text: The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4135 m), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4374 m) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4469 m) do not currently have glaciers. Only at Zard Kuh and Dena some glaciers still survive.   However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of 1900 meters, and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2160 meters. Evidence exists of a 20 km wide glacier fed along a 17 km long valley dropping approximately 1500 meters along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350-550m. Under precipitation conditions comparable to the current conditions, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and 11.2 °C, but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.

text: The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4135 m), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4374 m) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4469 m) do not currently have glaciers. Only at

entity_name: Zard-Kuh

text: Zard Kuh

text: and

entity_name: Dena

text: Dena

text: some glaciers still survive.   However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of 1900 meters, and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2160 meters. Evidence exists of a 20 km wide glacier fed along a 17 km long valley dropping approximately 1500 meters along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350-550m. Under precipitation conditions comparable to the current conditions, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and 11.2 °C, but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

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answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 20 km wide

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Kuh-i-Hezar

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It picks up sediments when they freeze to ice

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: north

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers cause erosion

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Kuh-i-Jupar

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 20 km wide

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: depth in excess of 1900 meters

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Kuh-i-Hezar

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: The mountains of the East-Zagros

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glacier fed along a 17 km long valley dropping approximately 1500 meters along its length

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Kuh-i-Jupar (4135 m), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4374 m) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4469 m)

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciated

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Last Glacial Period

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prompt_style: provide a complete and concise answer to the question based on the context.

text: If the enhanced meltwater effect is the key, then since meltwater is a seasonal input, velocity would have a seasonal signal and all glaciers would experience this effect. If the force imbalance effect is the key, then the velocity will propagate up-glacier, there will be no seasonal cycle, and the acceleration will be focused on calving glaciers.Helheim Glacier, East Greenland had a stable terminus from the 1970s-2000. In 2001–2005 the glacier retreated  and accelerated from /day, while thinning up to  in the terminus region. Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, East Greenland had a stable terminus history from 1960 to 2002. The glacier velocity was /day in the 1990s. In 2004–2005 it accelerated to /day and thinned by up to  in the lower reach of the glacier. On Sermeq Kujalleq the acceleration began at the calving front and spread up-glacier  in 1997 and up to  inland by 2003. On Helheim the thinning and velocity propagated up-glacier from the calving front.  In each case the major outlet glaciers accelerated by at least 50%, much larger than the impact noted due to summer meltwater increase. On each glacier the acceleration was not restricted to the summer, persisting through the winter when surface meltwater is absent.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: all glaciers would experience this effect

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: calving glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It accelerates up-glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: all glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Helheim Glacier, East Greenland

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: major outlet glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: calving

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: East Greenland

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: thinning and velocity propagated up-glacier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, East Greenland

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: inland

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 2000

text: The Bighorns were uplifted during the Laramide orogeny beginning approximately 70 million years ago. They consist of over  of sedimentary rock strata laid down before mountain-building began: the predominantly marine and near-shore sedimentary layers range from the Cambrian through the Lower Cretaceous, and are often rich in fossils. There is an unconformity where Silurian strata were exposed to erosion and are missing. Following the uplift, large volumes of sediments, rich in early Tertiary fossils, were deposited in the adjoining basins. Though many cirques, U-shaped valleys and glacial lakes can be found in the mountain range, the only remaining active glacier is the Cloud Peak Glacier, which is on the east slope of Cloud Peak.

text: The Bighorns were uplifted during the

entity_name: Laramide orogeny

text: Laramide orogeny

text: beginning approximately 70 million years ago. They consist of over  of sedimentary rock strata laid down before mountain-building began: the predominantly marine and near-shore sedimentary layers range from the

entity_name: Cambrian

text: Cambrian

text: through the

entity_name: Early Cretaceous

text: Lower Cretaceous

text: , and are often rich in

entity_name: Fossil

text: fossil

text: s. There is an

entity_name: Unconformity

text: unconformity

text: where

entity_name: Silurian

text: Silurian

text: strata were exposed to

entity_name: Erosion

text: erosion

text: and are missing. Following the uplift, large volumes of sediments, rich in early

entity_name: Tertiary

text: Tertiary

text: fossils, were deposited in the adjoining basins. Though many

entity_name: Cirque

text: cirques

entity_name: U-shaped valley

text: U-shaped valley

text: s and

entity_name: Glacial lake

text: glacial lake

text: s can be found in the mountain range, the only remaining active

entity_name: Glacier

text: glacier

text: is the

entity_name: Cloud Peak Glacier

text: Cloud Peak Glacier

text: , which is on the east slope of

entity_name: Cloud Peak

text: Cloud Peak

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: U-shaped valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: U-shaped valleys

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: east

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Cloud Peak Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Cloud Peak

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: active glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Cloud Peak

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: The Bighorns

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: U-shaped valleys

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The Bighorns

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: basins

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 70 million years ago

text: Considerable difficulty was encountered in finding sand and gravel suitable for the concrete piers. Aggregate taken from pits in the vicinity of the bridge was not satisfactory, as samples showed humus. Several deposits along the railway line all showed the presence of this constituent in various amounts, except samples from a pit in a glacial moraine in front of Spencer Glacier, 56 miles north of Seward. This deposit tested clear and was used; 7 per cent of sand was added to the bank aggregate, which was deficient in this respect.

text: Considerable difficulty was encountered in finding sand and gravel suitable for the concrete piers. Aggregate taken from pits in the vicinity of the bridge was not satisfactory, as samples showed humus. Several deposits along the railway line all showed the presence of this constituent in various amounts, except samples from a pit in a glacial moraine in front of Spencer Glacier, 56 miles north of Seward. This deposit tested clear and was used; 7 per cent of sand was added to the bank aggregate, which was deficient in this respect.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 56 miles

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Spencer Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Spencer Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Spencer Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Spencer Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Seward

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 56 miles north of Seward

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: bank

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Seward

text: The advancing and retreating characteristics of the glaciers in the Glacier Bay are explained in simple terms as a steady state of snow getting converted into ice on the hills. Ice, as a lens of water on the base of bedrock, slides by gravity downwards. The good moraine of rock and rubble insulates it from water erosion. As a result, during freezing temperatures that exists all the year, the glacier advances. When the insulation and erosion effect of the hills gets reduced erosion sets in and along with rising temperatures the glaciers start retreating. Another unpredictable phenomenon that is observed in many glaciers in the Glacier Bay is that of calving. Calving is a process in which blocks of ice get detached or break off from the glacier, irrespective of weather conditions, all the year round, and crash into the sea with thundering noise creating a boiling like turbulence.

text: The advancing and retreating characteristics of the glaciers in the Glacier Bay are explained in simple terms as a steady state of snow getting converted into ice on the hills. Ice, as a lens of water on the base of bedrock, slides by gravity downwards. The good moraine of rock and rubble insulates it from water erosion. As a result, during freezing temperatures that exists all the year, the glacier advances. When the insulation and erosion effect of the hills gets reduced erosion sets in and along with rising temperatures the glaciers start retreating. Another unpredictable phenomenon that is observed in many glaciers in the Glacier Bay is that of calving. Calving is a process in which blocks of ice get detached or break off from the glacier, irrespective of weather conditions, all the year round, and crash into the sea with thundering noise creating a boiling like turbulence.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

method: UNH-qee

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text: The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776-1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.

text: The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776-1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.

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answers: 80 km

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answers: previously deposited materials

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answers: east

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answers: 1843

text: The North Mowich Glacier is a glacier located on the northwest flank of Mount Rainier in Washington. It covers  and contains 9.5 billion ft (269 million m) of ice. Starting from the foot of Rainier's steep Mowich Face at about , the glacier first consists of two lobes of ice that flow downhill to the northwest. The southern arm of the glacier is connected to the adjacent Edmunds Glacier. As the two sections of ice join up, they form a large, relatively flat plateau of ice ranging from  to . This plateau is an unbroken expanse of ice except for Needle Rock, which pokes out of the glacier ice. From then on, the southern part of the glacier terminates at about , while the northern, rocky arm flows down a glacial valley and ends at about  in elevation. The North Mowich Glacier gives rise to the North Mowich River.

text: The North Mowich Glacier is a

text: glacier

text: located on the northwest flank of

entity_name: Mount Rainier

text: Mount Rainier

text: in

entity_name: Washington (state)

text: Washington

text: . It covers  and contains 9.5 billion ft (269 million m) of ice. Starting from the foot of Rainier's steep

text: Mowich Face

text: at about , the glacier first consists of two lobes of ice that flow downhill to the northwest. The southern arm of the glacier is connected to the adjacent

entity_name: Edmunds Glacier

text: Edmunds Glacier

text: . As the two sections of ice join up, they form a large, relatively flat plateau of ice ranging from  to . This plateau is an unbroken expanse of ice except for Needle Rock, which pokes out of the glacier ice. From then on, the southern part of the glacier terminates at about , while the northern, rocky arm flows down a glacial valley and ends at about  in elevation. The North Mowich Glacier gives rise to the

entity_name: Mowich River

text: North Mowich River

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answers: The North Mowich Glacier

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answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

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text: The alluvial deposits originate from the Wisconsinian glaciation, in which massive glaciers and ice sheets advanced over much of North America and shifted the global climate. During this roughly 60,000-year-long period that ended in approximately 8000 B.C., Southern California received up to  of rainfall per year, and this radical climate change coincided with a  drop in sea level. As the sea levels fell, streams flowing into the Pacific from Southern California began to erode massive canyons in their floodplains.

text: The alluvial deposits originate from the

entity_name: Wisconsin glaciation

text: Wisconsinian glaciation

text: , in which massive glaciers and ice sheets advanced over much of

text: North America

text: and shifted the global climate. During this roughly 60,000-year-long period that ended in approximately 8000 B.C.,

entity_name: Southern California

text: Southern California

text: received up to  of rainfall per year, and this radical climate change coincided with a  drop in

entity_name: Sea level

text: sea level

text: . As the sea levels fell, streams flowing into the Pacific from Southern California began to erode massive canyons in their

entity_name: Floodplain

text: floodplain

text: s.

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answers: The alluvial deposits originate from the Wisconsinian glaciation

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answers: 8000 B.C

text: Erosion and deposition by mountain glaciers has also played an important role in shaping Tongariro and Ruapehu volcanoes. Small glaciers are present on the summit of Mt. Ruapehu today, however there is abundant geomorphological evidence for more extensive glaciation in the recent geological past. Glaciers were last present on Tongariro during the Last Glacial Maximum.

text: Erosion and deposition by mountain glaciers has also played an important role in shaping Tongariro and Ruapehu volcanoes. Small glaciers are present on the summit of Mt. Ruapehu today, however there is abundant geomorphological evidence for more extensive glaciation in the recent geological past. Glaciers were last present on Tongariro during the

entity_name: Last Glacial Maximum

text: Last Glacial Maximum

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

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answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: Erosion

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answers: Erosion and deposition

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: Small glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The glacier had advanced about 12.8 kilometers in 1955 towards the populated area within 91 days.  The glacier was advancing at a staggering rate of just over a mile every month, 15 feet every hour and had devoured acres of pastureland. The local elders still tell the story of the glacier's advancing towards the pastureland. According to the elders the glacier advanced at a very noticeable rate i.e. the glacier would first grow vertically and then suddenly fall flat. Within months the glacier had reached at the first hamlet and people were very concerned that the whole Stak Valley would be devoured by the glacier if it didn't retreat. People also relate it with an indigenous logic that the glaciers also have gender and the Kutia Lungma Glacier was female and it was advancing to meet its male counterpart i.e. the glacier in the opposite Ganji Valley across the Indus River. People believe that it was real. The elders tell that they brought pieces of ice from the other glacier which they thought to be male and dropped the ice pieces on the Kutia Liungma Glacier. Along with people arranged rituals and prayed the god to save them from the glacier advancing. Within two to three years the glacier retreated about 4-5 kilometers. Now the glacier is about 4-5 kilometers uphill from the last village of Stak Valley which is known as Tookla Village.

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Kutia Lungma Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Pieces of ice

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Ganji Valley

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: acres of pastureland

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Kutia Lungma Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Stak Valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1955

text: About 290 million years ago, in the Carboniferous period, an ice age engulfed the area as glaciers advanced from the polar region eroding and transporting rocks. These rocks were deposited as extensive moraines and glacial till, or they sank in the sea while the glacier floated in a layer of ice. When the glacial sediments were turned into stone they formed the rocks that now make up the Fitzroy Tillite Formation in the Falklands. Identical rocks are found in southern Africa.

text: About 290 million years ago, in the

entity_name: Carboniferous

text: Carboniferous

text: period, an ice age engulfed the area as

text: glacier

text: s advanced from the polar region eroding and transporting rocks. These rocks were deposited as extensive

entity_name: Moraine

text: moraine

text: s and glacial

entity_name: Till

text: till

text: , or they sank in the sea while the glacier floated in a layer of ice. When the glacial sediments were turned into stone they formed the rocks that now make up the Fitzroy

entity_section: Tillite

text: Tillite

text: Formation in the Falklands. Identical rocks are found in southern Africa.

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answers: glaciers

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answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers advanced from the polar region

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: advanced

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers advanced from the polar region

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: floated in a layer of ice

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: glaciers

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: Falklands

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Fitzroy Tillite Formation

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 290 million years ago

text: Vigne Glacier is a glacier in Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan near Gondogoro Glacier and Baltoro Glacier.

text: Vigne Glacier is a

text: glacier

text: in

entity_name: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit–Baltistan

entity_name: Pakistan

text: Pakistan

text: near

entity_name: Gondogoro Glacier

text: Gondogoro Glacier

text: and

entity_name: Baltoro Glacier

text: Baltoro Glacier

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Vigne Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: Gondogoro

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Pakistan

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Vigne Glacier is in Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan

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answers: Antarctica

text: During the last Ice Age, glaciers advanced into the middle of North America, grinding underlying rock into dust-like "glacial flour." As temperatures warmed, the glaciers retreated and vast amounts of meltwater and sediment flooded the Missouri River Valley. The sediment was deposited on the flood plain, creating huge mud flats. When meltwaters receded, these mud flats were exposed. As they dried, the fine-grained silt was picked up by strong prevailing westerly winds. Huge dust clouds were moved and redeposited over broad areas. The heavier, coarser silt was deposited close to the Missouri River flood plain, forming vast dune fields.  The dune fields were eventually stabilized by grass. Due to the erosive nature of loess soil and its ability to stand in vertical columns when dry, the stabilized dunes were eroded into the corrugated, sharply dissected bluffs we see today.

text: During the

entity_name: Last glacial period

text: last Ice Age

text: glacier

text: s advanced into the middle of North America, grinding underlying rock into dust-like "

entity_name: Rock flour

text: glacial flour

text: ." As temperatures warmed, the glaciers retreated and vast amounts of meltwater and sediment flooded the

entity_name: Missouri River Valley

text: Missouri River Valley

text: . The sediment was deposited on the flood plain, creating huge

entity_name: Mudflat

text: mud flat

text: s. When meltwaters receded, these mud flats were exposed. As they dried, the fine-grained

entity_name: Silt

text: silt

text: was picked up by strong

entity_name: Prevailing winds

text: prevailing westerly winds

text: . Huge dust clouds were moved and redeposited over broad areas. The heavier, coarser silt was deposited close to the Missouri River flood plain, forming vast

entity_name: Dune

text: dune

text: fields.  The dune fields were eventually stabilized by grass. Due to the erosive nature of loess soil and its ability to stand in vertical columns when dry, the stabilized dunes were eroded into the corrugated, sharply dissected bluffs we see today.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: sharply dissected

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: The Missouri River Valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: sharply dissected bluffs

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: westerly

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: grinding underlying rock

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Missouri River Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: bluffs

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: dune fields

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: mud flats

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answers: glaciers

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answers: corrugated

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: bluffs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: North America

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: bluffs

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: During the last Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: bluffs

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: mud flats

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last Ice Age

text: Giant's kettles can also be formed while the surface is covered by a glacier. Water, produced by the thawing of the ice and snow, forms streams on the surface of the glacier, which, having gathered into their courses a certain amount of morainic debris, finally flow down a crevasse as a swirling cascade or moulin. The sides of the crevasse are abraded, and a vertical shaft is formed in the ice. The erosion may be continued into the bed of the glacier; and, the ice having left the district, the giants kettle so formed is seen as an empty shaft, or as a pipe filled with gravel, sand, or boulders. Such cavities and pipes afford valuable evidence as to the former extent of glaciers.

text: Giant's kettles can also be formed while the surface is covered by a glacier. Water, produced by the thawing of the

text: ice

text: and

text: snow

text: , forms

text: stream

text: s on the surface of the glacier, which, having gathered into their courses a certain amount of

text: morainic

text: debris, finally flow down a

text: crevasse

text: as a swirling

text: cascade

text: or

text: moulin

text: . The sides of the crevasse are abraded, and a vertical shaft is formed in the ice. The

text: erosion

text: may be continued into the bed of the glacier; and, the ice having left the district, the giants kettle so formed is seen as an empty shaft, or as a

text: pipe

text: filled with gravel,

text: sand

text: , or

text: boulder

text: s. Such cavities and pipes afford valuable evidence as to the former extent of glaciers.

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answers: the giants kettle

text: The Bessa gold field was originated by the erosion and the sedimentation of the rivers and of the Aosta Valley glacier, which also transported the great glacial erratics that can be found in the park.

text: The Bessa

text: gold

text: field was originated by the

text: erosion

text: and the sedimentation of the rivers and of the

text: Aosta Valley

text: glacier

text: , which also transported the great

text: glacial erratic

text: s that can be found in the park.

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answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: Aosta Valley glacier

text: The Dent Blanche has four steep faces rising over four glaciers: The north-east face (also called north face) rises above the Grand Cornier Glacier (part of the Zinal Glacier), the south-east face rises above the Schönbiel Glacier (part of the Zmutt Glacier), the south-west face rises above the Manzettes Glacier (part of the Ferpècle Glacier) and, finally, the north-west face of Dent Blanche rises above the homonym glacier.

text: The Dent Blanche has four steep faces rising over four glaciers: The north-east face (also called north face) rises above the Grand Cornier Glacier (part of the

text: Zinal Glacier

text: ), the south-east face rises above the Schönbiel Glacier (part of the

text: Zmutt Glacier

text: ), the south-west face rises above the Manzettes Glacier (part of the

text: Ferpècle Glacier

text: ) and, finally, the north-west face of Dent Blanche rises above the homonym glacier.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: four steep faces rising over four glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: north-east

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Dent Blanche

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

answers: steep faces

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Dent Blanche

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep faces

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Dent Blanche has four steep faces rising over four glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Dent Blanche

text: The Bolam Glacier is a glacier situated on the northern flank of Mount Shasta, in the U.S. state of California. It is the second longest glacier in California behind the nearby Whitney Glacier, and the fourth largest and most voluminous after the neighboring Hotlum Glacier, Whitney Glacier, and Wintun Glacier. The Bolam Glacier flows from a cirque on the north side of Mount Shasta's main summit, with the moving ice starting below a large bergschrund which spans the glacier at .  Above that, permanent snow and ice extends towards the summit to about . The glacier flows north down a steep slope and terminates near .

text: The Bolam Glacier is a

text: glacier

text: situated on the northern flank of

text: Mount Shasta

text: , in the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: California

text: . It is the second longest glacier in California behind the nearby

text: Whitney Glacier

text: , and the fourth largest and most voluminous after the neighboring

text: Hotlum Glacier

text: , Whitney Glacier, and

text: Wintun Glacier

text: . The Bolam Glacier flows from a

text: cirque

text: on the north side of Mount Shasta's main summit, with the moving ice starting below a large

text: bergschrund

text: which spans the glacier at .  Above that, permanent snow and ice extends towards the summit to about . The glacier flows north down a steep slope and terminates near .

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The Bolam Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: The Bolam Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Bolam Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: north

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The Bolam Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The glacier flows north down a steep slope

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: a cirque

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: voluminous

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: permanent snow and ice

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: California

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Mount Shasta, in the U.S. state of California

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: bergschrund

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Mount Shasta

text: The upper portions of the valley was carved by the Reuss Glacier. Large moraine deposits remain at Zetzwil and Gontenschwil. The surrounding hills are largely molasse.

text: The upper portions of the valley was carved by the Reuss Glacier. Large moraine deposits remain at Zetzwil and Gontenschwil. The surrounding hills are largely

text: molasse

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Reuss Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: carved

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Zetzwil

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Reuss Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The surrounding hills are largely molasse

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: molasse

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: molasse

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Large moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Reuss Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Reuss Glacier

text: In the area surrounding Aoraki / Mount Cook, the Tasman Glacier, Hooker Glacier, Murchison Glacier, and Mueller Glacier all terminate in lakes, while further north in the park, the Godley Glacier, Classen Glacier, Grey Glacier and Maud Glacier also end in proglacial lakes.  Tasman Lake and Hooker Lake are easily accessible via walking tracks and are the only two of these lakes that have official names.  At an area of 7 km², Tasman Lake is the largest of the proglacial lakes and hosts boat trips for tourists.

text: In the area surrounding Aoraki / Mount Cook, the Tasman Glacier,

text: Hooker Glacier

text: Murchison Glacier

text: , and

text: Mueller Glacier

text: all terminate in lakes, while further north in the park, the Godley Glacier, Classen Glacier, Grey Glacier and Maud Glacier also end in proglacial lakes.

text: Tasman Lake

text: and

text: Hooker Lake

text: are easily accessible via walking tracks and are the only two of these lakes that have official names.  At an area of 7 km², Tasman Lake is the largest of the proglacial lakes and hosts boat trips for tourists.

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text: The East-Pamir, in the centre of which the massifs of Mustagh Ata (7620 m) and Kongur Tagh (Qungur Shan, 7578, 7628 or 7830 m) are situated, shows from the W-margin of the Tarim Basin an East-West extension of c. 200 km. Its North-South extension from King Ata Tagh up to the North-West Kunlun foothills amounts to c.170 km. Whilst the up to 21 km long current valley glaciers are restricted to mountain massifs exceeding 5600 m in height, during the Last Glacial Period the glacier ice has covered the high plateau with its set-up highland relief, continuing west of Mustagh Ata and Kongur. From this glacier area an outlet glacier has flowed down to the north-east through the Gez valley up to c.1850 m asl and thus as far as to the margin of the Tarim basin. This outlet glacier received inflow from the Kaiayayilak glacier from the Kongur-north-flank. From the north-adjacent Kara Bak Tor (Chakragil, c. 6800 or 6694 m)-massif the Oytag valley glacier in the same exposition flowed also down up to c. 1850 m asl. At glacial times the glacier snowline (ELA) as altitude limit between glacier nourishing area and ablation zone, was lowered about 820 to 1250 altitude metres against today. Under the condition of comparable proportions of precipitation there results from this a glacial depression of temperature of at least 5 to 7.5 °C.

text: The East-Pamir, in the centre of which the

text: massif

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answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: up to 21 km long

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Gez valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacier ice has covered the high plateau

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: north-east

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: flowed also down up to c. 1850 m asl

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answers: ice wedging

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

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answers: the Last Glacial Period

text: Today, many of the Blackfoot live on reserves in Canada. About 8,500 live on the Montana reservation of . In 1896, the Blackfoot sold a large portion of their land to the United States government, which hoped to find gold or copper deposits. No such mineral deposits were found. In 1910, the land was set aside as Glacier National Park. Some Blackfoot work there and occasional Native American ceremonies are held there.

text: Today, many of the Blackfoot live on reserves in Canada. About 8,500 live on the Montana reservation of . In 1896, the Blackfoot sold a large portion of their land to the United States government, which hoped to find gold or copper deposits. No such mineral deposits were found. In 1910, the land was set aside as

text: Glacier National Park

text: . Some Blackfoot work there and occasional Native American ceremonies are held there.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: Glacier National Park

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answers: Glacier National Park

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: Mineral deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Glacier National Park

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Glacier National Park

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answers: Glaciers cause erosion

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: Glacier

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answers: Glacier

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answers: Montana

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answers: Glacier

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answers: Glacier National Park

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answers: Glacier

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answers: V-shaped

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answers: Glacier

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answers: 1910

text: Fjords are formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by erosion of the surrounding bedrock.  Most fjords are overdeepened (i.e., deeper than the adjacent sea).  Fjords generally have a sill or rise at their mouth caused by reduced erosion toward the mouth and added to by the previous glacier's terminal moraine, in some cases causing extreme tidal currents with accompanying saltwater rapids.

text: Fjords are formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by erosion of the surrounding bedrock.  Most fjords are overdeepened (i.e., deeper than the adjacent sea).  Fjords generally have a

text: sill

text: or rise at their mouth caused by reduced erosion toward the mouth and added to by the previous glacier's

text: terminal moraine

text: , in some cases causing extreme tidal currents with accompanying saltwater rapids.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Fjords

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Fjords

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: sill

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Fjords

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminal moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Fjords

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: U-shaped valley by erosion of the surrounding bedrock

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answers: glacier

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answers: U-shaped valley

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answers: moraine

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answers: Fjords

text: The Sarpo Laggo Glacier (Sarpo Laggo: young husband) is a glacier in the autonomous region Xinjiang of China, in the Karakoram mountain range of the Himalayas. It lies north of the Baltoro Muztagh range. It could be reached from the Baltoro glacier on the Pakistani side of the Karakorams via the Old Muztagh Pass northeast of the Trango Towers. It is however easier to approach the glacier from the Chinese side, starting a long hike at Kashgar on the Karakoram Highway and finally passing K2's northern base camp.The Glacier is named after Francis Younghusband, who was the first person to pass the Old Mustagh Pass and thus enter the Sarpo Laggo region. There is another glacier not far away, also named after him: Younghusband glacier (also known as Biango glacier) flows from Muztagh Tower towards the Baltoro Glacier.

text: The Sarpo Laggo Glacier (Sarpo Laggo: young husband) is a

text: glacier

text: in the autonomous region

text: Xinjiang

text: of

text: China

text: , in the

text: Karakoram

text: mountain range of the

text: Himalaya

text: s. It lies north of the

text: Baltoro Muztagh

text: range. It could be reached from the

text: Baltoro glacier

text: on the

text: Pakistan

text: i side of the Karakorams via the Old Muztagh Pass northeast of the

text: Trango Towers

text: . It is however easier to approach the glacier from the Chinese side, starting a long hike at

text: Kashgar

text: on the

text: Karakoram Highway

text: and finally passing

text: 's northern base camp.The Glacier is named after

text: Francis Younghusband

text: , who was the first person to pass the Old Mustagh Pass and thus enter the Sarpo Laggo region. There is another glacier not far away, also named after him:

text: Younghusband glacier

text: (also known as Biango glacier) flows from

text: Muztagh Tower

text: towards the Baltoro Glacier.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Baltoro Muztagh

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: The Sarpo Laggo Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier is named after Francis Younghusband

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Baltoro Muztagh

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Muztagh Pass

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: mountain

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Himalayas

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Karakoram mountain range

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Muztagh Tower

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Xinjiang

answers: NDQ_000195

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text: The Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica is one of the largest valley glaciers in the world, being  long and having a width of . It descends about  from the Antarctic Plateau to the Ross Ice Shelf and is bordered by the Commonwealth Range of the Queen Maud Mountains on the eastern side and the Queen Alexandra Range of the Central Transantarctic Mountains on the western.

text: The Beardmore Glacier in

text: Antarctica

text: is one of the largest valley

text: glacier

text: s in the world, being  long and having a width of . It descends about  from the

text: Antarctic Plateau

text: to the

text: Ross Ice Shelf

text: and is bordered by the

text: Commonwealth Range

text: of the

text: Queen Maud Mountains

text: on the eastern side and the

text: Queen Alexandra Range

text: of the Central

text: Transantarctic Mountains

text: on the western.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

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answers: It descends

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answers: Antarctica

text: The Whitman Glacier is a medium-sized glacier on the eastern flank of Little Tahoma Peak, a sub-peak of Mount Rainier in Washington. Named for the missionary Marcus Whitman, it covers  and contains 4.4 billion ft (125 million m) of ice. Starting from near the rocky spire of Little Tahoma at , the glacier flows southeast downhill. A small snowfield connects this glacier with the adjacent Fryingpan Glacier at about . As the Whitman Glacier flows southeast, the Whitman Crest bounds the glacier to the northeast. Upon reaching a flatter plateau at about , the glacier does not flow far before reaching its terminus at  to . The small Ohanapecosh Glacier lies east of the terminus. Meltwater from the glacier drains into the Cowlitz River.

text: The Whitman Glacier is a medium-sized

text: glacier

text: on the eastern flank of

text: Little Tahoma Peak

text: , a sub-peak of

text: Mount Rainier

text: in

text: Washington

text: . Named for the missionary

text: Marcus Whitman

text: , it covers  and contains 4.4 billion ft (125 million m) of ice. Starting from near the rocky spire of

text: Little Tahoma

text: at , the glacier flows southeast downhill. A small snowfield connects this glacier with the adjacent

text: Fryingpan Glacier

text: at about . As the Whitman Glacier flows southeast, the Whitman Crest bounds the glacier to the northeast. Upon reaching a flatter plateau at about , the glacier does not flow far before reaching its terminus at  to . The small

text: Ohanapecosh Glacier

text: lies east of the terminus. Meltwater from the glacier drains into the

text: Cowlitz River

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answers: 4.4 billion ft

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: Meltwater

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answers: Meltwater

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answers: global warming

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answers: the Whitman Glacier

text: Both the mafic and volcanic rocks have been partially eroded, leaving the more resistant rock standing above the surrounded country.  Much of that erosion took place in repeated glaciations.  The most recent of these glaciations, the Wisconsin, included the Superior lobe, which passed over the area along the lake basin from the northeast to southwest.  This left a terminal moraine where the glacier halted, and a ground moraine in other areas once covered by the continental glacier.  The terminal moraine, known as the "Highlands Moraine", parallels the lakeshore, and forms the inland hills of the North Shore Highlands.  The "Highland Flutes" lie between the moraine and the lake; the "Toimi Drumlin Field" is on the far side of the moraine, just west of the highlands.

text: Both the mafic and volcanic rocks have been partially eroded, leaving the more resistant rock standing above the surrounded country.  Much of that erosion took place in repeated glaciations.  The most recent of these glaciations, the

text: Wisconsin

text: , included the Superior lobe, which passed over the area along the lake basin from the northeast to southwest.  This left a

text: terminal moraine

text: where the glacier halted, and a ground moraine in other areas once covered by the continental glacier.  The terminal moraine, known as the "Highlands Moraine", parallels the lakeshore, and forms the inland hills of the North Shore Highlands.  The "Highland

text: Flutes

text: " lie between the moraine and the lake; the "Toimi

text: Drumlin

text: Field" is on the far side of the moraine, just west of the highlands.

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text: Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, and ice thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian Shield. The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term glacial buzz-saw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges. As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in the accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude), which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add to the mountain. This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop. Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a glacial armour.

text: Glacier

text: s erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring,

text: plucking

text: , and ice thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the

text: Canadian Shield

text: . The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term glacial buzz-saw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges. As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in the

text: accumulation zone

text: above the glacial equilibrium line altitude), which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than

text: isostatic rebound

text: can add to the mountain. This provides a good example of a

text: negative feedback loop

text: . Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a glacial armour.

