocarbons. Benzylic C-H bonds are also susceptible to ammoxidation, reflecting the weakness of their C-H bonds.  For this reason, cyanopyridines (e.g. the precursor to niacin) and benzonitriles are produced from methylpyridines and toluene, respectively.  Dinitriles are produced by double ammoxidation, examples being phthalonitriles (precursor to phthalocyanines) and terephthalonitriles, both from xylenes.

text: Ammoxidation of alkenes exploits the weak C-H bonds that are located in the

text: allyl

text: ic position of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

text: Benzyl

text: ic C-H bonds are also susceptible to ammoxidation, reflecting the weakness of their C-H bonds.  For this reason, cyanopyridines (e.g. the precursor to

text: niacin

text: ) and

text: benzonitrile

text: s are produced from methyl

text: pyridine

text: s and

text: toluene

text: , respectively.  Dinitriles are produced by double ammoxidation, examples being

text: phthalonitrile

text: s (precursor to

text: phthalocyanine

text: s) and terephthalonitriles, both from

text: xylene

text: s.

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answers: Benzylic C-H bonds

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answers: benzylic C-H bonds

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answers: Benzylic C-H bonds are also susceptible to ammoxidation

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answers: alkenes

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answers: methylpyridines

text: In organic chemistry, a saturated compound is a chemical compound that has a chain of carbon atoms linked together by single bonds. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. An unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon-carbon double bonds or triple bonds, such as those found in alkenes or alkynes, respectively. Saturated and unsaturated compounds need not consist only of a carbon atom chain. They can form straight chain, branched chain, or ring arrangements. They can have functional groups, as well. It is in this sense that fatty acids are classified as saturated or unsaturated. The amount of unsaturation of a fatty acid can be determined by finding its iodine number.

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: , a saturated compound is a

text: chemical compound

text: that has a chain of

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s linked together by

text: single bond

text: s.

text: Alkane

text: s are saturated hydrocarbons. An unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon-carbon

text: double bond

text: s or

text: triple bond

text: s, such as those found in

text: alkene

text: s or

text: alkyne

text: s, respectively. Saturated and unsaturated compounds need not consist only of a carbon atom chain. They can form straight chain, branched chain, or ring arrangements. They can have functional groups, as well. It is in this sense that

text: fatty acid

text: s are classified as

text: saturated

text: or

text: unsaturated

text: . The amount of unsaturation of a fatty acid can be determined by finding its

text: iodine number

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answers: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:

text: Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g.,

text: acrylate

text: s. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of

text: natural gas

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answers: acetylene

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answers: Acetylene

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answers: Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself

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answers: acetylene

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answers: Acetylene

text: Alken is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz in Rhineland-Palatinate, western Germany.

text: Alken is a municipality in the

text: district of Mayen-Koblenz

text: in

text: Rhineland-Palatinate

text: , western

text: Germany

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answers: Alken is a municipality

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answers: Alken

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answers: Alken

text: Phenanthrenedione is a cytotoxic derivative of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon phenanthrene.

text: Phenanthrenedione is a cytotoxic derivative of the

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: phenanthrene

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: polycyclic

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

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answers: phenanthrene

text: In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.

text: In

text: systematic chemical nomenclature

text: , alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For

text: octyne

text: , one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the

text: triple bond

text: . When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.

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answers: The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: oct-3-yne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ethyne

text: In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls.Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons.

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: , a hydrocarbon is an

text: organic compound

text: consisting entirely of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: , and thus are

text: group 14 hydride

text: s. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen

text: atom

text: has been removed are

text: functional group

text: s, called hydrocarbyls.

text: Aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s (arenes),

text: alkane

text: s,

text: alkene

text: s,

text: cycloalkane

text: s and

text: alkyne

text: -based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons.

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answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: arenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. Most notable is the Diels–Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes to give 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed and electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The "cycloadduct" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the [2+2+1]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson–Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:

text: Alkynes undergo diverse

text: cycloaddition

text: reactions. Most notable is the

text: Diels–Alder reaction

text: with 1,3-

text: diene

text: s to give

text: . This general reaction has been extensively developed and electrophilic alkynes are especially effective

text: dienophile

text: s. The "cycloadduct" derived from the addition of alkynes to

text: eliminates

text: carbon dioxide

text: to give the

text: aromatic

text: compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as

text: alkyne trimerisation

text: to give

text: aromatic

text: compounds and the [2+2+1]-cycloaddition of an alkyne,

text: alkene

text: and

text: carbon monoxide

text: in the

text: Pauson–Khand reaction

text: . Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g.

text: Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition

text: to give

text: triazole

text: s. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g.

text: enyne metathesis

text: and

text: alkyne metathesis

text: , which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Carbon monoxide

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,3-dienes

text: Hydrocarbon plants are plants that follow certain metabolic pathways that produce hydrocarbon products similar to petroleum. Thesehydrocarbon products are called terpenoids. The plants that produce terpenoids in large enough quantitiesto be harvested can be as big as trees or as small as single-cell algae. The Euphorbiaceae family has been studied in detail byDr. Melvin Calvin, Nobel Laureate, and discoverer of the Calvin Cycle.One particular tree, the Hevea tree, or more commonly known as the rubber tree, is probably the most famous hydrocarbon plant,supplying an estimated one third of the world’s rubber demand. It is still not as quick and cheap to make as petroleum-based rubber,hence why it does not occupy a larger portion of themarket. The Hevea tree naturally produces a latex substance which can tapped bycutting into the tree, and the latex can then be processed into rubber.

text: Hydrocarbon plants are plants that follow certain metabolic pathways that produce hydrocarbon products similar to petroleum. Thesehydrocarbon products are called

text: terpenoids

text: . The plants that produce

text: terpenoids

text: in large enough quantitiesto be harvested can be as big as trees or as small as single-cell algae. The

text: Euphorbiaceae

text: family has been studied in detail byDr.

text: Melvin Calvin

text: , Nobel Laureate, and discoverer of the

text: Calvin Cycle

text: .One particular tree, the

text: Hevea

text: tree, or more commonly known as the rubber tree, is probably the most famous hydrocarbon plant,supplying an estimated one third of the world’s rubber demand. It is still not as quick and cheap to make as petroleum-based rubber,hence why it does not occupy a larger portion of themarket. The

text: Hevea

text: tree naturally produces a latex substance which can tapped bycutting into the tree, and the latex can then be processed into rubber.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbon plants

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Hydrocarbon plants are plants that follow certain metabolic pathways that produce hydrocarbon products like petroleum

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Hydrocarbon plants

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: The nitrone-olefin [3+2] cycloaddition reaction is the combination of a nitrone with an alkene or alkyne to generate an isoxazoline or isoxazolidine via a [3+2] cycloaddition process. This reaction is a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, in which the nitrone acts as the 1,3-dipole, and the alkene or alkyne as the dipolarophile.

text: The nitrone-olefin [3+2] cycloaddition reaction is the combination of a

text: nitrone

text: with an

text: alkene

text: or

text: alkyne

text: to generate an

text: isoxazoline

text: or

text: isoxazolidine

text: via a [3+2]

text: cycloaddition

text: process. This reaction is a

text: 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition

text: , in which the nitrone acts as the

text: , and the alkene or alkyne as the dipolarophile.

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answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

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answers: olefin

text: Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne.

text: Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include

text: diphenylacetylene

text: and

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3-hexyne

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answers: Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: diphenylacetylene

text: Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.

text: Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different

text: hydrocarbon

text: s; the most commonly found molecules are

text: alkane

text: s (paraffins),

text: cycloalkane

text: s (

text: naphthene

text: s),

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s, or more complicated chemicals like

text: asphaltene

text: s. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of

text: molecule

text: s, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and

text: viscosity

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answers: paraffins

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answers: petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: paraffins

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: paraffins

text: A reaction that forms an arene compound from an unsaturated or partially unsaturated cyclic precursor is simply called an aromatization. Many laboratory methods exist for the organic synthesis of arenes from non-arene precursors. Many methods rely on cycloaddition reactions. Alkyne trimerization describes the [2+2+2] cyclization of three alkynes, in the Dötz reaction an alkyne, carbon monoxide and a chromium carbene complex are the reactants. Diels–Alder reactions of alkynes with pyrone or cyclopentadienone with expulsion of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide also form arene compounds. In Bergman cyclization the reactants are an enyne plus a hydrogen donor.

text: A reaction that forms an arene compound from an unsaturated or partially unsaturated cyclic precursor is simply called an

text: aromatization

text: . Many laboratory methods exist for the

text: organic synthesis

text: of arenes from non-arene precursors. Many methods rely on

text: cycloaddition

text: reactions.

text: Alkyne trimerization

text: describes the [2+2+2] cyclization of three alkynes, in the

text: Dötz reaction

text: an alkyne, carbon monoxide and a chromium carbene complex are the reactants.

text: Diels–Alder reaction

text: s of

text: alkyne

text: s with

text: pyrone

text: or

text: cyclopentadienone

text: with expulsion of

text: carbon dioxide

text: or carbon monoxide also form arene compounds. In

text: Bergman cyclization

text: the reactants are an

text: enyne

text: plus a hydrogen donor.

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answers: enyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Many laboratory methods exist for the organic synthesis of arenes from non-arene precursors

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: enyne

text: This reaction is occasionally done with acid anhydrides, which yields a one-to-one mixture of α-diazo ketone and the corresponding methyl ester.  This method can also be used with primary diazoalkanes, to produce secondary α-diazo ketones.  However, there are many limitations.  Primary diazoalkanes undergo azo coupling to form azines; thus the reaction conditions must be altered such that acid chloride is added to a solution of diazoalkane and triethylamine at low temperature.  In addition, primary diazoalkanes are very reactive, incompatible with acidic functionalities, and will react with activated alkenes including unsaturated carbonyls to give 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition products.

text: This reaction is occasionally done with

text: acid anhydrides

text: , which yields a one-to-one mixture of α-diazo ketone and the corresponding

text: methyl ester

text: .  This method can also be used with primary diazoalkanes, to produce secondary α-diazo ketones.  However, there are many limitations.  Primary diazoalkanes undergo

text: azo coupling

text: to form azines; thus the reaction conditions must be altered such that acid chloride is added to a solution of diazoalkane and triethylamine at low temperature.  In addition, primary diazoalkanes are very reactive, incompatible with acidic functionalities, and will react with activated alkenes including

text: unsaturated carbonyls

text: to give

text: 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition

text: products.

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answers: unsaturated carbonyls

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: -diazo ketones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: primary diazoalkanes undergo azo coupling to form azines

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyls

text: The physical properties of unsaturated hydrocarbons are very similar to those of the corresponding saturated compounds. They are slightly soluble in water.

text: The physical properties of unsaturated hydrocarbons are very similar to those of the corresponding saturated compounds. They are slightly soluble in water.

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answers: They are slightly soluble in water

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text: Aviation fuels consist of blends of over one thousand chemicals, primarily hydrocarbons (paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics), additives such as antioxidants and metal deactivators, and impurities. Principal components include n-heptane and isooctane. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their octane rating.

text: Aviation fuels consist of blends of over one thousand chemicals, primarily

text: hydrocarbon

text: s (

text: paraffin

text: s,

text: olefins

text: naphthenes

text: , and

text: aromatic

text: s), additives such as

text: antioxidant

text: s and metal deactivators, and impurities. Principal components include

text: n-heptane

text: and

text: isooctane

text: . Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their

text: octane rating

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answers: n-heptane

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answers: paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics

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answers: olefins

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answers: n-heptane

text: Gallaecimonas is a recently described genus of bacteria. The first described species of this genus was Gallaecimonas pentaromativorans gen. nov., sp. nov. isolated by Rodríguez Blanco et al. in 2010 from intertidal sediments of the ria of Corcubión (Galicia, Spain). It is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, halotolerant bacterium in the class Gammaproteobacteria. It can degrade high molecular mass polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of 4 and 5 rings. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of the type strain CEE_131(T) proved to be distantly related to those of Rheinheimera and Serratia. Its G+C content was 41.7 mol%.

text: Gallaecimonas is a recently described genus of

text: bacteria

text: . The first described species of this genus was Gallaecimonas pentaromativorans gen. nov., sp. nov. isolated by Rodríguez Blanco et al. in 2010 from intertidal sediments of the

text: ria

text: of

text: Corcubión

text: Galicia

text: Spain

text: ). It is a

text: Gram-negative

text: , rod-shaped, halotolerant bacterium in the class

text: Gammaproteobacteria

text: . It can degrade high molecular mass polycyclic

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: s of 4 and 5 rings. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of the type strain CEE_131(T) proved to be distantly related to those of

text: Rheinheimera

text: and

text: Serratia

text: . Its

text: G+C content

text: was 41.7 mol%.

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of 4 and 5 rings

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: G+C

text: Because alkynes have two π bonds, alkynes can form stable complexes in which they bridge two metal centers.  The alkyne donates a total of four electrons, with two electrons donated to each of the metals.  And example of a complex with this bonding scheme is η-diphenylacetylene-(hexacarbonyl)dicobalt(0).

text: Because alkynes have two π bonds, alkynes can form stable complexes in which they bridge two metal centers.  The alkyne donates a total of four electrons, with two electrons donated to each of the metals.  And example of a complex with this bonding scheme is η-diphenylacetylene-(hexacarbonyl)dicobalt(0).

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answers: alkynes can form stable complexes in which they bridge two metal centers

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answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -diphenylacetylene

text: In 1958 Brouwerij Maes (Maes Brewery) contacted the monks at the abbey with the proposal to commercialize the dark beer that Maes had developed under the brandname "Grimbergen." Until 1978, Grimbergen Dubbel and Tripel were brewed in the brewery in Waarloos (part of the municipality of Kontich). After that date, the production moved to Brasserie Union in Jumet. Since the closure of the plant in Jumet in 2007, the production moved to the Brouwerij van Alken (Brewery of Alken) located in Alken.

text: In 1958 Brouwerij Maes (Maes Brewery) contacted the monks at the abbey with the proposal to commercialize the dark beer that Maes had developed under the brandname "Grimbergen." Until 1978, Grimbergen Dubbel and Tripel were brewed in the brewery in Waarloos (part of the municipality of

text: Kontich

text: ). After that date, the production moved to Brasserie Union in

text: Jumet

text: . Since the closure of the plant in Jumet in 2007, the production moved to the Brouwerij van Alken (Brewery of Alken) located in

text: Alken

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answers: Until 1978, Grimbergen Dubbel and Tripel were brewed in the brewery in Waarloos

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answers: Tripel

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answers: Tripel

text: Except for aromatic compounds, unsaturated hydrocarbons are highly reactive and undergo addition reactions to their multiple bonds. Typical reagents added are hydrogen halides, water, sulfuric acid, elemental halogens and alcohols.

text: Except for

text: aromatic compounds

text: , unsaturated hydrocarbons are highly reactive and undergo

text: addition reaction

text: s to their multiple bonds. Typical reagents added are

text: hydrogen

text: halide

text: s,

text: water

text: sulfuric acid

text: , elemental

text: halogen

text: s and

text: alcohols

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Highly reactive and undergo addition reactions to their multiple bonds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alcohols

text: A notable variant of the Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition is the copper(I) catalyzed variant, no longer a true concerted cycloaddition, in which organic azides and terminal alkynes are united to afford 1,4-regioisomers of 1,2,3-triazoles as sole products (substitution at positions 1' and 4' as shown above).  The copper(I)-catalyzed variant was first reported in 2002 in independent publications by Morten Meldal at the Carlsberg Laboratory in Denmark and Valery Fokin and K. Barry Sharpless at the Scripps Research Institute.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Vsevolod V. Rostovtsev |author2=Luke G. Green |author3=Valery V. Fokin |author4=K. Barry Sharpless | title = A Stepwise Huisgen Cycloaddition Process: Copper(I)-Catalyzed Regioselective Ligation of Azides and Terminal Alkynes | year = 2002 | journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume = 41 | issue = 14 | pages = 2596–2599 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20020715)41:14

text: A notable variant of the Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition is the copper(I) catalyzed variant, no longer a true concerted cycloaddition, in which organic azides and terminal alkynes are united to afford 1,4-regioisomers of 1,2,3-triazoles as sole products (substitution at positions 1' and 4' as shown above).  The copper(I)-catalyzed variant was first reported in 2002 in independent publications by

text: Morten Meldal

text: at the Carlsberg Laboratory in Denmark and Valery Fokin and

text: K. Barry Sharpless

text: at

text: the Scripps Research Institute

text: .<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Vsevolod V. Rostovtsev |author2=Luke G. Green |author3=Valery V. Fokin |author4=K. Barry Sharpless | title = A Stepwise Huisgen Cycloaddition Process: Copper(I)-Catalyzed Regioselective Ligation of Azides and Terminal Alkynes | year = 2002 | journal =

text: Angewandte Chemie International Edition

text: | volume = 41 | issue = 14 | pages = 2596–2599 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20020715)41:14

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answers: 1,2,3-triazoles

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkynes are gases at room temperature.

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 1,2,3-triazoles as sole products

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common in nature

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,2,3-triazoles

text: 2-Butyne (dimethylethin) forms with 5-decyne (dibutylethin), 4-octyne (dipropylethin) and 3-hexyne (diethylethin) a group of symmetric alkynes.

text: 2-Butyne (dimethylethin) forms with

text: (dibutylethin),

text: (dipropylethin) and

text: (diethylethin) a group of symmetric alkynes.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3-hexyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 3-hexyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 3-hexyne (diethylethin) a group of symmetric alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 3-hexyne

text: In catalytic reforming, a mixture of hydrocarbons with boiling points between 60–200 °C is blended with hydrogen gas and then exposed to a bifunctional platinum chloride or rhenium chloride catalyst at 500–525 °C and pressures ranging from 8–50 atm. Under these conditions, aliphatic hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons. The aromatic products of the reaction are then separated from the reaction mixture (or reformate) by extraction with any one of a number of solvents, including diethylene glycol or sulfolane, and benzene is then separated from the other aromatics by distillation. The extraction step of aromatics from the reformate is designed to produce aromatics with lowest non-aromatic components. Recovery of the aromatics, commonly referred to as BTX (benzene, toluene and xylene isomers), involves such extraction and distillation steps. There are a good many licensed processes available for extraction of the aromatics.

text: In catalytic reforming, a mixture of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s with boiling points between 60–200 °C is blended with

text: hydrogen

text: gas and then exposed to a

text: bifunctional

text: platinum chloride

text: or

text: rhenium

text: chloride

text: catalyst

text: at 500–525 °C and pressures ranging from 8–50 atm. Under these conditions,

text: aliphatic

text: hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons. The aromatic products of the reaction are then separated from the reaction mixture (or reformate) by

text: extraction

text: with any one of a number of

text: solvent

text: s, including

text: diethylene glycol

text: or

text: sulfolane

text: , and benzene is then separated from the other aromatics by distillation. The extraction step of aromatics from the reformate is designed to produce aromatics with lowest non-aromatic components. Recovery of the aromatics, commonly referred to as

text: BTX

text: (benzene, toluene and xylene isomers), involves such extraction and distillation steps. There are a good many licensed processes available for extraction of the aromatics.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: benzene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: benzene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: aliphatic hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aliphatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: xylene

text: Among the molecules which have the chemical formula  four isomers are alkenes. All four of these hydrocarbons have four carbon atoms and one double bond in their molecules, but have different chemical structures. The IUPAC and common names, respectively, of these chemical compounds are:

text: Among the molecules which have the

text: chemical formula

text: four

text: isomers

text: are

text: alkenes

text: . All four of these

text: hydrocarbons

text: have four

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s and one

text: double bond

text: in their

text: molecule

text: s, but have different

text: chemical structure

text: s. The

text: IUPAC

text: and common names, respectively, of these

text: chemical compound

text: s are:

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Hydroformylation entails the addition of both carbon monoxide and hydrogen to unsaturated organic compounds, usually alkenes.  The usual products are aldehydes:

text: Hydroformylation

text: entails the addition of both carbon monoxide and

text: hydrogen

text: to unsaturated organic compounds, usually

text: alkenes

text: .  The usual products are

text: aldehyde

text: s:

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: aldehydes

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answers: The usual products are aldehydes

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: alkenes

text: In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules such as kerogens or long chain hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the temperature and presence of catalysts. Cracking is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more useful alkanes and alkenes. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short ones. This process might require high temperatures and high pressure.

text: In

text: petroleum geology

text: and

text: chemistry

text: , cracking is the process whereby complex

text: organic

text: molecule

text: s such as

text: kerogen

text: s or long chain

text: hydrocarbon

text: s are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of

text: carbon

text: -carbon

text: bond

text: s in the precursors. The

text: rate

text: of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the

text: temperature

text: and presence of

text: catalysts

text: . Cracking is the breakdown of a large

text: alkane

text: into smaller, more useful

text: alkane

text: s and

text: alkene

text: s. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short ones. This process might require high temperatures and high pressure.

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: This process might require high temperatures and high pressure

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbon-carbon

text: Alkenes are generated from α-halosulfones in the Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction, via a three-membered ring sulfone intermediate.

text: Alkenes are generated from α-halo

text: sulfone

text: s in the

text: Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction

text: , via a three-membered ring sulfone intermediate.

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes are generated from  -halosulfones

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -halosulfone

text: When alkenes or carbonyl compounds containing pendant unsaturated moiety are treated with manganese(III) acetate, tandem intramolecular cyclization reactions may occur. Generally, exo cyclization of terminal double bonds is favored, as shown in equation (10). A variety of substitution patterns may be employed for this transformation, and yields are generally higher than intermolecular coupling reactions.

text: When alkenes or carbonyl compounds containing pendant unsaturated moiety are treated with

text: manganese(III) acetate

text: , tandem intramolecular cyclization reactions may occur. Generally, exo cyclization of terminal double bonds is favored, as shown in equation (10). A variety of substitution patterns may be employed for this transformation, and yields are generally higher than intermolecular coupling reactions.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: yields are generally higher than intermolecular coupling reactions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: As an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The carbon–carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180°.

text: As an alkyne, acetylene is

text: unsaturated

text: because its two carbon atoms are

text: bonded

text: together in a

text: triple bond

text: . The carbon–carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180°.

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answers: CCH bond angles

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answers: CCH bond angles of 180°

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answers: CCH

text: Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is benzene, the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure.  For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer.  Particular instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons.

text: Aromatic

text: hydrocarbons contain

text: conjugated

text: double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is

text: benzene

text: , the structure of which was formulated by

text: Kekulé

text: who first proposed the

text: delocalization

text: or

text: resonance

text: principle for explaining its structure.  For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer.  Particular instability (

text: antiaromaticity

text: ) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons.

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answers: every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability

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answers: benzene

text: In this example, the β-carbon of the α,β-unsaturated ester 1 formally acts as a nucleophile, whereas normally it would be expected to be a Michael acceptor.

text: In this example, the β-carbon of the α,β-unsaturated ester 1 formally acts as a nucleophile, whereas normally it would be expected to be a

text: Michael acceptor

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answers: normally it would be expected to be a Michael acceptor

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text: In his year in office, Mesa held a national referendum on the prospect of the nationalization of the hydrocarbons industry which he claimed to have won. Critics however said that the questions were vague and ambiguous with regard to outright nationalization of the hydrocarbons industry.

text: In his year in office, Mesa held a national

text: referendum

text: on the prospect of the nationalization of the

text: hydrocarbons

text: industry which he claimed to have won. Critics however said that the questions were vague and ambiguous with regard to outright nationalization of the hydrocarbons industry.

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: The formula for degree of unsaturation is:

text: The formula for degree of unsaturation is:

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answers: The formula for degree of unsaturation is

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answers: degree of unsaturation

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answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: An alternant hydrocarbon is any conjugated hydrocarbon system which does not possess an odd-membered ring. For such systems it is possible to undertake a starring process, in which the carbon atoms are divided into two sets: all the carbons in one set are marked with a star such that no two starred or unstarred atoms are bonded to each other. Here the starred set contains the highest number of atoms. When this condition is met, the secular determinant in the Hückel approximation has a simpler form, since cross-diagonal elements between atoms in the same set are necessarily 0.

text: An alternant hydrocarbon is any

text: conjugated hydrocarbon system

text: which does not possess an

text: odd-membered ring

text: . For such systems it is possible to undertake a starring process, in which the

text: carbon

text: atoms are divided into two sets: all the carbons in one set are marked with a star such that no two starred or unstarred atoms are bonded to each other. Here the starred set contains the highest number of atoms. When this condition is met, the

text: secular determinant

text: in the

text: Hückel approximation

text: has a simpler form, since cross-diagonal elements between atoms in the same set are necessarily 0.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Here the starred set contains the highest number of atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Hückel

text: The alkyne zipper reaction is an organic reaction which isomerizes an organic compound containing an internal alkyne into a terminal alkyne. This was first reported by Charles Allen Brown and Ayako Yamashita in 1975.  The isomerization reaction proceeds for straight-chain alkynes and acetylinic alcohols and provides a useful approach for remote functionalization in long-chain hydrocarbons.

text: The alkyne zipper reaction is an

text: organic reaction

text: which isomerizes an organic compound containing an internal

text: alkyne

text: into a terminal alkyne. This was first reported by Charles Allen Brown and Ayako Yamashita in 1975.  The

text: isomerization

text: reaction proceeds for straight-chain alkynes and acetylinic alcohols and provides a useful approach for remote functionalization in long-chain hydrocarbons.

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text: Kin recognition often goes hand in hand with communication. For instance,  researchers compared the relative amounts of various hydrocarbon compounds present in the epicuticles, serving as a chemical odor to other individuals, of S. quadripunctata. The study showed that a diverse array of these chemicals were present in each member. They then charted these hydrocarbon differences and found a distinct separation according to colony location, age, sex, and hierarchal position. In particular, older workers, which are in charge of colony protection, had higher concentrations of the alkenes heptacosene and hentriacontene. It was thus deduced that these alkenes were vital parts of kin recognition. Some of these essential hydrocarbons were also found to be lacking in younger individuals, alluding to the idea that the chemicals are acquired as the exposure to the waxy comb, specific to each colony, increases.

text: Kin recognition often goes hand in hand with communication. For instance,  researchers compared the relative amounts of various hydrocarbon compounds present in the

text: epicuticle

text: s, serving as a chemical odor to other individuals, of S. quadripunctata. The study showed that a diverse array of these chemicals were present in each member. They then charted these hydrocarbon differences and found a distinct separation according to colony location, age, sex, and hierarchal position. In particular, older workers, which are in charge of colony protection, had higher concentrations of the

text: alkene

text: s heptacosene and hentriacontene. It was thus deduced that these alkenes were vital parts of kin recognition. Some of these essential hydrocarbons were also found to be lacking in younger individuals, alluding to the idea that the chemicals are acquired as the exposure to the waxy comb, specific to each colony, increases.

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text: Erich Hückel applied molecular orbital theory to unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules starting in 1931 with his Hückel molecular orbital (HMO) method for the determination of MO energies for pi electrons, which he applied to conjugated and aromatic hydrocarbons. This method provided an explanation of the stability of molecules with six pi-electrons such as benzene.

text: Erich Hückel applied molecular orbital theory to unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules starting in 1931 with his

text: Hückel molecular orbital (HMO) method

text: for the determination of MO energies for

text: pi electrons

text: , which he applied to conjugated and aromatic hydrocarbons. This method provided an explanation of the stability of molecules with six pi-electrons such as

text: benzene

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text: A petroleum refinery includes many unit operations and unit processes. The first unit operation in a refinery is the continuous distillation of the petroleum crude oil being refined. The overhead liquid distillate is called naphtha and will become a major component of the refinery's gasoline (petrol) product after it is further processed through a catalytic hydrodesulfurizer to remove sulfur-containing hydrocarbons and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value. The naphtha is a mixture of very many different hydrocarbon compounds. It has an initial boiling point of about 35 °C and a final boiling point of about 200 °C, and it contains paraffin, naphthene (cyclic paraffins) and aromatic hydrocarbons ranging from those containing 4 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms.

text: A petroleum refinery includes many

text: unit operations

text: and

text: unit processes

text: . The first unit operation in a refinery is the

text: continuous distillation

text: of the

text: petroleum crude oil

text: being refined. The overhead liquid distillate is called naphtha and will become a major component of the refinery's gasoline (petrol) product after it is further processed through a

text: catalytic hydrodesulfurizer

text: to remove

text: sulfur

text: -containing hydrocarbons and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value. The naphtha is a mixture of very many different hydrocarbon compounds. It has an initial

text: boiling point

text: of about 35 °C and a final boiling point of about 200 °C, and it contains

text: paraffin

text: naphthene

text: (cyclic paraffins) and

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbons ranging from those containing 4

text: carbon

text: atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms.

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answers: 4 carbon atoms

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 4 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: ranging from those containing 4 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: naphthene

text: Syn addition is the addition of two substituents to the same side (or face) of a double bond or triple bond, resulting in a decrease in bond order but an increase in number of substituents.  Generally the substrate will be an alkene or alkyne. An example of syn addition would be the oxidation of an alkene to a diol via a suitable oxidizing agent such as Osmium tetroxide OsO or Potassium permanganate KMnO.

text: Syn addition is the addition of two

text: substituent

text: s to the same side (or face) of a

text: double bond

text: or

text: triple bond

text: , resulting in a decrease in

text: bond order

text: but an increase in number of substituents.  Generally the

text: substrate

text: will be an alkene or

text: alkyne

text: . An example of syn addition would be the oxidation of an

text: alkene

text: to a diol via a suitable oxidizing agent such as

text: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO or

text: Potassium permanganate

text: KMnO.

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answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Generally the substrate will be an alkene or alkyne

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene or alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: KMnO

text: Suitable resin chemistries for the manufacture of gelcoats vary, but the most commonly encountered are unsaturated polyesters or epoxies. Within each of these categories, the resin chemistries are further subdivided.

text: Suitable resin chemistries for the manufacture of gelcoats vary, but the most commonly encountered are

text: unsaturated

text: polyesters or epoxies. Within each of these categories, the resin chemistries are further subdivided.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Epoxyes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Within each of these categories, the resin chemistries are further subdivided

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: epoxies

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Epoxy

text: Dehydroannulenes with more than one alkyne group were pioneered by Franz Sondheimer whose research group reported bisdehydro[12]annulene in 1962  and 1,5,9-tridehydro[12]annulene in 1966. A dehydrobenzo[14]annulene was reported in 2001 by Boydston and Haley

text: Dehydroannulenes with more than one alkyne group were pioneered by

text: Franz Sondheimer

text: whose research group reported bisdehydro[12]annulene in 1962  and 1,5,9-tridehydro[12]annulene in 1966. A dehydrobenzo[14]annulene was reported in 2001 by Boydston and Haley

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 1,5,9-tridehydro[12]annulene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 1,5,9-tridehydro[12]annulene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Dehydroannulenes with more than one alkyne group

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common in nature

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,9-tridehydro[12]annulene

text: Unsaturated fluorocarbons are far more reactive than fluoroalkanes. Although difluoroacetylene is unstable (as is typical for related alkynes, see dichloroacetylene), hexafluoro-2-butyne and related fluorinated alkynes are well known.

text: Unsaturated

text: fluorocarbons are far more reactive than fluoroalkanes. Although

text: difluoroacetylene

text: is unstable (as is typical for related alkynes, see

text: dichloroacetylene

text: and related fluorinated alkynes are well known.