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answers: Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes

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text: The Donau-Gunz interglacial is defined as the erosion phase that followed the Danube glacial and preceded the Gunz stage. It is therefore represented by the gap between the two depositions that are attributed to the two cold periods; in the type regions of the two glacial there are various depositions. In the area of the Iller-Lech Plateau they lie between the Lower Deckschotter (Untere Deckschottern) of the Zusam Plateau and the Intermediate Deckschotter (Zwischenschottern); in the region of the Salzach Glacier between the Eichwald Schotter and the Older Deckenschotter (Ältere Deckenschottern); and the area of Traun and Enns between the Prägünz Schotter and the Older Deckenschotter. The erosion phase linked with this interglacial is very distinct and the composition of the gravels (Schotter) in the area east of the Rhine Glacier changes markedly.

text: The Donau-Gunz interglacial is defined as the

text: erosion phase

text: that followed the Danube glacial and preceded the Gunz stage. It is therefore represented by the gap between the two depositions that are attributed to the two cold periods; in the

text: type region

text: s of the two glacial there are various depositions. In the area of the

text: Iller-Lech Plateau

text: they lie between the Lower Deckschotter (Untere Deckschottern) of the

text: Zusam

text: Plateau and the Intermediate Deckschotter (Zwischenschottern); in the region of the Salzach Glacier between the Eichwald Schotter and the Older Deckenschotter (Ältere Deckenschottern); and the area of

text: Traun

text: and

text: Enns

text: between the Prägünz Schotter and the Older Deckenschotter. The erosion phase linked with this interglacial is very distinct and the composition of the gravels (Schotter) in the area east of the

text: Rhine Glacier

text: changes markedly.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: gap

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Plateau

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Salzach Glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Deckschotter

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: the gap

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: composition of the gravels

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The Donau-Gunz interglacial is defined as the erosion phase that followed the Danube glacial and preceded the Gunz stage

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: Deckenschotter

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answers: the Gunz stage

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper: Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite, Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation. Dogtooth mountains, such as Mount Louis, exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross gullies. The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper:

text: Mount Rundle

text: is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite,

text: Castle Mountain

text: is composed of numerous

text: Cambrian

text: age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the

text: Stephen Formation

text: and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the

text: Cathedral Formation

text: . Dogtooth mountains, such as

text: Mount Louis

text: , exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross

text: gullies

text: . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in

text: scree

text: deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

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answers: Mount Rundle

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Scree deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: dip

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Banff

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Dogtooth

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Dogtooth

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: The Sawback Range

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: dip slope

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Dogtooth

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Dogtooth

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Banff

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciary

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Cambrian

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand

text: dunes

text: , on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous,

text: friable

text: , slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained,

text: silt

text: y, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian)

text: sediment

text: . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

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answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Loess

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answers: Loess

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answers: vertical faces

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Steep

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep or vertical faces

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Loess deposits are geologically unstable

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep or vertical

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: steep or vertical faces

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:

text: Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the

text: zone of ablation

text: before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

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answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glacier picks up sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlin

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: zone of ablation

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: zone of ablation

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: zone of ablation

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: zone of ablation

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: zone of ablation

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last glacial period

text: It is now believed that all three of these types of craters result from impacts into an icy layer.  Excess ejecta craters and perched craters, the larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer and also went into a rocky lower layer.  A portion of the rocky layer was deposited around the rim of the crater forming a rough ejecta deposit.  That ejecta protected the area beneath it from erosion.  Subsequent erosion left the craters sitting above the surrounding surface.  The smaller, "pedestal craters," developed a protective covering by a different process.  Simulations show that a large impact into ice would generate a great burst of heat that would be sufficient to melt some of the ice.  The resulting water could dissolve salts and minerals and produce a coating resistant to erosion.

text: It is now believed that all three of these types of craters result from impacts into an icy layer.  Excess ejecta craters and perched craters, the larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer and also went into a rocky lower layer.  A portion of the rocky layer was deposited around the rim of the crater forming a rough ejecta deposit.  That ejecta protected the area beneath it from erosion.  Subsequent erosion left the craters sitting above the surrounding surface.  The smaller, "pedestal craters," developed a protective covering by a different process.  Simulations show that a large impact into ice would generate a great burst of heat that would be sufficient to melt some of the ice.  The resulting water could dissolve salts and minerals and produce a coating resistant to erosion.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: ice layer

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: larger ones

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: River valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques and horns

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Salts and minerals

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: drumlin

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is now believed

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: impacts into an icy layer

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: It is now believed

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: perched

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: rocky lower layer

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: icy

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: ejecta deposit

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: perched

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: rocky layer

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: icy layer

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: ejecta craters

text: Till is deposited at the terminal moraine, along the lateral and medial moraines and in the ground moraine of a glacier. As a glacier melts, especially a continental glacier, large amounts of till are washed away and deposited as outwash in sandurs by the rivers flowing from the glacier, and as varves (annual layers) in any proglacial lakes which may form.

text: Till is deposited at the

text: terminal moraine

text: , along the

text: lateral

text: and

text: medial moraines

text: and in the

text: ground moraine

text: of a glacier. As a glacier melts, especially a

text: continental glacier

text: , large amounts of till are washed away and deposited as outwash in

text: sandurs

text: by the

text: river

text: s flowing from the glacier, and as

text: varve

text: s (annual layers) in any

text: proglacial lake

text: s which may form.

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answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: rivers flowing from the glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: As a glacier melts

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: ground moraine

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: terminal

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: rivers flowing from the glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: varves

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: continental

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: ground moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: continental

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: varves

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: varves

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: terminal moraine

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: as a continental glacier

text: The effects of the ice age erosion that occurred in the Pleistocene glaciation between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago are visible in the islands.  The tops of the hills have been exposed to most of the effects of freezing and thawing.  Also, the strong winds that are characteristic of the region carry sand grains up to heights of a metre above ground level; the resulting sand-blasting causes rocks and pillar-shaped rock structures to show the most erosion in their lowest exposed levels, at one metre and below.  This unique pattern of erosion is evident in the higher elevations of West Falkland where quartzites of the Port Stephens Formation are exposed at the surface.  During the last glaciation, snow that accumulated year after year formed glaciers in some elevated leeward zones. These and previous glaciers modified the landscape on the eastern mountain slopes that were protected from the westerly winds.  The reason for glacier accumulation on the eastern slopes could be that the climate could have been very dry, or that the prevailing wind prevented glaciers from forming in places other than eastern slopes.

text: The effects of the

text: ice age

text: erosion that occurred in the

text: Pleistocene

text: glaciation between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago are visible in the islands.  The tops of the hills have been exposed to most of the

text: effects of freezing and thawing

text: .  Also, the strong winds that are characteristic of the region carry sand grains up to heights of a metre above ground level; the resulting sand-blasting causes rocks and pillar-shaped rock structures to show the most

text: erosion

text: in their lowest exposed levels, at one metre and below.  This unique pattern of erosion is evident in the higher elevations of West Falkland where

text: quartzite

text: s of the Port Stephens Formation are exposed at the surface.  During the last glaciation, snow that accumulated year after year formed

text: glacier

text: s in some elevated

text: leeward

text: zones. These and previous

text: glacier

text: s modified the landscape on the eastern mountain slopes that were protected from the westerly winds.  The reason for glacier accumulation on the eastern slopes could be that the climate could have been very dry, or that the prevailing wind prevented glaciers from forming in places other than eastern slopes.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers in some elevated leeward zones

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: rocks and pillar-shaped rock structures

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: leeward

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: eastern mountain slopes

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: pillar

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: mountain slopes

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: pillar

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: West Falkland

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: pillar-shaped rock structures

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glaciers in some elevated leeward zones

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: pillar-shaped

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciation

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago

text: Ground moraine with uncharacteristic reddish iron-rich sediments extended from St. Cloud, Minnesota, back northeastward. The glaciers produced a set of terminal moraines which extend from northwest of St. Cloud into the Twin Cities and up into central Wisconsin. They deposited reddish sands and gravels westward and southward in outwash plains.

text: Ground moraine with uncharacteristic reddish iron-rich sediments extended from

text: St. Cloud, Minnesota

text: , back northeastward. The glaciers produced a set of terminal moraines which extend from northwest of St. Cloud into the

text: Twin Cities

text: and up into central

text: Wisconsin

text: . They deposited reddish sands and gravels westward and southward in

text: outwash plain

text: s.

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answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Ground moraine

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: northwest

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

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answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminal moraines

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answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

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answers: St. Cloud

text: Sputnik Planitia appears to be composed of ices more volatile, softer and more dense than the water-ice bedrock of Pluto, including nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane ice. A polygonal convection cell structure is visible over much of the planitia. No craters have been found, indicating that its surface must be less than 10 million years old. A number of mechanisms are proposed to explain the absence of craters including cryovolcanism, convective overturn, and viscous relaxation - processes that would erase negative topography. Glaciers of what is probably nitrogen ice can be seen flowing from the planitia into adjacent depressions and craters. Nitrogen from the plain appears to have been carried via the atmosphere and deposited in a thin layer of ice on uplands to the east and south of the plain, forming the large bright eastern lobe of Tombaugh Regio. Glaciers appear to be flowing back into the planitia through valleys from these eastern highlands.

text: Sputnik Planitia

text: appears to be composed of ices more volatile, softer and more dense than the water-ice bedrock of Pluto, including

text: nitrogen

text: , carbon monoxide and methane ice. A polygonal

text: convection cell

text: structure is visible over much of the planitia. No craters have been found, indicating that its surface must be less than 10 million years old. A number of mechanisms are proposed to explain the absence of craters including cryovolcanism, convective overturn, and viscous relaxation - processes that would erase negative topography. Glaciers of what is probably nitrogen ice can be seen flowing from the planitia into adjacent depressions and craters. Nitrogen from the plain appears to have been carried via the atmosphere and deposited in a thin layer of ice on uplands to the east and south of the plain, forming the large bright eastern lobe of

text: Tombaugh Regio

text: . Glaciers appear to be flowing back into the planitia through valleys from these eastern highlands.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: depressions and craters

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Nitrogen

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: convective overturn

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: depressions

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: lobe

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: a thin layer

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: nitrogen ice

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: negative topography

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000197

answers: convection cell structure

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: depression

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 10 million years ago

text: Andersen's first paper  is one of the most basic papers in Norwegian glacial geology, even though it was published before C-14 dating was available. The Younger Dryas glacier of the Lysefjord was reconstructed in three dimensions and compared with the glaciers in Greenland today. Further, the highest side moraines were used to determine the equilibrium line of the paleo-glaciers and thus its lowering by comparison with today's glaciers. In this way he was able to estimate the decrease of summer temperature with surprising accuracy. These decreased temperatures were in compliance with the findings of botanist Knut Fægri at the Younger Dryas glacier of Jæren.

text: Andersen's first paper  is one of the most basic papers in Norwegian

text: glacial geology

text: , even though it was published before

text: C-14 dating

text: was available. The

text: Younger Dryas

text: glacier of the

text: Lysefjord

text: was reconstructed in three dimensions and compared with the glaciers in

text: Greenland

text: today. Further, the highest side moraines were used to determine the equilibrium line of the paleo-glaciers and thus its lowering by comparison with today's glaciers. In this way he was able to estimate the decrease of summer temperature with surprising accuracy. These decreased temperatures were in compliance with the findings of botanist

text: Knut Fægri

text: at the Younger Dryas glacier of

text: Jæren

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000188

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text: Sometimes a sound is produced by a glacier's carving out a valley on a coast then receding, or the sea's invading a glacier valley.  The glacier produces a sound that often has steep, near vertical sides that extend deep under water.  The sea floor is often flat and deeper at the landward end than the seaward end, due to glacial moraine deposits. This type of sound is more properly termed a fjord (or fiord).  The sounds in Fiordland, New Zealand, have been formed this way.

text: Sometimes a sound is produced by a glacier's carving out a valley on a coast then receding, or the sea's invading a glacier valley.  The glacier produces a sound that often has steep, near vertical sides that extend deep under water.  The sea floor is often flat and deeper at the landward end than the seaward end, due to glacial

text: moraine

text: deposits. This type of sound is more properly termed a

text: fjord

text: (or fiord).  The sounds in

text: Fiordland

text: , New Zealand, have been formed this way.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: River valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Fiordland, New Zealand

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: landward

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The sea floor is often flat

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial moraine

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: New Zealand

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep, near vertical sides that extend deep under water

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Fiordland, New Zealand

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Fiordland

text: In 1970 a study was performed at the terminus of the glacier to determine its position during the Holocene climatic optimum but the study found no evidence in the valley that the glacier had retreated from the Donyek River Valley. However there is evidence that the glacier had retreated before it advanced during the neoglaciation. Near the river bed there is also an area of  high mounds whose surfaces have been worn by the river. Inside the mounds there is a large amount of groundmass, which indicates the mounds may have been formed of till originally. This suggests Donjek Glacier was much larger than it is now as the mounds would have gone through much erosion.

text: In 1970 a study was performed at the terminus of the glacier to determine its position during the

text: Holocene climatic optimum

text: but the study found no evidence in the valley that the glacier had retreated from the Donyek River Valley. However there is evidence that the glacier had retreated before it advanced during the

text: neoglaciation

text: . Near the

text: river bed

text: there is also an area of  high mounds whose surfaces have been worn by the river. Inside the mounds there is a large amount of

text: groundmass

text: , which indicates the mounds may have been formed of

text: till

text: originally. This suggests Donjek Glacier was much larger than it is now as the mounds would have gone through much

text: erosion

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Donyek River Valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Donyek River Valley

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Donyek River Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: mounds

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: high mounds

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Donyek River Valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: high mounds

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Donjek Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: neoglaciation

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by

text: weathering

text: of earlier rocks by

text: erosion

text: in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: mass movement

text: or

text: glacier

text: s (agents of

text: denudation

text: ). Mud rocks comprise 65% (

text: mudstone

text: shale

text: and

text: siltstone

text: sandstone

text: s 20 to 25% and

text: carbonate rock

text: s 10 to 15% (

text: limestone

text: and

text: dolostone

text: ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and

text: arkose

text: s (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain

text: fossil

text: s. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or

text: strata

text: and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers (agents of denudation)

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: arkoses

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: mass movement

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cross bedding

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Mud rocks comprise 65%

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: strata

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Denudation

text: The Geological Party's Expedition objective was to map and geologically survey as much of the southern portion of the Edsel Ford Range as possible, and additionally investigate the natural resources of the area and triangulate accurately for improved maps of the region. The four-man Geological Party Expedition left the West Base on October 17, 1940 and returned 82 days later on January 7, 1941 traveling a total of  on board their two dog sleds. In the nearly three-month expedition, they had to be supported by airplanes that deposited supplies at  intervals along their charted route. The Geological Party Expedition explorers discovered and visited for the first time some 50 peaks, valleys and glaciers in this region and some 300 geological specimens were collected. Warpasgiljo Glacier was one of those features discovered.

text: The Geological Party's Expedition objective was to map and geologically survey as much of the southern portion of the Edsel Ford Range as possible, and additionally investigate the natural resources of the area and triangulate accurately for improved maps of the region. The four-man

text: Geological Party Expedition

text: left the

text: West Base

text: on October 17, 1940 and returned 82 days later on January 7, 1941 traveling a total of  on board their two dog sleds. In the nearly three-month expedition, they had to be supported by airplanes that deposited supplies at  intervals along their charted route. The Geological Party Expedition explorers discovered and visited for the first time some 50 peaks, valleys and glaciers in this region and some 300 geological specimens were collected. Warpasgiljo Glacier was one of those features discovered.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: geological specimens

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Warpasgiljo

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: peaks

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Edsel Ford Range

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The four-man Geological Party Expedition left the West Base on October 17, 1940 and returned 82 days later on January 7, 1941

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1941

text: Once through this constriction, the ice spread out into a great lobe, in the area now occupied by the Celtic Sea and the approaches to the Bristol Channel.  On the eastern flank of the glacier, the evidence of striations, glacial deposits and "erratic trains" shows that the edge of the Irish Sea Glacier was pushed southwards by ice coming from the Welsh ice cap on the Brecon Beacons, so that Irish Sea ice flowed parallel with the coast of South Wales and then came into contact with the English coast around the Somerset Levels, between Exmoor and the Mendips.  It is not known how far inland this ice extended, but there are scattered glacial deposits  in the Bridgwater - Glastonbury district -- these may mark the easternmost extent of the glacier.  On its western flank the Irish Sea Glacier reached Cork Harbour.  The maximum width of this great ice lobe was more than 320 km.

text: Once through this constriction, the ice spread out into a great lobe, in the area now occupied by the

text: Celtic Sea

text: and the approaches to the

text: Bristol Channel

text: .  On the eastern flank of the glacier, the evidence of striations, glacial deposits and "erratic trains" shows that the edge of the Irish Sea Glacier was pushed southwards by ice coming from the Welsh ice cap on the Brecon Beacons, so that Irish Sea ice flowed parallel with the coast of South Wales and then came into contact with the English coast around the Somerset Levels, between Exmoor and the Mendips.  It is not known how far inland this ice extended, but there are scattered glacial deposits  in the Bridgwater - Glastonbury district -- these may mark the easternmost extent of the glacier.  On its western flank the Irish Sea Glacier reached Cork Harbour.  The maximum width of this great ice lobe was more than 320 km.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 320 km

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Irish Sea Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: great lobe

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: On its western flank

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The Irish Sea Glacier was pushed southwards

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: striations

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Celtic Sea

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Celtic Sea

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: great lobe

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ice cap

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Celtic Sea

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: erratic trains

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Irish Sea Glacier reached Cork Harbour

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answers: constriction

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: lobe

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Cork Harbour

text: Since the end of the Little ice age in 1850, Bow Glacier has been a state of steady retreat overall. Between 1850 and 1953, the glacier retreated an estimated , and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine at the glacial snout. Sedimentation has also increased in Bow Lake due to increased erosion of soil that had beeny protected by the glacier, creating a small sediment delta at the western end of the lake.

text: Since the end of the

text: Little ice age

text: in 1850, Bow Glacier has been a state of steady retreat overall. Between 1850 and 1953, the glacier retreated an estimated , and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal

text: moraine

text: at the glacial snout. Sedimentation has also increased in Bow Lake due to increased erosion of soil that had beeny protected by the glacier, creating a small sediment

text: delta

text: at the western end of the lake.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Little ice age

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glacial snout

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Bow Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacial snout

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: soil

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: snout

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Bow Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Bow Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: snout

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: terminal moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacial snout

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Bow Glacier

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: sediment delta at the western end of the lake

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Between 1850 and 1953

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Little ice age

text: The deglaciation patterns of the Bergen and Nordfjord–Sunnmøre areas in western Norway are described and correlated. In the Bergen area the coast was first deglaciated at 12,600 B.P., with a succeeding re-advance into the North Sea around 12,200 B.P. Later, during the Allerød, the inland ice retreated at least 50 km, but nearly reached the sea again during the Younger Dryas re-advance, ending at 10,000 B.P. Sunnmøre was ice-free during an interstadial 28,000–38,000 B.P. Later the inland ice reached the sea. The final deglaciation is poorly dated in Sunnmøre, while further south in Nordfjord, it started slightly before 12,300 B.P., followed by a major retreat. No large re-advance of the inland ice occurred during the Younger Dryas. However, in the Sunnmøre–Nordfjord area many local glaciers formed outside the inland ice during the Younger Dryas. Limnic sediments outside one such cirque glacier have been cored and dated, proving that the glacier did not exist at 12,300–11,000 B.P., and that it was formed and disappeared in the time interval 11,000–10,000 B.P. (Younger Dryas). The erosion rate of the cirque glacier was 0.9 mm/year.

text: The

text: deglaciation

text: patterns of the

text: Bergen

text: and

text: Nordfjord

text: Sunnmøre

text: areas in western Norway are described and correlated. In the

text: Bergen

text: area the coast was first deglaciated at 12,600 B.P., with a succeeding re-advance into the

text: North Sea

text: around 12,200 B.P. Later, during the Allerød, the inland ice retreated at least 50 km, but nearly reached the sea again during the

text: Younger Dryas

text: re-advance, ending at 10,000 B.P.

text: Sunnmøre

text: was ice-free during an interstadial 28,000–38,000 B.P. Later the inland ice reached the sea. The final deglaciation is poorly dated in

text: Sunnmøre

text: , while further south in

text: Nordfjord

text: , it started slightly before 12,300 B.P., followed by a major retreat. No large re-advance of the inland ice occurred during the

text: Younger Dryas

text: . However, in the

text: Sunnmøre

text: Nordfjord

text: area many local

text: glacier

text: s formed outside the inland ice during the

text: Younger Dryas

text: . Limnic sediments outside one such cirque

text: glacier

text: have been cored and dated, proving that the

text: glacier

text: did not exist at 12,300–11,000 B.P., and that it was formed and disappeared in the time interval 11,000–10,000 B.P. (

text: Younger Dryas

text: ). The erosion rate of the cirque

text: glacier

text: was 0.9 mm/year.

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answers: The Younger Dryas

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 50 km

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answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Limnic sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier was 0.9 mm/year

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Sunnm re

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: local glaciers

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answers: Norway

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answers: cirque glacier

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answers: Sunnm re was ice-free during an interstadial

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answers: cirque

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answers: cirque

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answers: cirque glacier

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answers: Younger Dryas

text: The land is tilled after harvesting and has become sensitive to sheet erosion. The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts. Increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir. As a result, sediment deposition in the dam gradually decreased the water storage capacity from 150 million m3 in 1970 to 121 and 108 million m3 in 1983 and 1991 respectivelyThe suspended sediments in the water bodies also affect water quality and cause pollution because of various agrochemicals adsorbed by the sediments into the catchments.

text: The land is tilled after harvesting and has become sensitive to sheet erosion. The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts. Increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir. As a result, sediment deposition in the dam gradually decreased the water storage capacity from 150 million m3 in 1970 to 121 and 108 million m3 in 1983 and 1991 respectivelyThe suspended sediments in the water bodies also affect water quality and cause pollution because of various agrochemicals adsorbed by the sediments into the catchments.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: It is tilled after harvesting

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: reservoir

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: sheet

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: The area

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1991

text: Many formations are probably glaciers or the remains of old glaciers because they look so much like glaciers on the Earth.

text: Many formations are probably glaciers or the remains of old glaciers because they look so much like glaciers on the Earth.

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text: Glaciers modified large areas of the surface of Mars.  Many places are believed to still contain enormous amounts of water ice that was associated with glaciers.  Many craters contain large amounts of ice.  If one measures the diameter of a crater, the original depth can be estimated with various ratios.  Because of this relationship, researchers have found that many Martian craters contain a great deal of material; much of it is believed to be ice deposited when the climate was different. Glaciers have shaped much of the fretted terrain.  It would be difficult to take a hike on the fretted terrain because the surface is folded, pitted, and often covered with linear striations.  The striations show the direction of movement.  Much of this rough texture is due to sublimation of buried ice.  When the ice transitions directly into a gas it leaves behind an empty space.  Overlying material then collapses into the void.  Glaciers are not pure ice; they contain dirt and rocks.  At times, they will dump their load of materials into ridges.  Such ridges are called moraines.  Some places on Mars have groups of ridges that are twisted around; this may have been due to more movement after the ridges were put into place.  Sometimes chunks of ice fall from the glacier and get buried in the land surface.  When they melt and more or less round hole remains.  On Earth we call these features kettles or kettle holes.  Mendon Ponds Park in upstate NY has preserved several of these kettles.  The picture from HiRISE below shows possible kettles in Moreux Crater.

text: Glaciers modified large areas of the surface of Mars.  Many places are believed to still contain enormous amounts of water ice that was associated with glaciers.  Many craters contain large amounts of ice.  If one measures the diameter of a crater, the original depth can be estimated with various ratios.  Because of this relationship, researchers have found that many Martian craters contain a great deal of material; much of it is believed to be ice deposited when the climate was different. Glaciers have shaped much of the fretted terrain.  It would be difficult to take a hike on the fretted terrain because the surface is folded, pitted, and often covered with linear striations.  The striations show the direction of movement.  Much of this rough texture is due to

text: sublimation

text: of buried ice.  When the ice transitions directly into a gas it leaves behind an empty space.  Overlying material then collapses into the void.  Glaciers are not pure ice; they contain dirt and rocks.  At times, they will dump their load of materials into ridges.  Such ridges are called moraines.  Some places on Mars have groups of ridges that are twisted around; this may have been due to more movement after the ridges were put into place.  Sometimes chunks of ice fall from the glacier and get buried in the land surface.  When they melt and more or less round hole remains.  On Earth we call these features kettles or kettle holes.

text: Mendon Ponds Park

text: in upstate NY has preserved several of these kettles.  The picture from HiRISE below shows possible kettles in Moreux Crater.

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text: Nerstrand-Big Woods State Park is a state park of Minnesota, USA, northeast of Faribault near the small town of Nerstrand.  The park derives its name from the Big Woods, a large, contiguous forested area covering much of central Minnesota prior to the arrival of European settlers.  The park and its forest were an outlying 'woods' typical and similar to the Big Woods proper, which were historically found on the more recent glacier deposits located west of the Cannon River  to the west.  Aside from a small waterfall, the outstanding natural feature of the park is the forest itself.

text: Nerstrand-Big Woods State Park is a

text: state park

text: of

text: Minnesota

text: , USA, northeast of

text: Faribault

text: near the small town of

text: Nerstrand

text: .  The park derives its name from the

text: Big Woods

text: , a large, contiguous forested area covering much of central Minnesota prior to the arrival of European settlers.  The park and its forest were an outlying 'woods' typical and similar to the Big Woods proper, which were historically found on the more recent glacier deposits located west of the

text: Cannon River

text: to the west.  Aside from a small waterfall, the outstanding natural feature of the park is the forest itself.

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text: Glacier then entered a feud with Perry Saturn, starting with an angle in which he cut a promo on the May 11 Nitro declaring that his Cryonic Kick finisher was his own move and threatened to take out anyone who used it. This prompted a response from Saturn on Thunder later in the week, in which he lambasted Glacier for his in-ring appearance and his claiming ownership of the superkick. Starting with a pin of Sick Boy on May 18 after Saturn's outside interference was unsuccessful, Glacier then fought a series of matches against several other members of Raven's Flock. He and Saturn then alternated wins on WCW Thunder, but the most notable aspect of the angle was that Kanyon, who had recently shed the Mortis gimmick, was regularly conducting sneak attacks on Raven and the Flock in various disguises. On the June 4 edition of Thunder, Kanyon (disguised as referee Nick Patrick) entered the ring and took out Saturn with a Russian legsweep, allowing Glacier to get the win, and flashed the Mortis mask to Glacier before leaving the ring. The feud died down shortly thereafter when Saturn was moved to a new angle involving Raven and the breakup of the Flock. A Glacier-Saturn matchup (won by Saturn) that aired on WCW Worldwide on September 26 was the last match broadcast on the program before its format was changed to a recap show.

text: Glacier then entered a feud with

text: Perry Saturn

text: , starting with an angle in which he cut a promo on the May 11 Nitro declaring that his Cryonic Kick finisher was his own move and threatened to take out anyone who used it. This prompted a response from Saturn on Thunder later in the week, in which he lambasted Glacier for his in-ring appearance and his claiming ownership of the superkick. Starting with a pin of

text: Sick Boy

text: on May 18 after Saturn's outside interference was unsuccessful, Glacier then fought a series of matches against several other members of

text: Raven's Flock

text: . He and Saturn then alternated wins on

text: WCW Thunder

text: , but the most notable aspect of the angle was that Kanyon, who had recently shed the Mortis gimmick, was regularly conducting sneak attacks on

text: Raven

text: and the Flock in various disguises. On the June 4 edition of Thunder, Kanyon (disguised as referee

text: Nick Patrick

text: ) entered the ring and took out Saturn with a Russian legsweep, allowing Glacier to get the win, and flashed the Mortis mask to Glacier before leaving the ring. The feud died down shortly thereafter when Saturn was moved to a new angle involving Raven and the breakup of the Flock. A Glacier-Saturn matchup (won by Saturn) that aired on

text: WCW Worldwide

text: on September 26 was the last match broadcast on the program before its format was changed to a recap show.

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answers: September 26

text: The Cambrian Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of geologic formations that represent the basal section of Paleozoic rocks in the Grand Canyon. The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone was deposited upon the erosion surface of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called Tonto Platform, that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the Bright Angel Shale and Muav Limestone, rest on.

text: The

text: Cambrian

text: Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of

text: geologic formations

text: that represent the basal section of

text: Paleozoic

text: rocks in the

text: Grand Canyon

text: . The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the

text: Cambrian

text: Tapeats Sandstone

text: was deposited upon the

text: erosion surface

text: of the

text: Vishnu Basement Rocks

text: , which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called

text: Tonto Platform

text: , that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the

text: Bright Angel Shale

text: and

text: Muav Limestone

text: , rest on.

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answers: It is not possible to tell

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity.

text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an

text: unconformity

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques and horns

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Deposition

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: unconformable

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answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: unconformable

text: As glaciers move across a surface, they pluck rocks from it, and incorporate them into their mass. At the coast, fragments of glacier detach and float away as icebergs, which are often transported (ice rafted) many miles into the ocean, where they melt and deposit their load. When entrained rocks sink to the ocean floor, they can be incorporated into the oceanic sediments, which are typically fine grained.

text: As glaciers move across a surface, they pluck rocks from it, and incorporate them into their mass. At the coast, fragments of glacier detach and float away as icebergs, which are often transported (

text: ice rafted

text: ) many miles into the ocean, where they melt and deposit their load. When entrained rocks sink to the ocean floor, they can be incorporated into the oceanic sediments, which are typically fine grained.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: miles

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers move across a surface

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers move across a surface

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: entrained rocks

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: glaciers pluck rocks from it

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: sink to the ocean floor

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: pluck rocks from it

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: mass

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: oceanic sediments

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: ice raft

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Rocky Mountains

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Rocky Mountains

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the ocean

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: fine grained

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glaciers move across a surface

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: coast

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: oceanic sediments

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the ocean

text: Haefeli Glacier, Finsterwalder Glacier, Sharp Glacier, Sölch Glacier, Wilkinson Glacier, Koriten Glacier, Dabrava Glacier, Bruckner Glacier and Antevs Glacier feed the fjord.

text: Haefeli Glacier

text: Finsterwalder Glacier

text: Sharp Glacier

text: Sölch Glacier

text: Wilkinson Glacier

text: Koriten Glacier

text: Dabrava Glacier

text: Bruckner Glacier

text: and

text: Antevs Glacier

text: feed the fjord.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Sharp Glacier

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Sharp Glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the fjord

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Sölch Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: A fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earth's crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also called isostasy or glacial rebound). In some cases this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea; Sognefjord, Norway, reaches as much as  below sea level. Fjords generally have a sill or shoal (bedrock) at their mouth caused by the previous glacier's reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine. In many cases this sill causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids (see skookumchuck). Saltstraumen in Norway is often described as the world's strongest tidal current. These characteristics distinguish fjords from rias (e.g. the Bay of Kotor), which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut almost in two by the Svelvik "ridge", a sandy moraine that during the ice cover was under sea level but after the post-glacial rebound reaches 60 meters above the fjord.

text: A fjord is formed when a

text: glacier

text: cuts a

text: U-shaped valley

text: by

text: ice segregation

text: and

text: abrasion

text: of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earth's crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also called

text: isostasy

text: or glacial rebound). In some cases this rebound is faster than

text: sea level rise

text: . Most fjords are

text: deeper than the adjacent sea

text: Sognefjord

text: Norway

text: , reaches as much as  below

text: sea level

text: . Fjords generally have a sill or shoal (bedrock) at their mouth caused by the previous glacier's reduced erosion rate and

text: terminal moraine

text: . In many cases this sill causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids (see

text: skookumchuck

text: Saltstraumen

text: in Norway is often described as the world's strongest

text: tidal current

text: . These characteristics distinguish fjords from

text: ria

text: s (e.g. the

text: Bay of Kotor

text: ), which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea.

text: Drammensfjorden

text: is cut almost in two by the

text: Svelvik

text: "ridge", a sandy moraine that during the ice cover was under sea level but after the post-glacial rebound reaches 60 meters above the fjord.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: rias

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial rebound

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Earth's crust

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice segregation

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glacial melting

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Norway

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: extreme currents and large saltwater rapids

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: post-glacial rebound

text: The ore bodies at the Sterling Hill mine lie within a formation called the Reading Prong massif; the ores are contained within the Franklin Marble.  This was deposited as limestone in a Precambrian oceanic rift trough.  It subsequently underwent extensive metamorphosis during the Grenville orogeny, approximately 1.15 billion years ago. Uplift and erosion during the late Mesozoic and the Tertiary exposed the ore bodies at the surface; the glaciers of the Pleistocene strewed trains of ore-bearing boulders for miles to the south, in places creating deposits large enough to be worked profitably.

text: The ore bodies at the Sterling Hill mine lie within a formation called the

text: Reading Prong

text: massif; the ores are contained within the Franklin Marble.  This was deposited as limestone in a

text: Precambrian

text: oceanic rift trough.  It subsequently underwent extensive metamorphosis during the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: , approximately 1.15 billion years ago. Uplift and erosion during the late

text: Mesozoic

text: and the

text: Tertiary

text: exposed the ore bodies at the surface; the glaciers of the

text: Pleistocene

text: strewed trains of ore-bearing boulders for miles to the south, in places creating deposits large enough to be worked profitably.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: miles

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Reading Prong

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers of the Pleistocene

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers of the Pleistocene

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: rift trough

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Reading Prong

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Pleistocene

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Sterling Hill

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Reading Prong

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Reading Prong

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Prong

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Reading Prong massif

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: strewed trains of ore

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The ores are contained within the Franklin Marble

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: rift trough

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Pleistocene

text: Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in every mountainous region that has experienced glaciation, usually during the Pleistocene ice ages.Most present U-shaped valleys started as V-shaped before glaciation. The glaciers carved it out wider and deeper, simultaneously changing the shape. This proceeds through the glacial erosion processes of glaciation and abrasion, which results in large rocky material (glacial till) being carried in the glacier. A material called boulder clay is deposited on the floor of the valley. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. A river or stream may remain in the valley. This replaces the original stream or river and is known as a misfit stream because it is smaller than one would expect given the size of its valley.

text: Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in every mountainous region that has experienced

text: glaciation

text: , usually during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice ages

text: .Most present U-shaped valleys started as V-shaped before glaciation. The glaciers carved it out wider and deeper, simultaneously changing the shape. This proceeds through the glacial erosion processes of

text: glaciation

text: and

text: abrasion

text: , which results in large rocky material (glacial till) being carried in the glacier. A material called boulder clay is deposited on the floor of the valley. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. A

text: river

text: or

text: stream

text: may remain in the valley. This replaces the original stream or river and is known as a

text: misfit stream

text: because it is smaller than one would expect given the size of its valley.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The glaciers carved it out wider and deeper

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: As the ice melts and retreats

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: The glaciers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: mountainous region

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciation

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: steep sides

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: steep sides

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: mountainous region

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: very steep sides and a wide, flat floor

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: U-shaped valleys

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep sides

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Pleistocene

text: As the glaciers of the Wisconsin glaciation began to recede from the Hudson Valley area, a glacial lake known today as Lake Albany extended across the mid and upper Hudson Valley and a large delta formed west of Albany where the predecessor of the Mohawk River flowed into the lake. Along the shoreline of the lake, lacustrine sands were deposited between the present-day cities of Hudson and Glens Falls; this became the Hudson Valley sandplain. Relieved from the weight of the glacier, the land began to rebound, and the lake receded by draining into the Hudson River. The deposits of sand in the delta area were gradually sculpted by wind into sand dunes. Plants later colonized the land and stabilized the dunes. The Pine Bush originally occupied , or 60,000 acres, at which point it was the largest inland pine barrens in North America.

text: As the

text: glacier

text: s of the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: began to recede from the

text: Hudson Valley

text: area, a

text: glacial lake

text: known today as

text: Lake Albany

text: extended across the mid and upper Hudson Valley and a large

text: delta

text: formed west of Albany where the predecessor of the

text: Mohawk River

text: flowed into the lake. Along the shoreline of the lake,

text: lacustrine

text: sands were deposited between the present-day cities of

text: Hudson

text: and

text: Glens Falls

text: ; this became the Hudson Valley sandplain. Relieved from the weight of the glacier, the land began to

text: rebound

text: , and the lake receded by draining into the

text: Hudson River

text: . The deposits of sand in the delta area were gradually

text: sculpted by wind

text: into sand

text: dune

text: s. Plants later colonized the land and stabilized the dunes. The Pine Bush originally occupied , or 60,000 acres, at which point it was the largest inland pine barrens in North America.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: west

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The weight of the glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: the weight of the glacier

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Hudson Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Lake Albany

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial lake

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: sandplain

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: The Pine Bush

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Hudson Valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Hudson Valley sandplain

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Wisconsin glaciation

text: During the Pleistocene (the last ice age), huge sheets of ice called continental glaciers advanced over much of the earth. The movement of these continental glaciers created many now-familiar glacial landforms. As the glaciers were expanded, due to their accumulating weight of snow and ice, they crushed and redistributed surface rocks, creating erosional landforms such as striations, cirques, and hanging valleys. Later, when the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of crushed rock and sand, depositional landforms were created, such as moraines, eskers, drumlins, and kames. The stone walls found in New England (northeastern United States) contain many glacial erratics, rocks that were dragged by a glacier many miles from their bedrock origin.

text: During the

text: Pleistocene

text: (the last

text: ice age

text: ), huge sheets of ice called continental glaciers advanced over much of the earth. The movement of these continental glaciers created many now-familiar

text: glacial landforms

text: . As the glaciers were expanded, due to their accumulating weight of snow and ice, they crushed and redistributed surface rocks, creating

text: erosional landforms

text: such as

text: striation

text: s,

text: cirques

text: , and

text: hanging valley

text: s. Later, when the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of crushed rock and sand,

text: depositional landforms

text: were created, such as

text: moraine

text: s,

text: esker

text: s,

text: drumlin

text: s, and

text: kame

text: s. The stone walls found in

text: New England

text: (northeastern

text: United States

text: ) contain many

text: glacial erratic

text: s, rocks that were dragged by a glacier many miles from their bedrock origin.

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000199

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Pleistocene

text: Near Glacier Point there is 2,000 feet (600 m) of mostly glacial sediment with at least six separate sequences of Lake Yosemite sediments. Here, huge and highly erosive pre-Wisconsinian glaciers excavated the bedrock valley floor, and much smaller Wisconsinian glaciers deposited glacial debris.

text: Near

text: Glacier Point

text: there is 2,000 feet (600 m) of mostly glacial sediment with at least six separate sequences of Lake Yosemite sediments. Here, huge and highly erosive pre-Wisconsinian glaciers excavated the bedrock valley floor, and much smaller Wisconsinian glaciers deposited glacial debris.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 2,000 feet

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Wisconsinian glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial debris

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Wisconsinian

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: huge

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Yosemite

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glacial debris

answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Wisconsinian

text: Mandø is geographically one of the northernmost islands among the North Frisian Islands off the southwestern Danish and northwestern German coast. The Frisian Islands are generally the line of demarcation separating the North Sea from the Wadden Sea, which is a shallow sea of approximately 5000 square kilometers in size, riddled with small islands and tidal flats.  The entire Wadden Sea area was formed by intervening riverine depositional periods between Ice Age glacier movements.

text: Mandø is geographically one of the northernmost islands among the

text: North Frisian Islands

text: off the southwestern Danish and northwestern German coast. The Frisian Islands are generally the line of demarcation separating the

text: North Sea

text: from the

text: Wadden Sea

text: , which is a shallow sea of approximately 5000 square kilometers in size, riddled with small islands and tidal flats.  The entire Wadden Sea area was formed by intervening

text: river

text: ine depositional periods between

text: Ice Age

text: glacier

text: movements.

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text: In geology, drift is the name for all material of glacial origin found anywhere on land or at sea, including sediment and large rocks (glacial erratic). Glacial origin refers to erosion, transportation and deposition by glaciers.

text: In

text: geology

text: , drift is the name for all material of glacial origin found anywhere on land or at sea, including sediment and large rocks (

text: glacial erratic

text: ). Glacial origin refers to erosion, transportation and deposition by

text: glaciers

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text: In the northern section the height of land lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, and thus the main lines of drainage run from north to south, exemplified by the Hudson River. However, the valley through which the Hudson River flows was cut by the gigantic glaciers of the Ice Ages—the same glaciers that deposited their terminal moraines in southern New York and formed the east-west Long Island.

text: In the northern section the height of land lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, and thus the main lines of drainage run from north to south, exemplified by the

text: Hudson River

text: . However, the valley through which the Hudson River flows was cut by the gigantic

text: glacier

text: s of the

text: Ice Age

text: s—the same glaciers that deposited their

text: terminal moraine

text: s in southern New York and formed the east-west

text: Long Island

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answers: Ice Ages

text: Kennecott Mines was named after the Kennicott Glacier in the valley below.  The geologist Oscar Rohn named the glacier after Robert Kennicott during the 1899 US Army Abercrombie Survey.  A "clerical error" resulted in the substitution of an "e" for the "i", supposedly by Stephen Birch himself.

text: Kennecott Mines was named after the

text: Kennicott Glacier

text: in the valley below.  The geologist Oscar Rohn named the glacier after

text: Robert Kennicott

text: during the 1899 US Army Abercrombie Survey.  A "clerical error" resulted in the substitution of an "e" for the "i", supposedly by Stephen Birch himself.

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answers: 1899

text: Denton earned his Ph.D. at the Yale University in 1965, and was the first scientist from the University of Maine elected to the National Academy of Sciences. His primary interest is the geological history of large ice sheets and smaller mountain glaciers, and in particular the role of these ice sheets in Quaternary and late-Tertiary ice ages. He also focuses on the abrupt ocean-atmosphere reorganizations in glacial cycles. One current project (2015) deals with the Quaternary and late Tertiary history of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Studies of late Quaternary glacial deposits elucidate the role of the Antarctic Ice Sheet during the last few ice ages. Studies of late Tertiary deposits bear on fundamental climatic changes that preceded Quaternary ice ages. Recent projects involved reconstruction of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the last ice age. Another project deals with the alpine glacier history of the Chilean Andes. He led a party of scientists doing field studies in Chile in 1991–99, and in New Zealand in 2000–08 together with his close colleague throughout his career, the late Norwegian Quaternary geologist Professor Bjørn G. Andersen of the University of Oslo.

text: Denton earned his Ph.D. at the

text: Yale University

text: Bjørn G. Andersen

text: of the

text: University of Oslo

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answers: last ice age

text: An area of peculiar, fan-shaped deposits (FSD) lies on the volcano's western flank. The FSD consists of a zone of knobby terrain outlined by a semicircular zone of concentric ridges. Similar deposits are also found at the northwestern edges of the other two Tharsis Montes, Pavonis Mons and Arsia Mons, as well as on Olympus Mons. The FSD at Ascraeus Mons is the smallest of those on the Tharsis Montes, covering an area of 14,000 km and extending outward from the volcano's base for about 100 km. The origin of these deposits has been debated for decades. However, recent geologic evidence suggests that FSDs are deposits left by glaciers, which covered portions of the volcanoes during  a recent period of high obliquity. During periods of high obliquity (axial tilt) the polar regions receive higher levels of sunlight. More water from the poles enters the atmosphere and condenses as ice or snowfall in the cooler equatorial regions. Mars changes its obliquity from about 15° to 35° in cycles of 120,000 years.

text: An area of peculiar, fan-shaped deposits (FSD) lies on the volcano's western flank. The FSD consists of a zone of knobby terrain outlined by a semicircular zone of concentric ridges. Similar deposits are also found at the northwestern edges of the other two Tharsis Montes, Pavonis Mons and Arsia Mons, as well as on Olympus Mons. The FSD at Ascraeus Mons is the smallest of those on the Tharsis Montes, covering an area of 14,000 km and extending outward from the volcano's base for about 100 km. The origin of these deposits has been debated for decades. However, recent geologic evidence suggests that FSDs are deposits left by

text: glaciers

text: , which covered portions of the volcanoes during  a recent period of high

text: obliquity

text: . During periods of high obliquity (axial tilt) the polar regions receive higher levels of sunlight. More water from the poles enters the atmosphere and condenses as ice or snowfall in the cooler equatorial regions. Mars changes its obliquity from about 15° to 35° in cycles of 120,000 years.

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answers: 120,000 years

text: After the retreat of many of these glaciers, a stand of Lake Yosemite developed. The valley floor owes its flatness to sediment deposited by these stands (the last glaciers in the valley were small and did not remove much old lake sediment). The last stand of Lake Yosemite was about 5.5 miles (8.9 km) long and was impounded by a terminal moraine near the base of El Capitan. It was later filled by sediment, becoming a swampy meadow.

text: After the retreat of many of these glaciers, a stand of

text: Lake Yosemite

text: developed. The valley floor owes its flatness to sediment deposited by these stands (the last glaciers in the valley were small and did not remove much old lake sediment). The last stand of Lake Yosemite was about 5.5 miles (8.9 km) long and was impounded by a terminal

text: moraine

text: near the base of El Capitan. It was later filled by sediment, becoming a

text: swamp

text: y meadow.

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answers: 5.5 miles

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text: The current geological morphology of the Val Lumnezia is due to the last widespread glaciation some 26,000 until 13,000 years ago, when the entire valley was covered by a giant glacier. The glacier swept the deposits in the direction of the Vorderrhein and when it melted, an undulating sheet of clay and gravel remained, which forms today's terraced plateaus of Lumnezia.

text: The current geological morphology of the Val Lumnezia is due to the last widespread glaciation some 26,000 until 13,000 years ago, when the entire valley was covered by a giant glacier. The glacier swept the deposits in the direction of the

text: Vorderrhein

text: and when it melted, an undulating sheet of clay and gravel remained, which forms today's terraced plateaus of Lumnezia.

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answers: clay and gravel

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answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: 13,000 years ago

text: Wetter and cooler conditions developed during the Pleistocene epoch and briefly returned via at least two neoglacial episodes (little ice ages) in the current epoch, the Holocene. The various rivers and streams in the area were engorged by increased precipitation and with melt-water from mountain glaciers on the Henry Mountains to the east and the Aquarius Plateau to the west of the park. Flash floods, mass wasting of hillsides, frost wedging, and landslides all contributed to a significantly faster rate of erosion. Glaciers plucked 20- to 30-million-year-old black basaltic boulders from atop Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains that were subsequently deposited over the park area by meltwater streams from the glaciers, rockslides and floods.

text: Wetter and cooler conditions developed during the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch and briefly returned via at least two neoglacial episodes (

text: little ice age

text: s) in the current epoch, the

text: Holocene

text: . The various rivers and streams in the area were engorged by increased precipitation and with melt-water from mountain

text: glacier

text: s on the

text: Henry Mountains

text: to the east and the

text: Aquarius Plateau

text: to the west of the park.

text: Flash flood

text: s,

text: mass wasting

text: of hillsides,

text: frost wedging

text: , and

text: landslide

text: s all contributed to a significantly faster rate of

text: erosion

text: . Glaciers plucked 20- to 30-million-year-old black basaltic boulders from atop

text: Boulder

text: and

text: Thousand Lake Mountain

text: s that were subsequently deposited over the park area by meltwater streams from the glaciers, rockslides and

text: flood

text: s.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: glaciers

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answers: Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains

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answers: Aquarius Plateau

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answers: Boulder

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answers: Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains

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answers: Pleistocene

text: There have been at least two glacial periods in the history of the mountains and they were glaciated as little as 2,000 years ago. During the Last ice age, the Bale Mountains were one of the most extensively glaciated areas in present day Ethiopia, with a total area of ice in Bale of approximately 180 km. There was a 30 km ice cap around the peak of Tulu Dimtu (the second highest mountain in Ethiopia) on the Sanetti Plateau and individual glaciers of considerable thickness reached down to 3,200 meters. As a consequence, the landscape as we see it today is the lava outpourings much modified by over 20 million years of erosion by water, wind and ice.

text: There have been at least two glacial periods in the history of the mountains and they were glaciated as little as 2,000 years ago. During the

text: Last ice age

text: , the Bale Mountains were one of the most extensively glaciated areas in present day Ethiopia, with a total area of ice in Bale of approximately 180 km. There was a 30 km ice cap around the peak of

text: Tulu Dimtu

text: (the second highest mountain in Ethiopia) on the

text: Sanetti Plateau

text: and individual glaciers of considerable thickness reached down to 3,200 meters. As a consequence, the landscape as we see it today is the lava outpourings much modified by over 20 million years of erosion by water, wind and ice.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers of considerable thickness

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlin

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Bale Mountains

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Sanetti Plateau

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: extensively

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Mountains

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial periods

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Sanetti Plateau

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Sanetti Plateau

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Tulu Dimtu

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Bale Mountains

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: valley glacier erosion

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: the Bale Mountains were one of the most extensively glaciated areas in present day Ethiopia

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial period

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 2,000 years ago

text: Maine came into existence during the Ordovician as other ancient land masses accreted onto North America. At the time, however, Maine was covered by  a sea and located in the southern hemisphere. Large numbers of invertebrates living at a variety of depths inhabited this sea. Ordovician graptolites left fossils behind at a location 100 miles north of Lake Memphremagog but the quality of these remains is usually so low that specimens worthy of collection are uncommon according to author Marian Murray. Remains left behind by Silurian marine life were preserved in the areas of Maine that border what is now New Brunswick, Canada. The fossils are preserved sedimentary deposits within a stratigraphic interval that alternates between the fossil-bearing beds and beds laid down by volcanic activity that are made of lava and volcanic ash.  In the Devonian, mountain building began elevating regions of Maine. By this time the state included terrestrial habitats. Deposits from these environments reveal a contemporary flora, although these plant fossils are generally fragmentary. By the end of the Devonian, all of Maine was dry land. For the rest of the Paleozoic, local sediments were being eroded rather than deposited, so no fossils are known from this interval. This erosive interval continued throughout the entire Mesozoic era. As such, no dinosaur fossils have ever been discovered in Maine. Erosion continued from the start of the Cenozoic until the Ice Age. During the Ice Age, Maine was most thoroughly covered in glaciers about 20,000 years ago. Their incredible weight pushed down the land relative to sea level. Consequently seawater began to flood the state as the glaciers retreated. As the state returned to its original elevation relative to sea level it dried out and became terrestrial once again. Local ecosystems gradually became more temperate as temperatures warmed.

text: Maine came into existence during the

text: Ordovician

text: as other ancient land masses accreted onto North America. At the time, however, Maine was covered by  a

text: sea

text: and located in the southern hemisphere. Large numbers of invertebrates living at a variety of depths inhabited this sea.

text: Ordovician

text: graptolites

text: left fossils behind at a location 100 miles north of

text: Lake Memphremagog

text: but the quality of these remains is usually so low that specimens worthy of collection are uncommon according to author Marian Murray. Remains left behind by

text: Silurian

text: marine

text: life were preserved in the areas of Maine that border what is now

text: New Brunswick

text: , Canada. The fossils are preserved sedimentary deposits within a stratigraphic interval that alternates between the fossil-bearing beds and beds laid down by

text: volcanic activity

text: that are made of

text: lava

text: and

text: volcanic ash

text: .  In the

text: Devonian

text: mountain building

text: began elevating regions of Maine. By this time the state included terrestrial habitats. Deposits from these environments reveal a contemporary

text: flora

text: , although these plant fossils are generally fragmentary. By the end of the Devonian, all of Maine was dry land. For the rest of the

text: Paleozoic

text: , local sediments were being eroded rather than deposited, so no fossils are known from this interval. This erosive interval continued throughout the entire

text: Mesozoic

text: era. As such, no

text: dinosaur

text: fossils have ever been discovered in Maine. Erosion continued from the start of the

text: Cenozoic

text: until the

text: Ice Age

text: . During the Ice Age, Maine was most thoroughly covered in

text: glaciers

text: about 20,000 years ago. Their incredible weight pushed down the land relative to sea level. Consequently seawater began to flood the state as the glaciers retreated. As the state returned to its original elevation relative to sea level it dried out and became terrestrial once again. Local ecosystems gradually became more

text: temperate

text: as temperatures warmed.

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answers: 4

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answers: 5

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answers: 4

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answers: Maine was most thoroughly covered in glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Maine was most thoroughly covered in glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: During the Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Their incredible weight pushed down the land relative to sea level

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: During the Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: During the Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Their incredible weight pushed down the land relative to sea level

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Their incredible weight

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Lake Memphremagog

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Lake Memphremagog

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: mountain

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Lake Memphremagog

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Rocky Mountains

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Memphremagog

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Maine

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: seawater began to flood the state

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Maine came into existence during the Ordovician

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Lake Memphremagog

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Ice Age

text: Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

text: Sediment

text: is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (

text: longshore drift

text: ). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of

text: deposition

text: . These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a

text: spit

text: Armoured

text: beaches and submerged offshore

text: sandbanks

text: may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

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answers: Sediment is transported along the coast

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: long narrow bank

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Where there is a bend in the coastline

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: shoals

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: where there is a bend in the coastline

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: sandbanks

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: over the years

text: The coastal ice cliffs of Brown Glacier and Stephenson Glacier, which in 1954 were over 50 feet high, had disappeared by 1963 when the glaciers terminated as much as 100 yards inland. Baudissin Glacier on the north coast, and Vahsel Glacier on the west coast have lost at least 100 and 200 vertical feet of ice, respectively. Winston Glacier, which retreated approximately one mile between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. The young moraines flanking Winston Lagoon show that Winston Glacier has lost at least 300 vertical feet of ice within a recent time period. Jacka Glacier on the east coast of Laurens Peninsula has also demonstrated marked recession since 1955.

text: The coastal ice cliffs of

text: Brown Glacier

text: and

text: Stephenson Glacier

text: , which in 1954 were over 50 feet high, had disappeared by 1963 when the glaciers terminated as much as 100 yards inland.

text: Baudissin Glacier

text: on the north coast, and

text: Vahsel Glacier

text: on the west coast have lost at least 100 and 200 vertical feet of ice, respectively.

text: Winston Glacier

text: , which retreated approximately one mile between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. The young moraines flanking

text: Winston Lagoon

text: show that Winston Glacier has lost at least 300 vertical feet of ice within a recent time period.

text: Jacka Glacier

text: on the east coast of

text: Laurens Peninsula

text: has also demonstrated marked recession since 1955.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: as much as 100 yards inland

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Brown Glacier and Stephenson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: as much as 100 yards

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Lagoon

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Lagoon

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ice

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: ice cliffs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Laurens Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: coastal ice cliffs

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Jacka Glacier on the east coast of Laurens Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: ice cliff

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Lagoon

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1963

text: During the Würm, the Rhône Glacier covered the whole western Swiss plateau, reaching today's regions of Solothurn and Aarau. In the region of Bern it merged with the Aar glacier. The Rhine Glacier is currently the subject of the most detailed studies. Glaciers of the Reuss and the Limmat advanced sometimes as far as the Jura. Montane and piedmont glaciers formed the land by grinding away virtually all traces of the older Günz and Mindel glaciation, by depositing base moraines and terminal moraines of different retraction phases and loess deposits, and by the pro-glacial rivers' shifting and redepositing gravels. Beneath the surface, they had profound and lasting influence on geothermal heat and the patterns of deep groundwater flow.

text: During the Würm, the

text: Rhône Glacier

text: covered the whole western Swiss plateau, reaching today's regions of Solothurn and Aarau. In the region of Bern it merged with the Aar glacier. The

text: Rhine Glacier

text: is currently the subject of the most detailed studies. Glaciers of the Reuss and the Limmat advanced sometimes as far as the Jura. Montane and piedmont glaciers formed the land by grinding away virtually all traces of the older Günz and Mindel glaciation, by depositing base moraines and terminal moraines of different retraction phases and

text: loess

text: deposits, and by the pro-glacial rivers' shifting and redepositing gravels. Beneath the surface, they had profound and lasting influence on

text: geothermal

text: heat and the patterns of deep groundwater flow.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Montane and piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Rhône Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: pro-glacial rivers' shifting and redepositing gravels

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: The Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: piedmont

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Rhône Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Montane

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: western Swiss plateau

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: base moraines and terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Rhône Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: plateau

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Jura

text: The recent retreat of a marginal outlet glacier of Hofsjökull in Iceland exposed a drumlin field with more than 50 drumlins ranging from  in length,  in width, and  in height. These formed through a progression of subglacial depositional and erosional processes, with each horizontal till bed within the drumlin created by an individual surge of the glacier.  Erosion under the glacier in the immediate vicinity of the drumlin can be on the order of a meter's depth of sediment per year, with the eroded sediment forming a drumlin as it is repositioned and deposited.

text: The recent retreat of a marginal outlet glacier of

text: Hofsjökull

text: in Iceland exposed a drumlin field with more than 50 drumlins ranging from  in length,  in width, and  in height. These formed through a progression of subglacial depositional and erosional processes, with each horizontal till bed within the drumlin created by an individual surge of the glacier.  Erosion under the glacier in the immediate vicinity of the drumlin can be on the order of a meter's depth of sediment per year, with the eroded sediment forming a drumlin as it is repositioned and deposited.

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text: The glaciation during the Ice Ages also deepened many of the river valleys, which were invaded by the sea when the ice melted, creating the noteworthy fjords of Norway. In the southern part of the peninsula, the glaciers deposited vast numbers of terminal moraines, configuring a very chaotic landscape. These terminal moraines covered all of what is now Denmark.

text: The

text: glaciation

text: during the Ice Ages also deepened many of the river valleys, which were invaded by the sea when the ice melted, creating the noteworthy

text: fjords

text: of Norway. In the southern part of the peninsula, the glaciers deposited vast numbers of

text: terminal moraine

text: s, configuring a very chaotic landscape. These terminal moraines covered all of what is now Denmark.

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answers: during the Ice Ages

text: Glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines.

text: Glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in

text: moraine

text: s.

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answers: glaciers move because of gravity

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answers: ice wedging

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: glaciers

text: There is a variety of drift deposits in Port Talbot. Sandfields area of Port Talbot is built upon blown sand and tidal flat deposits. These were deposited by alluvial processes (wind) and fluvial processes (water). Velindre area of Port Talbot is built upon an alluvial fan deposit. This deposit formed during the last glacial period 14,000 years ago. Baglan Road in Port Talbot is built upon glacial till from the Devensian period. Till, also known as boulder clay, is a mix of unconsolidated sediment with a range of grain sizes (clay-boulder). This forms as the fronts of glaciers rapidly deposit material due to melting. Cwmafan in Port Talbot is built upon alluvial and glaciofluvial deposits, formed from glacial melt water. Baglan Moors, Fairfield and Port Talbot town centre are built upon tidal flat deposits (tides were higher 12,000 years ago allowing sandy deposits to accumulate).

text: There is a variety of drift deposits in Port Talbot. Sandfields area of Port Talbot is built upon blown sand and tidal flat deposits. These were deposited by alluvial processes (wind) and fluvial processes (water). Velindre area of Port Talbot is built upon an alluvial fan deposit. This deposit formed during the last glacial period 14,000 years ago. Baglan Road in Port Talbot is built upon glacial till from the

text: Devensian

text: period. Till, also known as boulder clay, is a mix of unconsolidated sediment with a range of grain sizes (clay-boulder). This forms as the fronts of glaciers rapidly deposit material due to melting. Cwmafan in Port Talbot is built upon alluvial and glaciofluvial deposits, formed from glacial melt water. Baglan Moors, Fairfield and Port Talbot town centre are built upon tidal flat deposits (tides were higher 12,000 years ago allowing sandy deposits to accumulate).