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answers: difluoroacetylene

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answers: difluoroacetylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Unsaturated fluorocarbons are far more reactive than fluoroalkanes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 2-butyne

text: General properties of aromatic hydrocarbons:

text: General properties of aromatic hydrocarbons:

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes are gases at room temperature.

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: General properties of aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common in nature

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: OH

text: The B-B bond adds across alkenes and alkynes to give the 1,2-diborylated alkanes and alkenes.  Using various organorhodium or organoiridium catalysts, it can also be installed onto saturated hydrocarbons:

text: The B-B bond adds across alkenes and alkynes to give the 1,2-diborylated alkanes and alkenes.  Using various

text: organorhodium

text: or

text: organoiridium

text: catalysts, it can also be installed onto saturated hydrocarbons:

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes and alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 1,2-diborylated

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: B-B

text: Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus cells contain no cytochrome P450, which is the key enzyme for degrading aromatic rings, a major component of petroleum hydrocarbons.(2) These organisms are adapted to growing on long non-cyclic alkanes, which are common in petroleum hydrocarbons.(2) Cells can grow on aromatic hydrocarbons, such as hydrocarbons containing aromatic rings.(2) Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus are not obligate hydrocarbonoclastic organisms(2); they can also grow on standard medium, without hydrocarbons.Moreover, Marinobacter cells can denitrify, producing nitrogen gas.(2) They can use either nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-) as their terminal elector.(2)Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus cells can grow in aerobic liquid medium culture and form colonies on agar, showing that they are not obligate anaerobes.(2)

text: Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus cells contain no cytochrome P450, which is the key enzyme for degrading aromatic rings, a major component of petroleum hydrocarbons.(2) These organisms are adapted to growing on long non-cyclic alkanes, which are common in petroleum hydrocarbons.(2) Cells can grow on aromatic hydrocarbons, such as hydrocarbons containing aromatic rings.(2) Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus are not obligate hydrocarbonoclastic organisms(2); they can also grow on standard medium, without hydrocarbons.Moreover, Marinobacter cells can denitrify, producing nitrogen gas.(2) They can use either nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-) as their terminal elector.(2)Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus cells can grow in aerobic liquid medium culture and form colonies on agar, showing that they are not obligate anaerobes.(2)

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: cyclic alkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Nitrogen gas

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Cells can grow on aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cyclic

text: Allylic alcohols, conjugated alkenes, unsaturated heterocycles and unactivated alkenes are capable of being arylated with arenediazonium salts using simple catalysts such as palladium acetate (Pd(OAc)) or tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pddba) at room temperature in air, and in benign and conventional solvents.

text: Allylic alcohol

text: s,

text: conjugated alkene

text: s,

text: unsaturated

text: heterocycle

text: s and unactivated

text: alkene

text: s are capable of being arylated with arenediazonium salts using simple catalysts such as

text: palladium acetate

text: (Pd(OAc)) or

text: tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0)

text: (Pddba) at room temperature in air, and in benign and conventional solvents.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Allylic alcohols, conjugated alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: air

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: arenediazonium salts

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Pd(OAc)

text: P. dominula females are able to distinguish between nestmates and non-nestmates. Triads of wasps show more discrimination and aggression toward non-nestmates than dyads of wasps. In triads, aggression is increased because a defense of the nest can be shared with other nestmates, but for an individual, the cost of the aggression is greater than the benefit of the defense. Insect body surface is coated with cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) for waterproofing. These chemicals also contribute to recognition among individuals, kin, and nest mates. The same cuticle that the adults have are coated on the nests, allowing the wasps to recognize their home. An analysis of the differences in CHC profiles between dominant and subordinate females found that while differences are not clear at the early stages of nest founding, these differences become prominent upon worker emergence. The CHC profiles of the dominant female exhibit a greater proportion of distinctive unsaturated alkenes of longer chain length compared to those of subordinates. When the queen is removed, the replacement queen's CHC profile becomes similar to that of the original queen. Upon analyzing whether CHC is a signal for fertility or dominance, researchers concluded that it is a signal for dominance because subordinates with developed ovaries still exhibited profiles that differed from those of dominants.

text: P. dominula females are able to distinguish between nestmates and non-nestmates. Triads of wasps show more discrimination and aggression toward non-nestmates than dyads of wasps. In triads, aggression is increased because a defense of the nest can be shared with other nestmates, but for an individual, the cost of the aggression is greater than the benefit of the defense. Insect body surface is coated with cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) for

text: waterproofing

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answers: These chemicals also contribute to recognition among individuals, kin, and nest mates

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: unsaturated

text: In the unsaturated zone, the pore pressure is determined by capillarity and is also referred to as tension, suction, or matric pressure. Pore water pressures under unsaturated conditions (vadose zone) are measured in with tensiometers. Tensiometers operate by allowing the pore water to come into equilibrium with a reference pressure indicator through a permeable ceramic cup placed in contact with the soil.

text: In the

text: unsaturated zone

text: , the pore pressure is determined by

text: capillarity

text: and is also referred to as

text: tension

text: suction

text: , or matric pressure. Pore water pressures under unsaturated conditions (

text: vadose zone

text: ) are measured in with

text: tensiometers

text: . Tensiometers operate by allowing the pore water to come into equilibrium with a reference pressure indicator through a permeable

text: ceramic

text: cup placed in contact with the soil.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: The pore water pressures under unsaturated conditions (vadose zone) are measured in with tensiometers

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: vadose

text: At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with hydrocarbon-fueled vehicles, including damage to the environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016.

text: At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other

text: alternative fuel vehicle

text: s has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with

text: hydrocarbon-fueled

text: vehicles, including damage to the

text: environment

text: caused by their

text: emissions

text: , and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016.

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answers: damage to the environment caused by their emissions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: The sum of partial pressures of the gas that the diver breathes must necessarily balance with the sum of partial pressures in the lung gas. In the alveoli the gas has been humidified and has gained  carbon dioxide from the venous blood. Oxygen has also diffused into the arterial blood, reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli. As the total pressure in the alveoli must balance with the ambient pressure, this dilution results in an effective partial pressure of nitrogen of about 758 mb (569 mmHg) in air at normal atmospheric pressure. At a steady state, when the tissues have been saturated by the inert gases of the breathing mixture, metabolic processes reduce the partial pressure of the less soluble oxygen and replace it with carbon dioxide, which is considerably more soluble in water. In the cells of a typical tissue, the partial pressure of oxygen will drop, while the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will rise. The sum of these partial pressures (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen) is less than the total pressure of the respiratory gas. This is a significant saturation deficit, and it provides a buffer against supersaturation and a driving force for dissolving bubbles. Experiments suggest that the degree of unsaturation increases linearly with pressure for a breathing mixture of fixed composition, and decreases linearly with fraction of inert gas in the breathing mixture. As a consequence, the conditions for maximising the degree of unsaturation are a breathing gas with the lowest possible fraction of inert gas – i.e. pure oxygen, at the maximum permissible partial pressure. This saturation deficit is also referred to as inherent unsaturation, the "Oxygen window". or partial pressure vacancy.

text: Oxygen window

text: ". or partial pressure vacancy.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: Oxygen

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answers: Nitrogen

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answers: This saturation deficit is also referred to as inherent unsaturation, the "Oxygen window". or partial pressure vacancy

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Nitrogen

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: nitrogen

text: Specialty alkynes are prepared by dehydrohalogenation of vicinal alkyl dihalides or vinyl halides. Metal acetylides can be coupled with primary alkyl halides. Via the Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey–Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation. In the alkyne zipper reaction, alkynes are generated from other alkynes by treatment with a strong base.

text: Specialty alkynes are prepared by

text: dehydrohalogenation

text: of

text: vicinal

text: alkyl

text: dihalides

text: or vinyl halides. Metal acetylides can be coupled with primary

text: alkyl halide

text: s. Via the

text: Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement

text: , alkynes are prepared from

text: vinyl bromide

text: s. Alkynes can be prepared from

text: aldehyde

text: s using the

text: Corey–Fuchs reaction

text: and from aldehydes or

text: ketone

text: s by the

text: Seyferth–Gilbert homologation

text: . In the

text: alkyne zipper reaction

text: , alkynes are generated from other alkynes by treatment with a strong base.

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: metal acetylides can be coupled with primary alkyl halides

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyl

text: The mechanisms and genetics of aerobic hydrocarbon degradation have been described extensively . The key feature of aerobic degradation is the role of dioxygen. Oxygen is not only a physiological requirement, but serves as a reactant in the hydroxylation of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons via monooxygenase and dioxygenase enzymes . Oxygen’s key role as a reactant during aerobic hydrocarbon degradation led to the belief for many years that n-alkanes and other hydrocarbons were recalcitrant under anoxic conditions. Research during the last 15 years, however, has shown that microorganisms have adapted and evolved to utilize hydrocarbon substrates under varying reducing conditions and that they employ novel biochemical processes to activate these compounds in the absence of oxygen. These processes have been observed in marine sediments, anaerobic sludge and contaminated aquifers.

text: The mechanisms and genetics of aerobic hydrocarbon degradation have been described extensively . The key feature of aerobic degradation is the role of dioxygen. Oxygen is not only a physiological requirement, but serves as a reactant in the hydroxylation of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons via

text: monooxygenase

text: and

text: dioxygenase

text: enzyme

text: s . Oxygen’s key role as a reactant during aerobic hydrocarbon degradation led to the belief for many years that n-alkanes and other hydrocarbons were recalcitrant under anoxic conditions. Research during the last 15 years, however, has shown that microorganisms have adapted and evolved to utilize hydrocarbon substrates under varying reducing conditions and that they employ novel biochemical processes to activate these compounds in the absence of oxygen. These processes have been observed in marine sediments, anaerobic sludge and contaminated aquifers.

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text: with no such edge is said to be unsaturated by

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text: Erich Clar (August 23, 1902 – March 27, 1987) was an organic chemist who studied polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon chemistry. He is considered as the father of that field. He was awarded the August Kekulé Medal by the Chemical Society of the GDR in 1965, the highest award given by that society to foreign scientists, and the first Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Research Award of the International Symposium on Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in 1987.

text: Erich Clar (August 23, 1902 – March 27, 1987) was an

text: organic chemist

text: who studied

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: chemistry. He is considered as the father of that field. He was awarded the

text: August Kekulé Medal

text: by the

text: Chemical Society of the GDR

text: in 1965, the highest award given by that society to foreign scientists, and the first Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Research Award of the International Symposium on Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in 1987.

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answers: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon

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answers: He is considered as the father of that field

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answers: Kekulé

text: Short interactions between hydrocarbon substituents and coordinatively unsaturated metal complexes have been noted since the 1960s. For example, in tris(triphenylphosphine) ruthenium dichloride, a short interaction is observed between the ruthenium(II) center and a hydrogen atom on the ortho position of one of the nine phenyl rings.  Numerous borohydride complexes were also described crystallographically that were described using the three-center two-electron bonding model.

text: Short interactions between hydrocarbon substituents and coordinatively unsaturated metal complexes have been noted since the 1960s. For example, in tris(

text: triphenylphosphine

text: ) ruthenium dichloride, a short interaction is observed between the

text: ruthenium

text: (II) center and a hydrogen atom on the ortho position of one of the nine phenyl rings.  Numerous

text: borohydride

text: complexes were also described crystallographically that were described using the

text: three-center two-electron bond

text: ing model.

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text: To test whether the hydrocarbon is unsaturated one would typically use the bromine test, which involves the addition of bromine water to the hydrocarbon in question; if the bromine water is decolourised by the hydrocarbon it can then be concluded that the hydrocarbon is unsaturated.

text: To test whether the

text: hydrocarbon

text: is unsaturated one would typically use the

text: bromine test

text: , which involves the addition of bromine water to the hydrocarbon in question; if the

text: bromine water

text: is decolourised by the hydrocarbon it can then be concluded that the hydrocarbon is unsaturated.

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answers: To test whether the hydrocarbon is unsaturated one would typically use the bromine test

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answers: unsaturated

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answers: bromine

text: Infrared astronomy, for example, has revealed that the interstellar medium contains a suite of complex gas-phase carbon compounds called aromatic hydrocarbons, often abbreviated (PAHs or PACs). These molecules composed primarily of fused rings of carbon (either neutral or in an ionized state) are said to be the most common class of carbon compound in the galaxy. They are also the most common class of carbon molecule in meteorites and in cometary and asteroidal dust (cosmic dust). These compounds, as well as the amino acids, nucleobases, and many other compounds in meteorites, carry deuterium and isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that are very rare on earth, attesting to their extraterrestrial origin. The PAHs are thought to form in hot circumstellar environments (around dying carbon rich red giant stars).

text: Infrared astronomy, for example, has revealed that the

text: interstellar medium

text: contains a suite of complex gas-phase carbon compounds called aromatic hydrocarbons, often abbreviated (

text: PAH

text: s or PACs). These molecules composed primarily of fused rings of carbon (either neutral or in an ionized state) are said to be the most common class of carbon compound in the galaxy. They are also the most common class of carbon molecule in

text: meteorite

text: s and in cometary and asteroidal dust (

text: cosmic dust

text: ). These compounds, as well as the amino acids, nucleobases, and many other compounds in meteorites, carry deuterium and

text: isotope

text: s of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that are very rare on earth, attesting to their extraterrestrial origin. The PAHs are thought to form in hot circumstellar environments (around dying carbon rich

text: red giant

text: stars).

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answers: aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: PAHs

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answers: complex gas-phase carbon compounds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: PAHs or PACs

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PAHs

text: 4-Octyne forms with 5-decyne, 3-hexyne, and 2-butyne a group of symmetric alkynes.

text: 4-Octyne forms with

text: , and

text: a group of symmetric alkynes.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3-hexyne

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answers: 3-hexyne

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answers: 5-decyne, 3-hexyne, and 2-butyne are groups of symmetric alkynes

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answers: alkynes

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answers: 4-Octyne

text: Tetraphenylene is an organic compound, solid at room temperature, with the chemical formula CH. It is a member of the unsaturated polycyclic hydrocarbons class of compounds and a tetramer of benzyne.

text: Tetraphenylene is an

text: organic compound

text: , solid at room temperature, with the

text: chemical formula

text: CH. It is a member of the

text: unsaturated

text: polycyclic

text: hydrocarbon

text: s class of compounds and a tetramer of

text: benzyne

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answers: benzyne

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answers: solid

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answers: unsaturated polycyclic hydrocarbons class of compounds

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answers: benzyne

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answers: benzyne

text: Alkynes are named using the same system, with the suffix "-yne" indicating a triple bond: ethyne (acetylene), propyne (methylacetylene).

text: Alkynes are named using the same system, with the suffix "

text: -yne

text: " indicating a triple bond: ethyne (

text: acetylene

text: ), propyne (

text: methylacetylene

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answers: ethyne

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answers: acetylene

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answers: Alkynes are named using the same system

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -yne

text: The C (1s) BE of the hydrocarbon species (moieties) of the "Adventitious" carbon that appears on all, air-exposed, conductive and semi-conductive materials is normally found between 284.5 eV and 285.5 eV.   For convenience, the C (1s) of hydrocarbon moieties is defined to appear between 284.6 eV and 285.0 eV. A value of 284.8 eV has become popular in recent years. However, some recent reports indicate that 284.9 eV or 285.0 eV represents hydrocarbons attached on metals, not the natural native oxide. The 284.8 eV BE is routinely used as the "Reference BE" for charge referencing insulators.  When the C (1s) BE is used for charge referencing, then the charge correction factor is the difference between 284.8 eV and the experimentally measured C (1s) BE of the hydrocarbon moieties.

text: The C (1s) BE of the hydrocarbon species (moieties) of the "Adventitious" carbon that appears on all, air-exposed, conductive and semi-conductive materials is normally found between 284.5 eV and 285.5 eV.   For convenience, the C (1s) of hydrocarbon moieties is defined to appear between 284.6 eV and 285.0 eV. A value of 284.8 eV has become popular in recent years. However, some recent reports indicate that 284.9 eV or 285.0 eV represents hydrocarbons attached on metals, not the natural native oxide. The 284.8 eV BE is routinely used as the "Reference BE" for charge referencing insulators.  When the C (1s) BE is used for charge referencing, then the charge correction factor is the difference between 284.8 eV and the experimentally measured C (1s) BE of the hydrocarbon moieties.

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answers: 284.8 eV

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answers: 284.8 eV

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The 284.8 eV BE is routinely used as the "Reference BE" for charge referencing insulators

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C (1s)

text: The archetypal regioselectivity of the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction mediated by carbonyl ylide dipoles has been examined by Padwa and coworkers. Using a Rh(OAc) catalyst in benzene, diazodione underwent a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction with methyl propiolate and methyl propargyl ether. The reaction with methyl propiolate affords two regioisomers with the major resulting from the HOMO-LUMO interaction, which has the largest coefficients on the carbon proximal to the carbonyl group of the carbonyl ylide and on the methyl propiolate terminal alkyne carbon. The reaction with methyl propargyl ether affords one regioisomer resulting from the HOMO-LUMO interaction, which has largest coefficients on the carbon distal to the carbonyl group of the carbonyl ylide and on the methyl propargyl ether terminal alkyne carbon.

text: The archetypal regioselectivity of the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction mediated by carbonyl ylide dipoles has been examined by Padwa and coworkers. Using a Rh(OAc) catalyst in benzene, diazodione underwent a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction with

text: methyl

text: propiolate and methyl

text: propargyl

text: ether

text: . The reaction with methyl propiolate affords two regioisomers with the major resulting from the HOMO-LUMO interaction, which has the largest coefficients on the carbon proximal to the carbonyl group of the carbonyl ylide and on the methyl propiolate terminal alkyne carbon. The reaction with methyl propargyl ether affords one regioisomer resulting from the HOMO-LUMO interaction, which has largest coefficients on the carbon distal to the carbonyl group of the carbonyl ylide and on the methyl propargyl ether terminal alkyne carbon.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methyl propiolate

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: benzene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: methyl propargyl ether affords one regioisomer

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: methyl propiolate

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: methyl propiolate

text: α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds are an important class of carbonyl compounds with the general structure (O=CR)−C=C-R; for example enones and enals. In these compounds the carbonyl group is conjugated with an alkene (hence the adjective unsaturated), from which they derive special properties. Unlike the case for simple carbonyls, α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds are often attacked by nucleophiles at the β carbon.  This pattern of reactivity  is called vinylogous.  Examples of unsaturated carbonyls are acrolein (propenal), mesityl oxide, acrylic acid, and maleic acid. Unsaturated carbonyls can be prepared in the laboratory in an aldol reaction and in the Perkin reaction.

text: α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds are an important class of carbonyl compounds with the general structure (O=CR)−C=C-R; for example

text: enone

text: s and

text: enal

text: s. In these compounds the carbonyl group is

text: conjugated

text: with an

text: alkene

text: (hence the adjective

text: unsaturated

text: ), from which they derive special properties. Unlike the case for simple carbonyls, α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds are often attacked by nucleophiles at the β carbon.  This pattern of reactivity  is called

text: vinylogous

text: .  Examples of unsaturated carbonyls are

text: acrolein

text: (propenal),

text: mesityl oxide

text: acrylic acid

text: , and

text: maleic acid

text: . Unsaturated carbonyls can be prepared in the laboratory in an

text: aldol reaction

text: and in the

text: Perkin reaction

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answers: an aldol reaction and in the Perkin reaction

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answers: unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated carbonyl compounds

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: In these compounds the carbonyl group is conjugated with an alkene (hence the adjective unsaturated), from which they derive special properties

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018757

text: The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is polymerization.  1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber used in tires, and isoprene is the precursor to natural rubber.  Chloroprene is related but it is a synthetic monomer.

text: The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is

text: polymerization

text: .  1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to

text: rubber

text: used in tires, and

text: isoprene

text: is the precursor to

text: natural rubber

text: Chloroprene

text: is related but it is a synthetic monomer.

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answers: dienes

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answers: dienes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,3-Butadiene

text: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be important in areas of chemical research and industry including fullerene synthesis, materials applications, and the formation of soot in combustion. Thermal rearrangements of aceanthrylene and acephenanthrylene can yield fluoranthene, an important species in syntheses of corannulene and fullerenes that proceed through additional internal rearrangements.

text: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be important in areas of chemical research and industry including

text: fullerene

text: synthesis, materials applications, and the formation of

text: soot

text: in

text: combustion

text: . Thermal rearrangements of aceanthrylene and acephenanthrylene can yield

text: fluoranthene

text: , an important species in syntheses of

text: corannulene

text: and fullerenes that proceed through additional internal rearrangements.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: fluoranthene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: acephenanthrylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be important

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: aceanthrylene

text: Gellan tetrasaccharide unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase (, UGL, unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase) is an enzyme with systematic name beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp-(1->4)-beta-D-Glcp-(1->4)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1->3)-beta-D-Glcp beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp hydrolase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

text: Gellan tetrasaccharide unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase (, UGL, unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase) is an

text: enzyme

text: with

text: systematic name

text: beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp-(1->4)-beta-D-Glcp-(1->4)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1->3)-beta-D-Glcp beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp hydrolase. This enzyme

text: catalyses

text: the following

text: chemical reaction

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answers: Beta-D-Glcp

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Beta-D-Glcp

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: beta-D-Glcp beta-D-4-deoxy-Delta4-GlcAp hydrolase

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common in nature

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: L-Rhap

text: Other methods for the direct formation of aromatic rings from substituted, unsaturated precursors include the Dötz reaction, palladium-catalyzed [4+2] benzannulation of enynes with alkynes, and Lewis-acid-mediated [4+2] cycloaddition of enynes with alkynes. Cyclization of transient benzyne species with alkynes, catalyzed by palladium, can also produce substituted aromatic compounds.

text: Other methods for the direct formation of aromatic rings from substituted, unsaturated precursors include the

text: Dötz reaction

text: , palladium-catalyzed [4+2]

text: benzannulation

text: of enynes with alkynes, and Lewis-acid-mediated [4+2] cycloaddition of enynes with alkynes. Cyclization of transient benzyne species with alkynes, catalyzed by palladium, can also produce substituted aromatic compounds.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: [4+2] benzannulation of enynes with alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: [4+2]

text: Unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase may refer to:

text: Unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase may refer to:

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase may refer to

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: glycerin

text: As can be seen in the monomer table, many simple monomers are readily polymerized by this method, but most must be smaller ionizable species because they have to be able to go into the plasma state. Though monomers with multiple bonds polymerize readily, it is not a necessary requirement, as ethane, silicones and many others polymerize also.There are also other stipulations that exist. Yasuda et al. studied 28 monomers and found that those containing aromatic groups, silicon, olefinic group or nitrogen (NH, NH, CN) were readily polymerizable, while those containing oxygen, halides, aliphatic hydrocarbons and cyclic hydrocarbons where decomposed more readily. The latter compounds have more ablation or side reactions present, which inhibit stable polymer formation. It is also possible to incorporate N, HO, and CO into copolymers of styrene.

text: As can be seen in the monomer table, many simple monomers are readily polymerized by this method, but most must be smaller

text: ionizable

text: species because they have to be able to go into the plasma state. Though monomers with multiple bonds polymerize readily, it is not a necessary requirement, as ethane,

text: silicones

text: and many others polymerize also.There are also other stipulations that exist. Yasuda et al. studied 28 monomers and found that those containing

text: aromatic

text: groups,

text: silicon

text: olefin

text: ic group or

text: nitrogen

text: (NH, NH, CN) were readily polymerizable, while those containing

text: oxygen

text: halides

text: aliphatic

text: hydrocarbons and

text: cyclic hydrocarbons

text: where decomposed more readily. The latter compounds have more ablation or side reactions present, which inhibit stable polymer formation. It is also possible to incorporate N, HO, and CO into copolymers of

text: styrene

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answers: those containing oxygen, halides, aliphatic hydrocarbons and cyclic hydrocarbons where decomposed more readily

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answers: NH

text: The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CH. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

text: The aromatic hydrocarbons are

text: unsaturated hydrocarbons

text: which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called

text: benzene ring

text: s, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CH. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are

text: carcinogenic

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answers: Some are carcinogenic

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answers: CH

text: Hydrocarbons in the stingless bee can vary in length from nonadecane with nineteen carbons to tritriacontane with thirty-three carbons, as discovered in a study conducted by Nunes et al. (2009). It was found that cuticles of older worker bees contained higher concentrations of heptacosene (C27) and hentriacontene (C31) than younger workers and virgin queens, indicating that these hydrocarbons play an important role in nest mate recognition. It was also found that younger stingless bees lacked some of the major hydrocarbons found in older individuals, most likely due a result of less exposure to the wax present in the nest. The relative concentrations of hydrocarbons in members of a colony differed between unrelated sites, alluding to the hypothesis that the wax of each nest contains a unique chemical blend from which the developing larvae absorb.

text: Hydrocarbon

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answers: these hydrocarbons play an important role in nest mate recognition

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answers: hentriacontene

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answers: hentriacontene

text: Alkynes or ketenophiles can be synthesized by various methods. Trialkylsilyloxyalkynes have proven to be excellent ketenophiles. These alkynes react in the annulation reaction to form resorcinol monosilyl ethers which can be de-protected under mild reaction conditions.Base-promoted dehydrohalogenation of (Z)-2-halovinyl ethers to form alkoxyacetylenes is one of the most well established routes of alkyne synthesis (Scheme 10).

text: Alkynes or ketenophiles can be synthesized by various methods. Trialkylsilyloxyalkynes have proven to be excellent ketenophiles. These alkynes react in the annulation reaction to form resorcinol monosilyl

text: ether

text: s which can be de-protected under mild reaction conditions.Base-promoted

text: dehydrohalogenation

text: of (Z)-2-halovinyl ethers to form alkoxyacetylenes is one of the most well established routes of alkyne synthesis (Scheme 10).

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answers: Alkynes or ketenophiles can be synthesized by various methods

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answers: Alkynes

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answers: trialkylsilyloxyalkynes

text: The municipality is served by Alken railway station.

text: The municipality is served by

text: Alken railway station

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answers: alkenes

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answers: The municipality is served by Alken railway station

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answers: Alken railway station

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answers: Alken

text: In organic chemistry, a saturated compound is a hydrocarbon which has no double or triple bonds. For example, consider three similar organic compounds that are progressively less saturated: ethane, ethylene, and ethyne. Ethane, a completely saturated compound, has only single bonds between its hydrogen and carbon atoms (CH). Ethylene, an unsaturated compound of ethane, has a carbon double bond, having lost two hydrogen single bonds (CH). Finally ethyne, the completely unsaturated compound of ethane, has a carbon triple bond, having lost an additional pair of hydrogen single bonds (CH).

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: , a

text: saturated compound

text: is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: which has no

text: double

text: or

text: triple bond

text: s. For example, consider three similar

text: organic compound

text: s that are progressively less saturated:

text: ethane

text: ethylene

text: , and

text: ethyne

text: . Ethane, a completely saturated compound, has only

text: single bond

text: s between its

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: atoms (CH). Ethylene, an unsaturated compound of ethane, has a carbon double bond, having lost two hydrogen single bonds (CH). Finally ethyne, the completely unsaturated compound of ethane, has a carbon triple bond, having lost an additional pair of hydrogen single bonds (CH).

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answers: Ethane

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answers: Ethane

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answers: ethylene, an unsaturated compound of ethane

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Ethylene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, also polyaromatic hydrocarbons) are hydrocarbons—organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple aromatic rings (organic rings in which the electrons are delocalized). Formally, the class is further defined as lacking further branching substituents on these ring structures. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNAs) are a subset of PAHs that have fused aromatic rings, that is, rings that share one or more sides. The simplest such chemicals are naphthalene, having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene.

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, also polyaromatic hydrocarbons) are

text: hydrocarbon

text: s—

text: organic compound

text: s containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple

text: aromatic ring

text: s (organic rings in which the electrons are

text: delocalized

text: ). Formally, the class is further defined as lacking further branching

text: substituent

text: s on these ring structures. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNAs) are a subset of PAHs that have fused

text: aromatic

text: rings

text: , that is, rings that share one or more sides. The simplest such chemicals are

text: naphthalene

text: , having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds

text: anthracene

text: and

text: phenanthrene

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answers: multiple aromatic rings

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answers: naphthalene

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answers: polyaromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: phenanthrene

text: The research conducted by Kharasch prompted further studies of free radical reactions.  From this continued research, industrial polymerization reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons were discovered and mass production of synthetic rubber and plastics was possible.  Through similar radical processes, standard alkanes are halogenated and made substantially more reactive.  This allows them to be very useful intermediates in organic syntheses. While standard conditions generally support one orientation of addition, in some cases it may be advantageous to have the halide on the less highly substituted carbon, in the anti-Markovnikov position. In this case a free radical addition step may be the key to obtaining the desired ultimate product, and is possible because of the work of Morris Kharasch.

text: The research conducted by Kharasch prompted further studies of free radical reactions.  From this continued research, industrial

text: polymerization

text: reactions of

text: unsaturated

text: hydrocarbons

text: were discovered and

text: mass production

text: of synthetic rubber and

text: plastic

text: s was possible.  Through similar radical processes, standard

text: alkanes

text: are

text: halogenated

text: and made substantially more reactive.  This allows them to be very useful intermediates in

text: organic syntheses

text: . While standard conditions generally support one orientation of addition, in some cases it may be advantageous to have the

text: halide

text: on the less highly substituted carbon, in the anti-Markovnikov position. In this case a

text: free radical addition

text: step may be the key to obtaining the desired ultimate product, and is possible because of the work of Morris Kharasch.

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answers: halogenated and made substantially more reactive

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: standard conditions generally support one orientation of addition

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: They are very useful intermediates in organic syntheses

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: halogenated and made substantially more reactive

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: halogen

text: Both hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of LOHCs requires catalysts. It was demonstrated that replacing hydrocarbons by hetero-atoms, like N, O etc. improves reversible de/hydrogenation properties. The temperature required for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of drops significantly with increasing numbers of heteoatoms. Among all the N-heterocycles, the saturated-unsaturated pair of dodecahydro-N-ethylcarbazole (12H-NEC) and NEC has been considered as a promising candidate for hydrogen storage with a fairly large hydrogen content (5.8wt%). The figure on the top right shows dehydrogenation and hydrogenation of the 12H-NEC and NEC pair. The standard catalyst for NEC to 12H-NEC is Ru and Rh based. The selectivity of hydrogenation can reach 97% at 7 MPa and 130 °C-150 °C. Although N-Heterocyles can optimize the unfavorable thermodynamic properties of cycloalkanes, a lot of issues remain unsolved, such as high cost, high toxicity and kinetic barriers etc.