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answers: Till, also known as boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Till, also known as boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Till, also known as boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Velindre

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Till, also known as boulder clay

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers rapidly deposit material due to melting

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Velindre

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Velindre

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Port Talbot

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Baglan Moors

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Sandfields area of Port Talbot

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Moors

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answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 14,000 years ago

text: It is estimated that Connecticut was covered by glaciers at least two times. The last glacier is estimated to have been  thick in the New Haven area.  22,000 years ago, the glacier moved south, eroding mountains and pushing through East Haven to deposit large amounts of glacial till to form Long Island.  14,000 years ago the glacier retreated and shaped the coastline, formed Long Island Sound and created Lake Saltonstall.  It also deposited glacial till, soil, sand, rocks and boulders that the ice carried south from the north.

text: It is estimated that Connecticut was covered by

text: glacier

text: s at least two times. The last glacier is estimated to have been  thick in the New Haven area.  22,000 years ago, the glacier moved south, eroding mountains and pushing through East Haven to deposit large amounts of

text: glacial till

text: to form

text: Long Island

text: .  14,000 years ago the glacier retreated and shaped the coastline, formed

text: Long Island Sound

text: and created

text: Lake Saltonstall

text: .  It also deposited glacial till, soil, sand, rocks and boulders that the ice carried south from the north.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 5

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answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Long Island

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: south

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is estimated that Connecticut was covered by glaciers at least two times

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacier moved south, eroding mountains

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: East Haven

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Lake Saltonstall

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: thick

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Long Island

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Long Island Sound

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Long Island

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: boulders

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Connecticut

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: coastline, formed Long Island Sound

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Connecticut was covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: lake

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 14,000 years ago

text: Several types of landforms have been identified as probably dirt and rock debris covering huge deposits of ice. Concentric crater fill (CCF) contains dozens to hundreds of concentric ridges that are caused by the movements of sometimes hundreds of meter thick accumulations of ice in craters.  Lineated valley fill (LVF)are lines of ridges in valleys. These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys.  Some of these glaciers seem to come from material sitting around mesas and buttes. Lobate debris aprons (LDA) is the name given to these glaciers.  All of these features that are believed to contain large amounts of ice are found in the mid-latitudes in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. These areas are sometimes called Fretted terrain because it is sometimes winkled.  With the superior resolution of cameras on Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and MRO, we have found the surface of LDA’s, LVF, and CCFs’ have a complex tangle of ridges that resemble the surface of the human brain.  Wide ridges are called closed-cell brain terrain, and the less common narrow ridges are called open-cell brain terrain.  It is thought that the wide closed-cell terrain still contains a core of ice, that when it eventually disappears the center of the wide ridge collapses to produce the narrow ridges of the open-cell brain terrain.Today it is widely accepted that glacier-like forms, lobate debris aprons, lineated valley fill, and concentric fill are all related in that they have the same surface texture.  Glacier-like forms in valleys and cirque-like alcoves may coalesce with others to produce lobate debris aprons.  When opposing lobate debris aprons converge, linear valley fill results

text: Several types of landforms have been identified as probably dirt and rock debris covering huge deposits of ice.

text: Concentric crater fill

text: (CCF) contains dozens to hundreds of concentric ridges that are caused by the movements of sometimes hundreds of meter thick accumulations of ice in craters.

text: Lineated valley fill

text: (LVF)are lines of ridges in valleys. These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys.  Some of these glaciers seem to come from material sitting around mesas and buttes.

text: Lobate debris aprons

text: (LDA) is the name given to these glaciers.  All of these features that are believed to contain large amounts of ice are found in the mid-latitudes in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. These areas are sometimes called

text: Fretted terrain

text: because it is sometimes winkled.  With the superior resolution of cameras on Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and MRO, we have found the surface of LDA’s, LVF, and CCFs’ have a complex tangle of ridges that resemble the surface of the human brain.  Wide ridges are called closed-cell

text: brain terrain

text: , and the less common narrow ridges are called open-cell brain terrain.  It is thought that the wide closed-cell terrain still contains a core of ice, that when it eventually disappears the center of the wide ridge collapses to produce the narrow ridges of the open-cell brain terrain.Today it is widely accepted that glacier-like forms, lobate debris aprons, lineated valley fill, and concentric fill are all related in that they have the same surface texture.  Glacier-like forms in valleys and cirque-like alcoves may coalesce with others to produce lobate debris aprons.  When opposing lobate debris aprons converge, linear valley fill results

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

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answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Lineated valley fill (LVF) are lines of ridges in valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It is thought that the wide closed-cell terrain still contains a core of ice

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Lineated valley fill are lines of ridges in valleys

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming.

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Lineated valley fill

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: LVF

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier-like forms

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: concentric ridge

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Lineated valley fill

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Buttes

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: mesas and buttes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Concentric crater fill (CCF) contains dozens to hundreds of concentric ridges that are caused by the movements

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Lineated valley fill

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Mars Global Surveyor

text: A stone run (called also stone river, stone stream or stone sea) is a conspicuous rock landform, result of the erosion of particular rock varieties caused by myriad freezing-thawing cycles taking place in periglacial conditions during the last Ice Age.The actual formation of stone runs involved no less than five processes: weathering, solifluction, frost heaving, frost sorting, and washing.  The stone runs are essentially different from moraines, rock glaciers, and rock flows or other rock phenomena involving the actual flow of rock blocks under stress that is sufficient to break down the cement or to cause crushing of the angularities and points of the boulders.  By contrast, the stone run boulders are fixed quite stably, providing for safer climbing and crossing of the run.

text: A stone run (called also stone river, stone stream or stone sea) is a conspicuous rock landform, result of the

text: erosion

text: of particular rock varieties caused by myriad freezing-thawing cycles taking place in

text: periglacial

text: conditions during the

text: last Ice Age

text: .The actual formation of stone runs involved no less than five processes:

text: weathering

text: solifluction

text: frost heaving

text: , frost sorting, and washing.  The stone runs are essentially different from

text: moraines

text: rock glacier

text: s, and rock flows or other rock phenomena involving the actual flow of rock blocks under stress that is sufficient to break down the cement or to cause crushing of the angularities and points of the boulders.  By contrast, the stone run boulders are fixed quite stably, providing for safer climbing and crossing of the run.

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answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Frost heaving

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: A stone run

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: run

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: A stone run

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: periglacial

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: run boulders are fixed quite stably

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: a conspicuous rock landform

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: river valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last Ice Age

text: Glaciers originate in snowfields. The lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow and névé in summer. In the upper end and above the upper boundary of a glacier, the snow field is an ice field covered with snow. The glacier upper boundary, where it emerges from under a snow field, is ill-defined because of gradual transition.

text: Glaciers

text: originate in snowfields. The lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow and

text: névé

text: in summer. In the upper end and above the upper boundary of a glacier, the snow field is an

text: ice field

text: covered with snow. The glacier upper boundary, where it emerges from under a snow field, is ill-defined because of gradual transition.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Glaciers originate in snowfields

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Snowfields

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: The glacier upper boundary

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: névé

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: snowfield

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: snowfields

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: snowfield

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: névé

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: névé

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: ill-defined because of gradual transition

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: upper boundary

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: ice field

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: névé

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: in summer

text: Sabazios Glacier (, ‘Lednik Sabazios’ \'led-nik sa-'ba-ziy\) is the 19 km long and 6 km wide glacier on the east side of northern Sentinel Range in Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica.  It is situated south of Newcomer Glacier, west of Anchialus Glacier, north of Embree Glacier, and east of Zhenda Glacier and Skaklya Glacier.  The glacier drains the east slopes of Mount Alf and Mount Sharp, and the north slopes of the side ridge that trends 9.15 km from Mount Dalrymple on the main crest of Sentinel Range east-northeast to Robinson Pass, flows northwards and joins Newcomer Glacier northwest of Mount Lanning in Sostra Heights.

text: Sabazios Glacier (, ‘Lednik Sabazios’ \'led-nik sa-'ba-ziy\) is the 19 km long and 6 km wide glacier on the east side of northern

text: Sentinel Range

text: in

text: Ellsworth Mountains

text: Antarctica

text: .  It is situated south of

text: Newcomer Glacier

text: , west of

text: Anchialus Glacier

text: , north of

text: Embree Glacier

text: , and east of

text: Zhenda Glacier

text: and

text: Skaklya Glacier

text: .  The glacier drains the east slopes of

text: Mount Alf

text: and

text: Mount Sharp

text: , and the north slopes of the side ridge that trends 9.15 km from

text: Mount Dalrymple

text: on the main crest of Sentinel Range east-northeast to

text: Robinson Pass

text: , flows northwards and joins

text: Newcomer Glacier

text: northwest of

text: Mount Lanning

text: in

text: Sostra Heights

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Sabazios Glacier

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: long and 6 km wide

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Sabazios Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Sentinel Range

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glacier drains

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: east

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Sabazios Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: The glacier drains

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Sentinel Range

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: side ridge

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Mount Sharp

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Ellsworth Mountains

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Mount Alf and Mount Sharp

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Sabazios Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: The canyon was created by progressive erosion by flowing water from glaciers through the rocks and palagonite over millennia.

text: The canyon was created by progressive

text: erosion

text: by flowing water from glaciers through the rocks and

text: palagonite

text: over millennia.

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text: Starting about 3 million years ago a series of glaciations further modified the area by accelerating the erosion. During that time large glaciers periodically filled the valleys and canyons. Landslides and river erosion have been the primary erosive forces since the end of the last glacial period, which ended in this area around 12,000 years BP.

text: Starting about 3 million years ago a series of

text: glaciation

text: s further modified the area by accelerating the erosion. During that time large

text: glacier

text: s periodically filled the

text: valley

text: s and

text: canyon

text: s.

text: Landslide

text: s and

text: river

text: erosion have been the primary erosive forces since the end of the

text: last glacial period

text: , which ended in this area around 12,000 years BP.

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answers: 12,000 years BP

text: A kame delta (or ice-contact delta, morainic delta) is a glacial landform formed by a stream of melt water flowing through or around a glacier and depositing material, known as kame (stratified sequence of sediments) deposits. Upon entering a proglacial lake at the end (terminus) of a glacier, the river/stream deposit these sediments. This landform can be observed after the glacier has melted and the delta's asymmetrical triangular shape is visible. Once the glacier melts, the edges of the delta may subside as ice under it melts. Glacial till is deposited on the lateral sides of the delta, as the glacier melts.

text: A kame delta (or ice-contact delta, morainic delta) is a

text: glacial

text: landform

text: formed by a

text: stream

text: of melt water flowing through or around a

text: glacier

text: and

text: deposit

text: ing material, known as k

text: ame

text: (stratified sequence of sediments) deposits. Upon entering a

text: proglacial lake

text: at the end (terminus) of a glacier, the river/stream deposit these sediments. This landform can be observed after the glacier has melted and the delta's asymmetrical triangular shape is visible. Once the glacier melts, the edges of the delta may subside as

text: ice

text: under it melts.

text: Glacial till

text: is deposited on the lateral sides of the delta, as the glacier melts.

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answers: glaciers

text: Winsford Common is situated in a hollow in the surrounding countryside (which itself is within a valley), somewhat akin in shape to that of a punch bowl, and thus has gained the name of The Punchbowl. Given the shape and orientation of this deep hollow on the northeastern edge of the extensive plateau of Winsford Hill and the nature of some of the deposits within it, it has been suggested that it was the site of what may have been the only glacier on Exmoor and indeed in southwest England during the Pleistocene ice ages. It was a meeting point for the Tiverton hounds and Dulverton harriers.

text: Winsford

text: Common

text: is situated in a hollow in the surrounding countryside (which itself is within a

text: valley

text: ), somewhat akin in shape to that of a

text: punch bowl

text: , and thus has gained the name of The Punchbowl. Given the shape and orientation of this deep hollow on the northeastern edge of the extensive plateau of Winsford Hill and the nature of some of the deposits within it, it has been suggested that it was the site of what may have been the only

text: glacier

text: on Exmoor and indeed in southwest England during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: s. It was a meeting point for the Tiverton hounds and Dulverton harriers.

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answers: Pleistocene

text: Kootenay Lake was formed through river erosion and, later, glaciation.   The erosion began during the late Cretaceous until ice filled the resulting valley in the Pleistocene.  When the valley was filled with ice, glaciers from the mountains (the Selkirks and Purcells) fed the valley's ice mass. The glacier that occupied what is now the west arm of Kootenay Lake flowed into the Kootenay ice mass.  As the ice melted from this glacier, drainage flowed over an area near what is now Nelson, causing the west arm of the lake to drain toward the west.  A large moraine formed near what is now the large bend in the Kootenay River near Libby, Montana. As ice melted, a lake formed behind the moraine and drained southward over top of it. The southerly drainage over the moraine eventually stopped and the Kootenay River began to follow its present course.

text: Kootenay Lake was formed through river

text: erosion

text: and, later,

text: glaciation

text: .   The erosion began during the late

text: Cretaceous

text: until ice filled the resulting valley in the

text: Pleistocene

text: .  When the valley was filled with ice,

text: glaciers

text: from the mountains (the Selkirks and Purcells) fed the valley's ice mass. The glacier that occupied what is now the west arm of Kootenay Lake flowed into the Kootenay ice mass.  As the ice melted from this glacier, drainage flowed over an area near what is now Nelson, causing the west arm of the lake to drain toward the west.  A large

text: moraine

text: formed near what is now the large bend in the Kootenay River near

text: Libby, Montana

text: . As ice melted, a lake formed behind the moraine and drained southward over top of it. The southerly drainage over the moraine eventually stopped and the Kootenay River began to follow its present course.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers from the mountains

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers from the mountains

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: west

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: As the ice melted from this glacier, drainage flowed over an area near what is now Nelson

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Kootenay Lake

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: Selkirks

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answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Pleistocene

text: Most recently, Mount Desert Island was host to the Laurentide Ice Sheet as it extended and receded during the Pleistocene epoch. The glacier left a number of visible marks upon the landscape, such as Bubble Rock, a glacial erratic carried  by the ice sheet from a Lucerne granite outcrop and deposited precariously on the side of South Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park. Other such examples are the moraines deposited at the southern ends of many of the glacier-carved valleys on the Island such as the Jordan Pond valley, indicating the extent of the glacier; and the beach sediments located in a regressional sequence beneath and around Jordan Pond, indicating the rebound of the continent after the glacier's recession approximately 25,000 years ago.

text: Most recently, Mount Desert Island was host to the

text: Laurentide Ice Sheet

text: as it extended and receded during the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch. The glacier left a number of visible marks upon the landscape, such as Bubble Rock, a

text: glacial erratic

text: carried  by the ice sheet from a Lucerne granite outcrop and deposited precariously on the side of South Bubble Mountain in

text: Acadia National Park

text: . Other such examples are the

text: moraine

text: s deposited at the southern ends of many of the glacier-carved valleys on the Island such as the Jordan Pond valley, indicating the extent of the glacier; and the beach sediments located in a regressional sequence beneath and around Jordan Pond, indicating the rebound of the continent after the glacier's recession approximately 25,000 years ago.

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answers: 25,000 years ago

text: The glacier is one of four on Mount Rainier that are known to have released debris flows. Similar flows have stemmed from the Nisqually, Winthrop, and South Tahoma glaciers as well. The glacier released a particularly large mudflow on October 2–3, 1947, when heavy rains melted and eroded the lower part of the glacier. The meltwater transformed into a 14 billion ft (40 million m) mudflow replete with large boulders up to 13 feet (4 m) in diameter. The flow buried Highway 706 in 28 feet (9 m) of sediment and watery debris. Deposits from the 1947 mudflow can still be seen today. Smaller flows occurred in the years 1961, 1985 and 1986.

text: The glacier is one of four on Mount Rainier that are known to have released debris flows. Similar flows have stemmed from the

text: Nisqually

text: Winthrop

text: , and

text: South Tahoma

text: glaciers as well. The glacier released a particularly large mudflow on October 2–3, 1947, when heavy rains melted and eroded the lower part of the glacier. The meltwater transformed into a 14 billion ft (40 million m) mudflow replete with large boulders up to 13 feet (4 m) in diameter. The flow buried Highway 706 in 28 feet (9 m) of sediment and watery debris. Deposits from the 1947 mudflow can still be seen today. Smaller flows occurred in the years 1961, 1985 and 1986.

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answers: 14 billion ft

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answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

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answers: The glacier is one of four on Mount Rainier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the lower part

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Heavy rains melted and eroded the lower part of the glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: heavy rains melted

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: 1961

text: The Aare springs from glaciers in Guttannen. There are four lakes in the municipality: Lake Oberaar, Lake Grimsel, Lake Räterichsboden and Lake Gelmer. In the western part of the municipality are the mountains Schreckhorn, Lauteraarhorn, Finsteraarhorn, Agassizhorn and Sidelhorn. Guttannen also includes Finsteraar Glacier, Lauteraar Glacier, Unteraar Glacier, Grueben Glacier, and Bächli Glacier.

text: The

text: Aare

text: springs from glaciers in Guttannen. There are four lakes in the municipality:

text: Lake Oberaar

text: Lake Grimsel

text: Lake Räterichsboden

text: and

text: Lake Gelmer

text: . In the western part of the

text: municipality

text: are the mountains

text: Schreckhorn

text: Lauteraarhorn

text: Finsteraarhorn

text: Agassizhorn

text: and

text: Sidelhorn

text: . Guttannen also includes

text: Finsteraar Glacier

text: Lauteraar Glacier

text: Unteraar Glacier

text: Grueben Glacier

text: , and

text: Bächli Glacier

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text: The lava domes interacted with glaciers, resulting in the formation of a glacier run whose deposits are found as far as  from the volcano. Blocks with sizes of up to  were transported by this flow. An alternative theory posits that the Piedras Grandes unit formed when an ice cap on Lascar interacted with a block-and-ash flow erupted by Aguas Calientes.

text: The

text: lava dome

text: s interacted with

text: glaciers

text: , resulting in the formation of a

text: glacier run

text: whose deposits are found as far as  from the volcano. Blocks with sizes of up to  were transported by this flow. An alternative theory posits that the Piedras Grandes unit formed when an ice cap on Lascar interacted with a block-and-ash flow erupted by

text: Aguas Calientes

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text: Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called eskers.  Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier.  They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km.

text: Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called

text: eskers

text: .  Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier.  They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sand and gravel

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Sinuous

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice tunnels

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Eskers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Sinuous

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: eskers

text: If we begin at the stable retracted position at the end of a tidewater glacier cycle the glacier will have a moderate calving rate and a high AAR, above 70.  The glacier will build a terminus shoal of sediment further reducing the calving rate.  This will improve the glacier mass balance and the glacier can begin to advance due to this change or an increase in ice flux to the terminus due to increasing snowfall or reduced snow melt.  As the advance proceeds the terminus shoal will be pushed in front of the glacier and continue to build, keeping the calving rate low.  In the case of the most glaciers such as the Taku Glacier the glacier will eventually build a terminus shoal that is above water and calving will essentially cease. This will eliminate this loss of ice from the glacier and the glacier can continue to advance. Taku Glacier and Hubbard Glacier have been in this phase of the cycle. Taku Glacier which has been advancing for 120 years no longer calves. Hubbard Glacier still has a calving front. The glacier will then expand until the AAR is between 60 and 70 and equilibrium of the non-calving glacier is achieved.  The glacier is not very sensitive to climate during the advance as its AAR is quite high, when the terminus shoal is limiting calving.

text: If we begin at the stable retracted position at the end of a tidewater glacier cycle the glacier will have a moderate calving rate and a high AAR, above 70.  The glacier will build a terminus

text: shoal

text: of

text: sediment

text: further reducing the calving rate.  This will improve the

text: glacier mass balance

text: and the glacier can begin to advance due to this change or an increase in ice flux to the terminus due to increasing snowfall or reduced snow melt.  As the advance proceeds the terminus shoal will be pushed in front of the glacier and continue to build, keeping the calving rate low.  In the case of the most glaciers such as the

text: Taku Glacier

text: the glacier will eventually build a terminus shoal that is above water and calving will essentially cease. This will eliminate this loss of ice from the glacier and the glacier can continue to advance. Taku Glacier and

text: Hubbard Glacier

text: have been in this phase of the cycle. Taku Glacier which has been advancing for 120 years no longer calves. Hubbard Glacier still has a calving front. The glacier will then expand until the AAR is between 60 and 70 and equilibrium of the non-calving glacier is achieved.  The glacier is not very sensitive to climate during the advance as its AAR is quite high, when the terminus shoal is limiting calving.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The glacier will build a terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: advance

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: This will eliminate this loss of ice from the glacier and the glacier can continue to advance

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers cause erosion by ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The glacier will build a terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: tidewater glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: calving front

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: shoal of sediment

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Taku Glacier which has been advancing for 120 years no longer calves

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: terminus shoal

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: a tidewater glacier cycle

text: The glacial history of Minnesota is most defined since the onset of the last glacial period, which ended some 10,000 years ago. Within the last million years, most of the Midwestern United States and much of Canada were covered at one time or another with an ice sheet. This continental glacier had a profound effect on the surface features of the area over which it moved. Vast quantities of rock and soil were scraped from the glacial centers to its margins by slowly moving ice and redeposited as drift or till. Much of this drift was dumped into old preglacial river valleys, while some of it was heaped into belts of hills (terminal moraines) at the margin of the glacier. The chief result of glaciation has been the modification of the preglacial topography by the deposition of drift over the countryside. However, continental glaciers possess great power of erosion and may actually modify the preglacial land surface by scouring and abrading rather than by the deposition of the drift.

text: The glacial history of

text: Minnesota

text: is most defined since the onset of the

text: last glacial period

text: , which ended some 10,000 years ago. Within the last million years, most of the

text: Midwestern United States

text: and much of

text: Canada

text: were covered at one time or another with an

text: ice sheet

text: . This continental

text: glacier

text: had a profound effect on the surface features of the area over which it moved. Vast quantities of rock and soil were scraped from the glacial centers to its margins by slowly moving ice and redeposited as

text: drift

text: or

text: till

text: . Much of this drift was dumped into old preglacial river valleys, while some of it was heaped into belts of hills (

text: terminal moraine

text: s) at the margin of the glacier. The chief result of glaciation has been the modification of the preglacial

text: topography

text: by the deposition of drift over the countryside. However, continental glaciers possess great power of erosion and may actually modify the preglacial land surface by scouring and abrading rather than by the deposition of the drift.

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: The chief result of glaciation

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers possess great power of erosion

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: belts of hills

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: rock and soil

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers possess great power of erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: scouring and abrading

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: continental glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Minnesota

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: belts of hills

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The chief result of glaciation has been the modification of the preglacial topography

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 10,000 years ago

text: Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice.  Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while nunataks, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years. This explains, for example, the deep profile of fjords, which can reach a kilometer in depth as ice is topographically steered into them.  Being the principal conduits for draining ice sheets, fjords' extension inland increases the rate of ice sheet thinning. It also makes the ice sheets more sensitive to changes in climate and the ocean.

text: Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice.  Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while

text: nunatak

text: s, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years. This explains, for example, the deep profile of

text: fjord

text: s, which can reach a kilometer in depth as ice is topographically steered into them.  Being the principal conduits for draining ice sheets, fjords' extension inland increases the rate of ice sheet thinning. It also makes the ice sheets more sensitive to changes in climate and the ocean.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: NDQ_000199

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: fjords

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Pre-existing topography

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: ice can flow faster where it is thicker

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice is topographically steered into them

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: pre-glacial low hollows

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: low hollows

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice sheets

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: hollows

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: pre-glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: nunataks

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: nunataks

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: pre-glacial low hollows

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: thickness of overlying ice

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: pre-glacial

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: pre-glacial

text: About 50,000 to 60,000 years ago the valley was overrun by the glacier of the Garonne as evidenced by impressive glacial deposits. This created a narrowing at mid-valley, resulting in the lock of Troubat.

text: About 50,000 to 60,000 years ago the valley was overrun by the glacier of the

text: Garonne

text: as evidenced by impressive glacial deposits. This created a narrowing at mid-valley, resulting in the lock of

text: Troubat

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answers: glacial deposits

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glacier of the Garonne

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glacier of the Garonne

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Garonne

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: narrowing

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier of the Garonne

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: overrun

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: narrowing

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the Garonne

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: narrowing at mid-valley

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacier of the Garonne

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: narrowing

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: narrowing

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 50,000 to 60,000 years ago

text: Nesje writes "...glaciers are necessary for fjord formation. The strongest indication for glacial erosion is the overdeepening of fjord floors well below present and past sea level and their outer rock threshold. Measured in volume eroded within a limited time span, an ice stream forming its own clearly defined drainage channel (fjord) is apparently one of the most significant erosive agents in operation on Earth."

text: Nesje writes "...glaciers are necessary for fjord formation. The strongest indication for glacial erosion is the overdeepening of fjord floors well below present and past sea level and their outer rock threshold. Measured in volume eroded within a limited time span, an ice stream forming its own clearly defined drainage channel (fjord) is apparently one of the most significant erosive agents in operation on Earth."

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answers: glaciers

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answers: ice streams

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answers: fjord

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answers: The strongest indication for glacial erosion

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answers: drainage channel

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: ice wedging

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: drainage channel

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answers: clearly defined drainage channel

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answers: Earth

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answers: fjord

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answers: drainage channel

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answers: drainage channel

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answers: glacial erosion

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answers: present and past

text: The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:

text: The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:

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answers: Glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques and horns

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers pick up sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlins are narrow.

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Gravity

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answers: Ice wedging

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answers: Antarctica

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answers: Six factors control erosion rate

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answers: V-shaped

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answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciers dipped as far south

text: When a large mass of ice melts, the newly exposed landscape is free of vegetation and is generally unstable.  Often, the retreating glacier is providing the area with high stream discharge, further increasing erosion.  The combination of a lack of vegetation, high discharge, and a changing climate (the cause of deglaciation) forces ecological communities, sediment deposition patterns and surface morphology to adjust to the new conditions over time.

text: When a large mass of ice melts, the newly exposed landscape is free of vegetation and is generally unstable.  Often, the retreating glacier is providing the area with high stream discharge, further increasing erosion.  The combination of a lack of vegetation, high discharge, and a changing climate (the cause of deglaciation) forces

text: ecological communities

text: , sediment

text: deposition

text: patterns and surface morphology to adjust to the new conditions over time.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: high stream discharge

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: retreating glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move because of gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: high stream discharge

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: mass

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: deposition patterns

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Deglaciation

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: surface morphology

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: landscape is free of vegetation and is generally unstable

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: deglaciation

text: Moving ice carries rock material, then drops it as the ice disappears. This typically happens at the snout or edges of the glacier. On Earth, such features would be called moraines, but on Mars they are typically known as moraine-like ridges, concentric ridges, or arcuate ridges. Because ice tends to sublime rather than melt on Mars, and because Mars's low temperatures tend to make glaciers "cold based" (frozen down to their beds, and unable to slide), the remains of these glaciers and the ridges they leave do not appear the exactly same as normal glaciers on Earth. In particular, Martian moraines tend to be deposited without being deflected by the underlying topography, which is thought to reflect the fact that the ice in Martian glaciers is normally frozen down and cannot slide. Ridges of debris on the surface of the glaciers indicate the direction of ice movement. The surface of some glaciers have rough textures due to sublimation of buried ice. The ice evaporates without melting and leaves behind an empty space. Overlying material then collapses into the void. Sometimes chunks of ice fall from the glacier and get buried in the land surface. When they melt, a more or less round hole remains. Many of these "kettle holes" have been identified on Mars.

text: Moving ice carries rock material, then drops it as the ice disappears. This typically happens at the snout or edges of the glacier. On Earth, such features would be called

text: moraine

text: s, but on Mars they are typically known as moraine-like ridges, concentric ridges, or arcuate ridges. Because ice tends to sublime rather than melt on Mars, and because Mars's low temperatures tend to make glaciers "cold based" (frozen down to their beds, and unable to slide), the remains of these glaciers and the ridges they leave do not appear the exactly same as normal glaciers on Earth. In particular, Martian moraines tend to be deposited without being deflected by the underlying topography, which is thought to reflect the fact that the ice in Martian glaciers is normally frozen down and cannot slide. Ridges of debris on the surface of the glaciers indicate the direction of ice movement. The surface of some glaciers have rough textures due to

text: sublimation

text: of buried ice. The ice evaporates without melting and leaves behind an empty space. Overlying material then collapses into the void. Sometimes chunks of ice fall from the glacier and get buried in the land surface. When they melt, a more or less round hole remains. Many of these "

text: kettle hole

text: s" have been identified on Mars.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Martian moraines

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Because ice tends to sublime rather than melt on Mars

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Rock material

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: snout

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Because ice tends to sublime rather than melt

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Moving ice carries rock material

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: normal glaciers on Earth

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: kettle holes

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: moraines

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answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Martian moraines

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answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Mars

text: Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre and the terminus of glaciers.

text: Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The

text: Inn

text: valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the

text: ice ages

text: with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and

text: talus slopes

text: are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys.

text: Moraine

text: s, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre and the terminus of glaciers.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Eroded rocks

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: troughs

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: reliefs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Inn valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: a typical terraced structure

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep walls

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the most recent ice age

text: Adams Glacier () is a small glacier immediately south of Miers Glacier in Victoria Land. The heads of Adams and Miers glaciers, both located in the Miers Valley, are separated by a low ridge, and the east end of this ridge is almost completely surrounded by the snouts of the two glaciers, which nearly meet in the bottom of the valley, about  above Lake Miers, into which they drain. It was named by the New Zealand Northern Survey Party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1956–58) after Lieutenant (later Sir) Jameson Adams, second in command of the shore party of the British Antarctic Expedition (1907–09), who was one of the men to accompany Ernest Shackleton to within  of the South Pole.

text: Adams Glacier () is a small

text: glacier

text: immediately south of

text: Miers Glacier

text: in

text: Victoria Land

text: . The heads of Adams and Miers glaciers, both located in the

text: Miers Valley

text: , are separated by a low ridge, and the east end of this ridge is almost completely surrounded by the snouts of the two glaciers, which nearly meet in the bottom of the

text: valley

text: , about  above

text: Lake Miers

text: , into which they drain. It was named by the

text: New Zealand Northern Survey Party

text: of the

text: Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: (1956–58) after Lieutenant (later Sir)

text: Jameson Adams

text: , second in command of the shore party of the

text: British Antarctic Expedition

text: (1907–09), who was one of the men to accompany

text: Ernest Shackleton

text: to within  of the

text: South Pole

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Miers Valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: low ridge

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Lake Miers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: east

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

answers: low ridge

answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: British Antarctic Expedition

text: During its history a number of lakes appeared and then disappeared on the Altiplano. Lake Minchin was one of the first of these ancient lakes to be described. These lakes were identified by the lake terraces, sediments and bioherms. Earlier lakes such as Lake Escara are documented from drill holes in the Salar de Uyuni. Later lakes include Lake Tauca and Lake Coipasa. As early as 1861 there are reports that lake deposits exist on the Altiplano. John B. Minchin in 1882 reported the existence of encrustations around Lake Poopo and the salars south of Coipasa. He postulated a lake with a surface area of  left these encrustations and that the nitrate deposits in the Atacama and Tarapaca were likewise formed by water draining for this lake. Some estimates of the size of this lake claimed that it reached from Lake Titicaca as far as 27° south. The name "Lake Minchin" was applied in 1906 by Steinmann, who applied it to the Uyuni basin, while naming the lake covering the Poopo and Coipasa basins "Lake Reck". The name was applied in honour of John B. Minchin. Later it was found that Lake Titicaca was not part of Lake Minchin and the theory was put forward that meltwater from glaciers had formed the lake. A different lake Lake Ballivian was also defined which encompassed Lake Titicaca. The relationship between various deposits in the southern Altiplano and these around Lake Titicaca was unclear at the beginning of the research history.

text: During its history a number of lakes appeared and then disappeared on the Altiplano. Lake Minchin was one of the first of these ancient lakes to be described. These lakes were identified by the lake terraces, sediments and

text: bioherm

text: s. Earlier lakes such as

text: Lake Escara

text: are documented from drill holes in the

text: Salar de Uyuni

text: . Later lakes include

text: Lake Tauca

text: and Lake Coipasa. As early as 1861 there are reports that lake deposits exist on the Altiplano. John B. Minchin in 1882 reported the existence of encrustations around Lake Poopo and the salars south of Coipasa. He postulated a lake with a surface area of  left these encrustations and that the

text: nitrate

text: deposits in the Atacama and Tarapaca were likewise formed by water draining for this lake. Some estimates of the size of this lake claimed that it reached from Lake Titicaca as far as 27° south. The name "Lake Minchin" was applied in 1906 by Steinmann, who applied it to the Uyuni basin, while naming the lake covering the Poopo and Coipasa basins "Lake Reck". The name was applied in honour of John B. Minchin. Later it was found that Lake Titicaca was not part of Lake Minchin and the theory was put forward that meltwater from glaciers had formed the lake. A different lake

text: Lake Ballivian

text: was also defined which encompassed Lake Titicaca. The relationship between various deposits in the southern Altiplano and these around Lake Titicaca was unclear at the beginning of the research history.

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answers: 27° south

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answers: encrustation

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answers: Lake Titicaca

text: Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a moraine. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.

text: Glacier

text: s, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of

text: ice

text: down a valley causes

text: abrasion

text: and

text: plucking

text: of the underlying

text: rock

text: . Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed

text: glacial flour

text: . The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a

text: moraine

text: . Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.

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text: The polar ice caps of Mars show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past.

text: The polar

text: ice cap

text: s of

text: Mars

text: show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past.

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answers: about 40 percent of Earths surface

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text: Formed by glacial meltwater, the Carbon River contains a heavy load of sediment such as silt and gravel. After emerging from the Carbon Glacier the Carbon River flows through a broad glacier-carved valley where thick sediment deposits in the stream bed create sand and gravel bars causing the river to become complexly braided, meandering, and flood-prone. The river frequently shifts channels and creates new ones in its valley. Between Fairfax and Carbonado the Carbon River flows through a narrow gorge (right) before emerging into another broad flood-prone valley near Crocker and Orting.

text: Formed by glacial meltwater, the Carbon River contains a heavy load of

text: sediment

text: such as silt and gravel. After emerging from the Carbon Glacier the Carbon River flows through a broad glacier-carved valley where thick sediment deposits in the

text: stream bed

text: create sand and gravel bars causing the river to become complexly

text: braided

text: meander

text: ing, and flood-prone. The river frequently shifts channels and creates new ones in its valley. Between Fairfax and

text: Carbonado

text: the Carbon River flows through a narrow gorge (right) before emerging into another broad flood-prone valley near Crocker and Orting.

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text: The Lübbecke Loessland is a Börde landscape that falls gently from south to north and is undulating in places. Whilst the southern boundary of the region is clearly defined by the edge of the forests on the Wiehen Hills, its transition to the Rahden-Diepenau Geest is rather more gradual. Only in the east is there a sharp dividing line to the Großes Torfmoor and the Bastau meadows. Its main characteristic is the rich loess soil that gives the region its name, and which was blown out of the sandur on the edge of the glacier during the last ice age and deposited on the northern slopes of the Wiehen.

text: The Lübbecke Loessland is a

text: Börde

text: landscape that falls gently from south to north and is undulating in places. Whilst the southern boundary of the region is clearly defined by the edge of the forests on the Wiehen Hills, its transition to the Rahden-Diepenau Geest is rather more gradual. Only in the east is there a sharp dividing line to the

text: Großes Torfmoor

text: and the Bastau meadows. Its main characteristic is the rich

text: loess

text: soil that gives the region its name, and which was blown out of the

text: sandur

text: on the edge of the glacier during the last

text: ice age

text: and deposited on the northern slopes of the Wiehen.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Hills

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Loess soil

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: blown out

answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: The Lübbecke Loessland

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: undulating in places

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answers: the last ice age

text: Erosion continued into the Mesozoic, so the state has almost no rock record from this entire era of geologic time. The few rocks present were igneous and likely formed as a result of the rifting that divided Pangaea. No dinosaur fossils have ever been discovered in New Hampshire. No other fossils are known from this scant rock record either. Local erosion continued into the Cenozoic era. There is no local rock record for the entirety of the Tertiary. During the more recent Quaternary, New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers. The local plant life resembled that of modern arctic Canada. This is supported by fossil plants and pollen preserved in sediments deposited when the glaciers melted.

text: Erosion continued into the

text: Mesozoic

text: , so the state has almost no rock record from this entire era of geologic time. The few rocks present were igneous and likely formed as a result of the

text: rift

text: ing that divided

text: Pangaea

text: . No

text: dinosaur

text: fossils have ever been discovered in New Hampshire. No other fossils are known from this scant rock record either. Local erosion continued into the

text: Cenozoic

text: era. There is no local rock record for the entirety of the

text: Tertiary

text: . During the more recent

text: Quaternary

text: , New Hampshire was largely covered by

text: glacier

text: s. The local plant life resembled that of modern

text: arctic

text: Canada. This is supported by fossil plants and pollen preserved in sediments deposited when the glaciers melted.

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answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The local plant life resembled that of modern arctic Canada

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposited when the glaciers melted

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Quaternary, New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: arctic

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: rifting

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: New Hampshire

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: New Hampshire was largely covered by glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Quaternary

text: Historically, the formation of rocks in the region is due to its immersion, towards the end of the Ordovician geological era, which led to the establishment of marine sediments. Then raised by tectonic forces, the entire region has been subjected to a long erosion since the end of the Ordovician to the late Tertiary. Subsequently, after being covered with a thick layer of ice during the Quaternary, the lowlands of the St. Lawrence was overwhelmed by the Champlain Sea in the wake of the collapse of the foundation underlying therefore the weight of glaciers. After dropping clays and sands, the sea had to decline, following the recovery of the base, and left the area in its current state.

text: Historically, the formation of rocks in the region is due to its immersion, towards the end of the Ordovician geological era, which led to the establishment of marine sediments. Then raised by tectonic forces, the entire region has been subjected to a long erosion since the end of the Ordovician to the late Tertiary. Subsequently, after being covered with a thick layer of ice during the Quaternary, the lowlands of the St. Lawrence was overwhelmed by the

text: Champlain Sea

text: in the wake of the collapse of the foundation underlying therefore the weight of glaciers. After dropping clays and sands, the sea had to decline, following the recovery of the base, and left the area in its current state.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: marine sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: weight of glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: weight of glaciers

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The lowlands of the St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Champlain Sea

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: thick layer

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: lowlands of the St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: thick layer of ice

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Champlain Sea

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: the Champlain Sea

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Then raised by tectonic forces

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: the St. Lawrence

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Champlain Sea

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: the Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Quaternary

text: Hayes Volcano is an ice-shrouded, glacially scoured eruptive center of Quaternary age composed of pyroclastic deposits, volcanic breccia, and lava domes. Although the edifice of the volcano is largely covered by glacier ice, parts of small lava domes, dome debris, and pyroclastic deposits project through the ice at altitudes of 2,400 to 2,800 meters above sea level. The volcano is nestled within the Tordrillo Mountains, a rugged, glacier-clad mountain range, between the Alaska Range and Cook Inlet, that is composed primarily of older plutonic igneous rocks. Most of the area is in high relief (greater than 1,500 meters) and supports an extensive complex of glacier ice that covers most of the mountainous terrain. The volume of perennial snow and glacier ice on Hayes Volcano is not known but is comparable to the ice volume present on Mount Spurr volcano (to the south), which supports about 67 km³ of ice and perennial snow.

text: Hayes Volcano is an ice-shrouded, glacially scoured eruptive center of

text: Quaternary

text: age composed of pyroclastic deposits, volcanic

text: breccia

text: , and

text: lava dome

text: s. Although the edifice of the volcano is largely covered by glacier ice, parts of small lava domes, dome debris, and pyroclastic deposits project through the ice at altitudes of 2,400 to 2,800 meters above sea level. The volcano is nestled within the Tordrillo Mountains, a rugged, glacier-clad mountain range, between the

text: Alaska Range

text: and Cook Inlet, that is composed primarily of older

text: plutonic

text: igneous rock

text: s. Most of the area is in high relief (greater than 1,500 meters) and supports an extensive complex of glacier ice that covers most of the mountainous terrain. The volume of perennial snow and glacier ice on Hayes Volcano is not known but is comparable to the ice volume present on

text: Mount Spurr

text: volcano (to the south), which supports about 67 km³ of ice and perennial snow.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: extensive complex

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Most of the area is in high relief

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Hayes Volcano

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Tordrillo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier-clad

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: extensive complex

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Tordrillo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacially scoured

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Tordrillo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: high relief

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Hayes Volcano

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: valley glacier erosion

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Hayes Volcano

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Quaternary

text: Maligne Lake is the largest lake in Jasper National Park. The valley in which the lake lies was carved and excavated by valley glaciers, and the lake has been dammed at its northern end by an end moraine deposited by the last glacier, which flowed down the valley towards the Athabasca River. The glacial deposits and landforms forming the end moraine are excellent examples of glacial deposition.

text: Maligne Lake is the largest lake in Jasper National Park. The valley in which the lake lies was carved and excavated by valley glaciers, and the lake has been dammed at its northern end by an end moraine deposited by the last glacier, which flowed down the valley towards the Athabasca River. The glacial deposits and landforms forming the end moraine are excellent examples of glacial deposition.

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: moraine

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answers: northern end

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answers: glaciers

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: valley

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: end moraine

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answers: Jasper National Park

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answers: landforms

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answers: Maligne Lake is the largest lake in Jasper National Park

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answers: end moraine

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answers: valley

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answers: last glacier

text: There are three types of glacially-deposited rock at Glacier Point:

text: There are three types of glacially-deposited rock at Glacier Point:

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answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacially-deposited rock

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlin

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Glacier Point

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

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answers: Glacier Point

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answers: Glacier Point

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answers: Glacier Point

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answers: Glacier Point

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answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacially-deposited

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciers dipped as far south

text: Rapid subglacial erosion produced overdeepenings, which have the glacier bed rising in the direction of the ice flow, may form in cirques near glacier heads. The concave amphitheatre shape is open on the downhill side corresponding to the flatter area of the stage, while the cupped seating section is generally steep cliff-like slopes down which ice and glaciated debris combine and converge from the three or more higher sides. The floor of the cirque ends up bowl shaped as it is the complex convergence zone of combining ice flows from multiple directions and their accompanying rock burdens, hence experiences somewhat greater erosion forces, and is most often scooped out somewhat below the level of cirque's low-side outlet (stage) and its down slope (backstage) valley. A tarn will form in the overdeepened region once the glacier has melted.

text: Rapid subglacial erosion produced overdeepenings, which have the glacier bed rising in the direction of the ice flow, may form in

text: cirque

text: s near glacier heads. The concave amphitheatre shape is open on the downhill side corresponding to the flatter area of the stage, while the cupped seating section is generally steep cliff-like slopes down which ice and glaciated debris combine and converge from the three or more higher sides. The floor of the cirque ends up bowl shaped as it is the complex convergence zone of combining ice flows from multiple directions and their accompanying rock burdens, hence experiences somewhat greater erosion forces, and is most often scooped out somewhat below the level of cirque's low-side outlet (stage) and its down slope (backstage) valley. A

text: tarn

text: will form in the overdeepened region once the glacier has melted.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The concave amphitheatre shape

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: subglacial

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: direction of the ice flow

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is the complex convergence zone

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Rapid subglacial

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: tarn

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answers: subglacial

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answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: bowl shaped

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answers: tarn

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glacier has melted

text: Huron Glacier is a  long and  wide glacial flow on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica, situated east of Perunika Glacier, southeast of Kaliakra Glacier, south of Struma Glacier, west-northwest of Iskar Glacier and northeast of Huntress Glacier. It is bounded by Bowles Ridge to the north, Wörner Gap to the west and the Tangra Mountains to the south, receiving ice influx from several tributary glaciers draining the mountain's northern slopes between Mount Friesland and Helmet Peak, and running east-northeastwards to empty into Moon Bay south of Elemag Point and north of Yana Point. Camp Academia is situated on upper Huron Glacier, in the northwestern foothills of Zograf Peak.

text: Huron Glacier is a  long and  wide

text: glacial

text: flow on

text: Livingston Island

text: in the

text: South Shetland Islands

text: of

text: Antarctica

text: , situated east of

text: Perunika Glacier

text: , southeast of

text: Kaliakra Glacier

text: , south of

text: Struma Glacier

text: , west-northwest of

text: Iskar Glacier

text: and northeast of

text: Huntress Glacier

text: . It is bounded by

text: Bowles Ridge

text: to the north,

text: Wörner Gap

text: to the west and the

text: Tangra Mountains

text: to the south, receiving ice influx from several tributary glaciers draining the mountain's northern slopes between

text: Mount Friesland

text: and

text: Helmet Peak

text: , and running east-northeastwards to empty into

text: Moon Bay

text: south of

text: Elemag Point

text: and north of

text: Yana Point

text: Camp Academia

text: is situated on upper Huron Glacier, in the northwestern foothills of

text: Zograf Peak

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: long and wide

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: tributary glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacial flow

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answers: glacial flow

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answers: east

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Moon Bay

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answers: Moon Bay

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answers: Livingston Island

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answers: Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica

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answers: glacial flow

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacial flow

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answers: glacial flow

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: Glaciers leave behind moraines that contain a wealth of material—including organic matter, quartz, and potassium that may be dated—recording the periods in which a glacier advanced and retreated. Similarly, by tephrochronological techniques, the lack of glacier cover can be identified by the presence of soil or volcanic tephra horizons whose date of deposit may also be ascertained.

text: Glaciers leave behind

text: moraine

text: s that contain a wealth of material—including organic matter, quartz, and potassium that may be dated—recording the periods in which a glacier advanced and retreated. Similarly, by

text: tephrochronological

text: techniques, the lack of glacier cover can be identified by the presence of soil or volcanic

text: tephra

text: horizons whose date of deposit may also be ascertained.

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answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

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answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

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answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

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answers: glacier cover

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answers: Antarctica

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answers: glaciers leave behind moraines

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answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciers advanced and retreated

text: A cirque glacier is formed in a cirque, a bowl-shaped depression on the side of or near mountains. Snow and ice accumulation in corries often occurs as the result of avalanching from higher surrounding slopes.If a cirque glacier advances far enough, it may become a valley glacier. Additionally, a valley glacier retreats enough that it is within the cirque, it is a cirque glacier again.

text: A cirque glacier is formed in a

text: cirque

text: , a bowl-shaped depression on the side of or near mountains. Snow and ice accumulation in corries often occurs as the result of

text: avalanching

text: from higher surrounding slopes.If a cirque glacier advances far enough, it may become a valley glacier. Additionally, a valley glacier retreats enough that it is within the cirque, it is a cirque glacier again.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: advances

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: avalanching

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: avalanching

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: corries

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: bowl-shaped depression

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: bowl-shaped depression on the side of or near mountains

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: avalanche

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: depression

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: cirque glacier

text: During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west. In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of . While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most  in length, several of the main valley glaciers were  long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about  lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least  colder than it is today.

text: During the last

text: ice age

text: , there was a connected ice stream of

text: glacier

text: s between

text: Kangchenjunga

text: in the east and

text: Nanga Parbat

text: in the west. In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the

text: Karakoram

text: , and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of . While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most  in length, several of the main valley glaciers were  long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and

text: ablation

text: of a glacier are balanced) was about  lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least  colder than it is today.

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answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier snowline

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: To the south

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier snowline

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ablation

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Karakoram

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Karakoram

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Himalaya

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glacier snowline

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier snowline

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last ice age

text: The rugged east side has four glaciers, the Mazama Glacier, Klickitat Glacier, Rusk Glacier, and the Wilson Glacier. During the last Ice Age, they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the furthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about . Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about  and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. Klickitat Glacier on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a  wide cirque and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around , where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the Klickitat River. The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap, but starts at  below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about . It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about . It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at  where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.

text: The rugged east side has four glaciers, the

text: Mazama Glacier

text: Klickitat Glacier

text: Rusk Glacier

text: , and the

text: Wilson Glacier

text: . During the last

text: Ice Age

text: , they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the furthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about . Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about  and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek.

text: Klickitat Glacier

text: on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a  wide

text: cirque

text: and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around , where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the

text: Klickitat River

text: . The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap, but starts at  below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about . It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about . It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at  where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Klickitat River

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: immense canyons

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: River

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: River

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Creek

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is the source of Little Muddy Creek

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: the Klickitat River

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Hellroaring Canyon

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Canyon

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Hellroaring Canyon

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Ridge of Wonders

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Ridge of Wonders

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Ridge of Wonders

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the rugged east side

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Hellroaring Canyon

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The Rusk Glacier

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answers: Canyon

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Canyon

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Ice Age

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last Ice Age

text: As glaciers move over their beds, they entrain and move material of all sizes. Glaciers can carry the largest sediment, and areas of glacial deposition often contain a large number of glacial erratics, many of which are several metres in diameter. Glaciers also pulverize rock into "glacial flour", which is so fine that it is often carried away by winds to create loess deposits thousands of kilometres afield. Sediment entrained in glaciers often moves approximately along the glacial flowlines, causing it to appear at the surface in the ablation zone.

text: As glaciers move over their beds, they entrain and move material of all sizes. Glaciers can carry the largest sediment, and areas of glacial deposition often contain a large number of

text: glacial erratics

text: , many of which are several metres in diameter. Glaciers also pulverize rock into "

text: glacial flour

text: ", which is so fine that it is often carried away by winds to create

text: loess

text: deposits thousands of kilometres afield. Sediment entrained in glaciers often moves approximately along the glacial

text: flowline

text: s, causing it to appear at the surface in the

text: ablation zone

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answers: 2

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: flowlines

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: River valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: as glaciers move over their beds

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers move over their beds

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: flowlines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers move over their beds

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glaciers can carry the largest sediment

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: ablation zone

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: loess deposits

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial flowlines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: glacial flowlines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: a large number of glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacial flowlines

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ablation zone

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: afield

text: The Suru River is a  long river, that originates from the Panzella glacier which lies at Pensi La pass near the Drang Drung Glacier. The Drang Drung Glacier also gives rise to the Stod River which flows down in the opposite direction from the Suru. The source of the Suru River lies  south of Kargil town, and  north from Zanskar. Srinagar, the capital of Jammu and Kashmir lies  to the west. The Suru River forms the western and northern boundary of the Zanskar Range. The river flows westwards, along with the Kargil-Zanaskar Road, from its source and forms the Suru valley, which is towered by the massif of Nun Kun mountain. It drains the Nun Kun mountain massif of the Zanskar Range in the Suru valley, and is joined by a tributary “Shafat Nala“ at the pastures of Gulmatango. This stream originates from the Shafat Glacier. The Suru River then flows northwards through a deep, narrow gorge to Kargil town, where it is fed by the Botkul River which originates from the glacier of the same name. The Dras River, fed by the Shingo River, joins the Suru River at Kharul,  north of Kargil town. The Suru River then enters the Pakistani Administered Kashmir  ahead from the point of merger of Dras and Suru rivers through Post 43 and Post 44 of India and Pakistan respectively and merges with the Indus River at Nurla.

text: The Suru River is a  long river, that originates from the Panzella glacier which lies at

text: Pensi La

text: pass near the

text: Drang Drung Glacier

text: . The Drang Drung Glacier also gives rise to the

text: Stod River

text: which flows down in the opposite direction from the Suru. The source of the Suru River lies  south of

text: Kargil town

text: , and  north from

text: Zanskar

text: Srinagar

text: , the capital of

text: Jammu and Kashmir

text: lies  to the west. The Suru River forms the western and northern boundary of the Zanskar Range. The river flows westwards, along with the Kargil-Zanaskar Road, from its source and forms the Suru valley, which is towered by the

text: massif

text: of

text: Nun Kun

text: mountain. It drains the Nun Kun mountain massif of the

text: Zanskar Range

text: in the Suru valley, and is joined by a tributary “Shafat Nala“ at the pastures of

text: Gulmatango

text: . This stream originates from the

text: Shafat Glacier

text: . The Suru River then flows northwards through a deep, narrow gorge to

text: Kargil town

text: , where it is fed by the Botkul River which originates from the glacier of the same name. The

text: Dras River

text: , fed by the

text: Shingo River

text: , joins the Suru River at Kharul,  north of Kargil town. The Suru River then enters the

text: Pakistani Administered Kashmir

text: ahead from the point of merger of Dras and Suru rivers through Post 43 and Post 44 of India and Pakistan respectively and merges with the

text: Indus River

text: at Nurla.

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answers: The Drang Drung Glacier

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answers: the Drang Drung Glacier

text: Some volcanoes have been affected by landsliding, gully formation and glaciation after their formation. Likewise, the field has been affected by erosion, forming deep valleys with glacier deposits.

text: Some volcanoes have been affected by landsliding, gully formation and glaciation after their formation. Likewise, the field has been affected by erosion, forming deep valleys with glacier deposits.

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answers: NDQ_000182

answers: deep valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacier deposits

answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

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answers: deep valleys

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answers: NDQ_000195

answers: deep valleys

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: after their formation

text: Parent material is classified by its last means of transport.  Material that was transported to a location by glacier, then deposited elsewhere by streams, is classified as stream-transported parent material, or glacial fluvial parent material.

text: Parent material is classified by its last means of transport.  Material that was transported to a location by glacier, then deposited elsewhere by streams, is classified as stream-transported parent material, or glacial

text: fluvial

text: parent material.

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text: Erratics are formed by glacial ice erosion resulting from the movement of ice. Glaciers erode by multiple processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, ice thrusting and glacially-induced spalling. Glaciers crack pieces of bedrock off in the process of plucking, producing the larger erratics. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood, producing smaller glacial till.  In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. Glacially-induced spalling occurs when ice lens formation with the rocks below the glacier spall off layers of rock, providing smaller debris which is ground into the glacial basal material to become till.

text: Erratics are formed by glacial

text: ice erosion

text: resulting from the movement of ice.

text: Glacier

text: s erode by multiple processes: abrasion/scouring,

text: plucking

text: , ice thrusting and

text: glacially-induced spalling

text: . Glaciers crack pieces of bedrock off in the process of plucking, producing the larger erratics. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood, producing smaller

text: glacial till

text: .  In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. Glacially-induced spalling occurs when

text: ice lens

text: formation with the rocks below the glacier spall off layers of rock, providing smaller debris which is ground into the glacial basal material to become till.

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answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

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answers: In ice thrusting

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answers: ice lens formation

text: The region is carved by U-shaped glacial valleys, modelled by the movement of ancient glaciers. The main valley, Vale de Loriga was carved by longitudanal abrasion that also created rounded pockets, where the glacial resistance was minor. Starting at an altitude of 1991 metres along the Serra da Estrela the valley descends abruptly until 290 metres above sea level (around Vide), passing villages such as Cabeça, Casal do Rei and Muro. The central village, Loriga, is seven kilometres from Torre (the highest point), but the parish is sculpted by cliffs, alluvial plains and glacial lakes deposited during millennia of glacial erosion, and surrounded by rare ancient forest that surrounded the lateral flanks of these glaciers.

text: The region is carved by U-shaped glacial valleys, modelled by the movement of ancient glaciers. The main valley, Vale de Loriga was carved by longitudanal abrasion that also created rounded pockets, where the glacial resistance was minor. Starting at an altitude of 1991 metres along the Serra da Estrela the valley descends abruptly until 290 metres above sea level (around Vide), passing villages such as Cabeça, Casal do Rei and Muro. The central village, Loriga, is seven kilometres from

text: Torre

text: (the highest point), but the parish is sculpted by cliffs, alluvial plains and glacial lakes deposited during millennia of glacial erosion, and surrounded by rare ancient forest that surrounded the lateral flanks of these glaciers.

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial lakes

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answers: lateral flanks

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Vale de Loriga

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ancient glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Serra da Estrela

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: flanks

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Vale de Loriga

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: U-shaped glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: valley descends abruptly until 290 metres above sea level

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: ancient

text: The Bagley Icefield (also called Bagley Ice Valley) in southeastern Alaska is the largest nonpolar icefield in North America. It was named after James W. Bagley, a USGS topographic engineer who developed the Bagley T-3 camera and mapped Alaska prior to World War I.  At 200 km (127 mi) long, 10 km (6 mi) wide, and up to 1 km (3,000 ft) thick, it covers most of the core of the Saint Elias Mountains and part of the Chugach Mountains.  It nourishes dozens of valley glaciers that drain down both sides of the range, including the Tana, Miles, and Guyot glaciers. The area of the combined Bagley Icefield and Bering Glacier System, including tributaries, is 5,200 km² (1,900 sq mi).

text: The Bagley Icefield (also called Bagley Ice Valley) in southeastern

text: Alaska

text: is the largest nonpolar

text: icefield

text: in

text: North America

text: . It was named after

text: James W. Bagley

text: , a

text: USGS

text: topographic

text: engineer who developed the Bagley T-3 camera and mapped Alaska prior to

text: World War I

text: .  At 200 km (127 mi) long, 10 km (6 mi) wide, and up to 1 km (3,000 ft) thick, it covers most of the core of the

text: Saint Elias Mountains

text: and part of the

text: Chugach Mountains

text: .  It nourishes dozens of

text: valley glacier

text: s that drain down both sides of the range, including the

text: Tana

text: Miles

text: , and

text: Guyot

text: glaciers. The area of the combined Bagley Icefield and

text: Bering Glacier

text: System, including tributaries, is 5,200 km² (1,900 sq mi).

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: The combined Bagley Icefield and Bering Glacier System

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 127 mi long

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It nourishes dozens of valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: down both sides

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It nourishes

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Bagley Ice Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Tana, Miles, and Guyot glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The combined Bagley Icefield and Bering Glacier System, including tributaries, is 5,200 km2

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Icefield

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: World War I

text: The glaciers and permanent snow fields have an area of  and contain a volume of about . Eliot Glacier is the largest glacier by volume at , and has the thickest depth measured by ice radar at .  The largest glacier by surface area is the Coe-Ladd Glacier system at .

text: The glaciers and permanent snow fields have an area of  and contain a volume of about .

text: Eliot Glacier

text: is the largest glacier by volume at , and has the thickest depth measured by ice radar at .  The largest glacier by surface area is the Coe-Ladd Glacier system at .

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: depth

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers and permanent snow fields

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers and permanent snow fields

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: depth

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers and permanent snow fields

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Eliot Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: surface area

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: snow fields

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: snow fields

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Glacier system

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: permanent snow fields

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Eliot Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: thickness

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: snow fields

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: ice radar

text: Mammoth Glacier is in the Bridger Wilderness of Bridger-Teton National Forest, in the U.S. state of Wyoming. The glacier is on the west side of the Continental Divide which separates it from Dinwoody Glacier to the east. Mammoth Glacier is the largest glacier on the west side of the Continental Divide of the Wind River Range and occupies a large, north facing cirque on the north slopes of Twin Peaks and just west of Mount Woodrow Wilson. Mammoth Glacier is part of the largest grouping of glaciers in the American Rocky Mountains.

text: Mammoth Glacier is in the

text: Bridger Wilderness

text: of

text: Bridger-Teton National Forest

text: , in the U.S. state of

text: Wyoming

text: . The glacier is on the west side of the

text: Continental Divide

text: which separates it from

text: Dinwoody Glacier

text: to the east. Mammoth Glacier is the largest glacier on the west side of the Continental Divide of the

text: Wind River Range

text: and occupies a large, north facing

text: cirque

text: on the north slopes of

text: Twin Peaks

text: and just west of

text: Mount Woodrow Wilson

text: . Mammoth Glacier is part of the largest grouping of

text: glacier

text: s in the American

text: Rocky Mountains

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answers: The glacier is on the west side of the Continental Divide

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answers: large, north facing cirque

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text: Thousands of images returned from Odyssey support the idea that Mars once had great amounts of water flowing across its surface. Some pictures show patterns of branching valleys. Others show layers that may have formed under lakes. Deltas have been identified.For many years researchers believed that glaciers existed under a layer of insulating rocks.Lineated valley fill  is one example of these rock-covered glaciers. They are found on the floors of some channels. Their surfaces have ridged and grooved materials that deflect around obstacles. Some glaciers on the Earth show such features. Lineated floor deposits may be related to Lobate debris aprons, which have been proven to contain large amounts of ice by orbiting radar.

text: Thousands of images returned from Odyssey support the idea that Mars once had great amounts of water flowing across its surface. Some pictures show patterns of branching valleys. Others show layers that may have formed under lakes. Deltas have been identified.For many years researchers believed that glaciers existed under a layer of insulating rocks.

text: Lineated valley fill

text: is one example of these rock-covered glaciers. They are found on the floors of some channels. Their surfaces have ridged and grooved materials that deflect around obstacles. Some glaciers on the Earth show such features. Lineated floor deposits may be related to

text: Lobate debris apron

text: s, which have been proven to contain large amounts of ice by orbiting radar.

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answers: glaciers on the Earth show such features

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answers: Lineated valley fill

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answers: deflect around obstacles

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: deflect around obstacles

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answers: global warming

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answers: Mars

text: Many large areas of Mars either appear to host glaciers, or carry evidence that they used to be present. Much of the areas in high latitudes, especially the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, are suspected to still contain enormous amounts of water ice. Recent evidence has led many planetary scientists to believe that water ice still exists as glaciers across much of the Martian mid- and high latitudes, protected from sublimation by thin coverings of insulating rock and/or dust. In January 2009, scientists released the results of a radar study of the glacier-like features called lobate debris aprons in an area called Deuteronilus Mensae, which found widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris. Glaciers are associated with fretted terrain, and many volcanoes. Researchers have described glacial deposits on Hecates Tholus, Arsia Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Olympus Mons. Glaciers have also been reported in a number of larger Martian craters in the midlatitudes and above.

text: Many large areas of Mars either appear to host glaciers, or carry evidence that they used to be present. Much of the areas in high latitudes, especially the

text: Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

text: , are suspected to still contain enormous amounts of water ice. Recent evidence has led many planetary scientists to believe that water ice still exists as glaciers across much of the Martian mid- and high latitudes, protected from sublimation by thin coverings of insulating rock and/or dust. In January 2009, scientists released the results of a radar study of the glacier-like features called

text: lobate debris aprons

text: in an area called

text: Deuteronilus Mensae

text: , which found widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris. Glaciers are associated with

text: fretted terrain

text: , and many volcanoes. Researchers have described glacial deposits on

text: Hecates Tholus

text: Arsia Mons

text: Pavonis Mons

text: , and

text: Olympus Mons

text: . Glaciers have also been reported in a number of larger Martian craters in the midlatitudes and above.