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answers: cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The temperature required for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of drops significantly with increasing numbers of heteoatoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 12H-NEC

text: Alkynes with the formula  and n from 2 to 6 can be detected in the decomposition products of partially oxidized copper(I) acetylide ( (an acetylene derivative known since 1856 or earlier) by hydrochloric acid. A "carbonaceous" residue left by the decomposition also has the spectral signature of  chains.

text: Alkyne

text: s with the formula  and n from 2 to 6 can be detected in the decomposition products of partially oxidized

text: copper(I) acetylide

text: ( (an acetylene derivative known since 1856 or earlier) by

text: hydrochloric acid

text: . A "carbonaceous" residue left by the decomposition also has the spectral signature of  chains.

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answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkynes with the formula and n from 2 to 6 can be detected

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: n

text: Diastereoselectivity can be high for Z-alkene with alkynyl, alkenl, or aryl anion-stabilizing group. Diastereoselectivity is usually lower with E-alkenes. Hydrocarbon groups will prefer exo orientation in the envelope-like transition state. Anion-stabilizing group will prefer the endo orientation in transition state.

text: Diastereoselectivity

text: can be high for Z-alkene with alkynyl, alkenl, or

text: aryl

text: anion-stabilizing group. Diastereoselectivity is usually lower with E-alkenes. Hydrocarbon groups will prefer

text: exo

text: orientation in the envelope-like transition state. Anion-stabilizing group will prefer the

text: endo

text: orientation in transition state.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: E

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: E-alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Anion-stabilizing group will prefer the endo orientation in transition state

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Z-alkene

text: In his scientific work he was primarily involved with oxidation processes of organic compounds, where he used Lead(IV) acetate and Osmium tetroxide as Oxidizing agents . A focus was the investigation on the Autoxidation of unsaturated cyclic Hydrocarbons to Peroxides.One of his great achievements was the elucidation of the reaction mechanism for ozonolysis to form Ozonides The Criegee intermediate (or Criegee biradical) and the Criegee rearrangement are named after him. In this context, his research on cyclic reactions and cyclic rearrangement-mechanisms led him, independently of the Nobel Prize–winning work of R.B.Woodward and R.Hoffmann (Woodward–Hoffmann rules), to the same conclusions as theirs, but he failed to publish his findings in time.In the last years of his scientific work, he investigated the chemistry of small carbon rings, especially Cyclobutadiene and its Derivatives.

text: In his scientific work he was primarily involved with oxidation processes of organic compounds, where he used

text: Lead(IV) acetate

text: and

text: Osmium tetroxide

text: as

text: Oxidizing agent

text: s . A focus was the investigation on the

text: Autoxidation

text: of

text: unsaturated

text: cyclic

text: Hydrocarbon

text: s to

text: Peroxide

text: s.One of his great achievements was the elucidation of the

text: reaction mechanism

text: for

text: ozonolysis

text: to form

text: Ozonide

text: s The

text: Criegee intermediate

text: (or Criegee

text: biradical

text: ) and the

text: Criegee rearrangement

text: are named after him. In this context, his research on cyclic reactions and cyclic rearrangement-mechanisms led him, independently of the Nobel Prize–winning work of R.B.Woodward and R.Hoffmann (

text: Woodward–Hoffmann rules

text: ), to the same conclusions as theirs, but he failed to publish his findings in time.In the last years of his scientific work, he investigated the chemistry of small carbon rings, especially

text: Cyclobutadiene

text: and its

text: Derivatives

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answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018753

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Cyclobutadiene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Cyclobutadiene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Cyclobutadiene and its Derivatives

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Cyclobutadiene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Cyclobutadiene

text: The table below lists some of the properties of the BTX aromatic hydrocarbons, all of which are liquids at typical room conditions:

text: The table below lists some of the properties of the BTX aromatic hydrocarbons, all of which are liquids at typical room conditions:

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: liquids

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: liquids at typical room conditions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: BTX

text: Diethyl ether was initially replaced by non-flammable (but more toxic) halogenated hydrocarbons such as chloroform and trichloroethylene. Halothane is another halogenated hydrocarbon anesthetic agent which was introduced into clinical practice in 1956. Due to its ease of use and improved safety profile with respect to organ toxicity, halothane quickly replaced chloroform and trichloroethylene.

text: Diethyl ether was initially replaced by non-flammable (but more toxic)

text: halogenated hydrocarbon

text: s such as

text: chloroform

text: and

text: trichloroethylene

text: Halothane

text: is another halogenated hydrocarbon anesthetic agent which was introduced into clinical practice in 1956. Due to its ease of use and improved safety profile with respect to organ toxicity, halothane quickly replaced chloroform and trichloroethylene.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: trichloroethylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: trichloroethylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: chloroform and trichloroethylene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: halogenated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: trichloroethylene

text: The physical properties of alkenes and alkanes are similar.  They are colourless, nonpolar, combustable, and almost odorless.  The physical state depends on molecular mass: like the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons, the simplest alkenes, ethene, propene, and butene are gases at room temperature. Linear alkenes of approximately five to sixteen carbons are liquids, and higher alkenes are waxy solids.

text: The physical properties of alkenes and

text: alkane

text: s are similar.  They are colourless, nonpolar, combustable, and almost odorless.  The

text: physical state

text: depends on

text: molecular mass

text: : like the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons, the simplest alkenes,

text: ethene

text: propene

text: , and

text: butene

text: are gases at room temperature. Linear alkenes of approximately five to sixteen carbons are liquids, and higher alkenes are waxy solids.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 4

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answers: propene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: The physical state depends on molecular mass

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The physical state depends on molecular mass

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ethene

text: The team of Achmatowicz presented 15 publications on the most characteristic reactions of this compound, carbonyl cyanide. The team established that in the case of alkenes, which have hydrogen atoms in allylic position, carbonyl cyanide reacts to “ene” synthesis. The highly unstable intermediate product splits a molecule of hydrogen cyanide, thus forming beta-gamma unsaturated ketonitriles. On the other hand, in the case of alkenes which do not contain any hydrogen atoms in the allylic position, a transformation with CO (CN) consists in addition of a carbonyl group to the ethylene system, thus forming a 1.3-epoxypropane system (co-worker M.Leplawy).

text: The team of Achmatowicz presented 15 publications on the most characteristic reactions of this compound, carbonyl cyanide. The team established that in the case of alkenes, which have hydrogen atoms in allylic position, carbonyl cyanide reacts to “ene” synthesis. The highly unstable intermediate product splits a molecule of hydrogen cyanide, thus forming beta-gamma unsaturated ketonitriles. On the other hand, in the case of alkenes which do not contain any hydrogen atoms in the allylic position, a transformation with CO (CN) consists in addition of a carbonyl group to the ethylene system, thus forming a 1.3-epoxypropane system (co-worker M.Leplawy).

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: carbonyl cyanide

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: carbonyl cyanide

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: carbonyl cyanide reacts to “ene” synthesis

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ethylene

text: Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have double or triple covalent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.  Those with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond are called alkenes and those with at least one carbon-to-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. The position of the double or triple bond is shown by a number  written either at the start of the name, or just before the -ene or -yne suffix (e.g. pent-2-ene and 2-butyne). The number represents the position of the first of the two carbons making the bond, in the longest carbon chain.  Alkenes and alkynes with more than one double or triple bond respectively are named with a prefix preceding the -ene or -yne (e.g. 2,4-pentadiene).

text: Unsaturated hydrocarbons are

text: hydrocarbon

text: s that have double or triple

text: covalent bond

text: s between adjacent

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s.  Those with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond are called

text: alkene

text: s and those with at least one carbon-to-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. The position of the double or triple bond is shown by a number  written either at the start of the name, or just before the -ene or -yne suffix (e.g. pent-2-ene and 2-butyne). The number represents the position of the first of the two carbons making the bond, in the longest carbon chain.  Alkenes and alkynes with more than one double or triple bond respectively are named with a prefix preceding the -ene or -yne (e.g. 2,4-pentadiene).

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 2,4-pentadiene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes and alkynes with more than one double or triple bond respectively are named with a prefix preceding the -ene or -yne

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 2,4-pentadiene

text: The following fatty acids have four unsaturated bonds.

text: The following fatty acids have four unsaturated bonds.

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answers: fatty acids have four unsaturated bonds

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answers: unsaturated bonds

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answers: fatty acids

text: Her contributions to surface science include discovery of collision induced processes at surfaces, in which an energetic, neutral, noble gas atom impinges on a surface pre-covered with an adsorbate, causing a reaction to occur between the surface and the adsorbate.  The reactions observed include dissociation, desorption, and absorption into the bulk of the substrate.  In addition, she discovered that electron energy loss spectroscopy can be used to detect species absorbed in the bulk of a substrate, and can be used to differentiate between bulk and surface species.  This paved the way for her discovery that hydrogen atoms absorbed in the bulk of a nickel sample are the key reactant in the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Another major discovery involved the reaction of fluorine molecules with a silicon surface (a reaction that is key to semiconductor device etching), in which the silicon surface abstracts a fluorine atom from the incident fluorine molecule, and the remaining fluorine atom scatters into the gas phase.  This is the reverse of the Eley-Rideal mechanism, one of the fundamental mechanism of gas-surface chemical reactions.

text: Her contributions to

text: surface science

text: include discovery of collision induced processes at surfaces, in which an energetic, neutral, noble gas atom impinges on a surface pre-covered with an adsorbate, causing a reaction to occur between the surface and the adsorbate.  The reactions observed include dissociation, desorption, and absorption into the bulk of the substrate.  In addition, she discovered that

text: electron energy loss spectroscopy

text: can be used to detect species absorbed in the bulk of a substrate, and can be used to differentiate between bulk and surface species.  This paved the way for her discovery that hydrogen atoms absorbed in the bulk of a nickel sample are the key reactant in the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Another major discovery involved the reaction of fluorine molecules with a silicon surface (a reaction that is key to semiconductor device etching), in which the silicon surface abstracts a fluorine atom from the incident fluorine molecule, and the remaining fluorine atom scatters into the gas phase.  This is the reverse of the

text: Eley-Rideal

text: mechanism, one of the fundamental mechanism of gas-surface chemical reactions.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: The selectivity of the hydrozirconation of alkynes has been studied in detail. Generally, the addition of the Zr–H proceeds via the syn-addition. The rate of addition to unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds is terminal alkyne > terminal alkene ≈ internal alkyne > disubstituted alkene  Acyl complexes can be generated by insertion of CO into the C–Zr bond resulting from hydrozirconation. Upon alkene insertion into the zirconium hydride bond, the resulting zirconium alkyl undergoes facile rearrangement to the terminal alkyl and therefore only terminal acyl compounds can be synthesized in this way. The rearrangement most likely proceeds via β-hydride elimination followed by reinsertion.

text: The selectivity of the hydrozirconation of alkynes has been studied in detail. Generally, the addition of the Zr–H proceeds via the syn-addition. The rate of addition to unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds is terminal alkyne > terminal alkene ≈ internal alkyne > disubstituted alkene

text: Acyl

text: complexes can be generated by insertion of

text: CO

text: into the C–Zr bond resulting from hydrozirconation. Upon alkene insertion into the zirconium hydride bond, the resulting zirconium alkyl undergoes facile rearrangement to the terminal alkyl and therefore only terminal acyl compounds can be synthesized in this way. The rearrangement most likely proceeds via β-hydride elimination followed by reinsertion.

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answers: terminal alkene

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answers: alkynes

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answers: The rearrangement most likely proceeds via  -hydride elimination followed by reinsertion

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It has been studied in detail

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C–Zr

text: An enone, also called an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl, is a type of organic compound consisting of an alkene conjugated to a ketone.  The simplest enone is methyl vinyl ketone (butenone) or CH=CHCOCH.  An enal is the corresponding α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, an example being acrolein (CH=CHCHO).

text: An enone, also called an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl, is a type of

text: organic compound

text: consisting of an

text: alkene

text: conjugated

text: to a

text: ketone

text: .  The simplest enone is

text: methyl vinyl ketone

text: (butenone) or CH=CHCOCH.  An enal is the corresponding α,β-unsaturated

text: aldehyde

text: , an example being

text: acrolein

text: (CH=CHCHO).

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answers: methyl vinyl ketone

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: The simplest enone is methyl vinyl ketone

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: An enone, also called an  , -unsaturated carbonyl

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CHCOCH

text: s (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), PCB

text: s (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons),

text: PCB

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PCB

text: The order of reactivity of unsaturated substrates is: alkynes, allenes > terminal or strained alkenes > substituted alkenes. Trans alkenes react more rapidly than cis alkenes in general. The reactivity difference between alkynes and alkenes is usually not great enough to isolate intermediate alkenes; however, alkenes can be isolated from allene reductions.Diimide reduces symmetrical double bonds i.e.,C=C. N=N, O=O etc. unsymmetrical double bonds can not be reduced

text: The order of reactivity of unsaturated substrates is: alkynes, allenes > terminal or strained alkenes > substituted alkenes. Trans alkenes react more rapidly than cis alkenes in general. The reactivity difference between alkynes and alkenes is usually not great enough to isolate intermediate alkenes; however, alkenes can be isolated from allene reductions.Diimide reduces symmetrical double bonds i.e.,C=C. N=N, O=O etc. unsymmetrical double bonds can not be reduced

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: terminal or strained alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsymmetrical double bonds

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsymmetrical double bonds can not be reduced

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C=C

text: According to their corresponding MSDS, most commercially offered petroleum benzine solvents consist of parrafins (alkanes) with chain lengths of C5 to C9 (i.e. n-pentane to n-nonane and their isomers), cycloparaffins (cyclopentane, cyclohexane, ethylcyclopentane, etc.) and aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylene, etc.). The TSCA Definition 2008 describes petroleum benzine as "a complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by treating a petroleum fraction with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C4 through C11 and boiling in the range of approximately -20°C to 190°C."

text: According to their corresponding MSDS, most commercially offered petroleum benzine solvents consist of parrafins (

text: alkane

text: s) with chain lengths of C5 to C9 (i.e.

text: n-pentane

text: to

text: n-nonane

text: and their isomers), cycloparaffins (

text: cyclopentane

text: cyclohexane

text: , ethylcyclopentane, etc.) and aromatic hydrocarbons (

text: benzene

text: toluene

text: xylene

text: , etc.). The TSCA Definition 2008 describes petroleum benzine as "a complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by treating a petroleum fraction with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C4 through C11 and boiling in the range of approximately -20°C to 190°C."

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answers: n-pentane

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: -20°C to 190°C

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: benzene, toluene, xylene, etc.

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: A penem is a type of unsaturated β-lactam.

text: A penem is a type of

text: unsaturated

text: β-lactam

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: -lactam

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsaturated  -lactam

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018757

text: As predicted by the VSEPR model of electron pair repulsion, the molecular geometry of alkenes includes bond angles about each carbon in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of steric strain introduced by nonbonded interactions between functional groups attached to the carbons of the double bond. For example, the C–C–C bond angle in propylene is 123.9°.

text: As predicted by the

text: VSEPR

text: model of

text: electron

text: pair repulsion, the

text: molecular geometry

text: of alkenes includes

text: bond angle

text: s about each carbon in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of

text: steric strain

text: introduced by

text: nonbonded interactions

text: between

text: functional group

text: s attached to the carbons of the double bond. For example, the C–C–C bond angle in

text: propylene

text: is 123.9°.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: C–C–C

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: bond angles about each carbon in a double bond of about 120°

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C–C–C

text: Most of the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be removed by shaking two or three times with 10 % of the volume of concentrated sulfuric acid; vigorous shaking is then continued with successive portions of a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate in 10 % sulfuric acid until the color of the permanganate remains unchanged. The solvent is then thoroughly washed with sodium carbonate solution and then with water, dried over anhydrous calcium chloride, and distilled. If required perfectly dry, it should be allowed to stand over sodium wire, or calcium hydride.

text: Most of the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be removed by shaking two or three times with 10 % of the volume of concentrated

text: sulfuric acid

text: ; vigorous shaking is then continued with successive portions of a concentrated solution of

text: potassium permanganate

text: in 10 % sulfuric acid until the color of the permanganate remains unchanged. The solvent is then thoroughly washed with

text: sodium carbonate

text: solution and then with water, dried over anhydrous

text: calcium chloride

text: , and distilled. If required perfectly dry, it should be allowed to stand over

text: sodium

text: wire, or

text: calcium hydride

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Most of the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be removed

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons

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answers: sodium carbonate

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are primarily found in natural sources such as creosote.  They can result from the incomplete combustion of organic matter. PAHs can also be produced geologically when organic sediments are chemically transformed into fossil fuels such as oil and coal. The dominant sources of PAHs in the environment are thus from human activity: Wood-burning and combustion of other biofuels such as dung or crop residues contribute more than half of annual global PAH emissions, particularly due to biofuel use in India and China. As of 2004, industrial processes and the extraction and use of fossil fuels made up slightly more than one quarter of global PAH emissions, dominating outputs in industrial countries such as the United States. Wild fires are another notable source. Substantially higher outdoor air, soil, and water concentrations of PAHs have been measured in Asia, Africa, and Latin America than in Europe, Australia, and the U.S./Canada.

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are primarily found in natural sources such as creosote.  They can result from the incomplete

text: combustion

text: of

text: organic matter

text: . PAHs can also be produced geologically when organic sediments are chemically transformed into

text: fossil fuel

text: s such as

text: oil

text: and

text: coal

text: . The dominant sources of PAHs in the environment are thus from human activity: Wood-burning and combustion of other biofuels such as dung or crop residues contribute more than half of annual global PAH emissions, particularly due to biofuel use in India and China. As of 2004, industrial processes and the extraction and use of fossil fuels made up slightly more than one quarter of global PAH emissions, dominating outputs in industrial countries such as the United States. Wild fires are another notable source. Substantially higher outdoor air, soil, and water concentrations of PAHs have been measured in Asia, Africa, and Latin America than in Europe, Australia, and the U.S./Canada.

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The dominant sources of PAHs in the environment are thus from human activity

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PAHs

text: The Meyer–Schuster rearrangement is the chemical reaction described as an acid-catalyzed rearrangement of secondary and tertiary propargyl alcohols to α,β-unsaturated ketones if the alkyne group is internal and α,β-unsaturated aldehydes if the alkyne group is terminal. Reviews have been published by Swaminathan and Narayan, Vartanyan and Banbanyan, and Engel and Dudley, the last of which describes ways to promote the Meyer–Schuster rearrangement over other reactions available to propargyl alcohols.

text: The Meyer–Schuster rearrangement is the

text: chemical reaction

text: described as an

text: acid

text: catalyzed

text: rearrangement

text: of secondary and tertiary

text: propargyl alcohol

text: s to α,β-unsaturated

text: ketone

text: s if the alkyne group is internal and α,β-unsaturated

text: aldehyde

text: s if the alkyne group is terminal. Reviews have been published by Swaminathan and Narayan, Vartanyan and Banbanyan, and Engel and Dudley, the last of which describes ways to promote the Meyer–Schuster rearrangement over other reactions available to propargyl alcohols.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated ketones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: secondary and tertiary propargyl alcohols to  , -unsaturated ketones

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

text: Another consideration in the production of biofuels is the origin of the biomass materials. In creating an alternative fuel source, it is important that the feeds used do not detract from the food supply or from arable land. The focus as of late is on the use of inedible lipid-based stocks, examples of these including brown grease, yellowgrease, and algal oil. Use of these sources would not undermine current agricultural food production. These feeds have the additional advantage of tending towards being highly saturated, which requires lower pressures of hydrogen for deoxygenation reactions. Both unsaturated and saturated feeds can processed by deCO, however unsaturated feeds often present more problems. Indeed, unsaturated feeds tend to exacerbate catalyst deactivation and result in lower hydrocarbon yields.

text: Another consideration in the production of biofuels is the origin of the biomass materials. In creating an alternative fuel source, it is important that the feeds used do not detract from the food supply or from

text: arable land

text: . The focus as of late is on the use of inedible lipid-based stocks, examples of these including brown grease, yellowgrease, and

text: algal oil

text: . Use of these sources would not undermine current agricultural food production. These feeds have the additional advantage of tending towards being highly saturated, which requires lower pressures of hydrogen for deoxygenation reactions. Both unsaturated and

text: saturated

text: feeds can processed by deCO, however unsaturated feeds often present more problems. Indeed, unsaturated feeds tend to exacerbate catalyst deactivation and result in lower hydrocarbon yields.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Algal oil

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsaturated feeds tend to exacerbate catalyst deactivation and result in lower hydrocarbon yields

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: algal oil

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrogen

text: To form a hydrotrope, an aromatic hydrocarbon solvent is sulfonated creating an aromatic sulfonic acid. It is then neutralized with a base.

text: To form a hydrotrope, an aromatic hydrocarbon solvent is sulfonated creating an aromatic sulfonic acid. It is then neutralized with a base.

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answers: methene

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answers: hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: To form a hydrotrope, an aromatic hydrocarbon solvent is sulfonated

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: In Bertrand's persistent carbenes, the unsaturated carbon is bonded to a phosphorus and a silicon. However, these compounds seem to exhibit some alkynic properties, and when published the exact carbenic nature of these red oils was in debate.

text: In Bertrand's persistent carbenes, the unsaturated carbon is bonded to a

text: phosphorus

text: and a

text: silicon

text: . However, these compounds seem to exhibit some alkynic properties, and when published the exact carbenic nature of these red oils was in debate.

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text: In addition to hydrocarbons, the stratosphere contains carbon monoxide, as well as traces of water vapor and carbon dioxide. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide—3—is very similar to that of the hydrocarbons, while the mixing ratios of carbon dioxide and water are about 10 and 8, respectively. These three compounds are distributed relatively homogeneously in the stratosphere and are not confined to a narrow layer like hydrocarbons.

text: In addition to hydrocarbons, the stratosphere contains carbon monoxide, as well as traces of water vapor and carbon dioxide. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide—3—is very similar to that of the hydrocarbons, while the mixing ratios of carbon dioxide and water are about 10 and 8, respectively. These three compounds are distributed relatively homogeneously in the stratosphere and are not confined to a narrow layer like hydrocarbons.

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answers: These three compounds are distributed relatively homogeneously in the stratosphere

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text: Altgeld Gardens is a housing community located in south Chicago that was built in 1945 on an abandoned landfill to accommodate returning African-American World War II veterans. Surrounded by 53 toxic facilities and 90% of the city's landfills, the Altgeld Gardens area became known as a "toxic doughnut". With 90% of its population African-American, and 65% below the poverty level, Altgeld Gardens is considered a classic example of environmental racism. The known toxins and pollutants affecting the Altgeld Gardens area include mercury, ammonia gas, lead, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and xylene.

entity_name: Altgeld Gardens Homes (Chicago, Illinois)

text: Altgeld Gardens

text: is a housing community located in south Chicago that was built in 1945 on an abandoned landfill to accommodate returning

text: African-American

text: World War II

text: veterans. Surrounded by 53 toxic facilities and 90% of the city's landfills, the Altgeld Gardens area became known as a "toxic doughnut". With 90% of its population African-American, and 65% below the poverty level, Altgeld Gardens is considered a classic example of environmental racism. The known toxins and pollutants affecting the Altgeld Gardens area include

text: mercury

text: ammonia

text: gas,

text: lead

text: dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

text: (DDT),

text: polychlorinated biphenyl

text: s (PCBs),

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s (PAHs),

text: heavy metals

text: , and

text: xylene

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text: Kishner noted during his initial investigations that in some instances, α-substitution of a carbonyl group can lead to elimination affording unsaturated hydrocarbons under typical reaction conditions. Leonard later further developed this reaction and investigated the influence of different α-substituents on the reaction outcome. He found that the amount of elimination increases with increasing steric bulk of the leaving group. Furthermore, α-dialkylamino-substituted ketones generally gave a mixture of reduction and elimination product whereas less basic leaving groups resulted in exclusive formation of the alkene product.

text: Kishner noted during his initial investigations that in some instances, α-substitution of a carbonyl group can lead to elimination affording unsaturated hydrocarbons under typical reaction conditions. Leonard later further developed this reaction and investigated the influence of different α-substituents on the reaction outcome. He found that the amount of elimination increases with increasing steric bulk of the leaving group. Furthermore, α-dialkylamino-substituted ketones generally gave a mixture of reduction and elimination product whereas less basic leaving groups resulted in exclusive formation of the alkene product.

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answers: the amount of elimination increases with increasing steric bulk of the leaving group

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

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answers: dialkylamino

text: Non-Kekulé polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are composed of several fused six-membered rings. The simplest member of this class is triangulene. After unsuccessful attempts by Erich Clar in 1953, trioxytriangulene was synthesized by Richard J. Bushby in 1995, and kinetically stabilized triangulene by Kazuhiro Nakasuji in 2001.  A related class of biradicals are para-benzynes.

text: Non-Kekulé

text: polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

text: are composed of several fused six-membered rings. The simplest member of this class is

text: triangulene

text: . After unsuccessful attempts by

text: Erich Clar

text: in 1953,

text: trioxytriangulene

text: was synthesized by Richard J. Bushby in 1995, and kinetically stabilized triangulene by Kazuhiro Nakasuji in 2001.  A related class of biradicals are

text: para-benzyne

text: s.

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answers: The simplest member of this class is triangulene

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answers: benzynes

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answers: benzynes

text: The iodine value (or "iodine adsorption value" or "iodine number" or "iodine index") in chemistry is the mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical substance. Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in fatty acids. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds, which react with iodine compounds. The higher the iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the fat. It can be seen from the table that coconut oil is very saturated, which means it is good for making soap. On the other hand, linseed oil is highly unsaturated, which makes it a drying oil, well suited for making oil paints.

text: The iodine value (or "iodine adsorption value" or "iodine number" or "iodine index") in

text: chemistry

text: is the mass of

text: iodine

text: in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a

text: chemical substance

text: . Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in

text: fatty acid

text: s. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds, which react with iodine compounds. The higher the iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the fat. It can be seen from the table that

text: coconut oil

text: is very saturated, which means it is good for making

text: soap

text: . On the other hand, linseed oil is

text: highly unsaturated

text: , which makes it a

text: drying oil

text: , well suited for making

text: oil paint

text: s.

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answers: C=C bonds

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answers: C=C bonds

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answers: higher the iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the fat

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: C=C bonds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C=C

text: The safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including benzene (up to 5% by volume), toluene (up to 35% by volume), naphthalene (up to 1% by volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7% by volume), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about ten others. Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with LD50 of 700 – 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.  Benzene and many antiknocking additives are carcinogenic.

text: The

text: safety data sheet

text: for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including

text: benzene

text: (up to 5% by volume),

text: toluene

text: (up to 35% by volume),

text: naphthalene

text: (up to 1% by volume),

text: trimethylbenzene

text: (up to 7% by volume),

text: methyl tert-butyl ether

text: (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about ten others. Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with

text: of 700 – 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.  Benzene and many antiknocking additives are

text: carcinogenic

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answers: Benzene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: trimethylbenzene

text: In most organic elimination reactions, at least one hydrogen is lost to form the double bond: the unsaturation of the molecule increases.  It is also possible that a molecule undergoes reductive elimination, by which the valence of an atom in the molecule decreases by two, though this is more common in inorganic chemistry.  An important class of elimination reactions is those involving alkyl halides, with good leaving groups, reacting with a Lewis base to form an alkene.  Elimination may be considered the reverse of an addition reaction. When the substrate is asymmetric, regioselectivity is determined by Zaitsev's rule or through Hofmann elimination if the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible.

text: In most organic elimination reactions, at least one hydrogen is lost to form the double bond: the

text: unsaturation

text: of the molecule increases.  It is also possible that a molecule undergoes

text: reductive elimination

text: , by which the valence of an atom in the molecule decreases by two, though this is more common in inorganic chemistry.  An important class of elimination reactions is those involving

text: alkyl halide

text: s, with good

text: leaving group

text: s, reacting with a

text: Lewis base

text: to form an

text: alkene

text: .  Elimination may be considered the reverse of an

text: addition reaction

text: . When the substrate is asymmetric,

text: regioselectivity

text: is determined by

text: Zaitsev's rule

text: or through

text: Hofmann elimination

text: if the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible.

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answers: Alkene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: An important class of elimination reactions

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Lewis

text: Barium manganate oxidizes a number of functional groups efficiently and selectively: alcohols to carbonyls, diols to lactones, thiols to disulfides, aromatic amines to azo-compounds, hydroquinone to p-benzoquinone,  benzylamine to benzaldehyde, etc..  It does not oxidize saturated hydrocarbons, alkenes, unsaturated ketones, and tertiary amines.  Barium manganate is a common substitute for MnO. It is easier to prepare, reacts more efficiently, and the substrate:oxidant ratios are closer to theory.

text: Barium manganate oxidizes a number of functional groups efficiently and selectively: alcohols to carbonyls, diols to lactones, thiols to disulfides, aromatic amines to azo-compounds, hydroquinone to p-benzoquinone,  benzylamine to benzaldehyde, etc..  It does not oxidize saturated hydrocarbons, alkenes, unsaturated ketones, and tertiary amines.  Barium manganate is a common substitute for

text: MnO

text: . It is easier to prepare, reacts more efficiently, and the substrate:oxidant ratios are closer to theory.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated ketones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: It does not oxidize saturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzylamine

text: It can also react with alkenes:

text: It can also react with

text: alkene

text: s:

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answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/640e60ede1c34c681c411fa557bde3cb

answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 0

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes are gases at room temperature

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: It can also react with alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkenes

text: Hydroacylation is a type of organic reaction in which an aldehyde is added over an alkene or alkyne bond. The reaction product is a ketone. The reaction requires a metal catalyst, often rhodium.  It is almost invariably practice as an intramolecular reaction. With an alkyne in place of alkenes, the reaction product is an α,β-unsaturated ketone.

text: Hydroacylation is a type of

text: organic reaction

text: in which an

text: aldehyde

text: is added over an

text: alkene

text: or

text: alkyne

text: bond. The reaction product is a

text: ketone

text: . The reaction requires a metal

text: catalyst

text: , often rhodium.  It is almost invariably practice as an

text: intramolecular

text: reaction. With an alkyne in place of alkenes, the reaction product is an

text: α,β-unsaturated ketone

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkene or alkyne bond

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

text: Type IV kerogen contains mostly decomposed organic matter in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. They have no potential to produce hydrocarbons.

text: Type IV kerogen contains mostly decomposed organic matter in the form of

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s. They have no potential to produce hydrocarbons.

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: They have no potential to produce hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: By doing so, valuable inferences can be made about such matters as hydrocarbon generation and timing, maturity of potential source rocks and migration paths of expelled hydrocarbons.

text: By doing so, valuable inferences can be made about such matters as hydrocarbon generation and timing, maturity of potential source rocks and migration paths of expelled hydrocarbons.

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answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: Petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75% saturated hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n, iso, and cycloparaffins), and 25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and alkylbenzenes). The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is CH, ranging approximately from CH to CH.

text: Petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75%

text: saturated hydrocarbon

text: s (primarily

text: paraffins

text: including

text: n

text: iso

text: , and

text: cycloparaffins

text: ), and 25%

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s (including

text: naphthalene

text: s and

text: alkylbenzenes

text: ). The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is CH, ranging approximately from CH to CH.