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answers: Glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: latitudes

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers are associated with fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: rock debris

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: aprons

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacier-like features

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: enormous amounts

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000194

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text: The Doda River rises from the Drang-Drung Glacier near Pensi La, a mountain pass off the Zanskar-Kargil road. The Drang-Drung Glacier is a river of ice and snow by itself and is the largest glacier other than the Siachen Glacier in Ladakh outside the Karakoram Range. It gives rise to a mountain peak named "Doda Peak",  high, and it is the namesake for the Doda district, which lies in the rear side of the glacier; the Doda River is also known as Stod River. After rising from its source, the Doda River flows southeast down along the Kargil - Zanskar road in the main Zanskar valley, through the towns of Akshu, Abran, Kushol and Phey. The river then passes a confluence with its tributary, the Tsarap River, at Padum, the capital of Zanskar.  Together, these two rivers form the Zanskar River, a tributary of the Indus River.

text: The Doda River rises from the

text: Drang-Drung Glacier

text: near

text: Pensi La

text: , a mountain pass off the Zanskar-Kargil road. The Drang-Drung Glacier is a river of ice and snow by itself and is the largest

text: glacier

text: other than the

text: Siachen Glacier

text: in Ladakh outside the

text: Karakoram Range

text: . It gives rise to a

text: mountain peak

text: named "Doda Peak",  high, and it is the namesake for the

text: Doda district

text: , which lies in the rear side of the glacier; the Doda River is also known as Stod River. After rising from its source, the Doda River flows southeast down along the Kargil - Zanskar road in the main Zanskar valley, through the towns of Akshu, Abran, Kushol and

text: Phey

text: . The river then passes a

text: confluence

text: with its

text: tributary

text: , the

text: Tsarap River

text: , at

text: Padum

text: , the capital of

text: Zanskar

text: .  Together, these two rivers form the

text: Zanskar River

text: , a tributary of the

text: Indus River

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answers: Drang-Drung Glacier

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The Drang-Drung Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: the main Zanskar valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: mountain pass

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Drang-Drung Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: southeast

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move because of gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Drang-Drung Glacier

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Zanskar valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: largest glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: river of ice and snow

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Pensi La

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Karakoram Range

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Doda Peak

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Ladakh

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Doda Peak

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Drang-Drung Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Drang-Drung Glacier

text: The topography of eastern Massachusetts was determined most by the fact that, at the maximum glaciation of the Pleistocene Era, it was the site of the edge of the last glaciation, at approximately 18,000 BC. This glacier had planed the land under it nearly flat. Gravel- and boulder-lined streams ran along its surface. From 18,000 to about 10,000 BC, the glacier receded, dropping its stony contents as eskers and moraines, the dominant features of the region. The glacier's recession created ridges, deposited sand and gravel, the dominant material of the riverbed, over which mud has been deposited. Low-gradient drainage created the meandering streams, which typically drop no more than 30–40 feet.

text: The topography of eastern Massachusetts was determined most by the fact that, at the maximum glaciation of the

text: Pleistocene

text: Era, it was the site of the edge of the last glaciation, at approximately 18,000 BC. This glacier had planed the land under it nearly flat. Gravel- and boulder-lined streams ran along its surface. From 18,000 to about 10,000 BC, the glacier receded, dropping its stony contents as eskers and moraines, the dominant features of the region. The

text: glacier

text: 's recession created

text: ridge

text: s, deposited

text: sand

text: and

text: gravel

text: , the dominant material of the

text: riverbed

text: , over which mud has been deposited. Low-gradient drainage created the meandering streams, which typically drop no more than 30–40 feet.

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

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answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: maximum glaciation

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: ridges

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answers: Massachusetts

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answers: eskers and moraines

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answers: The glacier's recession created ridges

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

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answers: flat

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: at approximately 18,000 BC

text: Recessional moraines are often observed as a series of transverse ridges running across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside between and are composed of unconsolidated debris deposited by the glacier. They are created during temporary halts in a glacier's retreat.

text: Recessional moraines are often observed as a series of transverse ridges running across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside between and are composed of unconsolidated debris deposited by the glacier. They are created during temporary halts in a glacier's retreat.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Recessional moraines

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: River valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Recessional moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposited

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: perpendicular

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacier's retreat

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Recessional moraines

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: terminal moraine

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Recessional

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminal moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: transverse ridges

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: transverse ridges

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: transverse ridges

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Recessional moraines

text: The Polish Glacier Traverse route, also known as the "Falso de los Polacos" route, crosses through the Vacas valley, ascends to the base of the Polish Glacier, then traverses across to the normal route for the final ascent to the summit. The third most popular route is by the Polish Glacier itself.

text: The Polish Glacier Traverse route, also known as the "Falso de los Polacos" route, crosses through the Vacas valley, ascends to the base of the Polish Glacier, then traverses across to the normal route for the final ascent to the summit. The third most popular route is by the Polish Glacier itself.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: traverse

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Vacas valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: traverse

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Polish Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: traverse

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The Polish Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Vacas valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Polish Glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: traverse

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: summit

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Vacas valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Vacas valley

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The third most popular route

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: traverse

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Polacos

text: Glacier Bancorp, Inc, known primarily for its eponymous Glacier Bank, is a Kalispell, Montana based bank holding company. It is the largest Montana-based bank by assets and the second largest by deposits, behind First Interstate BancSystem. It provides retail and commercial banking services and mortgage origination, as well as investment services through Raymond James. The company was formed in 2004 as the successor the 1990 Delaware corporation of the same name.The bank's growth has come primarily from the purchase of other regional banks in the western United States.

text: Glacier Bancorp, Inc, known primarily for its eponymous Glacier Bank, is a

text: Kalispell

text: Montana

text: based bank

text: holding company

text: . It is the largest Montana-based bank by assets and the second largest by deposits, behind

text: First Interstate BancSystem

text: . It provides retail and commercial banking services and mortgage origination, as well as investment services through

text: Raymond James

text: . The company was formed in 2004 as the successor the 1990

text: Delaware corporation

text: of the same name.The bank's growth has come primarily from the purchase of other regional banks in the western United States.

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answers: 1990

text: Mount Lao consists of granite. The mountain's landforms were formed due to the action of glaciers during the Quaternary and erosion by meltwater released from the icecap that covered a large portion of Shandong during the late Pleistocene.

text: Mount Lao consists of

text: granite

text: . The mountain's landforms were formed due to the action of glaciers during the

text: Quaternary

text: and erosion by meltwater released from the icecap that covered a large portion of Shandong during the late

text: Pleistocene

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answers: It's impossible to say

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answers: late Pleistocene

text: As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a rock glacier, like the Timpanogos Glacier in Utah.

text: As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a

text: rock glacier

text: , like the

text: Timpanogos Glacier

text: in Utah.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers flow over bedrock

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: subglacial water

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: retreating

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It may become a rock glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: rock glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: rock glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: fractures

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Utah

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answers: rock glacier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: plucking

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answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: rock glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Utah

text: Before glaciation, relatively immature rivers display a pattern of interlocking spurs. A valley glacier cannot avoid the interlocking spurs as a river can. As the valley glacier moves, abrasion and plucking erode the protruding tips of the spurs, leaving steep cliff-like truncated spurs. Hanging valleys are found in between truncated spurs as they join the main glacial valley from the side. It is common for waterfalls to form from them, where they fall into the main valley. Such truncated spurs can be found in mountainous regions. The Mer de Glace, in the European Alps, is a valley through which a glacier currently flows. This is a geologically active process where the glacier continues to gradually erode the valley sides.

text: Before glaciation, relatively immature rivers display a pattern of

text: interlocking spur

text: s. A valley glacier cannot avoid the interlocking spurs as a river can. As the valley glacier moves, abrasion and plucking erode the protruding tips of the spurs, leaving steep cliff-like truncated spurs.

text: Hanging valleys

text: are found in between truncated spurs as they join the main glacial valley from the side. It is common for waterfalls to form from them, where they fall into the main valley. Such truncated spurs can be found in mountainous regions. The

text: Mer de Glace

text: , in the European Alps, is a valley through which a glacier currently flows. This is a geologically active process where the glacier continues to gradually erode the valley sides.

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answers: A valley glacier cannot avoid the interlocking spurs

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answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: as they join the main glacial valley from the side

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Hanging valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: plucking

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: It is common for waterfalls to form from them

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: European Alps

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep cliff-like truncated spurs

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: main glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciation

text: The lack of lahar (volcanic mudflow) or avalanche deposits associated with the original cone and the Main Cone Lavas indicates that these volcanic eruptions probably occurred in a warm interglacial period. Glaciers did form directly on the Main Cone Lavas and cause erosion later.

text: The lack of

text: lahar

text: (volcanic mudflow) or

text: avalanche

text: deposits associated with the original cone and the Main Cone Lavas indicates that these

text: volcanic eruption

text: s probably occurred in a warm

text: interglacial period

text: . Glaciers did form directly on the Main Cone Lavas and cause erosion later.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Lahar

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers do form directly on the Main Cone Lavas and cause erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glaciers did form directly on the Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: lahar

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Main Cone

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Lavas

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers did form directly on the Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: lahar

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Main Cone

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Main Cone

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Main Cone Lavas

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: lahar

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: warm interglacial period

text: Wrangell–St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1, 1978, by President Jimmy Carter using the Antiquities Act, pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska. Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980. The park, which is bigger than the country Switzerland, has long, extremely cold winters and a short summer season. It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation. Plate tectonics are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park. The park's extreme high point is Mount St. Elias at , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada. The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation. Mount Wrangell is an active volcano, one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains. In the St. Elias Range Mount Churchill has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years. The park's glacial features include Malaspina Glacier, the largest piedmont glacier in North America, Hubbard Glacier, the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska, and Nabesna Glacier, the world's longest valley glacier. The Bagley Icefield covers much of the park's interior, which includes 60% of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska. At the center of the park, the boomtown of Kennecott exploited one of the world's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938, exposed by and in part incorporated into Kennicott Glacier. The mine buildings and mills, now abandoned, compose a National Historic Landmark district.

text: Wrangell–St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1, 1978, by President

text: Jimmy Carter

text: using the

text: Antiquities Act

text: , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska. Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980. The park, which is bigger than the country

text: Switzerland

text: , has long, extremely cold winters and a short summer season. It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation.

text: Plate tectonics

text: are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park. The park's extreme high point is

text: Mount St. Elias

text: at , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada. The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation.

text: Mount Wrangell

text: is an active volcano, one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains. In the St. Elias Range

text: Mount Churchill

text: has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years. The park's glacial features include

text: Malaspina Glacier

text: , the largest piedmont glacier in North America,

text: Hubbard Glacier

text: , the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska, and

text: Nabesna Glacier

text: , the world's longest valley glacier. The

text: Bagley Icefield

text: covers much of the park's interior, which includes 60% of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska. At the center of the park, the boomtown of

text: Kennecott

text: exploited one of the world's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938, exposed by and in part incorporated into

text: Kennicott Glacier

text: . The mine buildings and mills, now abandoned, compose a

text: National Historic Landmark

text: district.

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answers: NDQ_000185

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answers: 4

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answers: piedmont

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: The Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Nabesna Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Kennicott Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Kennicott Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It supports a variety of large mammals

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Nabesna Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: The Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: piedmont glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: piedmont glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Hubbard Glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Wrangell Mountains

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: piedmont glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Nabesna Glacier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Wrangell–St. Elias National Monument

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Bagley Icefield

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1938

text: From about 2 million years ago glacial erosion then greatly modified the landscape.Glaciers formed preferentially at existing streams which had developed at the many rock faults produced by crushing during the continental collision. The terrain was ground away leaving characteristically steep-sided glacial valleys which became ribbon lakes. On the Rossett Pass (see below) Rossett Gill is an example of a geological fault and the glacier that descended from it created the Mickleden and Great Langdale valleys below. Taken as a whole the region is characterised by  mountain ridges splaying out from a central core. The intervening valleys have been made by glaciers flowing outward along the lines of the previous streams draining the dome of the Lake District.

text: From about 2 million years ago glacial erosion then

text: greatly modified the landscape

text: .Glaciers formed preferentially at existing streams which had developed at the many rock faults produced by crushing during the continental collision. The terrain was ground away leaving characteristically steep-sided glacial valleys which became

text: ribbon lake

text: s. On the Rossett Pass (see below) Rossett Gill is an example of a geological fault and the glacier that descended from it created the Mickleden and

text: Great Langdale

text: valleys below. Taken as a whole the region is characterised by  mountain ridges splaying out from a central core. The intervening valleys have been made by glaciers flowing outward along the lines of the previous streams draining the dome of the Lake District.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: steep-sided

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: flowing outward along the lines of the previous streams

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: mountain ridges

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: flowing outward

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers flowing outward

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glaciers flowing outward

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Rossett Gill

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: mountain ridges

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers flowing outward

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: mountain ridge

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Lake District

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: mountain ridges

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Rossett Pass

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep-sided

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: ribbon lakes

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 2 million years ago

text: The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle contains several interesting features such as fretted terrain, parts of which are found in Deuteronilus Mensae and Protonilus Mensae.  Fretted terrain contains smooth, flat lowlands along with steep cliffs.  The scarps or cliffs are usually 1 to 2 km high.  Channels in the area have wide, flat floors and steep walls.  Many buttes and mesas are present. In fretted terrain the land seems to transition from narrow straight valleys to isolated mesas. Most of the mesas are surrounded by  forms that have been called a variety of names: circum-mesa aprons, debris aprons, rock glaciers, and lobate debris aprons. At first they appeared to resemble rock glaciers on Earth. But scientists could not be sure. Even after the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) took a variety of pictures of fretted terrain, experts could not tell for sure if material was moving or flowing as it would in an ice-rich deposit (glacier).  Eventually, proof of their true nature was discovered by radar studies with the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed that they contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice.

text: The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle contains several interesting features such as

text: fretted terrain

text: , parts of which are found in Deuteronilus Mensae and Protonilus Mensae.  Fretted terrain contains smooth, flat lowlands along with steep cliffs.  The scarps or cliffs are usually 1 to 2 km high.  Channels in the area have wide, flat floors and steep walls.  Many

text: butte

text: s and

text: mesa

text: s are present. In fretted terrain the land seems to transition from narrow straight valleys to isolated mesas. Most of the mesas are surrounded by  forms that have been called a variety of names: circum-mesa aprons, debris aprons, rock glaciers, and

text: lobate debris apron

text: s. At first they appeared to resemble rock glaciers on Earth. But scientists could not be sure. Even after the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) took a variety of pictures of fretted terrain, experts could not tell for sure if material was moving or flowing as it would in an ice-rich deposit (glacier).  Eventually, proof of their true nature was discovered by radar studies with the

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: showed that they contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice.

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answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It does not say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Channels in the area have wide, flat floors and steep walls

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: mesa

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: mesas

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: steep cliffs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Fretted terrain

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep walls

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: mesas

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Mars

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a geological engineer and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing fault that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the Kibbey Formation, was deposited on an unconformity, an ancient Mississippian-age karst erosion surface, and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a

text: geological engineer

text: and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing

text: fault

text: that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the

text: Kibbey Formation

text: , was deposited on an

text: unconformity

text: , an ancient Mississippian-age

text: karst

text: erosion surface

text: , and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Yogo

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: karst

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: dike

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: dike

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: breccias

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: dike

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: karst

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Mississippian-age

text: The term "erratic" is commonly used to refer to erratic blocks, which Geikie describes as:  "large masses of rock, often as big as a house, that have been transported by glacier-ice, and have been lodged in a prominent position in the glacier valleys or have been scattered over hills and plains. And examination of their mineralogical character leads the identification of their sources…".  In geology, an erratic is material moved by geologic forces from one location to another, usually by a glacier.

text: The term "erratic" is commonly used to refer to erratic blocks, which Geikie describes as:  "large masses of rock, often as big as a house, that have been transported by glacier-ice, and have been lodged in a prominent position in the glacier valleys or have been scattered over hills and plains. And examination of their mineralogical character leads the identification of their sources…".  In geology, an erratic is material moved by geologic forces from one location to another, usually by a glacier.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glacier valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: material moved by geologic forces from one location to another

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Geikie

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier valley

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answers: prominent position

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: glacier valleys

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answers: glacier valleys

text: The straight river course north of Edebäck has been classified by Sten De Geer as a "tectonic valley" as it follows the Protogine Zone  —a bedrock weakness zone of Precambrian age. During deglaciation of Scandinavia about 10,000 years before present the glacier ice retreated unevenly with the valley of Klarälven hosting a protuding ice tongue while the surrounding uplands were ice-free. The retreat of the ice left dead-ice burried in the glacifluvial sediments of the valley. The river course north of Edebäck formed an ancient fjord after it became free of glacier ice and before the post-glacial rebound definitely raised the land above the sea. The river couse south of Edebäck is possibly a Quaternary deflection caused by the accumulation of glacial deposits.

text: The straight river course north of

text: Edebäck

text: has been classified by

text: Sten De Geer

text: as a "tectonic valley" as it follows the

text: Protogine Zone

text: —a

text: bedrock

text: weakness zone of

text: Precambrian

text: age. During

text: deglaciation

text: of Scandinavia about 10,000 years before present the glacier ice retreated unevenly with the valley of Klarälven hosting a protuding ice tongue while the surrounding uplands were ice-free. The retreat of the ice left

text: dead-ice

text: burried in the

text: glacifluvial

text: sediments of the valley. The river course north of Edebäck formed an ancient

text: fjord

text: after it became free of

text: glacier ice

text: and before the

text: post-glacial rebound

text: definitely raised the land above the sea. The river couse south of

text: Edebäck

text: is possibly a Quaternary deflection caused by the accumulation of glacial deposits.

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answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: During deglaciation

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: dead-ice

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: protuding ice tongue

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: deglaciation

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: dead-ice burried in the glacifluvial sediments of the valley

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Klarälven

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: dead-ice

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: ice tongue

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: dead-ice

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Scandinavia

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: a protuding ice tongue

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: river course north of Edebäck has been classified by Sten De Geer as a "tectonic valley"

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier ice

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: dead-ice

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 10,000 years before present

text: The park is in the lower elevations of Rocky Mountain National Park, within in the montane ecosystem of forests and grasslands. The U-shaped valley was formed by the movement of a 500-foot thick glacier over hundreds of years. About 15,000 years ago, the glacier pushed through the valley, receded, was deposited rubble into a terminal down the valley and when it melted a lateral moraine remained. The sediment left behind from melted waters became the meadows of Horseshoe Park and deep depressions created Sheep Lakes there, where bighorn sheep congregate. Sheep Lakes is located at  above sea level.

text: The park is in the lower elevations of Rocky Mountain National Park, within in the

text: montane ecosystem

text: of forests and grasslands. The U-shaped valley was formed by the movement of a 500-foot thick

text: glacier

text: over hundreds of years. About 15,000 years ago, the glacier pushed through the valley, receded, was deposited rubble into a

text: terminal

text: down the valley and when it melted a

text: lateral moraine

text: remained. The sediment left behind from melted waters became the meadows of Horseshoe Park and deep depressions created Sheep Lakes there, where bighorn sheep congregate. Sheep Lakes is located at  above sea level.

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answers: 15,000 years ago

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: About 40 percent

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: The U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: deep depressions

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: lateral moraine

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answers: down the valley

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It pushed through the valley

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: lateral moraine

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The U-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: thick

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answers: deep depressions created Sheep Lakes

answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: glacier

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 15,000 years ago

text: The glacier is located at the end of a small valley, just south of the village of Sundal on the shore of the Maurangsfjorden.  Water draining under the glacier is caught through a tunnel and exploited in the Mauranger Hydroelectric Power Station.

text: The glacier is located at the end of a small valley, just south of the village of

text: Sundal

text: on the shore of the

text: Maurangsfjorden

text: .  Water draining under the glacier is caught through a tunnel and exploited in the

text: Mauranger Hydroelectric Power Station

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Maurangsfjorden

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answers: The glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glacier

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answers: Maurangsfjorden

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answers: Water draining under the glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: end

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answers: Maurangsfjorden

text: An orogeny is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important. Rainfall and snowfall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone). River systems form, and glaciers may grow on the highest peaks. Erosion accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of sediment are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in sedimentary basins in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are thrust faulted over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by isostasy; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming rifts near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially melt, forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming granite intrusions. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and  the two continents are completely sutured.  Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent.

text: An

text: orogeny

text: is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important.

text: Rain

text: fall and

text: snow

text: fall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone).

text: River

text: systems form, and

text: glaciers

text: may grow on the highest peaks.

text: Erosion

text: accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of

text: sediment

text: are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in

text: sedimentary basins

text: in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are

text: thrust fault

text: ed over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by

text: isostasy

text: ; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming

text: rifts

text: near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially

text: melt

text: , forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming

text: granite

text: intrusion

text: s. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and  the two continents are completely sutured.  Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: sedimentary basins

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answers: 5 million years

text: At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which has escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier.  Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an arête is left. This structure may result in a mountain pass.  If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed pyramidal peaks; particularly steep examples are called horns.

text: At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped

text: cirque

text: , which has escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier.  Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an

text: arête

text: is left. This structure may result in a

text: mountain pass

text: .  If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed

text: pyramidal peak

text: s; particularly steep examples are called

text: horn

text: s.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: horns

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answers: Cirques

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answers: arête

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answers: glaciers

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answers: ice wedging

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: Classic valley glacier

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answers: a classic valley glacier

text: Boston Glacier, on the north slope of Boston Peak, is the largest glacier in the park, measured in 1971 to have an area of . Other large glaciers include East Nooksack and Sulphide Glaciers on Mount Shuksan, McAllister and Inspiration Glaciers on Eldorado Peak, Redoubt Glacier on Mount Redoubt, Neve Glacier on Snowfield Peak, and Challenger Glacier on Mount Challenger.

text: Boston Glacier

text: , on the north slope of Boston Peak, is the largest glacier in the park, measured in 1971 to have an area of . Other large glaciers include

text: East Nooksack

text: and

text: Sulphide Glacier

text: s on

text: Mount Shuksan

text: McAllister

text: and

text: Inspiration Glacier

text: s on Eldorado Peak,

text: Redoubt Glacier

text: on

text: Mount Redoubt

text: Neve Glacier

text: on

text: Snowfield Peak

text: , and

text: Challenger Glacier

text: on Mount Challenger.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the north slope

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: large

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: large glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Boston Peak

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Mount Shuksan

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Boston Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1971

text: Valley glaciers can be outlet glaciers that provide drainage for icefields, icecaps or icesheets and they are also constrained by underlying topography.  But they may also form up in mountain ranges as gathering snow turns to ice.  Ice-free exposed bedrock and slopes often surround valley glaciers, providing snow and ice from above to accumulate on the glacier via avalanches. True fjords are formed when valley glaciers retreat and sea water fills the void.

text: Valley glaciers can be outlet glaciers that provide drainage for icefields, icecaps or icesheets and they are also constrained by underlying topography.  But they may also form up in mountain ranges as gathering snow turns to ice.  Ice-free exposed bedrock and slopes often surround valley glaciers, providing snow and ice from above to accumulate on the glacier via

text: avalanche

text: s. True

text: fjords

text: are formed when valley glaciers retreat and sea water fills the void.

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: True fjords are formed when valley glaciers retreat

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: True fjords

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: avalanches

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: True fjords

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: True fjord

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: fjords

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: True fjords

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: True fjords are formed when valley glaciers retreat and sea water fills the void

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: True fjords

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: icesheets

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: True fjords

text: Vast quantities of mud and till are generated by glaciations and deposited on land as till and in lakes. Glaciers can erode already susceptible mudrock formations, and this process enhances glacial production of clay and silt.

text: Vast quantities of mud and till are generated by glaciations and deposited on land as till and in lakes. Glaciers can erode already susceptible mudrock formations, and this process enhances glacial production of clay and silt.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: mudrock formations

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlin

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: mudrock formations

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: mudrock

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glaciations

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciations

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: erode

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: mudrock formations

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: mudrock formations

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciations

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: lake

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciations

text: Glaciers formed much of the observable surface in large areas of Mars.  Much of the area in high latitudes is believed to still contain enormous amounts of water ice  In March 2010, scientists released the results of a radar study of an area called Deuteronilus Mensae that found widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris. The ice was probably deposited as snowfall during an earlier climate when the poles were tilted more.Some features in Vastitas Borealis are believed to be ancient glaciers as shown in the pictures below.

text: Glaciers formed much of the observable surface in large areas of Mars.  Much of the area in high latitudes is believed to still contain enormous amounts of water ice  In March 2010, scientists released the results of a radar study of an area called

text: Deuteronilus Mensae

text: that found widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris. The ice was probably deposited as snowfall during an earlier climate when the poles were tilted more.Some features in Vastitas Borealis are believed to be ancient glaciers as shown in the pictures below.

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text: The town sits less than  above sea level, on Upper Triassic Mercia mudstone laid down with large salt deposits as part of the Cheshire plain, a boulder clay plain separating the hills of North Wales and the Peak District of Derbyshire, formed following the retreat of ice age glaciers.

text: The town sits less than  above sea level, on Upper Triassic Mercia

text: mudstone

text: laid down with large salt deposits as part of the Cheshire plain, a

text: boulder clay

text: plain separating the hills of

text: North Wales

text: and the

text: Peak District

text: of

text: Derbyshire

text: , formed following the retreat of

text: ice age

text: glacier

text: s.

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text: The Kupol Arktirazvedki (Купол Арктиразведки) ice dome covers the northeastern part of the island. On the western side of the Arktirazvedki ice dome there are two glaciers, the Stremitelny Glacier (Lednik Stremitel’nyy) "Rushing Glacier", west of which flows the Molochny Glacier (Lednik Molochnyy) "Milky Glacier", both having their terminus in the northern shore.

text: The Kupol Arktirazvedki (Купол Арктиразведки)

text: ice dome

text: covers the northeastern part of the island. On the western side of the Arktirazvedki ice dome there are two

text: glacier

text: s, the

text: Stremitelny Glacier

text: (Lednik Stremitel’nyy) "Rushing Glacier", west of which flows the

text: Molochny Glacier

text: (Lednik Molochnyy) "Milky Glacier", both having their terminus in the northern shore.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: "Milky Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: western

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Stremitelny Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Rushing Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice dome

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Glacier

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answers: Glacier

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answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the northeastern part

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answers: ice dome

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answers: Molochny Glacier

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answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ice dome

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Kupol Arktirazvedki

text: As glaciers move along the surface of the earth, rocks are slowly mixed in with the ice.  Rocks may reach the bottom of the glacier and begin to scrape along the earth.  Eventually boulder sized rocks become lodged in the ground.  Once the boulder is in place, the glacier flows around it.  As a result, a cavity is formed on the down slope side of the boulder.  This cavity is then filled with sediments such as till and outwash. Similar cavities can also be formed as the glacier moves over bedrock outcrops or bed irregularities which also may form flutes.

text: As glaciers move along the surface of the earth, rocks are slowly mixed in with the ice.  Rocks may reach the bottom of the glacier and begin to scrape along the earth.  Eventually boulder sized rocks become lodged in the ground.  Once the boulder is in place, the glacier flows around it.  As a result, a cavity is formed on the down slope side of the boulder.  This cavity is then filled with sediments such as

text: till

text: and outwash. Similar cavities can also be formed as the glacier moves over bedrock outcrops or bed irregularities which also may form flutes.

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answers: glaciers

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answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers move over bedrock outcrops or bed irregularities

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Rocks

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: flutes

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier flows around it

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: boulders become lodged in the ground

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: flutes

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: cavity

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000192

answers: flutes

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: flutes

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the earth

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: flutes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacier moves over bedrock

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciers move

text: During the Pleistocene era, a vast area was covered by ice during the maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area. The movement of glaciers from the Laurentide and Wisconsin ice sheets shaped the Finger Lakes region. The lakes originated as a series of northward-flowing streams. Around two million years ago the first of many continental glaciers of the Laurentide Ice Sheet moved southward from the Hudson Bay area, initiating the Pleistocene glaciation. These glaciers widened, deepened and accentuated the existing river valleys. Glacial debris, possibly including terminal moraines, left behind by the receding ice acted as dams, allowing lakes to form. Despite the deep erosion of the valleys, the surrounding uplands show little evidence of glaciation, suggesting that the ice was thin, or at least unable to cause much erosion at these higher altitudes. The deep cutting of the valleys by the ice left some tributaries hanging high above the lakes: both Seneca and Cayuga have tributaries hanging as much as  above the valley floors.

text: During the

text: Pleistocene

text: era, a vast area was covered by ice during the maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area. The movement of glaciers from the

text: Laurentide

text: and Wisconsin ice sheets shaped the

text: Finger Lakes

text: region. The lakes originated as a series of northward-flowing streams. Around two million years ago the first of many continental glaciers of the Laurentide Ice Sheet moved southward from the Hudson Bay area, initiating the Pleistocene glaciation. These glaciers widened, deepened and accentuated the existing river valleys. Glacial debris, possibly including terminal moraines, left behind by the receding ice acted as dams, allowing lakes to form. Despite the deep erosion of the valleys, the surrounding uplands show little evidence of glaciation, suggesting that the ice was thin, or at least unable to cause much erosion at these higher altitudes. The deep cutting of the valleys by the ice left some tributaries hanging high above the lakes: both Seneca and Cayuga have tributaries hanging as much as  above the valley floors.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: These glaciers widened, deepened

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Pleistocene glaciation

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The movement of glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: deepened and accentuated the existing river valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Finger Lakes region

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: tributaries hanging high above the lakes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glaciers from the Laurentide and Wisconsin ice sheets

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: widened

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Pleistocene

text: Schmidt Glacier () is a glacier, 0.7 nautical miles (1.3 km) long, flowing west from Baudissin Glacier between Mount Drygalski and North West Cornice, on the west side of Heard Island in the southern Indian Ocean. To the north of Schmidt Glacier is Baudissin Glacier, whose terminus is located at the western side of Corinthian Bay, near Sealers Cove. Kildalkey Head is west of Schmidt Glacier. To the south of Schmidt Glacier is Vahsel Glacier, whose terminus is at South West Bay, between Erratic Point and Cape Gazert. Immediately  south of Vahsel Glacier is Allison Glacier. Click here to see a map of Schmidt Glacier and the northwestern coast of Heard Island.

text: Schmidt Glacier () is a

text: glacier

text: , 0.7

text: nautical mile

text: s (1.3 km) long, flowing west from

text: Baudissin Glacier

text: between

text: Mount Drygalski

text: and

text: North West Cornice

text: , on the west side of

text: Heard Island

text: in the southern

text: Indian Ocean

text: . To the north of Schmidt Glacier is

text: Baudissin Glacier

text: , whose terminus is located at the western side of Corinthian Bay, near

text: Sealers Cove

text: Kildalkey Head

text: is west of Schmidt Glacier. To the south of Schmidt Glacier is

text: Vahsel Glacier

text: , whose terminus is at

text: South West Bay

text: , between

text: Erratic Point

text: and

text: Cape Gazert

text: . Immediately  south of Vahsel Glacier is

text: Allison Glacier

text: . Click here to see a map of Schmidt Glacier and the northwestern coast of Heard Island.

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answers: the southern Indian Ocean

text: Sometime between 25,000 and 31,000 years ago, Lassen Peak, a Pelean lava dome volcano, was pushed up through the pre-Lassen dacites. Lassen grew past the normal maximum size of plug dome volcanoes, , and reached a height of  above the surrounding plateau in as little as a few years. The surface of the growing pile of about a  of lava crumbled continually, forming enormous banks of talus. When Lassen Peak formed it looked much like the nearby Chaos Crags domes do today, with steep sides covered by angular rock talus. Lassen Peak's shape was significantly altered by glacial erosion from 25,000 to 18,000 years ago during the Wisconsin glaciation. At least one of Lassen's glaciers extended as far as  from the volcano itself.

text: Sometime between 25,000 and 31,000 years ago, Lassen Peak, a Pelean lava dome volcano, was pushed up through the pre-Lassen dacites. Lassen grew past the normal maximum size of plug dome volcanoes, , and reached a height of  above the surrounding plateau in as little as a few years. The surface of the growing pile of about a  of lava crumbled continually, forming enormous banks of

text: talus

text: . When Lassen Peak formed it looked much like the nearby

text: Chaos Crags

text: domes do today, with steep sides covered by angular rock talus. Lassen Peak's shape was significantly altered by glacial erosion from 25,000 to 18,000 years ago during the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: . At least one of Lassen's glaciers extended as far as  from the volcano itself.