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answers: 25% aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkylbenzenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkylbenzenes

text: Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics.  Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material.

text: Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as

text: isobutane

text: and

text: propylene

text: or

text: butylene

text: s can be recombined to meet specific

text: octane

text: requirements by processes such as

text: alkylation

text: , or more commonly,

text: dimerization

text: . The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by

text: catalytic reforming

text: , which involves removing

text: hydrogen

text: from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as

text: aromatics

text: .  Intermediate products such as

text: gasoil

text: s can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of

text: cracking

text: such as

text: fluid catalytic cracking

text: thermal cracking

text: , and

text: hydrocracking

text: . The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings,

text: vapor pressure

text: s, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a

text: devolatilization

text: process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material.

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answers: isobutane

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: vapor pressures

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: higher octane ratings

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkylation

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: isobutane

text: Initiation occurs through substitution of the catalyst’s alkene ligand with substrate. This process occurs via formation of a new alkylidene through one round of [2+2] cycloaddition and cycloreversion. Association and dissociation of a phosphine ligand also occurs in the case of Grubbs catalysts.  In an RCM reaction, the alkylidene undergoes an intramolecular [2+2] cycloaddition with the second reactive terminal alkene on the same molecule, rather than an intermolecular addition of a second molecule of starting material, a common competing side reaction which may lead to polymerization Cycloreversion of the metallacyclobutane intermediate forms the desired RCM product along with a [M]=CH, or alkylidene, species which reenters the catalytic cycle. While the loss of volatile ethylene is a driving force for RCM, it is also generated by competing metathesis reactions and therefore cannot be considered the only driving force of the reaction.

text: Initiation occurs through substitution of the catalyst’s

text: alkene

text: ligand with substrate. This process occurs via formation of a new

entity_section: Carbene ligands in organometallic chemistry

text: alkylidene

text: through one round of [2+2]

text: cycloaddition

text: and cycloreversion. Association and dissociation of a

text: phosphine

text: ligand also occurs in the case of Grubbs catalysts.  In an RCM reaction, the

text: alkylidene

text: undergoes an

text: intramolecular

text: cycloaddition

text: with the second reactive terminal

text: alkene

text: on the same molecule, rather than an

text: intermolecular

text: addition of a second molecule of starting material, a common competing side reaction which may lead to polymerization Cycloreversion of the

text: metallacyclobutane

text: intermediate forms the desired RCM product along with a [M]=CH, or

text: alkylidene

text: , species which reenters the catalytic cycle. While the loss of volatile ethylene is a driving force for RCM, it is also generated by competing metathesis reactions and therefore cannot be considered the only driving force of the reaction.

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answers: volatile

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: volatile ethylene is a driving force for RCM, it is also generated by competing metathesis reactions and therefore cannot be considered the only driving force of the reaction

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkene

text: Similar to GC analysis, the experimental method is subject to potential sources of error.  The first error is in the detection of condensation.  A key component in chilled mirror dew point measurements is the subtlety with which condensate can be detected — in other words, the thinner the film is when detected, the better. A manual chilled mirror device relies on the operator to determine when a mist has formed on the mirror, and, depending on the device, cab be highly subjective.  It is also not always clear what is condensing: water or hydrocarbons. Because of the low resolution that has traditionally been available, the operator has been prone to under report the dew point, in other words, to report the dew point temperature as being below what it actually is. This is due to the fact that by the time condensation had accumulated enough to be visible, the dew point had already been reached and passed.  The most modern manual devices make possible greatly improved reporting accuracy. There are two manufacturers of manual devices, and each of their devices meet the requirements for dew point measurement apparatus as defined in the ASTM Manual for Hydrocarbon Analysis. However, there are significant differences between the devices – including the optical resolution of the mirror and the method of mirror cooling – depending on the manufacturer.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: It is also not always clear what is condensing

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: The blocks are in various stages of exploration, appraisal and development. Hydrocarbon discoveries are in place in 7 E&P blocks in blocks where GAIL is participating. The blocks with hydrocarbon discovery are: MN-OSN-2000/2, CB-ONN-2000/1, Block A-1 and A-3 Myanmar, CY-OS/2, AA-ONN-2002/1, CB-ONN-2003/2.

text: The blocks are in various stages of exploration, appraisal and development. Hydrocarbon discoveries are in place in 7 E&P blocks in blocks where GAIL is participating. The blocks with hydrocarbon discovery are: MN-OSN-2000/2, CB-ONN-2000/1, Block A-1 and A-3 Myanmar, CY-OS/2, AA-ONN-2002/1, CB-ONN-2003/2.

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answers: CY-OS/2

text: Even before its isolation and characterization, the application of an unsaturated ether as an anesthetic interested some pharmacologists.  One such pharmacologist, Chauncey Leake, was particularly captivated by the then theoretical vinyl ether.  Leake predicted that vinyl ether would combine the properties of two anesthetic agents, ethyl ether, and ethylene.  (Mazurek, 2007)

text: Even before its isolation and characterization, the application of an unsaturated ether as an

text: anesthetic

text: interested some

text: pharmacologist

text: s.  One such pharmacologist,

text: Chauncey Leake

text: , was particularly captivated by the then theoretical vinyl ether.  Leake predicted that vinyl ether would combine the properties of two anesthetic agents,

text: ethyl ether

text: , and

text: ethylene

text: .  (Mazurek, 2007)

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answers: vinyl ether would combine the properties of two anesthetic agents

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text: Atmospheric pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, etc.), in combination with solar radiation, can also be responsible for severe damage. Acid-base induced chemical changes may also be responsible for much pollution-caused damage. Unsaturated alkyl and aromatic compounds may act as catalysts in the photooxidation of polymers. In the presence of sulfur dioxide and oxygen, ultraviolet radiation causes crosslinking of polyethylene and polypropylene and is responsible for the rapid loss of color in pigmented coatings.

text: Atmospheric pollutants (e.g.,

text: sulfur dioxide

text: , nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, etc.), in combination with solar radiation, can also be responsible for severe damage. Acid-base induced chemical changes may also be responsible for much pollution-caused damage. Unsaturated

text: alkyl

text: and

text: aromatic compound

text: s may act as catalysts in the photooxidation of polymers. In the presence of sulfur dioxide and oxygen, ultraviolet radiation causes crosslinking of

text: polyethylene

text: and

text: polypropylene

text: and is responsible for the rapid loss of color in pigmented coatings.

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answers: Unsaturated alkyl

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answers: may act as catalysts in the photooxidation of polymers

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answers: Unsaturated

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answers: unsaturated

text: The online data sheet for Brasso wadding in the UK lists the ingredients as C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, C14-18 and C16-18 unsaturated Fatty acids, Kaolinite, Aqua, Ammonium Hydroxide and Iron Hydroxide. Brasso liquid lists a slightly different mix; C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Kaolin, C12-20 Saturated and Unsaturated Monobasic Fatty Acids, Aqua and Ammonium Hydroxide. Also available are ingredients in a discontinued recipe for Brasso. Wadding: C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Ammonium Tallate and Colorant. Liquid: C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Kaolin and Ammonium Tallate.

text: The online data sheet for Brasso wadding in the UK lists the ingredients as C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, C14-18 and C16-18 unsaturated Fatty acids, Kaolinite, Aqua, Ammonium Hydroxide and Iron Hydroxide. Brasso liquid lists a slightly different mix; C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Kaolin, C12-20 Saturated and Unsaturated Monobasic Fatty Acids, Aqua and Ammonium Hydroxide. Also available are ingredients in a discontinued recipe for Brasso. Wadding: C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Ammonium Tallate and Colorant. Liquid: C8-10 Alkane/Cycloalkane/Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Quartz, Kaolin and Ammonium Tallate.

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text: The FoMoPe serves two main objectives; to serve as a means of receiving and making payments on assignment of contracts for exploration and production of hydrocarbons; and to manage the Mexican state revenue from oil and other hydrocarbons.

text: The FoMoPe serves two main objectives; to serve as a means of receiving and making payments on assignment of contracts for exploration and production of hydrocarbons; and to manage the Mexican state revenue from oil and other hydrocarbons.

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text: In contrast, the linker domain is composed of α helices supplied by the two catalytic domains: each domain contributes five helices from their N termini and one from a helix that spans both the catalytic domain and the linker domain. At the center of the linker domain resides an 8 by 35 Å hydrophobic tunnel with two phospholipids bound at each end. The head of each phospholipid points outward towards solution while the tails are embedded within the enzyme. The function of this hydrophobic tunnel is unknown, though two hypotheses have been postulated concerning its utility. The first is that the binding of the terminal phospholipids alters the conformation of the active sites, implying that the tunnel acts as an effector, only allowing the enzyme to be active in certain areas of the cell. The second hypothesis postulates that the tunnel regulates lipid membrane rigidity through its degradation of phenolic hydrocarbons and ability to bind to other lipids. Studies have shown that phenolic hydrocarbons affect the functional and structural properties of cell membranes. 1,2-CTD degrades phenolic hydrocarbons key to the synthesis lipid membranes. Therefore, 1,2-CTD may bind to the cell lipid membrane via its terminal phospholipids and thus have greater access to the phenolic hydrocarbons vital in lipid membrane structure.

text: In contrast, the linker domain is composed of

text: α helices

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answers: phenolic hydrocarbons

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answers: Studies have shown that phenolic hydrocarbons affect the functional and structural properties of cell membranes

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answers: 1,2-CTD

text: The study of cuticle hydrocarbons has also been applied to the reproductive workers. In some colonies of the ponerine ant Platythyrea punctata, the presence of CHCs in new reproductive workers triggered aggressive behavior from the rest of the colony, often between new and old reproductive workers. Specifically, the old reproductive workers rubbed a marker hydrocarbon on the antennae of the new females, identifying them as rivals and targets for aggression.

text: The study of cuticle hydrocarbons has also been applied to the reproductive workers. In some colonies of the ponerine ant

text: Platythyrea punctata

text: , the presence of CHCs in new reproductive workers triggered aggressive behavior from the rest of the colony, often between new and old reproductive workers. Specifically, the old reproductive workers rubbed a marker hydrocarbon on the

text: antennae

text: of the new females, identifying them as rivals and targets for aggression.

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: CHCs in new reproductive workers triggered aggressive behavior from the rest of the colony, often between new and old reproductive workers

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: ponerine

text: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ARNT2 gene.

text: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator 2 is a

text: protein

text: that in humans is encoded by the ARNT2

text: gene

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answers: Aryl hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Aryl hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator 2

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbon

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: The barrier for the rotation of the alkene about the M-centroid vector is a measure of the strength of the M-alkene pi-bond.  Low symmetry complexes of ethylene, e.g. CpRh(CH), are suitable for analysis of the rotational barriers associated with the metal-ethylene bond.  In Zeise's anion ([PtCl(CH)]) this rotational barrier cannot be assessed by NMR spectroscopy because all four protons are equivalent.

text: The barrier for the rotation of the alkene about the M-centroid vector is a measure of the strength of the M-alkene pi-bond.  Low symmetry complexes of ethylene, e.g.

text: Cp

text: Rh(CH), are suitable for analysis of the rotational barriers associated with the metal-ethylene bond.  In Zeise's anion ([PtCl(CH)]) this rotational barrier cannot be assessed by

text: NMR spectroscopy

text: because all four protons are equivalent.

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answers: ethylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: CpRh(CH)

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: this rotational barrier cannot be assessed by NMR spectroscopy because all four protons are equivalent

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: M-alkene

text: Mechanisms suggested for egg discrimination in worker policing include queen hydrocarbons, fertile worker hydrocarbons, and nestmate recognition.

text: Mechanisms suggested for egg discrimination in worker policing include queen hydrocarbons, fertile worker hydrocarbons, and nestmate recognition.

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Alkenes are named for their parent alkane chain with the suffix "-ene" and an infixed number indicating the position of the carbon with the lower number for each double bond in the chain: CH=CHCHCH is but-1-ene.Multiple double bonds take the form -diene, -triene, etc., with the size prefix of the chain taking an extra "a": CH=CHCH=CH is buta-1,3-diene. Simple cis and trans isomers may be indicated with a prefixed cis- or trans-: cis-but-2-ene, trans-but-2-ene. However, cis- and trans- are relative descriptors. It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using absolute descriptors of Z- (same side) and E- (opposite) with the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules.

text: Alkenes are named for their parent alkane chain with the suffix "

text: -ene

text: " and an infixed number indicating the position of the carbon with the lower number for each double bond in the chain: CH=CHCHCH is but-1-ene.Multiple double bonds take the form -diene, -triene, etc., with the size prefix of the chain taking an extra "a": CH=CHCH=CH is buta-1,3-diene. Simple

text: cis and trans

text: isomers

text: may be indicated with a prefixed cis- or trans-: cis-but-2-ene, trans-but-2-ene. However, cis- and trans- are relative descriptors. It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using absolute descriptors of Z- (same side) and E- (opposite) with the

text: Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules

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answers: buta-1,3-diene

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answers: It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using absolute descriptors

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Cahn– Ingold–Prelog priority rules

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answers: It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using absolute descriptors

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH=CHCHCH

text: Formally, fluorocarbons only contain carbon and fluorine.  Sometimes they are called perfluorocarbons. They can be gases, liquids, waxes, or solids, depending upon their molecular weight. The simplest fluorocarbon is the gas tetrafluoromethane (CF4). Liquids include perfluorooctane and perfluorodecalin.  While fluorocarbons with single bonds are stable, unsaturated fluorocarbons are more reactive, especially those with triple bonds.Fluorocarbons are more chemically and thermally stable than hydrocarbons, reflecting the relative inertness of the C-F bond. They are also relatively lipophobic.  Because of the reduced intermolecular van der Waals interactions, fluorocarbon-based compounds are sometimes used as lubricants or are highly volatile. Fluorocarbon liquids have medical applications as oxygen carriers.

text: Formally,

text: fluorocarbon

text: s only contain carbon and fluorine.  Sometimes they are called perfluorocarbons. They can be gases, liquids, waxes, or solids, depending upon their molecular weight. The simplest fluorocarbon is the gas tetrafluoromethane (CF4). Liquids include perfluorooctane and perfluorodecalin.  While fluorocarbons with single bonds are stable, unsaturated fluorocarbons are more reactive, especially those with triple bonds.

text: Fluorocarbon

text: s are more chemically and thermally stable than hydrocarbons, reflecting the relative inertness of the C-F bond. They are also relatively

text: lipophobic

text: .  Because of the reduced intermolecular

text: van der Waals interactions

text: , fluorocarbon-based compounds are sometimes used as lubricants or are highly volatile. Fluorocarbon liquids have medical applications as oxygen carriers.

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answers: perfluorodecalin

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: They are more chemically and thermally stable than hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: CF4

text: It has been shown that aromatic hydrocarbons react with copper(II) fluoride, in an oxygen-containing atmosphere at temperatures above 450 °C, to form fluorinated aromatic hydrocarbons. This reaction is simpler than the Sandmeyer reaction, but is only applicable for compounds that are stable enough to survive the high temperature.

text: It has been shown that

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s react with copper(II) fluoride, in an

text: oxygen

text: -containing atmosphere at temperatures above 450 °C, to form fluorinated aromatic hydrocarbons. This reaction is simpler than the

text: Sandmeyer reaction

text: , but is only applicable for compounds that are stable enough to survive the high temperature.

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answers: It has been shown that aromatic hydrocarbons react with copper(II) fluoride

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Vinylic selenides are organoselenium compounds that play a  role in organic synthesis, especially in the development of convenient stereoselective routes to functionalized alkenes. Although various methods are mentioned for the preparation of vinylic selenides, a more useful procedure has centered on the nucleophilic or electrophilic organoselenium addition to terminal or internal alkynes. For example, the nucleophilic addition of selenophenol to alkynes affords, preferentially, the Z-vinylic selenides after longer reaction times at room temperature.The reaction is faster at a high temperature; however, the mixture of Z- and E-vinylic selenides was obtained in an almost 1:1 ratio. On the other hand, the adducts depend on the nature of the substituents at the triple bond. Conversely, vinylic selenides can be prepared by palladium-catalyzed hydroselenation of alkynes to afford the Markovnikov adduct in good yields. There are some limitations associated with the methodologies to prepare vinylic selenides illustrated above; the procedures described employ diorganoyl diselenides or selenophenol as starting materials, which are volatile and unstable and have an unpleasant odor. Also, the preparation of these compounds is complex.

text: Vinylic selenides are organoselenium compounds that play a  role in organic synthesis, especially in the development of convenient

text: stereoselective

text: routes to functionalized

text: alkenes

text: . Although various methods are mentioned for the preparation of vinylic selenides, a more useful procedure has centered on the

text: nucleophilic

text: or

text: electrophilic

text: organoselenium addition to terminal or internal

text: alkynes

text: . For example, the

text: nucleophilic addition

text: of selenophenol to alkynes affords, preferentially, the Z-vinylic selenides after longer reaction times at room temperature.The reaction is faster at a high temperature; however, the mixture of Z- and E-vinylic selenides was obtained in an almost 1:1 ratio. On the other hand, the adducts depend on the nature of the

text: substituent

text: s at the

text: triple bond

text: . Conversely, vinylic selenides can be prepared by

text: palladium

text: -catalyzed hydroselenation of

text: alkynes

text: to afford the Markovnikov adduct in good yields. There are some limitations associated with the methodologies to prepare vinylic selenides illustrated above; the procedures described employ diorganoyl diselenides or

text: selenophenol

text: as starting materials, which are volatile and unstable and have an unpleasant odor. Also, the preparation of these compounds is complex.

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answers: alkynes

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answers: volatile and unstable

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: volatile and unstable and have an unpleasant odor

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Z

text: Fatty acids are straight chain hydrocarbons possessing a carboxyl (COOH) group at one end. The carbon next to the carboxylate is known as α, the next carbon β, and so forth. Since biological fatty acids can be of different lengths, the last position is labelled as a "ω", the last letter in the Greek alphabet. Since the physiological properties of unsaturated fatty acids largely depend on the position of the first unsaturation relative to the end position and not the carboxylate.   For example, the term ω-3 signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carbon-carbon bond from the terminal CH end (ω) of the carbon chain. The number of carbons and the number of double bonds is also listed.

text: Fatty acids are straight chain hydrocarbons possessing a

text: carboxyl

text: (COOH) group at one end. The carbon next to the carboxylate is known as α, the next carbon β, and so forth. Since biological fatty acids can be of different lengths, the last position is labelled as a "ω", the last letter in the

text: Greek alphabet

text: . Since the physiological properties of unsaturated fatty acids largely depend on the position of the first unsaturation relative to the end position and not the carboxylate.   For example, the term

text: signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carbon-carbon bond from the terminal CH end (ω) of the carbon chain. The number of carbons and the number of double bonds is also listed.

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answers: Fatty acids

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answers: Fatty acids

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answers: The number of carbons and the number of double bonds is also listed

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: Louis Frederick Fieser (April 7, 1899 – July 25, 1977) was an American organic chemist, professor, and in 1968, professor emeritus at Harvard University. He is renowned as the inventor of military effective napalm whilst he worked at Harvard in 1943. His award-winning research included work on blood-clotting agents including the first synthesis of vitamin K, synthesis and screening of quinones as antimalarial drugs, work with steroids leading to the synthesis of cortisone, and study of the nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

text: Louis Frederick Fieser (April 7, 1899 – July 25, 1977) was an

text: American

text: organic chemist

text: , professor, and in 1968, professor emeritus at

text: Harvard University

text: . He is renowned as the inventor of military effective

text: napalm

text: whilst he worked at Harvard in 1943. His award-winning research included work on blood-clotting agents including the first synthesis of

text: vitamin K

text: , synthesis and screening of

text: quinone

text: s as

text: antimalarial

text: drugs, work with

text: steroid

text: s leading to the synthesis of

text: cortisone

text: , and study of the nature of

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: quinones

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answers: quinones

text: In chemistry, an open-chain compound (also spelled as open chain compound) or acyclic compound (Greek prefix "α", without and "κύκλος", cycle) is a compound with a linear structure, rather than a cyclic one.An open-chain compound having no side chains is called a straight-chain compound (also spelled as straight chain compound). Many of the simple molecules of organic chemistry, such as the alkanes and alkenes, have both linear and ring isomers, that is, both acyclic and cyclic, with the latter often classified as aromatic. For those with 4 or more carbons, the linear forms can have straight-chain or branched-chain isomers. The lowercase prefix n- denotes the straight-chain isomer; for example, n-butane is straight-chain butane, whereas i-butane is isobutane. Cycloalkanes are isomers of alkenes, not of alkanes, because the ring's closure involves a C=C bond. Having no rings (aromatic or otherwise), all open-chain compounds are aliphatic.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , an open-chain compound (also spelled as open chain compound) or acyclic compound (Greek prefix "α", without and "κύκλος", cycle) is a compound with a linear structure, rather than a

text: cyclic

text: one.An open-chain compound having no

text: side chain

text: s is called a straight-chain compound (also spelled as straight chain compound). Many of the simple molecules of

text: organic chemistry

text: , such as the

text: alkane

text: s and

text: alkene

text: s, have both linear and ring

text: isomer

text: s, that is, both acyclic and

text: cyclic

text: , with the latter often classified as

text: aromatic

text: . For those with 4 or more carbons, the linear forms can have straight-chain or branched-chain isomers. The lowercase prefix n- denotes the straight-chain isomer; for example, n-butane is straight-chain

text: butane

text: , whereas i-butane is

text: isobutane

text: Cycloalkane

text: s are isomers of alkenes, not of alkanes, because the ring's closure involves a C=C bond. Having no rings (aromatic or otherwise), all open-chain compounds are

text: aliphatic

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answers: Cycloalkanes are isomers of alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Having no rings (aromatic or otherwise), all open-chain compounds are aliphatic

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Having no rings (aromatic or otherwise), all open-chain compounds are aliphatic

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Cycloalkanes

text: In 2007, hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 70 per cent of the Iraqi economy and 95 per cent of the government's revenues. Diversification of the economy into non-hydrocarbon industries remain a long-term issue.

text: In 2007, hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 70 per cent of the Iraqi economy and 95 per cent of the government's revenues. Diversification of the economy into non-hydrocarbon industries remain a long-term issue.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Diversification of the economy into non-hydrocarbon industries remain a long-term issue

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: By the process of silylation, polar functional groups such as alcohols and amines readily undergo reaction with trimethylsilyl chloride, giving trimethylsilyl ethers and trimethylsilyl amines. These new groups "protect" the original functional group by removing the labile protons and decreasing the basicity of the heteroatom.  The lability of the MeSi-O and MeSi-N groups can later be removed ("deprotected"). Trimethylsilylation can also be used to increase the volatility of a compound, enabling gas chromatography of normally nonvolatile substances such as glucose. Trimethylsilyl chloride also reacts with metal acetylides to give trimethylsilyl alkynes such as bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene. Such derivatives are useful protected forms of alkynes.

text: By the process of

text: silylation

text: , polar functional groups such as

text: alcohols

text: and

text: amine

text: s readily undergo reaction with trimethylsilyl chloride, giving

text: trimethylsilyl ether

text: s and

text: trimethylsilyl

text: amine

text: s. These new groups

text: "protect"

text: the original functional group by removing the labile protons and decreasing the basicity of the heteroatom.  The

text: lability

text: of the MeSi-O and MeSi-N groups can later be removed ("deprotected").

text: Trimethylsilyl

text: ation can also be used to increase the volatility of a compound, enabling

text: gas chromatography

text: of normally nonvolatile substances such as

text: glucose

text: . Trimethylsilyl chloride also reacts with metal acetylides to give trimethylsilyl

text: alkynes

text: such as

text: bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene

text: . Such derivatives are useful protected forms of alkynes.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: trimethylsilyl alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: trimethylsilyl chloride

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: These new groups "protect" the original functional group by removing the labile protons and decreasing the basicity of the heteroatom

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: trimethylsilyl chloride

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: trimethylsilyl

text: Aliphatic compounds can be saturated, joined by single bonds (alkanes), or unsaturated, with double bonds (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). Besides hydrogen, other elements can be bound to the carbon chain, the most common being oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine.

text: Aliphatic compounds can be

text: saturated

text: , joined by single bonds (

text: alkane

text: s), or unsaturated, with double bonds (

text: alkene

text: s) or triple bonds (

text: alkyne

text: s). Besides

text: hydrogen

text: , other elements can be bound to the carbon chain, the most common being

text: oxygen

text: nitrogen

text: sulfur

text: , and

text: chlorine

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answers: triple bonds

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: double bonds (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes)

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: triple bonds

text: Hydroamination is the addition of an N-H bond of an amine across a carbon-carbon multiple bond of an alkene, alkyne, diene, or allene.  In the ideal case, hydroamination is atom economical and green.  Amines are common in fine-chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries.

text: Hydroamination is the addition of an N-H bond of an

text: amine

text: across a carbon-carbon

text: multiple

text: bond of an

text: alkene

text: alkyne

text: diene

text: , or

text: allene

text: .  In the ideal case, hydroamination is

text: atom economical

text: and

text: green

text: .  Amines are common in fine-chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries.

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answers: allene

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answers: allene

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answers: Amines are common in fine-chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries

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answers: alkyne

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answers: allene

text: Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system. Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds.

text: Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system. Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on

text: Titan

text: , Saturn's largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: (PAH) compounds.

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) compounds

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: Huygens

text: The products of this process are saturated hydrocarbons; depending on the reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, catalyst activity) these products range from ethane, LPG to heavier hydrocarbons consisting mostly of isoparaffins. Hydrocracking is normally facilitated by a bifunctional catalyst that is capable of rearranging and breaking hydrocarbon chains as well as adding hydrogen to aromatics and olefins to produce naphthenes and alkanes.

text: The products of this process are

text: saturated hydrocarbons

text: ; depending on the reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, catalyst activity) these products range from

text: ethane

text: , LPG to heavier hydrocarbons consisting mostly of

text: isoparaffin

text: s. Hydrocracking is normally facilitated by a bifunctional catalyst that is capable of rearranging and breaking

text: hydrocarbon chain

text: s as well as adding hydrogen to

text: aromatics

text: and

text: olefin

text: s to produce

text: naphthene

text: s and

text: alkane

text: s.

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answers: alkanes

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answers: LPG

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answers: isoparaffins

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answers: alkanes

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answers: isoparaffins

text: Oxidations of alkynes, allenes, arenes, and other unique unsaturated functionality may yield epoxides or other oxidized products. Oxidation of allenes affords allene dioxides or products of intramolecular participation. Minor amounts of side products derived from additional oxidation or rearrangement were also observed.

text: Oxidations of alkynes, allenes, arenes, and other unique unsaturated functionality may yield epoxides or other oxidized products. Oxidation of

text: allene

text: s affords allene dioxides or products of intramolecular participation. Minor amounts of side products derived from additional oxidation or rearrangement were also observed.

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answers: allenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: allene dioxides

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Oxidation of allenes affords allene dioxides or products of intramolecular participation

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allenes

text: A fat is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of long chains of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-). Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds. They are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen atom. Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated. Saturated fats tend to have higher melting points than their corresponding unsaturated fats, leading to the popular understanding that saturated fats tend to be solids at body temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid oils.

text: A fat is made of two kinds of smaller molecules:

text: monoglyceride

text: and

text: fatty acids

text: . Fats are made of long chains of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by

text: double bond

text: s (-C=C-). Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds. They are called

text: saturated

text: , because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen atom. Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated. Saturated fats tend to have higher

text: melting point

text: s than their corresponding unsaturated fats, leading to the popular understanding that saturated fats tend to be solids at body temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid oils.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated fats

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Most animal fats

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C=C-

text: The starting material is prepared from propargyl chloride and an aldehyde or ketone such as acetaldehyde. In the first step an azido compound is formed in situ in a nucleophilic displacement of chloride by the azide ion. A (3,3)Sigmatropic reaction takes place between the azide and the alkyne to the allenyl azide. This allene rearranges to the triazafulvene in a 6 pi electrocyclization. The exocyclic alkene in this intermediate is very electrophilic because the triazole group has a dipole moment of 5 debye. The reaction sequence concludes with nucleophilic attack of a second azide ion on this alkene with more double bond rearrangements and proton abstraction from a proton source.

text: The starting material is prepared from

text: propargyl chloride

text: and an

text: aldehyde

text: or

text: ketone

text: such as

text: acetaldehyde

text: . In the first step an

text: azido

text: compound is formed

text: in situ

text: in a

text: nucleophilic displacement

text: of chloride by the

text: azide

text: ion. A (3,3)

text: Sigmatropic reaction

text: takes place between the

text: azide

text: and the

text: alkyne

text: to the allenyl azide. This

text: allene

text: rearranges to the triazafulvene in a 6 pi

text: electrocyclization

text: . The

text: exocyclic

text: alkene

text: in this intermediate is very electrophilic because the triazole group has a

text: dipole moment

text: of 5

text: debye

text: . The reaction sequence concludes with

text: nucleophilic attack

text: of a second azide ion on this alkene with more double bond rearrangements and proton abstraction from a proton source.

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: allenyl azide

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: triazole

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The exocyclic alkene in this intermediate is very electrophilic

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allenyl

text: A polyquinane or polyquinene is a saturated or unsaturated, respectively, polycyclic hydrocarbon consisting of fused five-membered rings. The simplest member is the bicyclic compound bicyclo[3.3.0]octane. Other members are triquinacene and dodecahedrane.

text: A polyquinane or polyquinene is a saturated or

text: unsaturated

text: , respectively, polycyclic

text: hydrocarbon

text: consisting of fused five-membered rings. The simplest member is the

text: bicyclic

text: compound bicyclo[3.3.0]octane. Other members are triquinacene and

text: dodecahedrane

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answers: polyquinane

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answers: triquinacene

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answers: polycyclic hydrocarbon consisting of fused five-membered rings

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: [3.3.0]octane

text: One of the characteristics of the dust detected in NGC 6302 is the existence of both oxygen-rich material (i.e. silicates) and carbon-rich material (i.e. poly-aromatic-hydrocarbons or PAHs). Stars are usually either O-rich or C-rich, the change from the former to the latter occurring late in the evolution of the star due to nuclear and chemical changes in the star's atmosphere. NGC 6302 belongs to a group of objects where hydrocarbon molecules formed in an oxygen-rich environment

text: One of the characteristics of the dust detected in NGC 6302 is the existence of both oxygen-rich material (i.e. silicates) and carbon-rich material (i.e. poly-aromatic-hydrocarbons or PAHs). Stars are usually either O-rich or C-rich, the change from the former to the latter occurring late in the evolution of the star due to nuclear and chemical changes in the star's atmosphere. NGC 6302 belongs to a group of objects where hydrocarbon molecules formed in an oxygen-rich environment

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answers: PAHs

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: PAHs

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: PAHs

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: carbon-rich material

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PAHs

text: Chiral auxiliaries on the alkene partner have been used for stereoselective transformations. In the reaction of camphorsultam-derived unsaturated amides, lower temperatures were needed to achieve high selectivities.

text: Chiral auxiliaries

text: on the alkene partner have been used for stereoselective transformations. In the reaction of

text: camphorsultam

text: -derived unsaturated

text: amide

text: s, lower temperatures were needed to achieve high selectivities.