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answers: glaciers extended as far as from the volcano itself

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answers: Lassen Peak's shape was significantly altered by glacial erosion

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answers: steep sides covered by angular rock talus

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answers: 18,000 years ago

text: Till may contain detectable concentrations of gems or other valuable ore minerals picked up by the glacier during its advance, for example the diamonds found in the U.S. states of Wisconsin, Indiana, and in Canada. Prospectors use trace minerals in tills as clues to follow the glacier upstream to find kimberlite diamond deposits and other types of ore deposits.

text: Till may contain detectable concentrations of

text: gem

text: s or other valuable

text: ore

text: minerals picked up by the glacier during its advance, for example the

text: diamond

text: s found in the

text: U.S. state

text: s of

text: Wisconsin

text: Indiana

text: , and in

text: Canada

text: Prospector

text: s use trace minerals in tills as clues to follow the glacier upstream to find

text: kimberlite

text: diamond deposits and other types of ore deposits.

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text: The Niagara Escarpment dominates the physiography of the town and greatly influenced the pattern of glaciation in the region. The Escarpment, formed by erosion over millions of years, is a high relief bedrock scarp which trends to the north through the central part of the town. To the west, on the upper surface of the Escarpment, hummocky morainic ridges deposited by glacial ice form part of the Horseshoe Moraines physiographic region. To the southeast below the Escarpment, is a smooth glacial till plain partially bevelled by lacustrine action, which forms part of the South Slope and Peel Plain physiographic regions.

text: The Niagara Escarpment dominates the physiography of the town and greatly influenced the pattern of glaciation in the region. The Escarpment, formed by erosion over millions of years, is a high relief bedrock scarp which trends to the north through the central part of the town. To the west, on the upper surface of the Escarpment, hummocky

text: morainic ridges

text: deposited by glacial ice form part of the Horseshoe Moraines physiographic region. To the southeast below the Escarpment, is a smooth glacial till plain partially bevelled by

text: lacustrine

text: action, which forms part of the South Slope and Peel Plain physiographic regions.

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text: The Sind Valley has formed over a period of several thousand years as the Sind River cuts into the Himalayan mountains. The glaciers of the valley are shrinking. Today, the river continues to deposit the sheets of sand in the lower areas of Ganderbal. Gradual erosive processes have washed away side forests and created a deep gorge at many places.

text: The Sind Valley has formed over a period of several thousand years as the Sind River cuts into the Himalayan mountains. The

text: glacier

text: s of the valley are shrinking. Today, the river continues to deposit the sheets of sand in the lower areas of Ganderbal. Gradual

text: erosive

text: processes have washed away side forests and created a deep gorge at many places.

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answers: several thousand years

text: The Axel Heiberg Glacier in Antarctica is a valley glacier,  long, descending from the high elevations of the Antarctic Plateau into the Ross Ice Shelf (nearly at sea level) between the Herbert Range and Mount Don Pedro Christophersen in the Queen Maud Mountains.

text: The Axel Heiberg Glacier in

text: Antarctica

text: is a valley

text: glacier

text: ,  long, descending from the high elevations of the

text: Antarctic Plateau

text: into the

text: Ross Ice Shelf

text: (nearly at

text: sea level

text: ) between the

text: Herbert Range

text: and

text: Mount Don Pedro Christophersen

text: in the

text: Queen Maud Mountains

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text: The Shoestring Glacier is a small valley glacier, stretching out from the  peak of Mount Saint Helens in Skamania county in southwest Washington in the United States. The source of the glacier was an ice and snow field on the summit of the mountain. 75% of the glacier's volume was removed through the volcanic activity of Saint Helens, creating deadly lahars down the mountainside. The glacier has also created a truncated spur on the mountain.

text: The Shoestring Glacier is a small

text: valley glacier

text: , stretching out from the  peak of

text: Mount Saint Helens

text: in Skamania county in southwest

text: Washington

text: in the United States. The source of the glacier was an ice and snow field on the summit of the mountain. 75% of the glacier's volume was removed through the volcanic activity of Saint Helens, creating deadly

text: lahars

text: down the mountainside. The glacier has also created a

text: truncated spur

text: on the mountain.

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answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The Shoestring Glacier is a small valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: spur

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answers: Saint Helens

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous sediment of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from clays to mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial erosion and entrainment by the moving ice of the glaciers of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial plucking and abrasion and the resulting clasts of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous

text: sediment

text: of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from

text: clay

text: s to mixtures of clay,

text: sand

text: gravel

text: , and

text: boulder

text: s. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial

text: erosion

text: and

text: entrainment

text: by the moving ice of the

text: glacier

text: s of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial

text: plucking

text: and

text: abrasion

text: and the resulting

text: clasts

text: of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

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text: During the early part of the Cenozoic, Wyoming was home to dense forests. Contemporary local vegetation would leave behind significant coal deposits. Massive lakes formed in the low lying areas between local mountains. One inhabitant of these lakes, Knightia eocaena is the state fossil. The Rocky Mountains were still being formed and the local geologic upheaval caused volcanic eruptions. During the Paleocene, the Big Horn Basin was home to a unique mammal fauna. During the Eocene Wyoming contained significant freshwater lakes. The blue-green algae Chlorellopsis grew in this lake. Its fossils are preserved in deposits left around the shores of these lakes. The Green River deposits contain the best preserved freshwater fish fossils in the world not far from Bridger. The seven foot tall flightless bird Diatryma roamed the land. Other land life of Eocene Wyoming include creodonts and a wide variety of insects that left their remains near Henry's Fork, not far from the boundary with neighboring Utah. The Bridger Basin was home to creatures like relatives of camels, carnivorans, elephants, horses, primates, rodents, Uintatherium, and whales.  During the Quaternary, volcanic activity continued throughout much of the state and glaciers left significant deposits in the western half of the state.

text: During the early part of the

text: Cenozoic

text: , Wyoming was home to dense forests. Contemporary local vegetation would leave behind significant coal deposits. Massive lakes formed in the low lying areas between local mountains. One inhabitant of these lakes,

text: Knightia eocaena

text: is the state fossil. The

text: Rocky Mountains

text: were still being formed and the local geologic upheaval caused volcanic eruptions. During the

text: Paleocene

text: , the

text: Big Horn Basin

text: was home to a unique mammal fauna. During the

text: Eocene

text: Wyoming contained significant freshwater

text: lake

text: s. The

text: blue-green algae

text: Chlorellopsis

text: grew in this lake. Its fossils are preserved in deposits left around the shores of these lakes. The

text: Green River

text: deposits contain the best preserved freshwater fish fossils in the world not far from

text: Bridger

text: . The seven foot tall flightless bird

text: Diatryma

text: roamed the land. Other land life of Eocene Wyoming include

text: creodonts

text: and a wide variety of

text: insects

text: that left their remains near

text: Henry's Fork

text: , not far from the boundary with neighboring

text: Utah

text: . The

text: Bridger Basin

text: was home to creatures like relatives of camels, carnivorans, elephants, horses, primates, rodents,

text: Uintatherium

text: , and whales.  During the Quaternary, volcanic activity continued throughout much of the state and glaciers left significant deposits in the western half of the state.

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answers: significant deposits

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answers: During the Quaternary, volcanic activity continued throughout much of the state

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answers: Basin

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answers: glaciers

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answers: Quaternary

text: Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated.  They usually appear as linear mounds of till, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are ground moraines, also called glacial drift, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line.

text: Glacial

text: moraine

text: s are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated.  They usually appear as linear mounds of

text: till

text: , a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are

text: ground moraine

text: s, also called glacial drift, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line.

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text: Deposition consists of transport to the surface and subsequent attachment. Deposit removal is either through deposit dissolution, particle re-entrainment, or deposit spalling, erosive wear, or exfoliation. Fouling results from foulant generation, foulant deposition, deposit removal, and deposit consolidation.

text: Deposition

text: consists of transport to the surface and subsequent attachment. Deposit removal is either through deposit dissolution, particle re-entrainment, or deposit spalling, erosive wear, or exfoliation. Fouling results from foulant generation, foulant deposition, deposit removal, and deposit consolidation.

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answers: glaciers are long and narrow

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answers: Fouling

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answers: Deposition

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answers: transport to the surface

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answers: deposit spalling

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answers: V-shaped

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: erosive wear

text: The length of Miller Creek from its junction with Sixtymile River, a tributary of the Yukon River, is about , and its course is nearly straight. The gradient of its bed is considerable, as is the case with all other streams in this region, and this gradient increases slightly toward the head of the creek. At the extreme head, the slope becomes very steep, the angle nearly corresponding with that of the sides of the valley farther down. In general the valley is V-shaped, but at the head it widens and shows a tendency to assume a more curved, or U-shaped, outline in cross-section, thus suggesting a glacial amphitheater or cirque. It is indeed probably to ice action that this broadening and flattening is due. In the winter ice and snow accumulate and have a tendency to move from the dividing ridge down the steep slopes which the rapidly cutting stream has left. During the spring months, when the ice is softening and melting, the head of the valley is occupied by a veritable though small and transient glacier. The rounding of the head of the valley and its gradual alteration into the form of a cirque is due in part to the moving of the ice, but perhaps more largely to the erosion of the glacial waters, which are distributed over the whole width of the valley instead of being concentrated in its bottom, as are the streams that have no dependence upon ice. As the ice melts, great furrows and ditches are formed on the glacier, and the water flowing from these and falling over the ice front forms waterfalls which churn up the gravel and carry it down the valley, so that the bed rock is often laid bare. As the front of the ice recedes, this vigorous erosion is brought to bear upon successively higher parts of the valley. This action was of economic importance, since it prevents accumulations of auriferous gravels within areas in which it operates—a fact which was proved by prospecting. Miller and Glacier creeks flow into Sixtymile. The drainage areas of Sixtymile and Fortymile rivers are separated by a ridge of moderate height, whose top is comparatively flat and forms part of the general plateau in which the streams have excavated their deep valleys in late geological time.

text: The length of Miller Creek from its junction with

text: Sixtymile River

text: , a tributary of the

text: Yukon River

text: Fortymile

text: rivers are separated by a ridge of moderate height, whose top is comparatively flat and forms part of the general plateau in which the streams have excavated their deep valleys in late geological time.

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glacier creeks flow into Miller Creek

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: course is nearly straight

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Miller Creek

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques and horns

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Yukon River

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valley widens

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is indeed probably to ice action

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Miller and Glacier creeks flow into Sixtymile

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Miller Creek

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley is V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial waters

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: dividing ridge

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: dividing ridge

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Miller Creek

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: great furrows and ditches

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Miller Creek from its junction with Sixtymile River

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: At the extreme head

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: U-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial front

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Sixtymile River

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are

text: Phanerozoic

text: in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

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answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: 38% (47,789)

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: on average of 2 kilometres

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 38% (47,789) remain in the crust

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Porphyry copper deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: uplift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7 10 tonnes of copper

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: kilometres

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Phanerozoic

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Earth’s porphyry copper deposits

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: valley glacier erosion

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Phanerozoic

text: The glacier, which in the Quaternary has shaped the Sillon de Gap, presented several : one to the glacier of the Drac from the cols of Manse and Bayard and one towards the Buëch Valley by the La Freissinouse border.

text: The glacier, which in the

text: Quaternary

text: has shaped the Sillon de Gap, presented several : one to the glacier of the

text: Drac

text: from the cols of

text: Manse

text: and

text: Bayard

text: and one towards the

text: Buëch

text: Valley by the

text: La Freissinouse

text: border.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glacier of the Drac

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: the Sillon de Gap

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the Sillon de Gap

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Sillon de Gap

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Sillon de Gap

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Sillon de Gap

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacier of the Drac

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Quaternary

text: The St. Elias Mountains is the highest coastal mountain range on Earth. It formed due to the subduction of the Yakutat plate underneath the North American plate. The Yakutat microplate is a wedge shaped oceanic plateau with 20–30 km thickness. Similar to the adjacent Pacific plate (7 km crustal thickness) the Yakutat plate is currently moving northwestward with a rate of ~50 mm/year with respect to stable North America. The Yakutat plate is transported northwards along the active Fairweather Fault, which probably started more than 35 million years ago. Due to its thickness the Yakutat plate is buoyant resulting in surface uplift of the overriding North American plate, which formed the Talkeetna Mountains and the Alaska Range in southcentral Alaska located above the subducted part of the Yakutat plate. The St. Elias Mountains formed at the plate boundary between the Yakutat and North American plate. The up to 12 km thick sediments that have been deposited on top of the Yakutat plate are imbricated and deformed as they became scraped off and compose today the southern (coastal) flanks of the St. Elias Mountains. In contrast the high elevated regions of the drainage divide (Bagley Ice Field, Seward Glacier) and north of it comprise rocks that are part of the North American plate.The highest peaks of the St. Elias Mountains are located in the high ice field region of the Kluane National Park (Mt. Logan, Mt. Vancouver) and north of the Malaspina Glacier (Mt. St. Elias, Mt. Cook), in the region known as the St. Elias syntaxis. At the syntaxis region the tectonic style changes from strike-slip motion along the Fairweather Fault to collision west of Malaspina. This tectonic transition concentrates stress in the crust at the syntaxis that together with efficient glacial erosion results in positive feedback processes that through time forms extreme high mountain peaks and local relief, and rapid exhumation of rocks from up to 10 km depths to the surface.

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answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: St. Elias Mountains

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: drainage divide

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answers: NDQ_000192

answers: St. Elias syntaxis

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answers: relief

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: St. Elias Mountains

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: extreme high mountain peaks and local relief

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The St. Elias Mountains formed due to the subduction of the Yakutat plate underneath the North American plate

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: St. Elias Mountains

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: drainage divide

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Bagley Ice Field

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 35 million years ago

text: Glacier ice accumulation occurs through accumulation of snow and other frozen precipitation, as well as through other means including rime ice (freezing of water vapor on the glacier surface), avalanching from hanging glaciers on cliffs and mountainsides above, and re-freezing of glacier meltwater as superimposed ice.  Accumulation is one element in the glacier mass balance formula, with ablation counteracting.  With successive years in which accumulation exceeds ablation, then a glacier will experience positive mass balance, and its terminus will advance.

text: Glacier ice accumulation occurs through accumulation of

text: snow

text: and other frozen

text: precipitation

text: , as well as through other means including

text: rime ice

text: (freezing of

text: water vapor

text: on the

text: glacier

text: surface),

text: avalanching

text: from

text: hanging glacier

text: s on cliffs and mountainsides above, and re-freezing of glacier

text: meltwater

text: as

text: superimposed ice

text: .  Accumulation is one element in the

text: glacier mass balance

text: formula, with

text: ablation

text: counteracting.  With successive years in which accumulation exceeds ablation, then a glacier will experience positive

text: mass balance

text: , and its

text: terminus

text: will advance.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier meltwater

answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: global warming

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answers: Mountainsides

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: terminus

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answers: hanging glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: Antarctica

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answers: hanging glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: mountainsides

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ablation

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: last year

text: Glaciers deposit rock fragments, but the most notable of the depositions are the erratics, which are large rock fragments carried some distance from the source, found on glacial terraces and ridge tops in many places throughout Denali. Headquarter erratics are made of granite and can be the size of a house. Some erratics (like those from the Yanert Valley) are located  away from their original location.

text: Glaciers deposit rock fragments, but the most notable of the depositions are the erratics, which are large rock fragments carried some distance from the source, found on glacial terraces and ridge tops in many places throughout Denali. Headquarter erratics are made of granite and can be the size of a house. Some erratics (like those from the Yanert Valley) are located  away from their original location.

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text: Continued erosion of several glaciers would have been concentrated on areas around the graben, leaving this area without its protective layer of Bedford shale and more susceptible to erosion. The sunken graben area then became a topographical high, now the highest point in Ohio at the elevation of 1549 feet above sea level.

text: Continued erosion of several glaciers would have been concentrated on areas around the graben, leaving this area without its protective layer of

text: Bedford shale

text: and more susceptible to erosion. The sunken graben area then became a topographical high, now the highest point in Ohio at the elevation of 1549 feet above sea level.

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answers: the highest point in Ohio

text: The Missouri Rhineland is a geographical area of Missouri that extends from west of St. Louis to slightly east of Jefferson City, located mostly in the Missouri River Valley on both sides of the river. It is named for its similarities to the Rhineland region in central Europe, a wine growing area around the Rhine river and the German-Americans who determined that this part of Missouri would be good for grape growing. The soils of the Missouri River Valley and surrounding areas are mainly rocky residual soils, which are excellent for viticulture (growing of grapes/vineyards) though poor for most agricultural purposes. These soils were left after the carbonate (mainly limestone) bedrock weathered away to impurities of clayey soil and chert fragments. Farther to the north, glacial deposits and wind-deposited loess, a silty soil also associated with the glaciers, are intermingled with the residual soils.

text: The Missouri Rhineland is a geographical area of

text: Missouri

text: that extends from west of

text: St. Louis

text: to slightly east of

text: Jefferson City

text: , located mostly in the

text: Missouri River Valley

text: on both sides of the river. It is named for its similarities to the

text: Rhineland

text: region in

text: central Europe

text: , a wine growing area around the

text: Rhine

text: river and the

text: German-American

text: s who determined that this part of Missouri would be good for grape growing. The soils of the Missouri River Valley and surrounding areas are mainly rocky residual soils, which are excellent for

text: viticulture

text: (growing of

text: grape

text: s/

text: vineyard

text: s) though poor for most agricultural purposes. These soils were left after the

text: carbonate

text: (mainly

text: limestone

text: bedrock

text: weathered away to impurities of

text: clay

text: ey soil and

text: chert

text: fragments. Farther to the north,

text: glacial

text: deposits and wind-deposited

text: loess

text: , a

text: silt

text: y soil also associated with the glaciers, are intermingled with the residual soils.

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answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

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answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Missouri River Valley

text: The name given these glacial erratics refer to their source, which is the Proterozoic Omarolluk Formation in the Belcher Islands in southeast Hudson Bay. The Laurentide Ice Sheet eroded omars from the Belcher Islands, an archipelago limited to only about a quarter of 1% of Hudson Bay. Glaciers moved omars from the southeastern part of Hudson Bay to central Canada and into the U.S. where they were deposited on moraines. Because scientists know precisely where they came from they are very valuable in documenting the movement of glaciers.

text: The name given these glacial erratics refer to their source, which is the

text: Proterozoic

text: Omarolluk Formation in the Belcher Islands in southeast Hudson Bay. The Laurentide Ice Sheet eroded omars from the Belcher Islands, an

text: archipelago

text: limited to only about a quarter of 1% of Hudson Bay.

text: Glaciers

text: moved omars from the southeastern part of Hudson Bay to central Canada and into the U.S. where they were deposited on

text: moraines

text: . Because scientists know precisely where they came from they are very valuable in documenting the movement of glaciers.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: The Laurentide Ice Sheet

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial erratics

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Hudson Bay

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Belcher Islands

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Laurentide Ice Sheet

text: Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier. The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by frost shattering of the valley walls and/or from tributary streams flowing into the valley. The till is carried along the glacial margin until the glacier melts. Because lateral moraines are deposited on top of the glacier, they do not experience the postglacial erosion of the valley floor and therefore, as the glacier melts, lateral moraines are usually preserved as high ridges.

text: Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier. The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by

text: frost shattering

text: of the valley walls and/or from tributary streams flowing into the valley. The

text: till

text: is carried along the glacial margin until the glacier melts. Because lateral moraines are deposited on top of the glacier, they do not experience the postglacial erosion of the valley floor and therefore, as the glacier melts, lateral moraines are usually preserved as high ridges.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000183

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: parallel ridges of debris

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: tributary streams flowing into the valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: lateral moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: tributary streams flowing into the valley

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: parallel ridges

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The till is carried

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: frost shattering of the valley walls

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial margin

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial margin

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Lateral moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Lateral moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: high ridges

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: high ridges

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: lateral moraines

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacial margin

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: postglacial

text: Rock glaciers have been seriously intervened by Andina since the late 1980s, when it started to deposit several million tons of waste rock on top of rock glaciers, resulting in their acceleration and partial destabilisation.  Since then, 2.1 km of rock glaciers with a water equivalent of more than 15 million cubic metres have been affected by Andina, including the partial removal of rock glaciers.

text: Rock glacier

text: s have been seriously intervened by Andina since the late 1980s, when it started to deposit several million tons of waste rock on top of rock glaciers, resulting in their acceleration and partial destabilisation.  Since then, 2.1 km of rock glaciers with a water equivalent of more than 15 million cubic metres have been affected by Andina, including the partial removal of rock glaciers.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 2.1 km

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: waste rock

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: partial destabilisation

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 2.1 km

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Andina

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 2.1 km of rock glaciers with a water equivalent of more than 15 million cubic metres

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1980s

text: Gem Glacier is the smallest named glacier in Glacier National Park (U.S.). Located on the east (Glacier County) side of the Continental Divide arête known as the Garden Wall, the glacier is situated on the cliff face above the better known Grinnell Glacier. Gem Glacier is a hanging glacier, and drapes down from the north face of the steep arete to which it is attached. Gem Glacier is only  in area and is far below the  threshold often cited as qualifying as an active glacier. Between 1966 and 2005, Gem Glacier lost 30 percent of its acreage and Grinnell Glacier lost 40 percent.

text: Gem Glacier is the smallest named

text: glacier

text: in

text: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: . Located on the east (

text: Glacier County

text: ) side of the

text: Continental Divide

text: arête

text: known as the

text: Garden Wall

text: , the glacier is situated on the cliff face above the better known

text: Grinnell Glacier

text: . Gem Glacier is a hanging glacier, and drapes down from the north face of the steep arete to which it is attached. Gem Glacier is only  in area and is far below the  threshold often cited as qualifying as an active glacier. Between 1966 and 2005, Gem Glacier lost 30 percent of its acreage and Grinnell Glacier lost 40 percent.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers flow downhill

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Arête

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It picks up sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the north

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is a hanging glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: acreage

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: active glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: arête

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: arête

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Glacier National Park

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Gem Glacier is a hanging glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: arête

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: arete

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Garden Wall

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1966

text: In 1901, when Mount Adams was being mapped and its glaciers named by Harry Fielding Reid, Reid's companion and guide, Claude Ewing Rusk, wanted to name the glacier Reid Glacier in honor of Reid; however, Reid insisted that it should be named something else because he thought it improper to place his own name on the map that he was making and the Mazamas were trying to name a glacier on Mount Hood after him. This eventually persuaded Rusk and he conceded to name the glacier Adams Glacier.

text: In 1901, when Mount Adams was being mapped and its glaciers named by

text: Harry Fielding Reid

text: , Reid's companion and guide,

text: Claude Ewing Rusk

text: , wanted to name the glacier Reid Glacier in honor of Reid; however, Reid insisted that it should be named something else because he thought it improper to place his own name on the map that he was making and the

text: Mazamas

text: were trying to name a glacier on

text: Mount Hood

text: after him. This eventually persuaded Rusk and he conceded to name the glacier Adams Glacier.

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text: Geologically, the Brenta Group is very different from the granite-formed neighboring mountain groups like Ortles and Adamello/Presanella. The main peaks are formed of hard compact dolomite, while the peripheral subgroups often are made up of more calcareous dolomite or limestone. The hard dolomite (dolomia principale) was originally formed during the Mesozoic era, under the surface of the shallow Tethys Ocean, some 200 million years ago. The hard compact dolomite with a high magnesium content was formed during the Upper Triassic period. The softer, more calcareous material was deposited later, in the late Triassic and early Jurassic period. The difference is clearly noticeable for the climber who gets a much more compact and reliable rock on the peaks of the central part of the Brenta Group than in the peripheral subgroups.  Eventually, these layers were pushed upwards by the tectonic activity that led to the formation of the Alps during the Eocene, starting some 66 million years ago and leading to the formation of folds and thrust faults. Subsequent erosion carved out the dolomitic landscape with its steep vertical pinnacles, as we know it now.Although the remnants of hugh moraines suggests that the Brenta group was once encapsulated by big glaciers, the remnants of those are now very modest and have been steadily shrinking over the course of the last hundred years. Traditionally, the Brenta glaciers were relatively small and called "vedrette". Over the last hundred years their size has been reduced to often smaller than half of their original size around 1900.  Climate change appears to be the main reason.

text: Geologically, the Brenta Group is very different from the granite-formed neighboring mountain groups like

text: Ortles

text: and

text: Adamello

text: Presanella

text: . The main peaks are formed of hard compact

text: dolomite

text: , while the peripheral subgroups often are made up of more calcareous dolomite or

text: limestone

text: . The hard dolomite (dolomia principale) was originally formed during the

text: Mesozoic era

text: , under the surface of the shallow

text: Tethys Ocean

text: , some 200 million years ago. The hard compact dolomite with a high magnesium content was formed during the

text: Upper Triassic period

text: . The softer, more calcareous material was deposited later, in the late

text: Triassic

text: and early

text: Jurassic

text: period. The difference is clearly noticeable for the climber who gets a much more compact and reliable rock on the peaks of the central part of the Brenta Group than in the peripheral subgroups.  Eventually, these layers were pushed upwards by the

text: tectonic

text: activity that led to the

text: formation of the Alps

text: during the Eocene, starting some 66 million years ago and leading to the formation of folds and

text: thrust faults

text: . Subsequent erosion carved out the dolomitic landscape with its steep vertical pinnacles, as we know it now.Although the remnants of hugh

text: moraines

text: suggests that the Brenta group was once encapsulated by big

text: glaciers

text: , the remnants of those are now very modest and have been steadily shrinking over the course of the last hundred years. Traditionally, the Brenta glaciers were relatively small and called "vedrette". Over the last hundred years their size has been

text: reduced

text: to often smaller than half of their original size around 1900.

text: Climate change

text: appears to be the main reason.

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answers: 1900

text: Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.

text: Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Drumlins

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is not fully understood

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: plastic deformation zone

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: drumlin

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answers: ancient

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: drumlin

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answers: drumlin

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answers: Drumlins

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answers: drumlins

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answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: ancient glaciers

text: Piedmont glaciers are valley glaciers which have spilled out onto relatively flat plains, where they spread out into bulb-like lobes. The Malaspina Glacier in Alaska is the largest example of this.

text: Piedmont glaciers are valley glaciers which have spilled out onto relatively flat plains, where they spread out into bulb-like lobes. The

text: Malaspina Glacier

text: in Alaska is the largest example of this.

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answers: 2

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answers: 5

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It picks up sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: lobes

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Piedmont

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: lobes

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: lobes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Piedmont

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: flat plains

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: flat plains

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Piedmont glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Alaska

text: As a river or stream empties into a proglacial lake, sediments of silt, sand, and gravel are deposited into the lake. Since these sediments are stream deposited, the stratigraphy of the beds will be well sorted. In these bed layers, sharp distinct size variations may occur in the clast size. This indicates a quick change in the river or stream's velocity. Over time, depending on how deep the proglacial lake was and if the stream melt water was a constant, these sediments would build up and out of the lake. Sediments will then begin depositing against the terminus, or toe, of the glacier. This type of formation causes the asymmetrical triangular shaped mound, with a flat top. The longer side of the triangle, is the side that slopes down into the proglacial lake. The steeper side is the one that was up against the terminus. As the glacier retreats and the ice under the delta melts, the edges of the glacier will drop, causing a fault line to be visible on the side of the kame delta.

text: As a river or stream empties into a proglacial lake, sediments of silt, sand, and gravel are deposited into the lake. Since these sediments are stream deposited, the

text: stratigraphy

text: of the

text: beds

text: will be well sorted. In these bed layers, sharp distinct size variations may occur in the clast size. This indicates a quick change in the river or stream's velocity. Over time, depending on how deep the proglacial lake was and if the stream melt water was a constant, these sediments would build up and out of the lake. Sediments will then begin depositing against the terminus, or toe, of the glacier. This type of formation causes the asymmetrical triangular shaped mound, with a flat top. The longer side of the triangle, is the side that slopes down into the proglacial lake. The steeper side is the one that was up against the terminus. As the glacier retreats and the ice under the delta melts, the edges of the glacier will drop, causing a

text: fault

text: line to be visible on the side of the kame delta.

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answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The longer side of the triangle

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: As a river or stream empties into a proglacial lake

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Sediments will then begin depositing against the terminus

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: slopes down into the proglacial lake

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers move because of gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Sediments will then begin depositing against the terminus

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Kame delta

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: kame delta

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: kame delta

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: proglacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Kame delta

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: fault line

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: a fault line

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Kame delta

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: a fault line

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Kame delta

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: triangular

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: kame delta

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: proglacial lake

text: Scott's initial plan was that the dogs would return to base at this stage. However, because of the slower than expected progress Scott decided to take the dogs on further. Day and Hooper were dispatched to Cape Evans with a message to this effect for Simpson, who had been left in charge there. On  the expedition had reached the Gateway, the name given by Shackleton to the route from the Barrier on to the Beardmore Glacier. At this point a blizzard struck, forcing the men to camp until  and to break into rations intended for the Glacier journey. When the blizzard lifted, the remaining ponies were shot as planned, and their meat deposited as food for the return parties. On , Meares and Dimitri turned back with the dogs, carrying a message back to base that "things were not as rosy as they might be, but we keep our spirits up and say the luck must turn."

text: Scott's initial plan was that the dogs would return to base at this stage. However, because of the slower than expected progress Scott decided to take the dogs on further. Day and Hooper were dispatched to Cape Evans with a message to this effect for Simpson, who had been left in charge there. On  the expedition had reached the Gateway, the name given by Shackleton to the route from the Barrier on to the Beardmore Glacier. At this point a blizzard struck, forcing the men to camp until  and to break into rations intended for the Glacier journey. When the blizzard lifted, the remaining ponies were shot as planned, and their meat deposited as food for the return parties. On , Meares and Dimitri turned back with the dogs, carrying a message back to base that "things were not as rosy as they might be, but we keep our spirits up and say the luck must turn."