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answers: Alkene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: lower temperatures

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Chiral auxiliaries on the alkene partner have been used for stereoselective transformations

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkene

text: Addition reactions involve alkenes and alkynes. In this reaction a halogen molecule breaks the double or triple bond in the hydrocarbon and forms a bond.

text: Addition reactions involve alkenes and alkynes. In this reaction a halogen molecule breaks the double or triple bond in the hydrocarbon and forms a bond.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018753

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answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes and alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: Photolysis of basketene produces cyclooctatetraene, Nenitzescu's hydrocarbon and so on.

text: Photolysis of basketene produces

text: cyclooctatetraene

text: Nenitzescu's hydrocarbon

text: and so on.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018753

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: basketene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: basketene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: cyclooctatetraene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Basketene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: basketene

text: A portion of Kistiakowsky’s work involved a comparison of other unsaturated compounds in the form of CH=CH(CH)n-CH=CH (n=0,1,2). These experiments revealed an important result; when n=0, there is an effect of conjugation to the molecule where the ΔH value is lowered by 3.5 kcal. This is likened to the addition of two alkyl groups into ethylene. Kistiakowsky also investigated open chain systems, where the largest value of heat liberated was found to be during the addition to a molecule in the 1,4-position.  Cyclic molecules proved to be the most problematic, as it was found that the strain of the molecule would have to be considered.  The strain of five-membered rings increased with a decrease degree of unsaturation. This was a surprising result that was further investigated in later work with cyclic acid anhydrides and lactones.  Cyclic molecules like benzene and its derivatives were also studied, as their behaviors were different from other unsaturated compounds.

text: A portion of Kistiakowsky’s work involved a comparison of other unsaturated compounds in the form of CH=CH(CH)n-CH=CH (n=0,1,2). These experiments revealed an important result; when n=0, there is an effect of conjugation to the molecule where the ΔH value is lowered by 3.5 kcal. This is likened to the addition of two alkyl groups into ethylene. Kistiakowsky also investigated open chain systems, where the largest value of heat liberated was found to be during the addition to a molecule in the 1,4-position.  Cyclic molecules proved to be the most problematic, as it was found that the

text: strain

text: of the molecule would have to be considered.  The strain of five-membered rings increased with a decrease degree of unsaturation. This was a surprising result that was further investigated in later work with cyclic

text: acid anhydride

text: s and

text: lactone

text: s.  Cyclic molecules like

text: benzene

text: and its derivatives were also studied, as their behaviors were different from other unsaturated compounds.

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text: For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance of hydrogen are used.

text: For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance of

text: hydrogen

text: are used.

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text: . Using the semi-empirical model for the MPI rate of unsaturated hydrocarbons is feasible. This simplistic view ignores the ionization dependence on orientation of molecular axis with respect to polarization of the electric field of the laser, which is determined by the symmetries of the molecular orbitals. This dependence can be used to follow molecular dynamics using strong field multiphoton ionization.

text: . Using the semi-empirical model for the MPI rate of unsaturated hydrocarbons is feasible. This simplistic view ignores the ionization dependence on orientation of molecular axis with respect to polarization of the electric field of the laser, which is determined by the symmetries of the molecular orbitals. This dependence can be used to follow molecular dynamics using strong field multiphoton ionization.

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answers: MPI

text: At the landing site there were indications of pebbles of water ice scattered over an orange surface, the majority of which is covered by a thin haze of methane. Early aerial imaging of Titan from Huygens was consistent with the presence of large bodies of liquid on the surface. The initial photos of Titan before landing showed what appeared to be large drainage channels crossing the lighter colored mainland into a dark sea. Some of the photos suggested islands and mist shrouded coastline. Subsequent analysis of the probe's trajectory indicated that, in fact, Huygens had landed within the dark 'sea' region in the photos. The photos from the surface of a dry lakebed like landscape suggest that while there is evidence of liquid acting on the surface recently, hydrocarbon lakes and/or seas might not currently exist at the Huygens landing site. Further data from the Cassini Mission, however, definitely confirmed the existence of permanent liquid hydrocarbon lakes in the polar regions of Titan (see Lakes of Titan). Long-standing tropical hydrocarbon lakes were also discovered in 2012 (including one not far from the Huygens landing site in the Shangri-La region which is about half the size of Utah's Great Salt Lake, with a depth of at least 1 meter). The likely supplier in dry desert areas is probably underground aquifers; in other words, the arid equatorial regions of Titan contain "oases".

text: At the landing site there were indications of pebbles of water ice scattered over an orange surface, the majority of which is covered by a thin haze of

text: methane

text: Lakes of Titan

text: ). Long-standing tropical hydrocarbon lakes were also discovered in 2012 (including one not far from the Huygens landing site in the Shangri-La region which is about half the size of Utah's

text: Great Salt Lake

text: , with a depth of at least 1 meter). The likely supplier in dry desert areas is probably underground

text: aquifers

text: ; in other words, the arid equatorial regions of Titan contain "

text: oases

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answers: methane

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answers: methane

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Tropical hydrocarbon lakes were also discovered in 2012

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: methane

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: NH-1,2,3-triazoles are also prepared from alkynes in a sequence called the Banert cascade.

text: NH-1,2,3-triazoles are also prepared from alkynes in a sequence called the

text: Banert cascade

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answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: triazoles

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: NH-1,2,3-triazoles are also prepared from alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: NH

text: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with both double and triple bonds have the suffix -enyne and are handled in a similar manner.

text: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with both double and triple bonds have the suffix -enyne and are handled in a similar manner.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Enyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: -enyne and are handled in a similar manner

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: enyne

text: In steady state (i.e. the amount of water stored in the unsaturated zone does not change in the long run) the water balance of the unsaturated zone reads: Inflow = Outflow, thus:

text: In

text: steady state

text: (i.e. the amount of water stored in the unsaturated zone does not change in the long run) the

text: water balance

text: of the unsaturated zone reads: Inflow = Outflow, thus:

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answers: HCl

text: Acenaphthylene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.  The molecule resembles naphthalene with positions 1 and 8 connected by a CH unit. It is a yellow solid.  Unlike many polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, it has no fluorescence.

text: Acenaphthylene is a

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: .  The molecule resembles

text: naphthalene

text: with positions 1 and 8 connected by a CH unit. It is a yellow solid.  Unlike many

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: , it has no

text: fluorescence

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answers: The molecule resembles naphthalene

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answers: CH

text: From the commercial perspective, the most important phosphine is triphenylphosphine, several million kilograms being produced annually. It is prepared from the reaction of chlorobenzene, PCl, and sodium.  Phosphines of a more specialized nature are usually prepared by other routes.  Phosphorus halides undergo Nucleophilic displacement by organometallic reagents such as Grignard reagents.  Conversely, some syntheses entail nucleophilic displacement of phosphide anion equivalents ("RP") by aryl- and alkyl halides.  Primary (RPH) and secondary phosphines (RRPH and RPH) add to alkenes in presence of a strong base (e.g., KOH in DMSO). Markovnikov's rules apply. Similar reactions occur involving alkynes. Base is not required for electron-deficient alkenes (e.g., derivatives of acrylonitrile) and alkynes.

text: From the commercial perspective, the most important phosphine is

text: triphenylphosphine

text: , several million kilograms being produced annually. It is prepared from the reaction of

text: chlorobenzene

text: PCl

text: , and sodium.  Phosphines of a more specialized nature are usually prepared by other routes.  Phosphorus halides undergo

text: Nucleophilic displacement

text: by organometallic reagents such as

text: Grignard reagent

text: s.  Conversely, some syntheses entail nucleophilic displacement of phosphide anion equivalents ("RP") by aryl- and alkyl halides.  Primary (RPH) and secondary phosphines (RRPH and RPH) add to

text: alkene

text: s in presence of a strong base (e.g.,

text: KOH

text: in

text: DMSO

text: Markovnikov's rule

text: s apply. Similar reactions occur involving

text: alkyne

text: s. Base is not required for electron-deficient alkenes (e.g., derivatives of

text: acrylonitrile

text: ) and alkynes.

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answers: 4

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answers: alkynes

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answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Base is not required for electron-deficient alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Similar reactions occur involving alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: DMSO

text: Unfortunately this reaction fails for higher alkenes.

text: Unfortunately this reaction fails for higher alkenes.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: higher alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: higher alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkenes

text: Alkenes are oxidized with a large number of oxidizing agents. In the presence of oxygen, alkenes burn with a bright flame to produce carbon dioxide and water. Catalytic oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with percarboxylic acids yields epoxides. Reaction with ozone in ozonolysis leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two aldehydes or ketones. Reaction with concentrated, hot KMnO (or other oxidizing salts) in an acidic solution will yield ketones or carboxylic acids.

text: Alkenes are

text: oxidized

text: with a large number of

text: oxidizing agent

text: s. In the presence of

text: oxygen

text: , alkenes burn with a bright flame to produce

text: carbon dioxide

text: and water.

text: Catalytic

text: oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with

text: percarboxylic acids

text: yields

text: epoxide

text: s. Reaction with ozone in

text: ozonolysis

text: leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two

text: aldehyde

text: s or

text: ketone

text: s. Reaction with concentrated, hot

text: KMnO

text: (or other oxidizing salts) in an acidic solution will yield

text: ketone

text: s or

text: carboxylic acid

text: s.

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: carbon dioxide and water

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: In the presence of oxygen, alkenes burn with a bright flame to produce carbon dioxide and water

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: percarboxylic

text: The main scientific works of Yusif Mammadaliyev are related to catalytic progressing of oil and oil gas. He is the founder of petrochemistry in Azerbaijan. He suggested new methods of chlorination and bromination of different hydrocarbons with participation of catalysts and especially showed the ways of obtaining carbon tetrachloride, chloromethane, dichloromethane and other valuable products by means of chlorination of methane, initially in stationary catalyst, and then in hot layer. Researches in the sphere of catalytic alkylation of aromatic, paraffinic, naphthenes hydrocarbons with the help of unsaturated hydrocarbons, enabled the synthesis of the components of aviation fuels on industrial scale. The major works were executed in the sphere of catalytic aromatization of benzine fraction of Baku oil, obtainment of washing agents, flint-organic compounds, production of plastics from pyrolized products, analysis of Naftalan oil’s action mechanism. Mammadaliyev rendered great services for highly skilled personnel’s training. He repeatedly represented Azerbaijan in congresses, conventions and symposiums held by the USSR, the USA, Italy, France, England, the MDR, the PRP and  other countries.

text: The main scientific works of Yusif Mammadaliyev are related to catalytic progressing of oil and

text: oil gas

text: . He is the founder of petrochemistry in Azerbaijan. He suggested new methods of

text: chlorination

text: and

text: bromination

text: of different

text: hydrocarbon

text: s with participation of

text: catalysts

text: and especially showed the ways of obtaining

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: chloromethane

text: dichloromethane

text: and other valuable products by means of chlorination of

text: methane

text: , initially in stationary catalyst, and then in hot layer. Researches in the sphere of catalytic

text: alkylation

text: of

text: aromatic

text: paraffin

text: ic,

text: naphthenes

text: hydrocarbons with the help of

text: unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: s, enabled the synthesis of the components of

text: aviation fuel

text: s on industrial scale. The major works were executed in the sphere of catalytic aromatization of

text: benzine

text: fraction of Baku oil, obtainment of washing agents, flint-organic compounds, production of plastics from pyrolized products, analysis of

text: Naftalan oil

text: ’s action mechanism. Mammadaliyev rendered great services for highly skilled personnel’s training. He repeatedly represented Azerbaijan in congresses, conventions and symposiums held by the USSR,

text: the USA

text: Italy

text: France

text: England

text: , the

text: MDR

text: , the

text: PRP

text: and  other countries.

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answers: methane

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: methane

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Researches in the sphere of catalytic alkylation of aromatic, paraffinic, naphthenes hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: naphthenes hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzine

text: Like other halogens, hydroiodic acid will perform addition reactions with unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes.

text: Like other halogens, hydroiodic acid will perform addition reactions with unsaturated hydrocarbons such as

text: alkene

text: s.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: In chemistry, the suffix -yne is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne"). "-diyne" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.

text: In chemistry, the

text: suffix

text: -yne

text: is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In

text: organic chemistry

text: , the suffix often follows

text: IUPAC nomenclature

text: . However,

text: inorganic compound

text: s featuring

text: unsaturation

text: in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the "

text: -ane

text: " ending with "-yne").

text: "-diyne"

text: is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical

text: locant

text: immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. "-yne" is also used as an

text: infix

text: to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.

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answers: "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne"

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: inorganic compounds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -ane

text: Historical uses of hydrogen chloride in the 20th century include hydrochlorinations of alkynes in producing the chlorinated monomers chloroprene and vinyl chloride, which are subsequently polymerized to make polychloroprene (Neoprene) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), respectively. In the production of vinyl chloride, acetylene (CH) is hydrochlorinated by adding the HCl across the triple bond of the CH molecule, turning the triple into a double bond, yielding vinyl chloride.

text: Historical uses of hydrogen chloride in the 20th century include hydrochlorinations of

text: alkynes

text: in producing the chlorinated

text: monomer

text: s

text: chloroprene

text: and

text: vinyl chloride

text: , which are subsequently

text: polymer

text: ized to make polychloroprene (

text: Neoprene

text: ) and

text: polyvinyl chloride

text: (PVC), respectively. In the production of vinyl chloride,

text: acetylene

text: (CH) is hydrochlorinated by adding the HCl across the

text: triple bond

text: of the CH molecule, turning the triple into a

text: double bond

text: , yielding vinyl chloride.

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answers: acetylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: acetylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: hydrochlorinations of alkynes in producing the chlorinated monomers chloroprene and vinyl chloride

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: acetylene

text: In the first type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge, replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides, amines and halides. This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon. The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups. Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, S1 and S2. In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.

text: In the first type, a

text: nucleophile

text: , an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or

text: partial charge

text: , replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the

text: leaving group

text: departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are

text: hydroxide

text: ion,

text: alkoxide

text: s,

text: amine

text: s and

text: halide

text: s. This type of reaction is found mainly in

text: aliphatic hydrocarbon

text: s, and rarely in

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: . The latter have high electron density and enter

text: nucleophilic aromatic substitution

text: only with very strong

text: electron withdrawing groups

text: . Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms,

text: and

text: . In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the

text: kinetic order

text: of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.

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answers: Nucleophilic substitution

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answers: enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups

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answers: halides

text: The mechanism proceeds in two stages: β-nucleophilic addition to the unsaturated carbonyl compound, followed by electrophilic substitution at the α-carbon of the resulting enolate.

text: The mechanism proceeds in two stages:

text: β-nucleophilic addition

text: to the unsaturated carbonyl compound, followed by electrophilic substitution at the α-carbon of the resulting

text: enolate

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answers: carbonyl

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answers: alkenes

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answers: electrophilic substitution at the  -carbon of the resulting enolate

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: carbonyl

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: These involved the fundamental ring systems and derivatives of 1,2-benzanthracene, the dibenzopyrenes, steranthrenes, anthanthrene, 1,2,3,4-dibenzanthracene, a variety of benzo and dibenzofluoranthenes. This was extended to large-molecular-size and "hypercondensed" hydrocarbons, ring opening and partial hydrogenation. During his study of dibenzopyrenes, he discovered a molecular arrangement involving the framework of aromatic hydrocarbons. His studies of the carcinogenic azulenophenalenes led him to question the role of aromaticity. Aside from his studies with aza-replaced hydrocarbons, benz- and dibenzacridines and –carbazoles, he also synthesised and tested a number of new structural types of heteroaromatics with reference to the nature, nuimber and position of the heteroatoms. These included the naphtho and benzo derivatives of pyridocarbazole and beta-carboline, heteroaromatics with sulfur, arsenic or selenium replacements. These were either alone or in association with nitrogen, as well as sulfur and nitrogen containing pseudoazulenes. A series of hydrocarbon-like polynuclear lactones were explored with the intent of establishing a connection between polynuclear aromatics and aflatoxins. Such studies of heteroatomic polynuclears led him to propose a "newer picture" of a carcinogenic hydrocarbon, helping the generalise the classical K-region hypothesis.

text: These involved the fundamental ring systems and derivatives of 1,2-benzanthracene, the dibenzopyrenes, steranthrenes, anthanthrene, 1,2,3,4-dibenzanthracene, a variety of benzo and dibenzofluoranthenes. This was extended to large-molecular-size and "hypercondensed" hydrocarbons, ring opening and partial hydrogenation. During his study of dibenzopyrenes, he discovered a molecular arrangement involving the framework of aromatic hydrocarbons. His studies of the carcinogenic azulenophenalenes led him to question the role of

text: aromaticity

text: . Aside from his studies with aza-replaced hydrocarbons, benz- and dibenzacridines and –carbazoles, he also synthesised and tested a number of new structural types of heteroaromatics with reference to the nature, nuimber and position of the heteroatoms. These included the naphtho and benzo derivatives of pyridocarbazole and beta-carboline, heteroaromatics with sulfur, arsenic or selenium replacements. These were either alone or in association with nitrogen, as well as sulfur and nitrogen containing pseudoazulenes. A series of hydrocarbon-like polynuclear lactones were explored with the intent of establishing a connection between polynuclear aromatics and aflatoxins. Such studies of heteroatomic polynuclears led him to propose a "newer picture" of a carcinogenic hydrocarbon, helping the generalise the classical K-region hypothesis.

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answers: 4

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answers: 1,2-benzanthracene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 1,2-benzanthracene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: he discovered a molecular arrangement involving the framework of aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: anthanthrene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,2-benzanthracene

text: Similar to Krogmann’s platinum salt, it has been shown that it is possible to stabilize metal chains with only unsaturated hydrocarbons, or olefins.  Current research indicates that mononuclear Pd and Pd react with conjugated polyenes to give linear chains of Pd-Pd bonds protected by a “π-electron sheath.”

text: Similar to Krogmann’s platinum salt, it has been shown that it is possible to stabilize metal chains with only

text: unsaturated

text: hydrocarbons

text: , or olefins.  Current research indicates that mononuclear

text: Pd

text: and Pd react with

text: conjugated

text: polyenes

text: to give linear chains of Pd-Pd bonds protected by a “π-electron sheath.”

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answers: polyenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polyenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: it has been shown that it is possible to stabilize metal chains with only unsaturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: olefins

answers: NDQ_018757

text: The Wharton olefin synthesis allows the transformation of an α,β unsaturated ketone into an allylic alcohol. First, the epoxide is generated by the reaction of peroxide with the alkene.  The reaction has two limitations:

text: The Wharton olefin synthesis allows the transformation of an α,β unsaturated ketone into an

text: allylic alcohol

text: . First, the

text: epoxide

text: is generated by the reaction of

text: peroxide

text: with the alkene.  The reaction has two limitations:

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answers: 1

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: The smallest alkene is methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: The reaction has two limitations.

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Peroxide is generated by the reaction of peroxide with the alkene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes are very common

answers: NDQ_018757

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the Nurses' Health Study — a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the

text: Nurses' Health Study

text: — a

text: cohort study

text: that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's

text: population

text: during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.93,

text: CI

text: : 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.17,

text: CI

text: : 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of

text: food energy

text: from trans fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

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answers: Trans fat

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Trans fat is an unsaturated fat

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Trans fat

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cis

text: The hydrocarbon accounting process is emphasizing the tracking of all hydrocarbons through flows until a sale to a customer has occurred or hydrocarbons are disposed for including all fluid discharges, vents and flaring of gas, consumption of gas for power production at the facility, and quantities of evaporation from oil storages. Similarly, measurements of injected flow of water and gas into the reservoir through injection wells are being part of hydrocarbon accounting.

text: The hydrocarbon accounting process is emphasizing the tracking of all hydrocarbons through flows until a sale to a customer has occurred or hydrocarbons are disposed for including all fluid discharges, vents and

text: flaring of gas

text: , consumption of gas for power production at the facility, and quantities of

text: evaporation

text: from oil storages. Similarly, measurements of injected flow of water and gas into the reservoir through injection wells are being part of hydrocarbon accounting.

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Similarly, measurements of injected flow of water and gas into the reservoir through injection wells are being part of hydrocarbon accounting

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: Hypoxia has been shown to induce a 10-fold accumulation of phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK-1) mRNA in mouse hepatoma (Hepa 1c1c7) cells. Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 is an enzyme involved in the conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) to 3-phosphoglycerate (3-P-G) leading the production of ATP from ADP. Induction of gene expression by HIF-1 is thought to be dependent on the presence of aromatic hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT1). Arnt's N-terminal region and HIF-1 are thought to work together to induce transcription of phosphoglycerate kinase 1.

text: Hypoxia has been shown to induce a 10-fold accumulation of phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK-1) mRNA in mouse hepatoma (Hepa 1c1c7) cells. Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 is an enzyme involved in the conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) to 3-phosphoglycerate (3-P-G) leading the production of ATP from ADP. Induction of gene expression by HIF-1 is thought to be dependent on the presence of aromatic hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT1). Arnt's N-terminal region and HIF-1 are thought to work together to induce transcription of phosphoglycerate kinase 1.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Arnt

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Induction of gene expression by HIF-1 is thought to be dependent on the presence of aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused aromatic rings and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents. Naphthalene is the simplest example of a PAH.  PAHs occur in oil, coal, and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish.

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused

text: aromatic

text: rings

text: and do not contain

text: heteroatom

text: s or carry

text: substituent

text: s.

text: Naphthalene

text: is the simplest example of a PAH.  PAHs occur in

text: oil

text: coal

text: , and

text: tar

text: deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as

text: carcinogen

text: ic,

text: mutagen

text: ic, and

text: teratogen

text: ic. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish.

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answers: fused aromatic rings

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answers: Naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Naphthalene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: PAHs are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused aromatic rings and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Naphthalene

text: The chief use of ethane is the production of ethene (ethylene) by steam cracking. When diluted with steam and briefly heated to very high temperatures (900 °C or more), heavy hydrocarbons break down into lighter hydrocarbons, and saturated hydrocarbons become unsaturated. Ethane is favored for ethene production because the steam cracking of ethane is fairly selective for ethene, while the steam cracking of heavier hydrocarbons yields a product mixture poorer in ethene and richer in heavier alkenes (olefins), such as propene (propylene) and butadiene, and in aromatic hydrocarbons.

text: The chief use of ethane is the production of

text: ethene (ethylene)

text: by

text: steam cracking

text: . When diluted with steam and briefly heated to very high temperatures (900 °C or more), heavy hydrocarbons break down into lighter hydrocarbons, and

text: saturated hydrocarbon

text: s become

text: unsaturated

text: . Ethane is favored for ethene production because the steam cracking of ethane is fairly selective for ethene, while the steam cracking of heavier hydrocarbons yields a product mixture poorer in ethene and richer in heavier

text: alkenes (olefins)

text: , such as

text: propene (propylene)

text: and

text: butadiene

text: , and in

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s.

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answers: Olefins

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: olefins

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: richer in heavier alkenes (olefins)

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: propene

text: α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl tosylhydrazones can be converted into the corresponding alkenes with migration of the double bond. The reduction proceeds stereoselectively to furnish the E geometric isomer.

text: α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl tosylhydrazones can be converted into the corresponding alkenes with migration of the double bond. The reduction proceeds stereoselectively to furnish the E geometric isomer.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: E geometric isomer

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The reduction proceeds stereoselectively to furnish the E geometric isomer

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: Similarly to bright spots, not all dim spots are caused by the presence of hydrocarbons and therefore they should not be treated as conclusive evidence hydrocarbon accumulations.

text: Similarly to bright spots, not all dim spots are caused by the presence of hydrocarbons and therefore they should not be treated as conclusive evidence hydrocarbon accumulations.

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text: 3Å molecular sieves are used to dry a range of materials, such as ethanol, air, refrigerants, natural gas and unsaturated hydrocarbons. The latter include cracking gas, acetylene, ethylene, propylene and butadiene.

text: 3Å molecular sieves are used to dry a range of materials, such as

text: ethanol

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text: refrigerant

text: s,

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text: Alken is a village in Skanderborg Municipality, Denmark.

text: Alken is a village in

text: Skanderborg Municipality

text: Denmark

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answers: alkenes

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answers: Alken is a village in Skanderborg Municipality

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: Alken

text: Djerassi et al. studied the mechanism of NaBHCN reduction of α,β-unsaturated tosylhydrazones. Based on deuterium-labeling experiments, they concluded that alkene formation is initiated by hydride reduction of the iminium ion followed by double bond migration and nitrogen extrusion which occur in a concerted manner.Allylic diazene rearrangement as the final step in the reductive 1,3-transposition of α,β-unsaturated tosylhydrazones to the reduced alkenes can also be used to establish sp-stereocenters from allylic diazenes containing prochiral stereocenters. The influence of the alkoxy stereocenter results in diastereoselective reduction of the α,β-unsaturated tosylhydrazone. The authors predicted that diastereoselective transfer of the diazene hydrogen to one face of the prochiral alkene could be enforced during the suprafacial rearrangement.

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answers: alkene

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answers: alkenes

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answers: The influence of the alkoxy stereocenter results in diastereoselective reduction of the  , -unsaturated tosylhydrazone

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allylic diazene

text: The suffix follows IUPAC nomenclature, and is mainly used in organic chemistry.  However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes, i.e., the name of thecorresponding saturated hydride is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne". "-diyne" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen to be as low as possible. "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.

text: The suffix follows

text: IUPAC nomenclature

text: , and is mainly used in organic chemistry.  However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes, i.e., the name of thecorresponding saturated hydride is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne". "-diyne" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen to be as low as possible. "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.

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answers: The suffix follows IUPAC nomenclature

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Locants are chosen to be as low as possible

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It is mainly used in organic chemistry

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: -ane

text: Jacobsen's catalyst is the common name for N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexanediaminomanganese(III) chloride, a coordination compound of manganese and a salen-type ligand. It is used as an asymmetric catalyst in the Jacobsen epoxidation, which is renowned for its ability to enantioselectively transform prochiral alkenes  into epoxides.  Prior to its development, catalysts for the asymmetric epoxidation of alkenes required the substrate to have a directing functional group, such as an alcohol as seen in the Sharpless epoxidation. This compound has two enantiomers, which give the appropriate epoxide product from the alkene starting material.

text: Jacobsen's catalyst is the common name for N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexanediaminomanganese(III) chloride, a

text: coordination compound

text: of

text: manganese

text: and a

text: salen-type ligand

text: . It is used as an

text: asymmetric catalyst

text: in the

text: Jacobsen epoxidation

text: , which is renowned for its ability to

text: enantioselective

text: ly transform

text: prochiral

text: alkenes  into epoxides.  Prior to its development, catalysts for the asymmetric epoxidation of alkenes required the substrate to have a directing functional group, such as an alcohol as seen in the

text: Sharpless epoxidation

text: . This compound has two enantiomers, which give the appropriate epoxide product from the alkene starting material.

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answers: 3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene

text: A seismic attribute that can indicate the presence or absence of hydrocarbons is known as a direct hydrocarbon indicator.

text: A seismic attribute that can indicate the presence or absence of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s is known as a

text: direct hydrocarbon indicator

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answers: direct hydrocarbon indicator

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answers: hydrocarbon

text: The money for Juancito Pinto comes from funds generated by the nationalization of Bolivia's hydrocarbons industry in 2006.

text: The money for Juancito Pinto comes from funds generated by the nationalization of Bolivia's

text: hydrocarbons

text: industry in 2006.

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answers: hydrocarbons industry in 2006

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text: Pi complex formation with alkynes is also known.

text: Pi complex

text: formation with

text: alkyne

text: s is also known.

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answers: Pi

text: Experiments suggest that the degree of unsaturation increases linearly with pressure for a breathing mixture of fixed composition, and decreases linearly with fraction of inert gas in the breathing mixture. As a consequence, the conditions for maximising the degree of unsaturation are a breathing gas with the lowest possible fraction of inert gas – i.e. pure oxygen, at the maximum permissible partial pressure. This saturation deficit is also referred to as the "Oxygen window". or partial pressure vacancy.

text: Experiments suggest that the degree of unsaturation increases linearly with pressure for a breathing mixture of fixed composition, and decreases linearly with fraction of inert gas in the breathing mixture. As a consequence, the conditions for maximising the degree of unsaturation are a breathing gas with the lowest possible fraction of inert gas – i.e. pure oxygen, at the maximum permissible partial pressure. This saturation deficit is also referred to as the "

text: Oxygen window

text: ". or partial pressure vacancy.

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answers: This saturation deficit is also referred to as the "Oxygen window". or partial pressure vacancy

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

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answers: HCl

text: Normally, the stereochemistry of the alkene is retained throughout the reaction, except under harsh reaction conditions.  A variety of alkenes may be used, and these include both α- and β-halo-α,β unsaturated ketones, esters, and sulfoxides (which normally need a copper (I) additive to proceed), and more (see example below).  Vinyl triflates are also sometimes used.  Some reactions require the addition of LiCl and others are slowed down, implying that two mechanistic pathways are present.

text: Normally, the

text: stereochemistry

text: of the

text: alkene

text: is retained throughout the reaction, except under harsh reaction conditions.  A variety of alkenes may be used, and these include both α- and β-halo-α,β unsaturated

text: ketone

text: s,

text: ester

text: s, and

text: sulfoxide

text: s (which normally need a copper (I) additive to proceed), and more (see example below).  Vinyl triflates are also sometimes used.  Some reactions require the addition of

text: LiCl

text: and others are slowed down, implying that two mechanistic pathways are present.

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answers: Normally, the stereochemistry of the alkene is retained throughout the reaction, except under harsh reaction conditions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

text: Mining includes lead, silver, zinc and salt, and hydrocarbons extraction.

text: Mining includes

text: lead

text: silver

text: zinc

text: and

text: salt

text: , and

text: hydrocarbons

text: extraction.

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answers: hydrocarbons extraction

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the carbon atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain. Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the non-acid (non-carbonyl) end of the chain. This end is called the omega end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the chain counting from that end. Some oils and fats have multiple double bonds and are therefore called  polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be further divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats, which are rare in nature. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst. This action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. To make vegetable shortening, then, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce saturated fats, which have more desirable physical properties e.g., they melt at a desirable temperature (30–40 °C), and store well, whereas polyunsaturated oils go rancid when they react with oxygen in the air. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by an unwanted side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation.

text: Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the carbon atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are

text: saturated fat

text: s have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain.

text: Unsaturated fat

text: s have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the non-acid (non-carbonyl) end of the chain. This end is called the omega end or the n-end. Thus

text: alpha-linolenic acid

text: is called an

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the chain counting from that end. Some oils and fats have multiple double bonds and are therefore called

text: polyunsaturated fats

text: . Unsaturated fats can be further divided into

text: cis fat

text: s, which are the most common in nature, and

text: trans fat

text: s, which are rare in nature. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst. This action, called

text: hydrogenation

text: , tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. To make vegetable shortening, then, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce saturated fats, which have more desirable physical properties e.g., they melt at a desirable temperature (30–40 °C), and store well, whereas polyunsaturated oils go rancid when they react with oxygen in the air. However,

text: trans fat

text: s are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by an unwanted side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation.

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answers: polyunsaturated fats

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answers: polyunsaturated oils

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answers: This end is called the omega end or the n-end

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unanswerable

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answers: carbonyl

text: The catalytic activity of P−1 is insensitive to steric hindrance of side chains on the substrate and thus more active, and seldom affects protecting groups. In contrast, P−2 is very sensitive to steric factors. For these reasons, P−1 is usually used for the complete reduction of unsaturated hydrocarbons under mild conditions, while P−2 is useful in partial reductions such as converting alkynes to alkenes in high yields:

text: The catalytic activity of P−1 is insensitive to

text: steric hindrance

text: of side chains on the substrate and thus more active, and seldom affects protecting groups. In contrast, P−2 is very sensitive to steric factors. For these reasons, P−1 is usually used for the complete reduction of

text: unsaturated

text: hydrocarbons

text: under mild conditions, while P−2 is useful in partial reductions such as converting

text: alkyne

text: s to

text: alkene

text: s in high yields:

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: usually used for the complete reduction of unsaturated hydrocarbons under mild conditions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: P 2

text: The maturity of a source rock can also be used as an indicator of its hydrocarbon potential. That is, if a rock is sub-mature, then it has a much higher potential to generate further hydrocarbons than one that is overmature.

text: The maturity of a source rock can also be used as an indicator of its hydrocarbon potential. That is, if a rock is sub-mature, then it has a much higher potential to generate further hydrocarbons than one that is overmature.

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answers: sub-mature

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answers: sub-mature, then it has a much higher potential to generate further hydrocarbons than one that is overmature

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: In organic chemistry, hydrocarbons (compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen) are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds and aliphatic compounds (; G. aleiphar, fat, oil) also known as non-aromatic compounds. Aliphatics can be cyclic, but only aromatic compounds contain an especially stable ring of atoms, such as benzene.  Aliphatic compounds can be saturated, like Hexane, or unsaturated, like Hexene and Hexyne. Open-chain compounds (whether straight or branched) contain no rings of any type, and are thus aliphatic.

text: In

text: organic chemistry

text: hydrocarbon

text: s (

text: compounds

text: composed of

text: carbon

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: ) are divided into two classes:

text: aromatic

text: compounds and aliphatic compounds (; G. aleiphar, fat, oil) also known as non-aromatic compounds. Aliphatics can be

text: cyclic

text: , but only aromatic compounds contain an especially stable ring of atoms, such as

text: benzene

text: .  Aliphatic compounds can be

text: saturated

text: , like

text: Hexane

text: , or unsaturated, like

text: Hexene

text: and

text: Hexyne

text: Open-chain compound

text: s (whether straight or branched) contain no rings of any type, and are thus aliphatic.

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answers: Hexyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hexane

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: only aromatic compounds contain an especially stable ring of atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Aliphatic compounds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Hexyne

text: Should the brown colour not disappear, possibly due to the presence of an alkene which does not react, or reacts very slowly with, bromine, the potassium permanganate test should be performed, in order to determine the presence or absence of the alkene. The iodine value is a way to determine the presence of unsaturation quantitatively.

text: Should the brown colour not disappear, possibly due to the presence of an alkene which does not react, or reacts very slowly with, bromine, the

text: potassium permanganate test

text: should be performed, in order to determine the presence or absence of the alkene. The

text: iodine value

text: is a way to determine the presence of unsaturation quantitatively.

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answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkene which does not react, or reacts very slowly with, bromine

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkene

text: It is used in the rhodium-catalyzed α-trifluoromethylation of α,β-unsaturated ketones.

text: It is used in the

text: rhodium

text: -catalyzed α-

text: trifluoromethylation

text: of α,β-unsaturated

text: ketones

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answers: ketones

answers: NDQ_018757

text: There is a wide variety of chemical groups that are labeled for control of Microdochium Patch. They include, but are not limited to the methyl benzimidazole carbamates (MBCs) such as thiophanate methyl, the dicarboximides such as iprodione and vinclozolin, the DMIs such as fenarimol and propiconazole, the QoIs such as azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin, the phenylpyrroles such as fludioxonil, certain aromatic hydrocarbons such as PCNB, and the cholronitriles such as chlorothalonil. There is a wide variety of chemical groups that are labeled for control of Microdochium Patch. They include, but are not limited to the  methyl benzimidazole carbamates (MBCs) such as thiophanate methyl, the dicarboximides such as iprodione and vinclozolin, the DMIs such as fenarimol and propiconazole, the QoIs such as azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin, the phenylpyrroles such as fludioxonil, certain aromatic hydrocarbons such as PCNB, and the cholronitriles such as chlorothalonil.

text: There is a wide variety of chemical groups that are labeled for control of Microdochium Patch. They include, but are not limited to the

text: methyl

text: benzimidazole

text: carbamates

text: (MBCs) such as thiophanate

text: methyl

text: , the

text: dicarboximides

text: such as

text: iprodione

text: and

text: vinclozolin

text: , the DMIs such as

text: fenarimol

text: and

text: propiconazole

text: , the QoIs such as

text: azoxystrobin

text: , pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin, the phenylpyrroles such as fludioxonil, certain

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: s such as

text: PCNB

text: , and the cholronitriles such as

text: chlorothalonil

text: . There is a wide variety of chemical groups that are labeled for control of Microdochium Patch. They include, but are not limited to the

text: methyl

text: benzimidazole

text: carbamates

text: (MBCs) such as thiophanate methyl, the

text: dicarboximides

text: such as

text: iprodione

text: and

text: vinclozolin

text: , the DMIs such as

text: fenarimol

text: and

text: propiconazole

text: , the QoIs such as

text: azoxystrobin

text: , pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin, the phenylpyrroles such as fludioxonil, certain

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: s such as

text: PCNB

text: , and the cholronitriles such as

text: chlorothalonil

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answers: thiophanate methyl

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: benzimidazole

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzimidazole

text: Several interesting cases are worth noting in this selection of substrates. First, in the case of the diaryl system 9, relatively high stereoselectively is achieved despite the isosteric nature of the ketone substituents, suggesting that electronics in addition to sterics may play a role in the stereoselectivity of the CBS reduction. Differences in the substitution of the alkyne moieties in ynones 11 and 12 result in a change of selectivity for the alkyne to function as the more sterically bulky substituent rather than the smaller one. For the α,β unsaturated systems 10-12, efficient reduction of the ketone occurs despite the possible side reaction of hydroboration of the C-C unsaturated bond. The CBS reduction has also been shown to tolerate the presence of heteroatoms as in ketone 13, which is capable of coordinating to the borane.

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answers: ynones

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: ynones 11 and 12

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The CBS reduction has also been shown to tolerate the presence of heteroatoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: ynones

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: diaryl

text: Ring-closing metathesis, or RCM, is a widely used variation of olefin metathesis in organic chemistry for the synthesis of various unsaturated rings via the intramolecular metathesis of two terminal alkenes, which forms the cycloalkene as the  E- or Z- isomers and volatile ethylene.

text: Ring-closing metathesis, or RCM, is a widely used variation of

text: olefin metathesis

text: in organic chemistry for the synthesis of various

text: unsaturated

text: rings via the intramolecular

text: metathesis

text: of two terminal

text: alkene

text: s, which forms the cycloalkene as the  E- or Z-

text: isomer

text: s and

text: volatile

text: ethylene

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answers: volatile

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answers: volatile ethylene

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answers: alkenes

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answers: E- or Z

text: Ciney is brewed in the brewery Alken-Maes.

text: Ciney is brewed in the brewery

text: Alken-Maes

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answers: Alkenes

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answers: Alken-Maes is a brewery

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answers: Alken

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Alken

text: s initial hydrocarbon signature is relatively close to that of its host P. dominula, after usurpation, the species is able to exactly match the hydrocarbons of its host colony.

text: s initial hydrocarbon signature is relatively close to that of its host P. dominula, after usurpation, the species is able to exactly match the hydrocarbons of its host colony.

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answers: methene

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbon signature is relatively close to that of its host

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond.

text: The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: one unsaturated bond

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answers: alkynes

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answers: fatty acids

text: A pregnenedione is an unsaturated diketone derivative of a pregnane.

text: A pregnenedione is an unsaturated diketone derivative of a

text: pregnane

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answers: Pregnane

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: pregnenedione

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: An unsaturated diketone derivative of a pregnane

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: pregnenedione

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: pregnenedione

text: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons are generally carried out through flash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP). In a typical FVP apparatus, a sample is sublimed under high vacuum (0.1-1.0 mmHg), heated in the range of 500-1100 °C by an electric furnace as it passes through a  horizontal quartz tube, and collected in a cold trap. Sample is carried through the apparatus by nitrogen carrier gas.

text: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons are generally carried out through flash vacuum

text: pyrolysis

text: (FVP). In a typical FVP apparatus, a sample is

text: sublimed

text: under high vacuum (0.1-1.0

text: mmHg

text: ), heated in the range of 500-1100 °C by an electric furnace as it passes through a  horizontal

text: quartz

text: tube, and collected in a cold trap. Sample is carried through the apparatus by

text: nitrogen

text: carrier gas.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Nitrogen

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Thermal rearrangements of aromatic hydrocarbons are generally carried out

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: Hydroamination can be used intramolecularly to create heterocycles or intermolecularly with a separate amine and unsaturated compound. The development of catalysts for hydroamination remains an active area, especially for alkenes.

text: Hydroamination can be used

text: intramolecularly

text: to create

text: heterocycles

text: or

text: intermolecularly

text: with a separate amine and unsaturated compound. The development of

text: catalyst

text: s for hydroamination remains an active area, especially for alkenes.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

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answers: The development of catalysts for hydroamination remains an active area

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkenes

text: Saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats, but less well than those in saturated fats. This means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information.

text: Saturated fats

text: have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats, but less well than those in saturated fats. This means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on

text: chemical structure of fats

text: for more information.

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answers: Saturated fats

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: melting points

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Saturated

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cis

text: The appearance of warmed-over flavor begins as lipids, primarily lipids from the cell membrane of cells in the meat, are attacked by oxygen.  This process is aided by the release of iron from iron-containing proteins in the meat, including myoglobin and hemoglobin.  The iron is released by the heat of cooking, or by mechanical grinding. The free iron then acts as a catalyst, or promoter, of oxidation reactions.  The reactions break down some of the fats in the meat to form primary oxidation products.  These chemicals are not directly responsible for the objectionable taste.  Instead, they subsequently further decompose to secondary oxidation products including "alcohols, acids, ketones, lactones and unsaturated hydrocarbons which produce the [warmed-over flavor]."  Many of these compounds, including pentanal, hexanal, pentylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, 2-octenal and 2,3-octanedione have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion.

text: The appearance of warmed-over flavor begins as lipids, primarily lipids from the

text: cell membrane

text: of cells in the meat, are attacked by

text: oxygen

text: .  This process is aided by the release of

text: iron

text: from iron-containing proteins in the meat, including

text: myoglobin

text: and

text: hemoglobin

text: .  The iron is released by the heat of cooking, or by mechanical grinding. The free iron then acts as a

text: catalyst

text: , or promoter, of oxidation reactions.  The reactions break down some of the fats in the meat to form primary oxidation products.  These chemicals are not directly responsible for the objectionable taste.  Instead, they subsequently further decompose to secondary oxidation products including "

text: alcohol

text: s,

text: acid

text: s,

text: ketone

text: s,

text: lactone

text: s and

text: unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: s which produce the [warmed-over flavor]."  Many of these compounds, including

text: pentanal

text: hexanal

text: pentylfuran

text: and

text: have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 2,3-octanedione

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Oxygen

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: ketones

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 2,3-octanedione

text: Alkenes undergo many important reactions that proceed via a photon-induced π to π* transition. The first electronic excited state of an alkene lack the π-bond, so that rotation about the C-C bond is rapid and the molecule engages in reactions not observed thermally. These reactions include cis-trans isomerization, cycloaddition to other (ground state) alkene to give cyclobutane derivatives. The cis-trans isomerization of a (poly)alkene is involved in retinal, a component of the machinery of vision. The dimerization of alkenes is relevant to the photodamage of DNA, where thymine dimers are observed upon illuminating DNA to UV radiation. Such dimers interfere with transcription. The beneficial effects of sunlight are associated with the photochemically induced retro-cyclization (decyclization) reaction of ergosterol to give vitamin D. In the DeMayo reaction, an alkene reacts with a 1,3-diketone reacts via its enol to yield a 1,5-diketone. Still another common photochemical reaction is Zimmerman's Di-pi-methane rearrangement.

text: Alkene

text: s undergo many important reactions that proceed via a photon-induced π to π* transition. The first electronic excited state of an alkene lack the π-bond, so that rotation about the C-C bond is rapid and the molecule engages in reactions not observed thermally. These reactions include cis-trans isomerization, cycloaddition to other (ground state) alkene to give

text: cyclobutane

text: derivatives. The cis-trans isomerization of a (poly)alkene is involved in

text: retinal

text: , a component of the machinery of

text: vision

text: . The dimerization of alkenes is relevant to the photodamage of

text: DNA

text: , where

text: thymine dimer

text: s are observed upon illuminating DNA to UV radiation. Such dimers interfere with

text: transcription

text: . The beneficial effects of sunlight are associated with the photochemically induced retro-cyclization (decyclization) reaction of

text: ergosterol

text: to give

text: vitamin D

text: . In the

text: DeMayo reaction

text: , an alkene reacts with a 1,3-diketone reacts via its

text: enol

text: to yield a 1,5-diketone. Still another common photochemical reaction is Zimmerman's

text: Di-pi-methane rearrangement

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: cyclobutane

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: ground state

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The first electronic excited state of an alkene lack the  -bond

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C-C

text: The compound fluorinates unsaturated polyfluoroolefins into polyfluoroalkanes.

text: The compound fluorinates unsaturated polyfluoro

text: olefins

text: into polyfluoroalkanes.

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answers: polyfluoroalkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polyfluoroalkanes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: polyfluoroalkanes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polyfluoroalkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: olefins

text: The earliest use of the term “aromatic” was in an article by August Wilhelm Hofmann in 1855.[1] Hofmann used the term for a class of benzene compounds, many of which do have odors (aromas), unlike pure saturated hydrocarbons. Today, there is no general relationship between aromaticity as a chemical property and the olfactory properties of such compounds (how they smell), although in 1855, before the structure of benzene or organic compounds was understood, chemists like Hofmann were beginning to understand that odiferous molecules from plants, such as terpenes, had chemical properties we recognize today are similar to unsaturated petroleum hydrocarbons like benzene.

text: The earliest use of the term “aromatic” was in an article by August Wilhelm Hofmann in 1855.[1] Hofmann used the term for a class of benzene compounds, many of which do have odors (aromas), unlike pure saturated hydrocarbons. Today, there is no general relationship between aromaticity as a chemical property and the olfactory properties of such compounds (how they smell), although in 1855, before the structure of benzene or organic compounds was understood, chemists like Hofmann were beginning to understand that odiferous molecules from plants, such as terpenes, had chemical properties we recognize today are similar to unsaturated petroleum hydrocarbons like benzene.

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answers: terpenes

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answers: terpenes

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answers: many of which do have odors (aromas), unlike pure saturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: terpenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: Cyclohexenone reacts both ketones and alkenes. It has  an electron-poor carbon-carbon double bond as a typical representative of the α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.

text: Cyclohexenone reacts both

text: ketone

text: s and

text: alkenes

text: . It has  an electron-poor carbon-carbon double bond as a typical representative of the α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: ketones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsaturated carbonyl compounds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

text: The azide group is particularly bioorthogonal because it is extremely small (favorable for cell permeability and avoids perturbations), metabolically stable, and does not naturally exist in cells and thus has no competing biological side reactions. Although azides are not the most reactive 1,3-dipole available for reaction, they are preferred for their relative lack of side reactions and stability in typical synthetic conditions. The alkyne is not as small, but it still has the stability and orthogonality necessary for in vivo labeling. Cyclooctynes were selected as the smallest stable alkyne ring which increases reactivity through ring strain which has calculated to be 19.9 kcal/mol.

text: The azide group is particularly bioorthogonal because it is extremely small (favorable for cell permeability and avoids perturbations), metabolically stable, and does not naturally exist in cells and thus has no competing biological side reactions. Although azides are not the most reactive 1,3-dipole available for reaction, they are preferred for their relative lack of side reactions and stability in typical synthetic conditions. The

text: alkyne

text: is not as small, but it still has the stability and orthogonality necessary for in vivo labeling. Cyclooctynes were selected as the smallest stable alkyne ring which increases reactivity through ring strain which has calculated to be 19.9 kcal/mol.

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answers: Cyclooctynes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Cyclooctynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The alkyne is not as small, but it still has the stability and orthogonality necessary for in vivo labeling

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Cyclooctynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Cyclooctynes

text: and the degree of unsaturation is

text: and the degree of unsaturation is

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answers: alkyne

text: After the addition of the oxidant to the system, O=Mn(V) is generally accepted to be the active oxidant species formed.  The substrate is thought to approach the metal-oxo bond from the side at a perpendicular orientation in relation to the catalyst in order to allow favorable orbital overlap.  This mechanism, which was originally proposed by John Groves to explain porphyrin-catalyzed epoxidation reactions, is commonly referred to as a "side-on perpendicular approach".  The approach is over the diamine bridge, where the steric bulk of the tert-butyl groups on the periphery of the ligand do not interfere with the alkene’s approach (see below).  However, as is the case with the overall mechanism, the pathway of alkene approach is also debated.

text: After the addition of the oxidant to the system, O=Mn(V) is generally accepted to be the active oxidant species formed.  The substrate is thought to approach the metal-

text: oxo

text: bond from the side at a perpendicular orientation in relation to the catalyst in order to allow favorable orbital overlap.  This mechanism, which was originally proposed by John Groves to explain porphyrin-catalyzed epoxidation reactions, is commonly referred to as a "side-on perpendicular approach".  The approach is over the diamine bridge, where the steric bulk of the tert-butyl groups on the periphery of the ligand do not interfere with the alkene’s approach (see below).  However, as is the case with the overall mechanism, the pathway of alkene approach is also debated.

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answers: However, as is the case with the overall mechanism, the pathway of alkene approach is also debated

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answers: alkene

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answers: Mn(V)

text: Alken was an enclave of the Bishopric of Liège surrounded by the county of Loon. Many Prince Bishops had a summer residence here.

text: Alken was an enclave of the

text: Bishopric of Liège

text: surrounded by the county of Loon. Many Prince Bishops had a summer residence here.

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text: Olefins, the unsaturated hydrocarbons, would have been expected to predominate by far in any material that was derived in that way. He also wrote: "Petroleum ... [seems to be] a primordial hydrocarbon mixture into which bio-products have been added."

text: Olefin

text: s, the unsaturated hydrocarbons, would have been expected to predominate by far in any material that was derived in that way. He also wrote: "Petroleum ... [seems to be] a primordial hydrocarbon mixture into which bio-products have been added."

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answers: Olefins, the unsaturated hydrocarbons

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text: Tocotrienols, although less commonly known, also belong to the vitamin E family. Tocotrienols have four natural 2' d-isomers (they have a stereoisomeric carbon only at the 2' ring-tail position). The four tocotrienols (in order of decreasing methylation: d-alpha, d-beta, d-gamma, and d-delta-tocotrienol) have structures corresponding to the four tocopherols, except with an unsaturated bond in each of the three isoprene units that form the hydrocarbon tail, whereas tocopherols have a saturated phytyl tail (the phytyl tail of tocopherols gives the possibility for 2 more stereoisomeric sites in these molecules that tocotrienols do not have). Tocotrienol has been subject to fewer clinical studies and seen less research as compared to tocopherol. However, there is growing interest in the health effects of these compounds.

text: Tocotrienol

text: s, although less commonly known, also belong to the vitamin E family. Tocotrienols have four natural 2' d-isomers (they have a stereoisomeric carbon only at the 2' ring-tail position). The four tocotrienols (in order of decreasing methylation: d-alpha, d-beta, d-gamma, and d-delta-tocotrienol) have structures corresponding to the four tocopherols, except with an unsaturated bond in each of the three

text: isoprene

text: units that form the hydrocarbon tail, whereas tocopherols have a saturated phytyl tail (the phytyl tail of tocopherols gives the possibility for 2 more stereoisomeric sites in these molecules that tocotrienols do not have). Tocotrienol has been subject to fewer clinical studies and seen less research as compared to tocopherol. However, there is growing interest in the health effects of these compounds.

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answers: Tocotrienols

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answers: Tocotrienols

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answers: Tocotrienols have four natural 2' d-isomers

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answers: d-alpha

text: Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions.

text: Featuring a reactive

text: functional group

text: , alkynes participate in many

text: organic reaction

text: s.

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: alkynes participate in many organic reactions

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answers: reactive functional group

text: Aside from chain length, transition temperature can also be affected by the degree of unsaturation of the lipid tails. An unsaturated double bond can produce a kink in the alkane chain, disrupting the regular periodic structure. This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer which allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains. It is this disruption of packing that leads to lower transition temperatures with increasing double bonds. This is a particularly powerful effect; decreasing the overall chain length by one carbon usually alters the transition temperature of a lipid by ten degrees Celsius or less, but adding a single double bond can decrease the transition temperature by fifty degrees or more (see table). An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as butter, which has a large percentage saturated fats, is solid at room temperature while vegetable oil, which is mostly unsaturated, is liquid.

text: Aside from chain length, transition temperature can also be affected by the

text: degree of unsaturation

text: of the lipid tails. An unsaturated

text: double bond

text: can produce a kink in the alkane chain, disrupting the regular periodic structure. This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer which allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains. It is this disruption of packing that leads to lower transition temperatures with increasing double bonds. This is a particularly powerful effect; decreasing the overall chain length by one carbon usually alters the transition temperature of a lipid by ten degrees Celsius or less, but adding a single double bond can decrease the transition temperature by fifty degrees or more (see table). An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as

text: butter

text: , which has a large percentage

text: saturated fats

text: , is solid at room temperature while

text: vegetable oil

text: , which is mostly unsaturated, is liquid.

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answers: unsaturated

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answers: adding a single double bond can decrease the transition temperature by fifty degrees or more

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated double bonds

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbon

text: In 2014 NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen. These compounds figure in the PAH world hypothesis where they are hypothesized to have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed "a couple of billion years" after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.

text: In 2014

text: NASA

text: announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs) in the

text: universe

text: . More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen. These compounds figure in the

text: PAH world hypothesis

text: where they are hypothesized to have a role in

text: abiogenesis

text: and formation of

text: life

text: . PAHs seem to have been formed "a couple of billion years" after the

text: Big Bang

text: , are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with

text: new stars

text: and

text: exoplanets

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answers: PAHs

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: In a chain of carbons, such as a fatty acid, a double or triple bond will cause a kink in the chain. These kinks have macro-structural implications. Unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature, rather than solid, as the kinks in the chain prevent the molecules from packing closely together to form a solid. These fats are called oils and are present in fish and plants.

text: In a chain of carbons, such as a

text: fatty acid

text: , a double or triple bond will cause a kink in the chain. These kinks have macro-structural implications. Unsaturated fats tend to be

text: liquid

text: at room temperature, rather than

text: solid

text: , as the kinks in the chain prevent the

text: molecule

text: s from packing closely together to form a solid. These fats are called

text: oil

text: s and are present in

text: fish

text: and

text: plant

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: fatty acid

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Unsaturated fats

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: These kinks have macro-structural implications

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Unsaturated fats

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: fatty acid

text: Waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains.  They may also include various functional groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones, and aldehydes. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well.  Synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins) that lack functional groups.

text: Waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long

text: alkyl

text: chains.  They may also include various

text: functional group

text: s such as

text: fatty acids

text: , primary and secondary

text: long chain alcohol

text: s, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones, and aldehydes. They frequently contain fatty acid

text: ester

text: s as well.  Synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins) that lack

text: functional group

text: s.

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answers: long-chain hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: aldehydes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: aromatics, amides, ketones, and aldehydes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: long-chain hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: ketones

text: Other cycloalkanes that do not have 3- and 4-membered rings can be strained.  These include cyclophanes, Platonic hydrocarbons, pyramidal alkenes, and cyclic alkynes.

text: Other

text: cycloalkane

text: s that do not have 3- and 4-membered rings can be strained.  These include

text: cyclophane

text: s,

text: Platonic hydrocarbons

text: pyramidal alkene

text: s, and cyclic

text: alkyne

text: s.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: pyramidal alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: pyramidal alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: pyramidal alkenes, and cyclic alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cyclic

text: Alkenes can also be converted into alcohols via the oxymercuration–demercuration reaction or hydroboration–oxidation reaction.

text: Alkenes can also be converted into alcohols via the

text: oxymercuration–demercuration reaction

text: or

text: hydroboration–oxidation reaction

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018753

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answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: hydroboration–oxidation reaction

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydroboration–oxidation

text: Finally, careful studies of migration reveal information on how hydrocarbons move from source to reservoir and help quantify the source (or kitchen) of hydrocarbons in a particular area.

text: Finally, careful studies of migration reveal information on how hydrocarbons move from source to reservoir and help quantify the source (or kitchen) of hydrocarbons in a particular area.

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answers: hydrocarbons move from source to reservoir

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Alken is located in the most productive fruit cultivation area of Belgium and the area is famous for its blossoming fruit trees filling the landscape.

text: Alken is located in the most productive fruit cultivation area of Belgium and the area is famous for its blossoming fruit trees filling the landscape.

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alken

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: blossoming fruit trees filling the landscape

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alken

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Alken

text: Diaryl-strained-cyclooctynes including dibenzylcyclooctyne (DIBO) have also been used to react with 1,3-nitrones in strain-promoted alkyne-nitrone cycloadditions (SPANC) to yield N-alkylated isoxazolines.

text: Diaryl-strained-cyclooctynes including dibenzylcyclooctyne (DIBO) have also been used to react with 1,3-nitrones in strain-promoted alkyne-nitrone cycloadditions (SPANC) to yield N-alkylated isoxazolines.

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answers: 1,3-nitrones

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 1,3-nitrones

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: dibenzylcyclooctynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,3-nitrones

text: The driving force for the addition to alkenes is the formation of a nucleophile X that forms a covalent bond with an electron-poor unsaturated system -C=C- (step 1). The negative charge on X is transferred to the carbon – carbon bond.

text: The driving force for the addition to

text: alkenes

text: is the formation of a

text: nucleophile

text: X that forms a

text: covalent bond

text: with an electron-poor

text: unsaturated

text: system -C=C- (step 1). The negative charge on X is transferred to the carbon – carbon bond.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

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answers: the negative charge on X is transferred to the carbon – carbon bond

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C=C

text: Hydrosilylation, also called catalytic hydrosilation, describes the addition of Si-H bonds across unsaturated bonds.  Ordinarily the reaction is conducted catalytically and usually the substrates are unsaturated organic compounds.  Alkenes and alkynes  give alkyl and vinyl silanes; aldehydes and ketones give silyl ethers.  The process was first reported in academic literature in 1947. Hydrosilylation has been called the "most important application of platinum in homogeneous catalysis."

text: Hydrosilylation, also called catalytic hydrosilation, describes the addition of Si-H bonds across

text: unsaturated bonds

text: .  Ordinarily the reaction is conducted catalytically and usually the substrates are unsaturated

text: organic compound

text: s.

text: Alkene

text: s and

text: alkyne

text: s  give alkyl and

text: vinyl silane

text: s;

text: aldehyde

text: s and

text: ketone

text: s give silyl ethers.  The process was first reported in academic literature in 1947. Hydrosilylation has been called the "most important application of platinum in homogeneous catalysis."

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes and alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes and alkynes give alkyl and vinyl silanes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Alkenes

text: 2-Methyl-2-butene, 2m2b, also 2-methylbut-2-ene, is an alkene hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH.

text: 2-Methyl-2-butene, 2m2b, also 2-methylbut-2-ene, is an

text: alkene

text: hydrocarbon

text: with the molecular formula CH.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 2-methyl-2-butene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkene hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 2-Methyl-2-butene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: The eggs of Nothomyrmecia are similar to those of Myrmecia, being subspherical and non-adhesive. The larvae bear a primitive body structure with no specialised tubercles, sharing similar characteristics with the subfamily Ponerinae, but the sensilla are more abundant on the mouthparts. The larvae are characterised into three stages: very young, young, and mature, measuring ,  and , respectively. The cocoons have thin walls and produce meconium (a metabolic waste product expelled through the anal opening after an insect emerges from its pupal stage). The cuticular hydrocarbons have internally branched alkenes, a feature rarely found in ants and most insects.

text: The eggs of Nothomyrmecia are similar to those of Myrmecia, being subspherical and non-adhesive. The larvae bear a primitive body structure with no specialised

text: tubercle

text: s, sharing similar characteristics with the subfamily Ponerinae, but the

text: sensilla

text: are more abundant on the mouthparts. The larvae are characterised into three stages: very young, young, and mature, measuring ,  and , respectively. The cocoons have thin walls and produce meconium (a metabolic waste product expelled through the anal opening after an insect emerges from its pupal stage). The cuticular

text: hydrocarbon

text: s have internally branched

text: alkenes

text: , a feature rarely found in ants and most insects.

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answers: internally branched alkenes

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answers: internal branched alkenes

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answers: The cuticular hydrocarbons have internally branched alkenes

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answers: Most insects

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: The Alken family claims several well-known artists.

text: The Alken family claims several well-known artists.

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answers: Alken family claims several well-known artists

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answers: Alken

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answers: Alken

text: Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, CH). They are important as pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle Xylotrechus colonus, pentacosane (CH), 3-methylpentaicosane (CH) and 9-methylpentaicosane (CH) are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans, the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (CH), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (CH), and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.

text: Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14%

text: pristane

text: (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, CH). They are important as

text: pheromone

text: s, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle

text: Xylotrechus colonus

text: pentacosane

text: (CH), 3-methylpentaicosane (CH) and 9-methylpentaicosane (CH) are transferred by body contact. With others like the

text: tsetse fly

text: Glossina morsitans morsitans, the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (CH), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (CH), and acts by smell over longer distances.

text: Waggle-dancing

text: honey bee

text: s produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.

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answers: NDQ_018757

answers: pristane

text: In 2004, Kroto left the University of Sussex to take up a new position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University. At FSU he carried out fundamental research on: Carbon vapour with Professor Alan Marshall; Open framework condensed phase systems with strategically important electrical and magnetic behaviour with Professors Naresh Dalal (FSU) and Tony Cheetham (Cambridge); and the mechanism of formation and properties of nano-structured systems.  In addition, he participated in research initiatives at FSU that probed the astrochemistry of fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in stellar/circumstellar space, as well as their relevance to stardust.

text: In 2004, Kroto left the University of Sussex to take up a new position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at

text: Florida State University

text: . At FSU he carried out fundamental research on: Carbon vapour with Professor Alan Marshall; Open framework condensed phase systems with strategically important electrical and magnetic behaviour with Professors Naresh Dalal (FSU) and Tony Cheetham (Cambridge); and the mechanism of formation and properties of nano-structured systems.  In addition, he participated in research initiatives at FSU that probed the astrochemistry of fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in stellar/circumstellar space, as well as their relevance to stardust.

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text: Commonly, the natural oils are hydrogenated by passing hydrogen through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst, under controlled conditions. The addition of hydrogen to the unsaturated bonds (alkenic double C=C bonds) results in saturated C-C bonds, effectively increasing the melting point of the oil and thus "hardening" it. This is due to the increase in van der Waals' forces between the saturated molecules compared with the unsaturated molecules. However, as there are possible health benefits in limiting the amount of saturated fats in the human diet, the process is controlled so that only enough of the bonds are hydrogenated to give the required texture. Margarines made in this way are said to contain hydrogenated fat. This method is used today for some margarines although the process has been developed and sometimes other metal catalysts are used such as palladium. If hydrogenation is incomplete (partial hardening), the relatively high temperatures used in the hydrogenation process tend to flip some of the carbon-carbon double bonds into the "trans" form. If these particular bonds aren't hydrogenated during the process, they remain present in the final margarine in molecules of trans fats, the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. For this reason, partially hardened fats are used less and less in the margarine industry. Some tropical oils, such as palm oil and coconut oil, are naturally semi-solid and do not require hydrogenation.

text: Commonly, the natural oils are hydrogenated by passing

text: hydrogen

text: through the oil in the presence of a

text: nickel

text: catalyst

text: , under controlled conditions. The addition of hydrogen to the unsaturated bonds (alkenic double C=C bonds) results in saturated C-C bonds, effectively increasing the melting point of the oil and thus "hardening" it. This is due to the increase in

text: van der Waals' force

text: s between the saturated molecules compared with the unsaturated molecules. However, as there are possible health benefits in limiting the amount of saturated fats in the human diet, the process is controlled so that only enough of the bonds are hydrogenated to give the required texture. Margarines made in this way are said to contain hydrogenated fat. This method is used today for some margarines although the process has been developed and sometimes other metal catalysts are used such as

text: palladium

text: . If hydrogenation is incomplete (partial hardening), the relatively high temperatures used in the hydrogenation process tend to flip some of the carbon-carbon double bonds into the "trans" form. If these particular bonds aren't hydrogenated during the process, they remain present in the final margarine in molecules of

text: trans fats

text: , the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for

text: cardiovascular disease

text: . For this reason, partially hardened fats are used less and less in the margarine industry. Some tropical oils, such as

text: palm oil

text: and

text: coconut oil

text: , are naturally semi-solid and do not require hydrogenation.

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answers: Alkenic double C=C bonds

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answers: the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease

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answers: C=C

text: Aromatic compounds are important in industry.  Key aromatic hydrocarbons of commercial interest are benzene, toluene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene.  About 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year.  They are extracted from complex mixtures obtained by the refining of oil or by distillation of coal tar, and are used to produce a range of important chemicals and polymers, including styrene, phenol, aniline, polyester and nylon.

text: Aromatic compounds are important in industry.  Key

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s of commercial interest are

text: benzene

text: toluene

text: ortho-xylene

text: and

text: para-xylene

text: .  About 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year.  They are extracted from complex mixtures obtained by the refining of oil or by distillation of coal tar, and are used to produce a range of important chemicals and polymers, including

text: styrene

text: phenol

text: aniline

text: polyester

text: and

text: nylon

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answers: xylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: para-xylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: xylene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: xylene

text: In other unsaturated hydrocarbons, the double bond between two carbons prevents rotation of the atoms about the bond, locking them into specific structural formations. When attached atoms occupy similar positions on each carbon, they are referred to as "cis", and when they are on opposite sides, they are called "trans". Most natural hydrocarbons exist in the cis state, but artificially manufactured hydrocarbons are trans. The body lacks the enzymes to properly break down the trans configuration. This is why trans fats are viewed as dangerous and unhealthy, as they tend to build up. Unsaturated  compounds of the two formations are classified as geometric isomers of one another.

text: In other unsaturated

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, the double bond between two carbons prevents rotation of the

text: atom

text: s about the bond, locking them into specific structural formations. When attached atoms occupy similar positions on each carbon, they are referred to as "

text: cis

text: ", and when they are on opposite sides, they are called "

text: trans

text: ". Most natural hydrocarbons exist in the cis state, but artificially manufactured hydrocarbons are trans. The body lacks the

text: enzyme

text: s to properly break down the trans configuration. This is why

text: trans fat

text: s are viewed as dangerous and unhealthy, as they tend to build up. Unsaturated  compounds of the two formations are classified as

text: geometric isomer

text: s of one another.

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answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Most natural hydrocarbons exist in the cis state, but artificially manufactured hydrocarbons are trans

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Most natural hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: trans

text: In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including phenanthrene, in the universe. According to scientists, more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have begun forming a couple of billion years after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.

text: In February 2014,

text: NASA

text: announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), including phenanthrene, in the

text: universe

text: . According to scientists, more than 20% of the

text: carbon

text: in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible

text: starting materials

text: for the

text: formation

text: of

text: life

text: . PAHs seem to have begun forming a couple of billion years after the

text: Big Bang

text: , are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with

text: new stars

text: and

text: exoplanets

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: phenanthrene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: phenanthrene

text: 2-Cyclopentenone is a hydrocarbon with chemical formula  and CAS number 930-30-3. It is structurally similar to cyclopentanone, with the additional feature of α-β unsaturation in the ring system. 2-Cyclopentenone belongs to the cycloalkene (alkenes which have one or more rings of carbon atoms) class of compounds and is also a ketone (it possesses a carbonyl functional group). It is a liquid at room temperature with a boiling point of 150 °C. It has been isolated from pressure-cooked pork liver by simultaneous steam distillation and continuous solvent extraction.

text: 2-Cyclopentenone is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: with

text: chemical formula

text: and

text: CAS number

text: 930-30-3. It is structurally similar to

text: cyclopentanone

text: , with the additional feature of

text: α-β unsaturation

text: in the ring system. 2-Cyclopentenone belongs to the

text: cycloalkene

text: alkene

text: s which have one or more

text: rings of carbon atoms

text: ) class of compounds and is also a

text: ketone

text: (it possesses a

text: carbonyl

text: functional group). It is a liquid at room temperature with a boiling point of 150 °C. It has been isolated from pressure-cooked pork

text: liver

text: by simultaneous steam

text: distillation

text: and continuous

text: solvent extraction

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answers: 2-Cyclopentenone

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answers: 2-Cyclopentenone

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answers: alkenes which have one or more rings of carbon atoms

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answers: It has been isolated from pressure-cooked pork liver

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answers: cycloalkene

text: Fats contain long hydrocarbon chains, which can either be unsaturated, i.e. have double bonds, or saturated, i.e. have no double bonds. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations. In food production, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce saturated fats, which have more desirable physical properties, e.g. they melt at a desirable temperature (30–40 °C). Partial hydrogenation of the unsaturated fat converts some of the cis double bonds into trans double bonds by an isomerization reaction with the catalyst used for the hydrogenation, which yields a trans fat.Although trans fats are edible, consumption of trans fats has shown to increase the risk of coronary heart disease in part by raising levels of the lipoprotein LDL (often referred to as "bad cholesterol"), lowering levels of the lipoprotein HDL (often referred to as "good cholesterol"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation. Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl (CLA) containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat and dairy products from ruminants. Most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. Two Canadian studies have shown that the natural trans fat vaccenic acid, found in beef and dairy products, could actually be beneficial compared to hydrogenated vegetable shortening, or a mixture of pork lard and soy fat, by lowering total and LDL and triglyceride levels. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any beneficial effect on HDL. In light of recognized evidence and scientific agreement, nutritional authorities consider all trans fats as equally harmful for health and recommend that consumption of trans fats be reduced to trace amounts.

text: Fats contain long

text: hydrocarbon

text: chains, which can either be unsaturated, i.e. have double bonds, or saturated, i.e. have no double bonds. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have

text: cis as opposed to trans

text: configurations. In food production, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are

text: hydrogenated

text: to produce saturated fats, which have more desirable physical properties, e.g. they melt at a desirable temperature (30–40 °C). Partial hydrogenation of the unsaturated fat converts some of the cis double bonds into trans double bonds by an

text: isomerization reaction

text: with the

text: catalyst

text: used for the hydrogenation, which yields a trans fat.Although trans fats are edible, consumption of trans fats has shown to increase the risk of

text: coronary heart disease

text: in part by raising levels of the lipoprotein

text: LDL

text: (often referred to as "bad cholesterol"), lowering levels of the lipoprotein

text: HDL

text: (often referred to as "good cholesterol"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation. Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases.

text: Vaccenyl

text: and

text: conjugated linoleyl

text: (CLA) containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat and dairy products from

text: ruminants

text: . Most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. Two Canadian studies have shown that the natural trans fat

text: vaccenic acid

text: , found in beef and dairy products, could actually be beneficial compared to hydrogenated vegetable shortening, or a mixture of pork lard and soy fat, by lowering total and LDL and triglyceride levels. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any beneficial effect on HDL. In light of recognized evidence and scientific agreement, nutritional authorities consider all trans fats as equally harmful for health and recommend that consumption of trans fats be reduced to trace amounts.

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answers: Vaccenyl

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: They melt at a desirable temperature (30–40 °C)

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: have double bonds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Trans fats

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Vaccenyl

text: Unsaturated monomers are those having carbon–carbon double bonds.  In general, the term "unsaturated" refers to the presence of one or more double (or triple) bonds and the ability to "saturate" the molecule by addition of H.

text: Unsaturated monomers are those having

text: carbon–carbon double bond

text: s.  In general, the term "

text: unsaturated

text: " refers to the presence of one or more

text: double

text: (or

text: triple

text: ) bonds and the ability to "saturate" the molecule by

text: addition

text: of

text: H

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: carbon–carbon double bonds

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated monomers

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Unsaturated monomers are those having carbon–carbon double bonds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: H

text: Steam cracking is the process for producing ethylene and other alkenes from aliphatic hydrocarbons. Depending on the feedstock used to produce the olefins, steam cracking can produce a benzene-rich liquid by-product called pyrolysis gasoline. Pyrolysis gasoline can be blended with other hydrocarbons as a gasoline additive, or routed through an extraction process to recover BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene and xylenes).

text: Steam cracking

text: is the process for producing

text: ethylene

text: and other

text: alkene

text: s from

text: aliphatic hydrocarbons

text: . Depending on the feedstock used to produce the olefins, steam cracking can produce a benzene-rich liquid by-product called

text: pyrolysis gasoline

text: . Pyrolysis gasoline can be blended with other hydrocarbons as a gasoline additive, or routed through an extraction process to recover

text: BTX

text: aromatics (benzene, toluene and xylenes).

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: benzene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: xylenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: benzene, toluene and xylenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: The ubiquitous distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment is the consequence of diagenetic processes that occur in sedimentary rock formations containing large amounts of organic matter. Heat and pressure lead to the formation of a wide variety of hydrocarbons, including alkanes, alkenes, and cyclic/polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can seep into aquatic environments. The environmental recalcitrance of many of these compounds is governed by their high bond dissociation energies . Alkanes are the least reactive class of hydrocarbons due to their apolar sigma bonds. In the absence of high temperatures, high pressures, metal catalysts or UV light, biotransformation plays the dominant role in environmental alkane degradation.

text: The ubiquitous distribution of

text: petroleum

text: hydrocarbons

text: in the environment is the consequence of diagenetic processes that occur in sedimentary rock formations containing large amounts of organic matter. Heat and pressure lead to the formation of a wide variety of hydrocarbons, including alkanes,

text: alkene

text: s, and cyclic/polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can seep into aquatic environments. The environmental recalcitrance of many of these compounds is governed by their high bond dissociation energies . Alkanes are the least reactive class of hydrocarbons due to their apolar sigma bonds. In the absence of high temperatures, high pressures, metal catalysts or UV light, biotransformation plays the dominant role in environmental alkane degradation.

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Alkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkanes are the least reactive class of hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: high bond dissociation energies

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkanes are the least reactive class of hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: PAHs

text: 5-Decyne forms with 4-octyne, 3-hexyne, and  2-butyne a group of symmetric alkynes.

text: 5-Decyne forms with

text: , and

text: a group of symmetric alkynes.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3-hexyne

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answers: 5-Decyne forms with 4-octyne, 3-hexyne, and 2-butyne

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 5-Decyne

text: The Rauhut–Currier reaction, also called the vinylogous Morita–Baylis–Hillman reaction, is an organic reaction describing (in its original scope) the dimerization or isomerization of electron-deficient alkenes such as enones by action of an organophosphine of the type RP. In a more general description the RC reaction is any coupling of one active alkene / latent enolate to a second Michael acceptor, creating a new C–C bond between the alpha-position of one activated alkene and the beta-position of a second alkene under the influence of a nucleophilic catalyst. The reaction mechanism is essentially that of the related and better known Baylis–Hillman reaction (DABCO not phosphine, carbonyl not enone) but the Rauhut–Currier reaction actually predates it by several years. In comparison to the MBH reaction, the RC reaction lacks substrate reactivity and reaction selectivity.

text: The Rauhut–Currier reaction, also called the

text: vinylogous

text: Morita–Baylis–Hillman reaction

text: , is an

text: organic reaction

text: describing (in its original scope) the

text: dimerization

text: or

text: isomerization

text: of electron-deficient alkenes such as

text: enone

text: s by action of an

text: organophosphine

text: of the type RP. In a more general description the RC reaction is any coupling of one active

text: alkene

text: / latent

text: enolate

text: to a second

text: Michael acceptor

text: , creating a new

text: C–C bond

text: between the alpha-position of one activated alkene and the beta-position of a second alkene under the influence of a

text: nucleophilic

text: catalyst

text: . The

text: reaction mechanism

text: is essentially that of the related and better known

text: Baylis–Hillman reaction

text: (DABCO not phosphine, carbonyl not enone) but the Rauhut–Currier reaction actually predates it by several years. In comparison to the MBH reaction, the RC reaction lacks substrate reactivity and reaction

text: selectivity

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answers: enones

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answers: electron-deficient alkenes such as enones

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbonyl

text: Hückel is most famous for developing simplified quantum mechanics methods to deal with planar unsaturated organic molecules. In 1930 he proposed a σ/π separation theory to explain the restricted rotation of alkenes (compounds containing a C=C double bond). This model extended a 1929 interpretation of the bonding in triplet oxygen by Lennard-Jones. According to Hückel, only the ethene σ bond is axially symmetric about the C-C axis, but the π bond is not; this restricts rotation. In 1931 he generalized his analysis by formulating both valence bond (VB) and molecular orbital (MO) descriptions of benzene and other cycloconjugated hydrocarbons. Although undeniably a cornerstone of organic chemistry, Hückel's concepts were undeservedly unrecognized for two decades. His lack of communication skills contributed. The famous Hückel 4n+2 rule for determining whether ring molecules composed of C=C bonds would show aromatic properties was first stated clearly by Doering in a 1951 article on tropolone. Tropolone had been recognised as an aromatic molecule by Dewar in 1945.

text: Hückel is most famous for developing simplified

text: quantum mechanics

text: methods to deal with planar unsaturated

text: organic

text: molecule

text: s. In 1930 he proposed a

text: σ/π separation

text: theory to explain the restricted rotation of

text: alkenes

text: (compounds containing a C=C

text: double bond

text: ). This model extended a 1929 interpretation of the bonding in

text: triplet oxygen

text: by

text: Lennard-Jones

text: . According to Hückel, only the ethene σ bond is axially symmetric about the C-C axis, but the π bond is not; this restricts rotation. In 1931 he generalized his analysis by formulating both

text: valence bond

text: (VB) and

text: molecular orbital

text: (MO) descriptions of

text: benzene

text: and other cycloconjugated hydrocarbons. Although undeniably a cornerstone of organic chemistry, Hückel's concepts were undeservedly unrecognized for two decades. His lack of communication skills contributed. The famous Hückel

text: 4n+2 rule

text: for determining whether ring molecules composed of C=C bonds would show

text: aromatic

text: properties was first stated clearly by

text: Doering

text: in a 1951 article on

text: tropolone

text: . Tropolone had been recognised as an

text: aromatic

text: molecule by

text: Dewar

text: in 1945.

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answers: ethene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: ethene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Tropolone had been recognised as an aromatic molecule by Dewar in 1945

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C=C

text: SN reacts with electron-poor alkynes.

text: SN reacts with electron-poor

text: alkyne

text: s.

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answers: SN

text: Sandstone matrix volume  +  shale volume  +   water volume in sand   +  hydrocarbon volume in sand  = total rock volume

text: Sandstone matrix volume  +  shale volume  +   water volume in sand   +  hydrocarbon volume in sand  = total rock volume

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answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: hydrocarbon volume in sand = total rock volume

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbon

text: The reaction between the oils and the enzyme causes the fatty acids of the triglycerides to exchange positions to the -1 and -3 glycerides, thereby altering the chemical composition and physical properties of the fat. Using a 1,3-specific enzyme, only the fatty acids in the 1,3 positions are shifted around, and the 2-position is untouched. Unsaturated fatty acids in the 2-position are more often found naturally in plant lipids or vegetable oil sources. Allowing the rearrangement of the saturated fatty acids to occur in the 1-position and 3-position increases the amount of bioavailable unsaturated fatty acids.

text: The reaction between the oils and the enzyme causes the fatty acids of the triglycerides to exchange positions to the -1 and -3 glycerides, thereby altering the

text: chemical composition

text: and physical properties of the fat. Using a 1,3-specific enzyme, only the fatty acids in the 1,3 positions are shifted around, and the 2-position is untouched. Unsaturated fatty acids in the 2-position are more often found naturally in plant lipids or vegetable oil sources. Allowing the rearrangement of the saturated fatty acids to occur in the 1-position and 3-position increases the amount of bioavailable unsaturated fatty acids.

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answers: alkenes

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answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The reaction between the oils and the enzyme causes the fatty acids of the triglycerides to exchange positions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: plant lipids or vegetable oil sources

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 1,3

text: Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.

text: Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.

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answers: Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans

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text: However, if a perfluorocarbon contains double or triple bonds (perfluoroalkenes or -alkynes), a very reactive towards ligand accepting result, even less stable than corresponding hydrocarbons. Difluoroacetylene, which decomposes even under liquid nitrogen temperatures, is a notable example. If such a molecule is asymmetric, then the more fluorinated carbon is attacked, as it holds positive charge caused by the C–F bonds and is shielded weakly (similarly to that how unsaturated hydrocarbons attacked by HF add hydrogen to the more hydrogen-rich atom per Markovnikov's rule).

text: However, if a perfluorocarbon contains double or triple bonds (perfluoro

text: alkenes

text: or -

text: alkynes

text: ), a very reactive towards ligand accepting result, even less stable than corresponding hydrocarbons.

text: Difluoroacetylene

text: , which decomposes even under

text: liquid nitrogen

text: temperatures, is a notable example. If such a molecule is asymmetric, then the more fluorinated carbon is attacked, as it holds positive charge caused by the C–F bonds and is shielded weakly (similarly to that how unsaturated hydrocarbons attacked by HF add hydrogen to the more hydrogen-rich atom per

text: Markovnikov's rule

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answers: Perfluoroalkenes or -alkynes

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text: Following the death of Jean-Baptiste Tati Loutard, the Minister of State for Hydrocarbons, in July 2009, Oba additionally managed his portfolio in an interim capacity. He was retained as Minister of Mines and Geology in the government appointed on 15 September 2009, but was released from his interim responsibility for the hydrocarbons portfolio.

text: Following the death of

text: Jean-Baptiste Tati Loutard

text: , the Minister of State for Hydrocarbons, in July 2009, Oba additionally managed his portfolio in an interim capacity. He was retained as Minister of Mines and Geology in the government appointed on 15 September 2009, but was released from his interim responsibility for the hydrocarbons portfolio.

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answers: He was retained as Minister of Mines and Geology in the government appointed on 15 September 2009

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

text: In order to fully take control and integrate themselves into the host colony, the P. atrimandibularis queen needs to alter her distinct chemical order, as to not get rejected by the hosts. Before invading host colonies, the parasites have a species-specific epicuticular signature: unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes), which are absent in host species. After the invasion, these alkenes start decreasing in the parasite epicuticular profiles, and compounds abundant in the host chemical signature start increasing. Within one month, when the host workers emerge, the female P. atrimandibularis’s chemical signature perfectly mimics the host signature. At this point the parasites and host foundress are chemically indistinguishable. There have been cases where P. atrimandibularis was so successful in fooling the host species, that the hosts tended the parasite’s larvae to maturity weeks after the parasites had left.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Host species

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: (Unsaturated rubbers can also be cured by non-sulfur vulcanization if desired).

text: (Unsaturated rubbers can also be cured by non-sulfur vulcanization if desired).

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Non-sulfur

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: non-sulfur vulcanization

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: non-sulfur

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: non-sulfur

text: When mixed with petrol or l-hexene, or other unsaturated hydrocarbons, vanadyl nitrate ignites. It does not ignite with hexane. It reacts with paper rubber and wood, and ignites many organic solvents.

text: When mixed with petrol or l-hexene, or other unsaturated hydrocarbons, vanadyl nitrate ignites. It does not ignite with hexane. It reacts with paper rubber and wood, and ignites many organic solvents.

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answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: hexene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: hexane

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: When mixed with petrol or l-hexene

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hexene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: l-hexene

text: The models require input of soil characteristics like the relations between variable unsaturated soil moisture content, water tension, water retention curve, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, dispersivity and diffusivity. These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and from time to time and are not easy to measure. Further, the models are difficult to calibrate under farmer's field conditions because the soil salinity here is spatially very variable. The models use short time steps and need at least a daily, if not an hourly, data base of hydrological phenomena. Altogether this makes model application to a fairly large project the job of a team of specialists with ample facilities.

text: The models require input of soil characteristics like the relations between variable unsaturated

text: soil moisture

text: content, water tension,

text: water retention curve

text: , unsaturated

text: hydraulic conductivity

text: , dispersivity and

text: diffusivity

text: . These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and from time to time and are not easy to measure. Further, the models are difficult to

text: calibrate

text: under farmer's field conditions because the soil salinity here is spatially very variable. The models use short time steps and need at least a daily, if not an hourly, data base of

text: hydrological

text: phenomena. Altogether this makes model application to a fairly large

text: project

text: the job of a team of specialists with ample facilities.

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answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: These relations vary to a great extent from place to place

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: unsaturated

text: Silyl hydrides react with various unsaturated substrates such as alkenes, alkynes, imines, carbonyls and oximes to new organosilicon compounds in hydrosilylation. In the reaction of triphenylsilyl hydride with phenylacetylene the reaction product is a trans or cis or the geminal vinyl silane, for example:

text: Silyl hydrides react with various unsaturated substrates such as

text: alkene

text: s,

text: alkyne

text: s,

text: imine

text: s,

text: carbonyl

text: s and

text: oxime

text: s to new organosilicon compounds in

text: hydrosilylation

text: . In the reaction of triphenylsilyl hydride with

text: phenylacetylene

text: the reaction product is a

text: trans or cis

text: or the

text: geminal

text: vinyl silane, for example:

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkenes react with various unsaturated substrates

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: cis

text: In some complexes, the alkyne is classified as a four-electron donor.  In these cases, both pairs of pi-electrons donate to the metal.  This kind of bonding was first implicated in complexes of the type W(CO)(RC).

text: In some complexes, the alkyne is classified as a four-electron donor.  In these cases, both pairs of pi-electrons donate to the metal.  This kind of bonding was first implicated in complexes of the type W(CO)(RC).

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

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answers: NDQ_018754

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answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: In some complexes, the alkyne is classified as a four-electron donor

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: (CO)

text: The group additivities for alkenes are:

text: The group additivities for alkenes are:

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/640e60ede1c34c681c411fa557bde3cb

answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/c60d811dc902934261eb5e6053ba5a58

answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: Methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Gases

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Group additivities for alkenes are

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: Since characterization, the development of synthetic pathways to histrionicotoxin has been of interest to research groups due to its unusual functionality. The Kishi group proposed the first total synthesis of the parent 283A in 1985 using 89, a previously synthesized lactam used for the synthesis of other variants. Treatment with acetic anhydride yielded 133 in quantitative yield.  The cyclic enol ether 134 was formed through oxidative cleavage promoting intramolecular addition followed by a basic deprotection and dehydration. Bromination followed by dehydrobromination in methanol was then found to give an epimeric mixture of unsaturated 135. Hydrolysis, reduction and acetylation yielded 136. Formation of a thiolactam followed by condensation with ethyl bromoacetate gave 137. Selective deprotection of the allylic alcohol followed by oxidation gave 138. A Wittig reaction then generated a chloroalkene, which, upon base-promoted elimination of HCl, gave a terminal alkyne, which was subsequently protected to form 139. The olefinic function of 139 was first reduced using cyanoborohydride before further reduction of 140 to an epimeric mixture of alcohols. A retro-Michael addition was then performed under basic conditions at low temperature, successfully epimerising this compound to give the desired epimer 141. A reaction with triphenylphosphine then generated the phosphonium salt 142, and a Wittig reaction could then be performed to attach the silyl-protected cis-ene-yne function, which was then deprotected to yield the target (±)-HTX 283A.

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answers: The Kishi group

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: acetic anhydride

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: the development of synthetic pathways to histrionicotoxin has been of interest to research groups due to its unusual functionality

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common in nature

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 139

text: Unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) are the hydrocarbons emitted after petroleum is burned in an engine.

text: Unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) are the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s emitted after

text: petroleum

text: is burned in an engine.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: hydrocarbons emitted after petroleum is burned in an engine

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: Naphthalene is an organic compound with formula . It is the simplest polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, and is a white crystalline solid with a characteristic odor that is detectable at concentrations as low as 0.08 ppm by mass. As an aromatic hydrocarbon, naphthalene's structure consists of a fused pair of benzene rings. It is best known as the main ingredient of traditional mothballs.

text: Naphthalene is an

text: organic compound

text: with

text: formula

text: . It is the simplest

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: , and is a white

text: crystalline solid

text: with a characteristic odor that is detectable at concentrations as low as 0.08

text: ppm by mass

text: . As an

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: , naphthalene's structure consists of a fused pair of

text: benzene

text: rings. It is best known as the main ingredient of traditional

text: mothball

text: s.

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answers: fused pair of benzene rings

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answers: benzene rings

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_018757

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Benzene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0.08 ppm

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: naphthalene's structure consists of a fused pair of benzene rings

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Benzene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzene

text: The emitted light must of course reach the targeted functional group without being blocked by the reactor, medium, or other functional groups present. For many applications, quartz is used for the reactors as well as to contain the lamp. Pyrex absorbs at wavelengths shorter than 275 nm. The solvent is an important experimental parameter. Solvents are potential reactants and for this reason, chlorinated solvents are avoided because the C-Cl bond can lead to chlorination of the substrate. Strongly absorbing solvents prevent photons from reaching the substrate. Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths and are thus preferred for photochemical experiments requiring high energy photons. Solvents containing unsaturation absorb at longer wavelengths and can usefully filter out short wavelengths. For example, cyclohexane and acetone "cut off" (absorb strongly) at wavelengths shorter than 215 and 330 nm, respectively.

text: The emitted light must of course reach the targeted

text: functional group

text: without being blocked by the reactor, medium, or other functional groups present. For many applications,

text: quartz

text: is used for the reactors as well as to contain the lamp.

text: Pyrex

text: absorbs at wavelengths shorter than 275 nm. The solvent is an important experimental parameter. Solvents are potential reactants and for this reason, chlorinated solvents are avoided because the C-Cl bond can lead to

text: chlorination

text: of the substrate. Strongly absorbing solvents prevent photons from reaching the substrate. Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths and are thus preferred for photochemical experiments requiring high energy photons. Solvents containing unsaturation absorb at longer wavelengths and can usefully filter out short wavelengths. For example,

text: cyclohexane

text: and

text: acetone

text: "cut off" (absorb strongly) at wavelengths shorter than 215 and 330 nm, respectively.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths and are thus preferred for photochemical experiments requiring high energy photons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: cyclohexane

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C-Cl

text: Unfortunately, the most famous "click reaction," a [3+2] cycloaddition between an azide and an acyclic alkyne, is copper-catalyzed, posing a serious problem for use in vivo due to copper's toxicity.<ref name="pmid12203546">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rostovtsev VV, Green LG, Fokin VV, Sharpless KB | title = A stepwise huisgen cycloaddition process: copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective "ligation" of azides and terminal alkynes | journal = Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. | volume = 41 | issue = 14 | pages = 2596–9 |date=July 2002 | pmid = 12203546 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20020715)41:14

text: Unfortunately, the most famous "click reaction," a [3+2]

text: cycloaddition

text: between an

text: azide

text: and an acyclic

text: alkyne

text: , is copper-catalyzed, posing a serious problem for use in vivo due to copper's toxicity.<ref name="pmid12203546">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rostovtsev VV, Green LG, Fokin VV, Sharpless KB | title = A stepwise huisgen cycloaddition process: copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective "ligation" of azides and terminal alkynes | journal = Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. | volume = 41 | issue = 14 | pages = 2596–9 |date=July 2002 | pmid = 12203546 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20020715)41:14

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: The smallest alkene is methene.

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: A stepwise huisgen cycloaddition process: copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective "ligation" of azides and terminal alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective "ligation" of azides and terminal alkynes

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective "ligation" of azides and terminal alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: acyclic

text: Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is a hydrocarbon which has the formula  or HC=CH.  It is a colorless flammable gas with a faint "sweet and musky" odour when pure. It is the simplest alkene (a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double bonds), and the second simplest unsaturated hydrocarbon after acetylene ().

text: Ethylene (

text: IUPAC

text: name: ethene) is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: which has the formula  or HC=CH.  It is a colorless flammable gas with a faint "sweet and

text: musk

text: y" odour when pure. It is the simplest

text: alkene

text: (a hydrocarbon with

text: carbon-carbon

text: double bond

text: s), and the second simplest

text: unsaturated hydrocarbon

text: after

text: acetylene

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answers: carbon-carbon double bonds

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answers: carbon-carbon double bonds

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answers: Ethylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: flammable gas

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double bonds

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It is the simplest alkene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: HC=CH

text: Ketones containing alkene and alkyne units are often called unsaturated ketones. The most widely used member of this class of compounds is methyl vinyl ketone, CHC(O)CH=CH, which is useful in the Robinson annulation reaction. Lest there be confusion, a ketone itself is a site of unsaturation; that is, it can be hydrogenated.

text: Ketones containing

text: alkene

text: and

text: alkyne

text: units are often called unsaturated ketones. The most widely used member of this class of compounds is

text: methyl vinyl ketone

text: , CHC(O)CH=CH, which is useful in the

text: Robinson annulation

text: reaction. Lest there be confusion, a ketone itself is a site of unsaturation; that is, it can be

text: hydrogenated

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answers: methyl vinyl ketone

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answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: a ketone itself is a site of unsaturation

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkyne

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: methyl

text: Metal alkyne species are implicated as intermediates in the hydrogenation of alkynes, e.g. to alkenes.  This transformation is conducted on a large scale in refineries, which produce acetylene as an unintended side product in the production of ethylene.

text: Metal alkyne species are implicated as intermediates in the

text: hydrogenation

text: of alkynes, e.g. to alkenes.  This transformation is conducted on a large scale in refineries, which produce acetylene as an unintended side product in the production of ethylene.

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answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: metal alkyne species are implicated as intermediates

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: alkenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkenes

text: Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon–carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral Efavirenz and the antifungal Terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene ("ene") between two alkyne groups ("diyne"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a "warhead". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.

text: Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive

text: noretynodrel

text: . A carbon–carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral

text: Efavirenz

text: and the antifungal

text: Terbinafine

text: . Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene ("ene") between two alkyne groups ("diyne"). These compounds, e.g.

text: calicheamicin

text: , are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a "warhead". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the

text: Bergman cyclization

text: , generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.

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answers: ene

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answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: carbon–carbon triple bond

text: The differences in geometry between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes).

text: The differences in geometry between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes).

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answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: unsaturated fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The differences in geometry between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: saturated

text: Reaction 3 results in n-alkane hydrocarbons, including linear saturated hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, aromatics, and cyclic compounds.

text: Reaction 3 results in n-alkane hydrocarbons, including linear saturated hydrocarbons,

text: alcohol

text: s,

text: aldehyde

text: s,

text: ketone

text: s,

text: aromatic

text: s, and cyclic compounds.

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text: In organometallic chemistry, an unsaturated complex has fewer than 18 valence electrons and thus is susceptible to oxidative addition or coordination of an additional ligand.  Unsaturation is characteristic of many catalysts because it is usually a requirement for substrate activation.  In contrast, a coordinatively saturated complex resists undergoing substitution and oxidative addition reactions.

text: In

text: organometallic chemistry

text: , an unsaturated complex has fewer than

text: 18 valence electrons

text: and thus is susceptible to

text: oxidative addition

text: or coordination of an additional

text: ligand

text: .  Unsaturation is characteristic of many

text: catalysts

text: because it is usually a requirement for substrate activation.  In contrast, a coordinatively saturated complex resists undergoing substitution and oxidative addition reactions.

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answers: 18 valence electrons

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answers: unsaturated complex has fewer than 18 valence electrons

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answers: a coordinatively saturated complex resists undergoing substitution and oxidative addition reactions

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated complex

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answers: 18 valence electrons

text: Álvarez Herrera held a degree in political science from the Universidad Central de Venezuela and a master's degree in development studies from the University of Sussex in England. Beginning in 1982, he served as a professor at the Universidad Central's School of Political and Administrative Studies. His otther previous positions included; deputy minister of hydrocarbons (2000–03) and director-general of hydrocarbons (1999–2000) at the Ministry of Energy and Mines. From 1994 to 1999 he was a member of the Venezuelan Chamber of Deputies.

text: Álvarez Herrera held a degree in

text: political science

text: from the

text: Universidad Central de Venezuela

text: and a master's degree in

text: development studies

text: from the

text: University of Sussex

text: in England. Beginning in 1982, he served as a professor at the Universidad Central's School of Political and Administrative Studies. His otther previous positions included; deputy minister of hydrocarbons (2000–03) and director-general of hydrocarbons (1999–2000) at the Ministry of Energy and Mines. From 1994 to 1999 he was a member of the

text: Venezuelan Chamber of Deputies

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: director-general of hydrocarbons (1999–2000)

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answers: hydrocarbons

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: Hydroamination has been examined with a variety of amines, unsaturated substrates, and vastly different catalysts. Amines that have been investigated span a wide scope including primary, secondary, cyclic, acyclic, and anilines with diverse steric and electronic substituents. The unsaturated substrates that have been investigated include alkenes, dienes, alkynes, and allenes. For intramolecular hydroamination, various aminoalkenes have been examined.

text: Hydroamination has been examined with a variety of amines, unsaturated substrates, and vastly different catalysts. Amines that have been investigated span a wide scope including primary, secondary, cyclic, acyclic, and

text: aniline

text: s with diverse

text: steric

text: and

text: electronic

text: substituents. The unsaturated substrates that have been investigated include alkenes, dienes, alkynes, and allenes. For intramolecular hydroamination, various aminoalkenes have been examined.

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answers: aminoalkenes

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answers: Alkenes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: For intramolecular hydroamination, various aminoalkenes have been examined

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: aminoalkene

text: 1,3,5,7-Cyclooctatetraene (COT) is an unsaturated derivative of cyclooctane, with the formula CH.  It is also known as [8]annulene.  This polyunsaturated hydrocarbon is a colorless to light yellow flammable liquid at room temperature.  Because of its stoichiometric relationship to benzene, COT has been the subject of much research and some controversy.

text: 1,3,5,7-Cyclooctatetraene (COT) is an

text: unsaturated

text: derivative

text: of

text: cyclooctane

text: , with the formula CH.  It is also known as [8]

text: annulene

text: .  This polyunsaturated

text: hydrocarbon

text: is a colorless to light yellow flammable liquid at room temperature.  Because of its stoichiometric relationship to

text: benzene

text: , COT has been the subject of much research and some controversy.

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answers: [8]annulene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: [8]annulene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: COT has been the subject of much research and some controversy

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: [8]annulene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: CH

text: Aerobic desaturation is the most widespread pathway for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. It is utilized in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. This pathway utilizes desaturases to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids from full-length saturated fatty acid substrates. All desaturases require oxygen and ultimately consume NADH even though desaturation is an oxidative process. Desaturases are specific for the double bond they induce in the substrate. In Bacillus subtilis, the desaturase, Δ-Des, is specific for inducing a cis-double bond at the Δ position. Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains one desaturase, Ole1p, which induces the cis-double bond at Δ.

text: Aerobic desaturation is the most widespread pathway for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. It is utilized in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. This pathway utilizes

text: desaturases

text: to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids from full-length saturated fatty acid substrates. All desaturases require oxygen and ultimately consume NADH even though desaturation is an oxidative process. Desaturases are specific for the double bond they induce in the substrate. In

text: Bacillus subtilis

text: , the desaturase, Δ-Des, is specific for inducing a cis-double bond at the Δ position.

text: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: contains one desaturase, Ole1p, which induces the cis-double bond at Δ.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: Bacillus subtilis

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: All desaturases require oxygen

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: Desaturases are specific for the double bond they induce in the substrate

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: It is utilized in all eukaryotes

answers: NDQ_018757

text: In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database, based on IR spectroscopy, for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to scientists, more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.

text: In February 2014,

text: NASA

text: announced a greatly upgraded database, based on IR spectroscopy, for tracking

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs) in the

text: universe

text: . According to scientists, more than 20% of the

text: carbon

text: in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible

text: starting materials

text: for the

text: formation

text: of

text: life

text: . PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the

text: Big Bang

text: , are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with

text: new stars

text: and

text: exoplanets

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: Cup and Saucer Creek rises in Canterbury local government area, near Wiley Park railway station and flows in an east north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Roselands, Kingsgrove, and Clemton Park, where it makes its confluence with the Cooks River, within the suburb of Earlwood. The upper reaches of the creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes part drain and part creek in the lower reaches. The Cup and Saucer Creek Catchment Management Study by the Water Board in 1992 showed extensive toxic organics in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorines.

text: Cup and Saucer Creek rises in

text: Canterbury

text: local government area

text: , near

text: Wiley Park railway station

text: and flows in an east north-easterly direction through the suburbs of

text: Roselands

text: Kingsgrove

text: , and

text: Clemton Park

text: , where it makes its

text: confluence

text: with the Cooks River, within the suburb of

text: Earlwood

text: . The upper reaches of the creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes part drain and part creek in the lower reaches. The Cup and Saucer Creek Catchment Management Study by the

text: Water Board

text: in 1992 showed extensive toxic organics in the form of polycyclic aromatic

text: hydrocarbons

text: and

text: organochlorines

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answers: organochlorines

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorines

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answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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answers: organochlorines

text: tert-butyl peroxybenzoate can be used to introduce a benzoyloxy group in the allyl position of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

text: tert-butyl peroxybenzoate can be used to introduce a

text: benzoyloxy group

text: in the allyl position of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

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answers: allyl

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answers: alkenes

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answers: unsaturated hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: allyl

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: allyl

text: Propene, also known as propylene or methyl ethylene, is an unsaturated organic compound having the chemical formula CH.  It has one double bond, and is the second simplest member of the alkene class of hydrocarbons.

text: Propene, also known as propylene or methyl ethylene, is an

text: unsaturated

text: organic compound

text: having the

text: chemical formula

text: C

text: H

text: .  It has one

text: double bond

text: , and is the second simplest member of the

text: alkene

text: class of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s.

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answers: alkene class

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answers: CH

text: Ethylene is produced in the petrochemical industry by steam cracking. In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are heated to 750–950 °C, inducing numerous free radical reactions followed by immediate quench to stop these reactions. This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation. Ethylene is separated from the resulting mixture by repeated compression and distillation. In a related process used in oil refineries, high molecular weight hydrocarbons are cracked over zeolite catalysts. Heavier feedstocks, such as naphtha and gas oils require at least two "quench towers" downstream of the cracking furnaces to recirculate pyrolysis-derived gasoline and process water. When cracking a mixture of ethane and propane, only one water quench tower is required.

text: Ethylene is produced in the

text: petrochemical

text: industry by

text: steam cracking

text: . In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are heated to 750–950 °C, inducing numerous

text: free radical

text: reactions

text: followed by immediate

text: quench

text: to stop these reactions. This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation. Ethylene is separated from the resulting mixture by repeated

text: compression

text: and

text: distillation

text: . In a related process used in oil refineries, high molecular weight hydrocarbons are cracked over

text: zeolite

text: catalysts. Heavier feedstocks, such as

text: naphtha

text: and gas oils require at least two "quench towers" downstream of the cracking furnaces to recirculate pyrolysis-derived gasoline and process water. When cracking a mixture of ethane and propane, only one water quench tower is required.

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answers: Ethylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: gaseous

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Ethylene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Ethylene

text: The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4-C12). It is a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), and olefins (alkenes), where the usage of the terms paraffin and olefin is particular to the oil industry. The actual ratio depends on:

text: The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s with between 4 and 12

text: carbon

text: atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4-C12). It is a mixture of paraffins (

text: alkane

text: s),

text: cycloalkane

text: s (naphthenes), and olefins (

text: alkene

text: s), where the usage of the terms paraffin and olefin is particular to the oil industry. The actual ratio depends on:

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answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/cd2c63e73b3b2164b383ce7d4d682d2e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: cycloalkanes (naphthenes)

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: cycloalkanes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: olefin

text: We next insert the unsaturated Buckingham–Darcy flux:

text: We next insert the unsaturated Buckingham–Darcy flux:

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/5c0126fb51aeec105312a456972166bc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e9c10f5720168ef106b44c4046660b05

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/640e60ede1c34c681c411fa557bde3cb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/673c61c76ab7e569d6ea78ba8aa382cc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/6856594e7db97b138f5039f698e32330

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/66e07a7b4d505ba8487c4526835c594c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/89bd0db86e7d560205f03aedbc9be861

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/c60d811dc902934261eb5e6053ba5a58

answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e1673f5c1c044de4d6f11f2f2adc3104

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/ac18a380667c7100493fea13cdd1556c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad8f76aa3460fe25d37ad93f56761fd5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/7d6c8c483824c52c9edd0313a423292e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/98a8241159e7935799cd76f26d01fc7c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/cd3a76e3b18be7f066ae38d9b8d9c599

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/22010966bfb1dd59384712baf34ffb76

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/13d43896ca0789c86dc40c6a68a88bd0

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/152f4daf4653aaf74abd5c18cc605038

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/1db3ef10fcd9f32b3c12a2afd1e8b12b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/2891307708d3e770ab943864e4da2473

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/b0c292d9b8005ac9ea1603da11e74cfe

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/d90c6aac8d4a15d2959260791c45ccb1

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/862fd5d82e9d6966dc6c7b585b38a68d

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/50de92431e74e4e287506c0d4afcb697

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bcb066af948db1a38c1a8158453f145b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/e5b446b8ed5029e35671dfba36e5c41f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad046d29e221e075fc316797691ac397

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/dddf44d93fc1b8616d75b2cff23a891a

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/748d3b794213ec7a580eba324194144e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bbc19adbc91926be593ea57cf2ae5356

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/6b1884a51a8df8be9bbca2ce53e9f955

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/04f6a980571f3ab1dbc4447ab74043db

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1758efe49e13dfc46071125e8a3a6631

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/6928f6259e955eccf7b8acd7fa25f02f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/9f30a157765c0b80d7d4854c9dc7c677

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/f73a41cd5a3bcdb99dbfea052d5a062e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/94cdb3ba59ce7643388478df97a2caa9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1d7f1dc1af6f39ee1a92d2032877efdb

answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/8be751ea5c112fa66009da9b6f54c7ab

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/07c553cef7ba4d1742a15d70242ca51b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/96ab2cef2d3b18b91a4d757cbd913a03

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/08da0d77a3d5a7760608a7d9611d88f5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/c8b170d79c10db5e295c142d3dd113ad

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/997674fbe9d6a1afbf59b3be332520ba

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/7c4c43a4c2acf13f6bfb28394d2a1b31

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/dbfe400a368a26d11a3a8c785974a455

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/4814cd11b149f04ce5aada22e64f538f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/a8715df5284488c8903b6d56bb7622e5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/f314eca92c08662eb46b0387e6c53b38

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/321828d684655156113c81e44ecf2146

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/f353f87e47c46196043f1e79d1b84186

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/a291af9017bcf6cf074f69cd272f2671

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/ffca93de05a98168f4e93f2a47841a7b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/1f2b01246c5fff93e959b2cb87761f94

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/cd2c63e73b3b2164b383ce7d4d682d2e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: methene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Alkenes are gaseous

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: unsaturated Buckingham–Darcy flux

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Alkynes are very common

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: alkyne

text: Pyrolysis of burning material, especially incomplete combustion or smoldering without adequate oxygen supply, also results in production of a large amount of hydrocarbons, both aliphatic (methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene) and aromatic (benzene and its derivates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; e.g. benzo[a]pyrene, studied as a carcinogen, or retene), terpenes. Heterocyclic compounds may be also present. Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar; smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Presence of such smoke, soot, and/or brown oily deposits during a fire indicates a possible hazardous situation, as the atmosphere may be saturated with combustible pyrolysis products with concentration above the upper flammability limit, and sudden inrush of air can cause flashover or backdraft.

text: Pyrolysis

text: of burning material, especially

text: incomplete combustion

text: or

text: smoldering

text: without adequate oxygen supply, also results in production of a large amount of

text: hydrocarbons

text: , both

text: aliphatic

text: methane

text: ethane

text: ethylene

text: acetylene

text: ) and

text: aromatic

text: benzene

text: and its derivates,

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s; e.g.

text: benzo[a]pyrene

text: , studied as a

text: carcinogen

text: , or

text: retene

text: terpene

text: s.

text: Heterocyclic compound

text: s may be also present. Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as

text: tar

text: ; smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Presence of such smoke, soot, and/or brown oily deposits during a fire indicates a possible hazardous situation, as the atmosphere may be saturated with combustible pyrolysis products with concentration above the upper

text: flammability limit

text: , and sudden inrush of air can cause

text: flashover

text: or

text: backdraft

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/5c0126fb51aeec105312a456972166bc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e9c10f5720168ef106b44c4046660b05

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/640e60ede1c34c681c411fa557bde3cb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/673c61c76ab7e569d6ea78ba8aa382cc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/6856594e7db97b138f5039f698e32330

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/66e07a7b4d505ba8487c4526835c594c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/89bd0db86e7d560205f03aedbc9be861

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/c60d811dc902934261eb5e6053ba5a58

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e1673f5c1c044de4d6f11f2f2adc3104

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/ac18a380667c7100493fea13cdd1556c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad8f76aa3460fe25d37ad93f56761fd5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/7d6c8c483824c52c9edd0313a423292e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/98a8241159e7935799cd76f26d01fc7c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/cd3a76e3b18be7f066ae38d9b8d9c599

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/22010966bfb1dd59384712baf34ffb76

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/13d43896ca0789c86dc40c6a68a88bd0

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/152f4daf4653aaf74abd5c18cc605038

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/1db3ef10fcd9f32b3c12a2afd1e8b12b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/2891307708d3e770ab943864e4da2473

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/b0c292d9b8005ac9ea1603da11e74cfe

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/d90c6aac8d4a15d2959260791c45ccb1

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/862fd5d82e9d6966dc6c7b585b38a68d

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/50de92431e74e4e287506c0d4afcb697

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bcb066af948db1a38c1a8158453f145b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/e5b446b8ed5029e35671dfba36e5c41f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad046d29e221e075fc316797691ac397

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/dddf44d93fc1b8616d75b2cff23a891a

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/748d3b794213ec7a580eba324194144e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bbc19adbc91926be593ea57cf2ae5356

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/6b1884a51a8df8be9bbca2ce53e9f955

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/04f6a980571f3ab1dbc4447ab74043db

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1758efe49e13dfc46071125e8a3a6631

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/6928f6259e955eccf7b8acd7fa25f02f

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/9f30a157765c0b80d7d4854c9dc7c677

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/f73a41cd5a3bcdb99dbfea052d5a062e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/94cdb3ba59ce7643388478df97a2caa9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1d7f1dc1af6f39ee1a92d2032877efdb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/8be751ea5c112fa66009da9b6f54c7ab

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/07c553cef7ba4d1742a15d70242ca51b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/96ab2cef2d3b18b91a4d757cbd913a03

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/08da0d77a3d5a7760608a7d9611d88f5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/c8b170d79c10db5e295c142d3dd113ad

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/997674fbe9d6a1afbf59b3be332520ba

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/7c4c43a4c2acf13f6bfb28394d2a1b31

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/dbfe400a368a26d11a3a8c785974a455

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/4814cd11b149f04ce5aada22e64f538f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/a8715df5284488c8903b6d56bb7622e5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/f314eca92c08662eb46b0387e6c53b38

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/321828d684655156113c81e44ecf2146

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/f353f87e47c46196043f1e79d1b84186

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/a291af9017bcf6cf074f69cd272f2671

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/ffca93de05a98168f4e93f2a47841a7b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/1f2b01246c5fff93e959b2cb87761f94

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/cd2c63e73b3b2164b383ce7d4d682d2e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4952/6c86a4619b388e2b9b8e4b6c22262e88

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_018752

answers: aliphatic

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: benzene and its derivates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: terpenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: benzo[a]pyrene

text: Many studies have shown that consumption of unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, is associated with better health in humans. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next in order of preference, while trans fats are associated with a variety of disease and should be avoided.  Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.

text: Many studies have shown that consumption of unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, is associated with better health in humans. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next in order of preference, while trans fats are associated with a variety of disease and should be avoided.  Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as

text: butter

text: or

text: lard

text: ), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as

text: olive oil

text: or

text: flaxseed oil

text: ). Trans fats are very rare in nature, but have properties useful in the

text: food processing

text: industry, such as rancidity resistance.

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/5c0126fb51aeec105312a456972166bc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e9c10f5720168ef106b44c4046660b05

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/640e60ede1c34c681c411fa557bde3cb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/673c61c76ab7e569d6ea78ba8aa382cc

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/6856594e7db97b138f5039f698e32330

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/66e07a7b4d505ba8487c4526835c594c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/89bd0db86e7d560205f03aedbc9be861

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/c60d811dc902934261eb5e6053ba5a58

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/e1673f5c1c044de4d6f11f2f2adc3104

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4949/ac18a380667c7100493fea13cdd1556c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad8f76aa3460fe25d37ad93f56761fd5

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/7d6c8c483824c52c9edd0313a423292e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/98a8241159e7935799cd76f26d01fc7c

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/cd3a76e3b18be7f066ae38d9b8d9c599

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/22010966bfb1dd59384712baf34ffb76

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/13d43896ca0789c86dc40c6a68a88bd0

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/152f4daf4653aaf74abd5c18cc605038

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/1db3ef10fcd9f32b3c12a2afd1e8b12b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/2891307708d3e770ab943864e4da2473

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/b0c292d9b8005ac9ea1603da11e74cfe

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/d90c6aac8d4a15d2959260791c45ccb1

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/862fd5d82e9d6966dc6c7b585b38a68d

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/50de92431e74e4e287506c0d4afcb697

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bcb066af948db1a38c1a8158453f145b

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/e5b446b8ed5029e35671dfba36e5c41f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/ad046d29e221e075fc316797691ac397

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/dddf44d93fc1b8616d75b2cff23a891a

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/748d3b794213ec7a580eba324194144e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/bbc19adbc91926be593ea57cf2ae5356

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4950/6b1884a51a8df8be9bbca2ce53e9f955

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/04f6a980571f3ab1dbc4447ab74043db

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1758efe49e13dfc46071125e8a3a6631

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/6928f6259e955eccf7b8acd7fa25f02f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/9f30a157765c0b80d7d4854c9dc7c677

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/f73a41cd5a3bcdb99dbfea052d5a062e

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/94cdb3ba59ce7643388478df97a2caa9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/1d7f1dc1af6f39ee1a92d2032877efdb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/8be751ea5c112fa66009da9b6f54c7ab

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_1057/T_4951/07c553cef7ba4d1742a15d70242ca51b

answers: 0

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answers: unsaturated fats

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answers: Saturated

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answers: Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Trans fats

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answers: trans

text: Unsaturated compounds are those in which addition reaction can be obtained.

text: Unsaturated compounds are those in which addition reaction can be obtained.

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answers: methene

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answers: alkenes

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answers: Unsaturated compounds

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answers: unsaturated compounds

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answers: HCl

text: 2-Methylnaphthalene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH).

text: 2-Methylnaphthalene is a

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: (PAH).

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answers: 2: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: NDQ_018752

answers: 2-Methylnaphthalene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: 2-Methylnaphthalene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: 2-Methylnaphthalene

text: Phulwara oil contains 56.6% palmitic acid and 3.6% stearic acid, both of which are saturated fatty acids.It also contains 36.0% oleic acid along with 3.8% linoleic acid, both of which are unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid is a mono-unsaturated fatty acid and has one double bond at the 9th carbon of its hydrocarbon chain. Linoleic acid has two double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain of the acid.

text: Phulwara oil contains 56.6% palmitic acid and 3.6% stearic acid, both of which are

text: saturated fatty acid

text: s.It also contains 36.0% oleic acid along with 3.8% linoleic acid, both of which are unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid is a mono-

text: unsaturated fatty acid

text: and has one double bond at the 9th carbon of its hydrocarbon chain. Linoleic acid has two double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain of the acid.

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answers: Linoleic acid has two double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain of the acid

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: unsaturated fatty acids

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: stearic

text: Another process for producing BTX aromatics involves the steam cracking of hydrocarbons which typically produces a cracked naphtha product commonly referred to as pyrolysis gasoline, pyrolysis gas or pygas.  The pyrolysis gasoline typically consists of C to C aromatics, heavier aromatics containing 9 to 11 or 12 carbon atoms, and non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbons (naphthenes) containing 6 or more carbon atoms.

text: Another process for producing BTX aromatics involves the

text: steam cracking

text: of hydrocarbons which typically produces a

text: cracked naphtha

text: product commonly referred to as

text: pyrolysis gasoline

text: pyrolysis gas

text: or

text: pygas

text: .  The pyrolysis gasoline typically consists of C to C aromatics, heavier aromatics containing 9 to 11 or 12 carbon atoms, and non-aromatic

text: cyclic hydrocarbon

text: s (

text: naphthenes

text: ) containing 6 or more carbon atoms.

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answers: 9 to 11 or 12 carbon atoms

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answers: pyrolysis gas

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: heavier aromatics containing 9 to 11 or 12 carbon atoms, and non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbons (naphthenes) containing 6 or more carbon atoms

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: naphthenes

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: BTX

text: The 'not' operator '!' can be used to define unsaturated aliphatic carbon as [C;!X4] and acyclic bonds as *-!@*.

text: The 'not' operator '!' can be used to define unsaturated aliphatic carbon as [C;!X4] and acyclic bonds as *-!@*.

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answers: [C;!X4]

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: acyclic bonds as *-!@*

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: aliphatic

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: C;!X4

text: Another exception to the rule is found in the Varrentrapp reaction. Fullerenes have unusual double bond reactivity and additions such has the Bingel reaction are more frequent. When X is a carbonyl group like C=O or COOR or a cyanide group (CN), the reaction type is a conjugate addition reaction. The substituent X helps to stabilize the negative charge on the carbon atom by its inductive effect. In addition when Y-Z is an active hydrogen compound the reaction is known as a Michael reaction. Perfluorinated alkenes (alkenes that have all hydrogens replaced by fluorine) are highly prone to nucleophilic addition, for example by fluoride ion from caesium fluoride or silver(I) fluoride to give a perfluoroalkyl anion.

text: Another exception to the rule is found in the

text: Varrentrapp reaction

text: Fullerene

text: s have unusual

text: double bond

text: reactivity and additions such has the

text: Bingel reaction

text: are more frequent. When X is a

text: carbonyl group

text: like C=O or COOR or a

text: cyanide

text: group (CN), the reaction type is a

text: conjugate addition reaction

text: . The substituent X helps to stabilize the negative charge on the carbon atom by its

text: inductive effect

text: . In addition when Y-Z is an

text: active hydrogen compound

text: the reaction is known as a

text: Michael reaction

text: . Perfluorinated alkenes (alkenes that have all hydrogens replaced by

text: fluorine

text: ) are highly prone to nucleophilic addition, for example by fluoride ion from

text: caesium fluoride

text: or

text: silver(I) fluoride

text: to give a perfluoroalkyl anion.

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answers: C=O

text: Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications.

text: Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying

text: molecular mass

text: es, forms and lengths such as

text: paraffin

text: s,

text: aromatic

text: s,

text: naphthene

text: s (or

text: cycloalkane

text: s),

text: alkene

text: s,

text: diene

text: s, and

text: alkyne

text: s. While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying

text: physical

text: and

text: chemical properties

text: , and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications.

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answers: hydrocarbons

text: PhSeCl is a powerful electrophile, used to introduce PhSe groups by reaction with a variety of nucleophiles, including enolates, enol silyl ethers, Grignard reagents, organolithium reagents, alkenes and amines. In the sequence below (early steps in the synthesis of Strychnofoline), a PhSe group is introduced by reaction of a lactam enolate with PhSeCl. This sequence is a powerful method for the conversion of carbonyl compounds to their α,β-unsaturated analogs.

text: PhSeCl is a powerful electrophile, used to introduce PhSe groups by reaction with a variety of nucleophiles, including

text: enolates

text: enol silyl ethers

text: Grignard reagent

text: s,

text: organolithium reagent

text: s,

text: alkene

text: s and

text: amine

text: s. In the sequence below (early steps in the synthesis of Strychnofoline), a PhSe group is introduced by reaction of a

text: lactam

text: enolate with PhSeCl. This sequence is a powerful method for the conversion of

text: carbonyl compound

text: s to their α,β-unsaturated analogs.

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answers: , -unsaturated analogs

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answers: lactam

text: In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including Tetracene, in the universe. According to scientists, more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed only a couple of billion years after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.

text: In February 2014,

text: NASA

text: announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), including Tetracene, in the

text: universe

text: . According to scientists, more than 20% of the

text: carbon

text: in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible

text: starting materials

text: for the

text: formation

text: of

text: life

text: . PAHs seem to have been formed only a couple of billion years after the

text: Big Bang

text: , are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with

text: new stars

text: and

text: exoplanets

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answers: Tetracene

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answers: Tetracene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: Tetracene

text: m-Xylene (or meta-xylene) is an aromatic hydrocarbon, based on benzene with two methyl substituents.  It is an isomer of o-xylene and p-xylene. The m stands for meta, meaning the two methyl substituents are at locants 1 and 3 on the aromatic ring.  m-Xylene is commonly produced in BTX processes, and separated as needed from the other aromatic hydrocarbons.

text: m-Xylene (or meta-xylene) is an

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbon

text: , based on

text: benzene

text: with two

text: methyl

text: substituent

text: s.  It is an isomer of

text: o-xylene

text: and

text: p-xylene

text: . The m stands for

text: meta

text: , meaning the two methyl substituents are at

text: locant

text: s 1 and 3 on the aromatic ring.  m-Xylene is commonly produced in

text: BTX

text: processes

text: , and separated as needed from the other aromatic hydrocarbons.

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answers: o-xylene

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: p-xylene

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: m-Xylene (or meta-xylene) is an aromatic hydrocarbon

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: xylene

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: o-xylene

text: In the Changing World Technologies (CWT) process, the feedstock material is first ground into small chunks, and mixed with water if it is especially dry. It is then fed into a pressure vessel reaction chamber where it is heated at constant volume to around 250 °C. Similar to a pressure cooker (except at much higher pressure), steam naturally raises the pressure to 600 psi (4 MPa) (near the point of saturated water). These conditions are held for approximately 15 minutes to fully heat the mixture, after which the pressure is rapidly released to boil off most of the water (see: Flash evaporation). The result is a mix of crude hydrocarbons and solid minerals. The minerals are removed, and the hydrocarbons are sent to a second-stage reactor where they are heated to 500 °C, further breaking down the longer hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbons are then sorted by fractional distillation, in a process similar to conventional oil refining.

text: In the

text: Changing World Technologies

text: (CWT) process, the feedstock material is first ground into small chunks, and mixed with water if it is especially dry. It is then fed into a

text: pressure vessel

text: reaction chamber where it is heated at

text: constant volume

text: to around 250 °

text: C

text: . Similar to a

text: pressure cooker

text: (except at much higher pressure), steam naturally raises the pressure to 600 psi (4

text: MPa

text: ) (near the point of

text: saturated water

text: ). These conditions are held for approximately 15 minutes to fully heat the mixture, after which the pressure is rapidly released to boil off most of the water (see:

text: Flash evaporation

text: ). The result is a mix of crude hydrocarbons and solid

text: mineral

text: s. The minerals are removed, and the hydrocarbons are sent to a second-stage reactor where they are heated to 500 °C, further breaking down the longer hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbons are then sorted by

text: fractional distillation

text: , in a process similar to conventional

text: oil refining

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answers: hydrocarbons are then sorted by fractional distillation

answers: NDQ_018753

answers: Hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018754

answers: The hydrocarbons are then sorted by fractional distillation

answers: NDQ_018756

answers: hydrocarbons

answers: NDQ_018757

answers: hydrocarbons

text: During the Presidency of Pascal Lissouba, Ossiala was appointed as High Commissioner of Hydrocarbons in 1993. He remained in that post until 1994; subsequently he was Economy, Revenue, and Contracts Adviser at the Ministry of Hydrocarbons from 1994 to 2002.

text: During the Presidency of

text: Pascal Lissouba

text: , Ossiala was appointed as High Commissioner of Hydrocarbons in 1993. He remained in that post until 1994; subsequently he was Economy, Revenue, and Contracts Adviser at the Ministry of Hydrocarbons from 1994 to 2002.

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons

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answers: Hydrocarbons from 1994 to 2002