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answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The Gateway

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Beardmore Glacier

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: the Gateway

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Barrier

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Barrier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Cape Evans

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Barrier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: At this point a blizzard struck

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Barrier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Cape Evans

text: More recently, the debate has been reopened by Jeffrey Schaffer, who suggests that the role of glaciers and other erosion processes has been dramatically overstated. Schaffer states that Yosemite Valley above 5600 feet (1700 m), for example, has changed relatively little in the past 30 million years. Other than being slightly larger, if one could look back in time and see them, the major features would be recognizable to the modern eye. Schaffer believes that the numerous joint planes have had the greatest impact on the geomorphology of the Park's major features. This is in contradiction to the consensus view that huge highly abrasive glaciers acting on joint planes combined with a great deal of uplift over just the past couple million years was the primary shaping force of the features (such rapid uplift would have greatly accelerated all types of erosion).

text: More recently, the debate has been reopened by

text: Jeffrey Schaffer

text: , who suggests that the role of glaciers and other erosion processes has been dramatically overstated. Schaffer states that Yosemite Valley above 5600 feet (1700 m), for example, has changed relatively little in the past 30 million years. Other than being slightly larger, if one could look back in time and see them, the major features would be recognizable to the modern eye. Schaffer believes that the numerous joint planes have had the greatest impact on the

text: geomorphology

text: of the Park's major features. This is in contradiction to the consensus view that huge highly abrasive glaciers acting on joint planes combined with a great deal of uplift over just the past couple million years was the primary shaping force of the features (such rapid uplift would have greatly accelerated all types of erosion).

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The debate has been reopened

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It picks up sediments when they freeze to ice

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Yosemite Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: huge

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: highly abrasive

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Yosemite Valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Yosemite

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Yosemite Valley

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: joint planes

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 30 million years

text: Access to the glacier is difficult due to poor weather conditions and the requirement to travel via off road vehicle and then hike on foot several miles to the base of the glacier. The road is impassable for up to 10 months of the year. The Beartooth Highway (U.S. 212) is one of the closest access roads. Two smaller glaciers in the immediate region also have the same species of grasshoppers entombed in their ice; one is also named Grasshopper Glacier, the other simply Hopper Glacier. Other glaciers also bear the name for the same reason, including one in the Crazy Mountains north/northwest of the Beartooths, and Grasshopper Glacier in the Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming.

text: Access to the glacier is difficult due to poor weather conditions and the requirement to travel via off road vehicle and then hike on foot several miles to the base of the glacier. The road is impassable for up to 10 months of the year. The

text: Beartooth Highway

text: (U.S. 212) is one of the closest access roads. Two smaller glaciers in the immediate region also have the same species of grasshoppers entombed in their ice; one is also named Grasshopper Glacier, the other simply Hopper Glacier. Other glaciers also bear the name for the same reason, including one in the

text: Crazy Mountains

text: north/northwest of the Beartooths, and

text: Grasshopper Glacier

text: in the

text: Shoshone National Forest

text: in Wyoming.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

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text: Lake Miers () is a small lake in Miers Valley, Antarctica, lying  east of the snouts of Miers Glacier and Adams Glacier, and filled by meltwater from these glaciers. A stream from the lake flows down the valley in the warmest weather to reach the coast of Victoria Land. The lake was named after Miers Glacier in 1957 by the New Zealand Blue Glacier Party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1956–58.

text: Lake Miers () is a small lake in

text: Miers Valley

text: , Antarctica, lying  east of the snouts of

text: Miers Glacier

text: and

text: Adams Glacier

text: , and filled by meltwater from these glaciers. A stream from the lake flows down the valley in the warmest weather to reach the coast of

text: Victoria Land

text: . The lake was named after Miers Glacier in 1957 by the New Zealand Blue Glacier Party of the

text: Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition

text: , 1956–58.

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answers: Miers Glacier

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answers: 1956–58

text: The Quaternary geology of Shropshire is equally fascinating, dominated in the Devensian by major glaciers flowing east from Wales and south from the Irish Sea basin, meeting around Shrewsbury and moving south as far as the Stretton Valley. The Wye glacier moved up from the south into the southern part of the county which, together with the meltwater deposits, have combined to create a diverse and complex series of deposits.

text: The Quaternary geology of Shropshire is equally fascinating, dominated in the Devensian by major glaciers flowing east from Wales and south from the Irish Sea basin, meeting around Shrewsbury and moving south as far as the Stretton Valley. The Wye glacier moved up from the south into the southern part of the county which, together with the meltwater deposits, have combined to create a diverse and complex series of deposits.

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answers: Quaternary geology

text: Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-Pyrenees has risen. Glaciers and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. While continuing to rise, the mountain has erected the cluster of its deposits and thus forms the Plateau de Lannemezan, head of a gigantic  which puts its mark upon much of the southwest, up the Garonne at more than  to the north. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history and reputation.

text: Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-

text: Pyrenees

text: has risen.

text: Glacier

text: s and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. While continuing to rise, the mountain has erected the cluster of its deposits and thus forms the

text: Plateau de Lannemezan

text: , head of a gigantic  which puts its mark upon much of the southwest, up the

text: Garonne

text: at more than  to the north. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history and reputation.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: Glaciers and streams that cascade

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposits

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: compression

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answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Pre-Pyrenees

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: Plateau de Lannemezan

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answers: over 50 million years

text: Baltistan is a rocky wilderness of around , with the largest cluster of mountains in the world and the biggest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Himalayas advance into this region from India, Tibet and Nepal, and north of them are the Karakoram range. Both ranges run northwest, separated by the Indus River. Along the Indus and its tributaries are many valleys. Glaciers include Baltoro Glacier, Biafo Glacier, Siachen Glacier, Trango Glacier and Godwin-Austen Glacier.

text: Baltistan is a rocky wilderness of around , with the largest cluster of mountains in the world and the biggest

text: glacier

text: s outside the polar regions. The

text: Himalayas

text: advance into this region from India, Tibet and Nepal, and north of them are the Karakoram range. Both ranges run northwest, separated by the

text: Indus River

text: . Along the Indus and its tributaries are many valleys. Glaciers include

text: Baltoro Glacier

text: Biafo Glacier

text: Siachen Glacier

text: Trango Glacier

text: and

text: Godwin-Austen Glacier

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text: Ancient igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock underlie and form the geologic base of the Santa Ana River. Most of the strata in the flat valleys and basins of the watershed are underlain by thousands of feet of sediment deposited by transient seas during climate changes and by erosion. Most of the mountains in and rimming the basin consist of granite batholiths only about 75 million years old. However, much of the rock overlying the highlands, above elevations of , is ancient metamorphic rock up to 1.7 billion years old. This rock originally formed at the bottom of the ancient Pacific Ocean and was uplifted to the highest peaks of the mountains. Even in ice ages, glaciers have rarely occurred on Southern California mountains, so the rock has remained there for tens of millions of years without significant erosion.

text: Ancient

text: igneous

text: metamorphic

text: and

text: sedimentary rock

text: underlie and form the geologic base of the Santa Ana River. Most of the

text: strata

text: in the flat valleys and basins of the watershed are underlain by thousands of feet of sediment deposited by transient seas during climate changes and by

text: erosion

text: . Most of the mountains in and rimming the basin consist of

text: granite

text: batholith

text: s only about 75 million years old. However, much of the rock overlying the highlands, above elevations of , is ancient metamorphic rock up to 1.7 billion years old. This rock originally formed at the bottom of the ancient Pacific Ocean and was uplifted to the highest peaks of the mountains. Even in

text: ice age

text: s,

text: glacier

text: s have rarely occurred on Southern California mountains, so the rock has remained there for tens of millions of years without significant erosion.

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answers: Most of the mountains in and rimming the basin consist of granite batholiths only about 75 million years old

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text: This limited glacial erosion also means that Vågå had limited glacier erosion during the last glacial period. Many findings of Mammoth pre-dating the last glacial maximum (LGM) have been found, being evidence of the conservative nature of the LGM in the region.

text: This limited glacial erosion also means that Vågå had limited

text: glacier

text: erosion during the last glacial period. Many findings of

text: Mammoth

text: pre-dating the

text: last glacial maximum

text: (LGM) have been found, being evidence of the conservative nature of the LGM in the region.

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text: In May 2012, "The Monument to the Ice Age" was dedicated in the town square.  It features descriptions of Ice Age times, continental glaciers, and Sioux Quartzite glacial erratics -the oldest rocks in Kansas.  The main reason for this Ice Age Monument is that Blue Rapids was founded in a place with abundant natural resources brought or created by the glaciers of the Ice Age over 10,000 years ago.  The namesake rapids on the Blue River that were harnessed to power early industries, the sand and gravel deposits used for construction and roads, and the rich soils for agriculture are all here because of the Ice Age glaciers.  The Monument honors this ancient geological heritage.  Glacial erratic that was deposited in the glaciated region of Kansas during the Pleistocene era.

text: In May 2012, "The Monument to the Ice Age" was dedicated in the town square.  It features descriptions of Ice Age times, continental glaciers, and Sioux Quartzite glacial erratics -the oldest rocks in Kansas.  The main reason for this Ice Age Monument is that Blue Rapids was founded in a place with abundant natural resources brought or created by the glaciers of the Ice Age over 10,000 years ago.  The namesake rapids on the Blue River that were harnessed to power early industries, the sand and gravel deposits used for construction and roads, and the rich soils for agriculture are all here because of the Ice Age glaciers.  The Monument honors this ancient geological heritage.

text: Glacial erratic

text: that was deposited in the

text: glaciated region of Kansas

text: during the

text: Pleistocene

text: era.

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text: Glaciers are currently retreating at significant rates throughout the southern hemisphere. With respect to glaciers of the Andes mountains in South America, abundant evidence has been collected from ongoing research at Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, Quelccaya Ice Cap and Qori Kalis Glacier in Peru, Zongo, Chacaltaya and Charquini glaciers in Bolivia, the Aconcagua River Basin in the central Chilean Andes, and the Northern Patagonian and Southern Patagonian ice fields. Retreat of glaciers in New Zealand and Antarctica is also well documented.

text: Glaciers are currently

text: retreating

text: at significant rates throughout the southern hemisphere. With respect to glaciers of the

text: Andes mountains

text: in

text: South America

text: , abundant evidence has been collected from ongoing research at

text: Nevado del Ruiz

text: in

text: Colombia

text: Quelccaya Ice Cap

text: and

text: Qori Kalis Glacier

text: in

text: Peru

text: Zongo

text: Chacaltaya

text: and

text: Charquini

text: glaciers in

text: Bolivia

text: , the

text: Aconcagua River

text: Basin in the

text: central Chilean Andes

text: , and the

text: Northern Patagonian

text: and

text: Southern Patagonian

text: ice field

text: s. Retreat of glaciers in

text: New Zealand

text: and Antarctica is also well documented.

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text: The retreating glaciers have left the land with morainic deposits in formations of eskers. These are ridges of stratified gravel and sand, running northwest to southeast, where the ancient edge of the glacier once lay. Among the biggest of these are the three Salpausselkä ridges that run across southern Finland.

text: The retreating glaciers have left the land with

text: morainic

text: deposits in formations of

text: eskers

text: . These are ridges of stratified gravel and sand, running northwest to southeast, where the ancient edge of the glacier once lay. Among the biggest of these are the three

text: Salpausselkä

text: ridges that run across southern Finland.

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text: The rivers running from it have flowed back and forth over the lowlands, depositing the material that forms the wide sands of Skeiðarársandur. Road No. 1 did not become a complete circle around the country until 1974, when the last of the rivers barring transportation, the Skeiðará, was finally bridged. Even so, in 2009 Skeiðará stopped flowing where it had been bridged, running instead westwards directly in front of the glacier to the river Gígjukvísl, so that the river under the long Skeiðará bridge to the east carries very little water compared to before.

text: The rivers running from it have flowed back and forth over the lowlands, depositing the material that forms the wide sands of

text: Skeiðarársandur

text: . Road No. 1 did not become a complete circle around the country until 1974, when the last of the rivers barring transportation, the Skeiðará, was finally bridged. Even so, in 2009 Skeiðará stopped flowing where it had been bridged, running instead westwards directly in front of the glacier to the river

text: Gígjukvísl

text: , so that the river under the long Skeiðará bridge to the east carries very little water compared to before.

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answers: 2009

text: Analytic glacial erosion models suggest that ice flows passing through constrained spaces such as mountain passes produced enhanced erosion beneath thicker, faster ice flows, which deepens the channel below areas both upstream and downstream. The underlying physical phenomena is that erosion increases with the rate of ice discharge. Although this simplifies complex relationships among time-varying climates, ice sheet behaviors and bed characteristics, it is based on the general recognition that enhanced ice discharges typically increase the erosion rate. This is because the basal sliding rate and the erosion rate are interrelated and driven by the same variables: the ice thickness, the underlying bed slope, the overlying glacial slope and the basal temperature. As a result, the modeled fjords are deepest through the narrowest channels (i.e., regions with the highest surrounding highest topography). This corresponds with actual physical observations of fjords.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: fjords are deepest through the narrowest channels

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: downstream

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: mountain passes

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Basal sliding rate

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: downstream

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Basal sliding rate and the erosion rate are interrelated

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Basal sliding rate and the erosion rate are interrelated

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial slope

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: passes

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: mountain passes

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: deepens the channel below areas both upstream and downstream

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: ice thickness, the underlying bed slope, the overlying glacial slope and the basal temperature

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: narrowest channels

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: fjord

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: time-varying climates

text: Later, when the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of crushed rock and sand (glacial drift), they created characteristic depositional landforms. Examples include glacial  moraines, eskers, and kames. Drumlins and ribbed moraines are also landforms left behind by retreating glaciers. The stone walls of New England contain many glacial erratics, rocks that were dragged by a glacier many miles from their bedrock origin.

text: Later, when the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of crushed

text: rock

text: and sand (

text: glacial drift

text: ), they created characteristic depositional landforms. Examples include glacial

text: moraines

text: esker

text: s, and

text: kame

text: s.

text: Drumlin

text: s and

text: ribbed moraines

text: are also landforms left behind by retreating glaciers. The stone walls of New England contain many

text: glacial erratic

text: s, rocks that were dragged by a glacier many miles from their

text: bedrock

text: origin.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: many miles

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Drumlins

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial moraines

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Drumlins

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: eskers

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answers: eskers

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answers: New England

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: eskers

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answers: landforms left behind by retreating glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: rock walls

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: esker

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answers: glacial moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: New England

text: Of interest from the days of the Viking Orbiters are piles of material surrounding cliffs. These deposits of rock debris are called lobate debris aprons (LDAs). These features have a convex topography and a gentle slope from cliffs or escarpments; this suggests flow away from the steep source cliff. In addition, lobate debris aprons can show surface lineations just as rock glaciers on the Earth. Recently, research with the Shallow Radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has provided strong evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia and in mid northern latitudes are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Radar from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter gave a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs, meaning that pure water ice made up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit, frozen water is now known to exist at just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes). The discovery of water ice in LDAs demonstrates that water is found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes, which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of easily available on Mars.  It is far easier to land a spaceship near the equator of Mars, so the closer water is available to the equator the better it will be for future colonists.

text: Of interest from the days of the

text: Viking

text: Orbiters are piles of material surrounding cliffs. These deposits of rock debris are called

text: lobate debris aprons

text: (LDAs). These features have a convex topography and a gentle slope from cliffs or escarpments; this suggests flow away from the steep source cliff. In addition, lobate debris aprons can show surface lineations just as rock glaciers on the Earth. Recently, research with the Shallow Radar on the

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: has provided strong evidence that the LDAs in

text: Hellas Planitia

text: and in mid northern latitudes are

text: glacier

text: s that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Radar from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter gave a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs, meaning that pure water ice made up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the

text: Phoenix lander

text: and the studies of the

text: Mars Odyssey

text: from orbit, frozen water is now known to exist at just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes). The discovery of water ice in LDAs demonstrates that water is found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes, which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of easily available on Mars.  It is far easier to land a spaceship near the equator of Mars, so the closer water is available to the equator the better it will be for future colonists.

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answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: This suggests flow away from the steep source cliff

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: flow away from the steep source cliff

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: It is far easier to land a spaceship near the equator of Mars

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: LDAs

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: rock glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: escarpments

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Mars

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: lobate debris aprons

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped river valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Viking Orbiters

text: The volcano is about  in diameter at its base with a rough volume of . The sides of the upper cone are relatively steep (in comparison to volcanoes in general). Made up of pyroclastic flow deposits and lava flows, and resting on Mesozoic era rocks of the Aleutian Mountain Range batholith, the mountain has been somewhat weathered by movement of several glaciers that reside on it. The current main vent is on the north side of the crater by the head of the Drift glacier. Also present on the mountain are Holocene lahar deposits that extend as far as the Cook Inlet. This mountain has produced andesite, basalt and dacite, with relatively silicic andesite dominant in recent eruptions.

text: The volcano is about  in diameter at its base with a rough volume of . The sides of the upper cone are relatively steep (in comparison to volcanoes in general). Made up of pyroclastic flow deposits and

text: lava flow

text: s, and resting on

text: Mesozoic era

text: rocks of the Aleutian Mountain Range

text: batholith

text: , the mountain has been somewhat

text: weathered

text: by movement of several glaciers that reside on it. The current main

text: vent

text: is on the north side of the crater by the head of the Drift glacier. Also present on the mountain are

text: Holocene

text: lahar

text: deposits that extend as far as the Cook Inlet. This mountain has produced

text: andesite

text: basalt

text: and

text: dacite

text: , with relatively

text: silicic

text: andesite dominant in recent eruptions.

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answers: glaciers

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answers: Drift glacier

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answers: Drift glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

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answers: north

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers that reside on it

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers that reside on it

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: Holocene

text: Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, 100 of which can be observed from the Icefields Parkway. Small cirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges, situated in depressions on the side of many mountains. As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world, the glaciers in Banff are retreating. While Peyto Glacier is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world, with research extending back to the 1970s, most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s. Glaciologists are now researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly, and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers. Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies (areas both inside and outside Banff National Park) between the years 1920 and 1985. Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005, indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers is accelerating. In Banff National Park alone, in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005, 29 glaciers had disappeared. The total glaciated area dropped from  in that time period.

text: Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, 100 of which can be observed from the Icefields Parkway. Small

text: cirque glacier

text: s are fairly common in the Main Ranges, situated in depressions on the side of many mountains. As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world, the glaciers in Banff

text: are retreating

text: . While

text: Peyto Glacier

text: is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world, with research extending back to the 1970s, most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s.

text: Glaciologist

text: s are now researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly, and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers. Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies (areas both inside and outside Banff National Park) between the years 1920 and 1985. Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005, indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers is accelerating. In Banff National Park alone, in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005, 29 glaciers had disappeared. The total glaciated area dropped from  in that time period.

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answers: The majority of mountain glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Peyto Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers are retreating

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

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answers: glaciers in Banff are retreating

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answers: Main Ranges

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirque

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answers: large

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: icefields

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answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Icefields Parkway

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answers: cirque

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answers: Banff National Park

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answers: water supplies to streams and rivers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The total glaciated area dropped from in that time period

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answers: glaciers

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answers: cirque

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answers: icefields

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1990s

text: Glaciers carry a lot of coarse-grained material and many glacial deposits are conglomeratic. Tillites,  the sediments deposited directly by a glacier, are typically poorly sorted, matrix-supported conglomerates. The matrix is generally fine-grained, consisting of finely milled rock fragments. Waterlaid deposits associated with glaciers are often conglomeratic, forming structures such as eskers.

text: Glacier

text: s carry a lot of coarse-grained material and many glacial deposits are conglomeratic.

text: Tillite

text: s,  the sediments deposited directly by a glacier, are typically poorly sorted, matrix-supported conglomerates. The matrix is generally fine-grained, consisting of finely milled rock fragments. Waterlaid deposits associated with glaciers are often conglomeratic, forming structures such as

text: esker

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Tillites

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It does not say.

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Waterlaid deposits

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Tillites

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: skers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacial deposits are conglomeratic

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: esker

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Tillites

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last time glaciers dipped as far south

text: The area is underlain by bedrock of Silurian age. This rock is dolomite. Preglacial erosion the surface of the bedrock created an irregular surface, allows the glacial drift to vary in depth over short distances. Some areas are underlain by bedrock near the surface, in other areas it can be  deep. Some hills are solely glacial drift; others may be entirely of limestone.The water comes from the melting ‘Valparaiso glacier’, the glacier that deposited first the Manhattan moraine, part of the Valparaiso morainic system and the Valparaiso moraines to the northeast. The melt-water came from three glacial lobes of the Laurentide ice sheet. In addition to the melt-water from the Michigan lobe in the Michigan basin, melt-water came from the Huron-Erie lobe to the east in the Maumee valley in Ohio and from the Sturgis Lobe coming out of Michigan across northeast Indiana. The water backed up behind the Marseilles moraine  forming a series of lakes.  In the Morris basin was Lake Wauponsee, which reached east up the Kankakee valley into Indiana, It flowed south into the Iroquois River  into Lake Watseka over the divide (Chatsworth ridge of the Marseilles morainic system, to the Vermillion River valley past Pontiac. The volume of water was blocked at the gap in the Farm Ridge moraine, a unit of the Bloomington morainic system near  LaSalle.  This blockage created Lake Ottawa between Farm Ridge and the Marseilles moraine in the Illinois Valley, and between the Lake Pontiac between the Cropsey (unit of the Bloomington morainic system, and Marseilles moraines in the Vermilion Valley.

text: The area is underlain by bedrock of

text: Silurian

text: age. This rock is

text: dolomite

text: . Preglacial erosion the surface of the bedrock created an irregular surface, allows the glacial drift to vary in depth over short distances. Some areas are underlain by bedrock near the surface, in other areas it can be  deep. Some hills are solely glacial drift; others may be entirely of limestone.The water comes from the melting ‘Valparaiso glacier’, the glacier that deposited first the Manhattan moraine, part of the

text: Valparaiso morainic system

text: and the Valparaiso moraines to the northeast. The melt-water came from three glacial lobes of the

text: Laurentide ice sheet

text: . In addition to the melt-water from the Michigan lobe in the

text: Michigan basin

text: , melt-water came from the Huron-Erie lobe to the east in the

text: Maumee valley

text: in

text: Ohio

text: and from the Sturgis Lobe coming out of

text: Michigan

text: across northeast Indiana. The water backed up behind the

text: Marseilles moraine

text: forming a series of

text: lakes

text: .  In the Morris basin was

text: Lake Wauponsee

text: , which reached east up the Kankakee valley into Indiana, It flowed south into the

text: Iroquois River

text: into

text: Lake Watseka

text: over the divide (Chatsworth ridge of the Marseilles morainic system, to the

text: Vermillion River valley

text: past

text: Pontiac

text: . The volume of water was blocked at the gap in the Farm Ridge moraine, a unit of the

text: Bloomington morainic system

text: near

text: LaSalle

text: .  This blockage created

text: Lake Ottawa

text: between Farm Ridge and the Marseilles moraine in the

text: Illinois Valley

text: , and between the

text: Lake Pontiac

text: between the Cropsey (unit of the

text: Bloomington morainic system

text: , and Marseilles moraines in the Vermilion Valley.

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Laurentide ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glacial drift to vary in depth over short distances

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Some hills are solely glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: northeast

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Preglacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Valparaiso glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Manhattan moraine

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial lobe

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Manhattan moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Chatsworth ridge

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: divide

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Indiana

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Some hills are solely glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The volume of water was blocked at the gap in the Farm Ridge moraine

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Moraine

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Valparaiso glacier

text: South of Concordia Place the glacier runs towards the valley of the Oberwallis (Upper Valais); on the east side, near Bettmeralp, lies a small glacier lake, Märjelensee (); from the western side used to enter the Mittelaletschgletscher, but since the end cof the 20th century the connection with the Aletsch Glacier has been lost. Further down, until about 1880, the Oberaletschgletscher did also enter the Aletsch Glacier at its mouth. But since then both glaciers have been retreating so far that they do not connect anymore (the Upper Aletsch Glacier did retreat about  from its connecting point with the Aletsch Glacier), but both serve now only as the source of the river Massa. The river flows through the Lake  (a reservoir, and coincidentally representing the glacier's mouth region in the 19th century, which is a reatreat of more than ) and a gorge of the same name before reaching the Rhône near Brig.

text: South of Concordia Place the glacier runs towards the valley of the

text: Oberwallis

text: (Upper Valais); on the east side, near

text: Bettmeralp

text: , lies a small glacier lake,

text: Märjelensee

text: (); from the western side used to enter the

text: Mittelaletschgletscher

text: , but since the end cof the 20th century the connection with the Aletsch Glacier has been lost. Further down, until about 1880, the

text: Oberaletschgletscher

text: did also enter the Aletsch Glacier at its mouth. But since then both glaciers have been retreating so far that they do not connect anymore (the Upper Aletsch Glacier did retreat about  from its connecting point with the Aletsch Glacier), but both serve now only as the source of the river

text: Massa

text: . The river flows through the

text: Lake

text: (a reservoir, and coincidentally representing the glacier's mouth region in the 19th century, which is a reatreat of more than ) and a gorge of the same name before reaching the

text: Rhône

text: near

text: Brig

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answers: 1880

text: About  north-northwest of the Franklin Glacier complex is the deeply dissected Silverthrone Caldera. It is  wide, with steep slopes extending from near sea level to a maximum elevation of . Like Franklin to the south-southeast, Silverthrone has not been studied in detail by scientists. As a result, its affinity and eruptive history is poorly known. It is considered to be part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but it also lies on the overlapping trend of the much older Pemberton Volcanic Belt. At least three phases of volcanic activity have been identified at Silverthrone. The first phase, following collapse of the caldera, deposited a thick sequence of undated basal breccia. It contains irreguler subvolcanic intrusions, as well as a profusion of dikes. In some places, the basal breccia has been welded together by intense volcanic heat. Subsequent activity 750,000 to 400,000 years ago constructed rhyolite, dacite and andesite lava domes, breccia and lava flows. Mount Silverthrone, a volcanic peak associated with the Silverthrone Caldera, consists of overlapping andesite and rhyolite lava domes that were formed during this eruptive period. The third phase, less than 1,000 years ago, produced cinder cones, pyroclastic deposits and basaltic andesite lava flows that issued from vents on the rim of the caldera. Most of this activity occurred on the northern rim where lava flows traveled down the Pashleth Creek valley then into the Machmell River valley. The entire lava flow sequence is at least  long, ranging in elevation from  to . Many of the volcanic products are now buried under glacial ice. However, remains of cinder cones protrude through glaciers and lava flows are exposed at lower elevations, such as the extensive Machmell-Pashleth Creek lava flow. A relatively small basaltic andesite lava flow extends from the caldera's southern rim into the headwaters of the Kingcome River.

text: About  north-northwest of the Franklin Glacier complex is the deeply dissected

text: Silverthrone Caldera

text: . It is  wide, with steep slopes extending from near

text: sea level

text: to a maximum elevation of . Like Franklin to the south-southeast, Silverthrone has not been studied in detail by scientists. As a result, its affinity and eruptive history is poorly known. It is considered to be part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but it also lies on the overlapping trend of the much older Pemberton Volcanic Belt. At least three phases of volcanic activity have been identified at Silverthrone. The first phase, following collapse of the

text: caldera

text: , deposited a thick sequence of undated basal breccia. It contains irreguler subvolcanic intrusions, as well as a profusion of dikes. In some places, the basal breccia has been welded together by intense volcanic heat. Subsequent activity 750,000 to 400,000 years ago constructed

text: rhyolite

text: , dacite and andesite lava domes, breccia and lava flows.

text: Mount Silverthrone

text: , a volcanic peak associated with the Silverthrone Caldera, consists of overlapping andesite and rhyolite lava domes that were formed during this eruptive period. The third phase, less than 1,000 years ago, produced cinder cones, pyroclastic deposits and basaltic andesite lava flows that issued from vents on the rim of the caldera. Most of this activity occurred on the northern rim where lava flows traveled down the Pashleth Creek valley then into the

text: Machmell River

text: valley. The entire lava flow sequence is at least  long, ranging in elevation from  to . Many of the volcanic products are now buried under glacial ice. However, remains of cinder cones protrude through glaciers and lava flows are exposed at lower elevations, such as the extensive Machmell-Pashleth Creek lava flow. A relatively small basaltic andesite lava flow extends from the caldera's southern rim into the headwaters of the

text: Kingcome River

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answers: 400,000 years ago

text: Towards the end of the Tertiary period there were repeated cycles of warmer and cooler climate. Each cycle had a period of about 10,000 years and they became more pronounced in the last two million years. Seventeen cycles of cold and temperate climate are recognised in Britain with three positive episodes of actual glaciation being confirmed. The latest glacial episode destroyed much of the evidence for former ones but traces do exist. On each occasion ice fields formed on the higher land and sent glaciers down the main valleys. There was scouring of material from the valley sides by the glaciers and this was deposited on lower ground as the ice retreated when the climate became warmer. In Yorkshire the higher land of the North York Moors stood proud of the glaciers, the Pennine valleys show classic glacial features and there was abundant deposition in the Vale of York and Holderness as the ice melted.

text: Towards the end of the Tertiary period there were repeated cycles of warmer and cooler climate. Each cycle had a period of about 10,000 years and they became more pronounced in the last two million years. Seventeen cycles of cold and

text: temperate

text: climate are recognised in Britain with three positive episodes of actual

text: glaciation

text: being confirmed. The latest glacial episode destroyed much of the evidence for former ones but traces do exist. On each occasion ice fields formed on the higher land and sent glaciers down the main valleys. There was scouring of material from the valley sides by the glaciers and this was deposited on lower ground as the ice retreated when the climate became warmer. In Yorkshire the higher land of the North York Moors stood proud of the glaciers, the Pennine valleys show classic glacial features and there was abundant deposition in the Vale of York and Holderness as the ice melted.

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: main valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Pennine valleys

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: material from the valley sides

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: scouring of material from the valley sides

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: scouring

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: the Pennine valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice fields

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Vale of York

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ice fields

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Vale of York

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Pennine valleys

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacial features

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Britain

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: classic glacial features

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Towards the end of the Tertiary period

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacial features

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: main valleys

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: The latest glacial episode

text: Hills may form through geomorphic phenomena: faulting, erosion of larger landforms, such as mountains and movement and deposition of sediment by glaciers (e.g. moraines and drumlins or by erosion exposing solid rock which then weathers down into a hill.) The rounded peaks of hills results from the diffusive movement of soil and regolith covering the hill, a process known as downhill creep.

text: Hills may form through

text: geomorphic

text: phenomena

text: faulting

text: erosion

text: of larger landforms, such as mountains and movement and deposition of

text: sediment

text: by

text: glacier

text: s (e.g.

text: moraine

text: s and

text: drumlin

text: s or by erosion exposing solid rock which then weathers down into a hill.) The rounded peaks of hills results from the

text: diffusive

text: movement of

text: soil

text: and

text: regolith

text: covering the hill, a process known as

text: downhill creep

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: downhill creep

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: moraines and drumlins

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposition of sediment

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: downhill creep

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: moraines and drumlins

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: faulting

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: mountains

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: rounded peaks of hills

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: rounded peaks of hills

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glaciers

text: Near the end of the Pleistocene, between 12,000 and 17,000 years ago, a massive landslide occurred within the Tonquin Valley in the Rocky Mountains of central western Alberta. This landslide deposited millions of tonnes of beige to pinkish quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate of the Gog Group onto the top of a valley glacier. This mass of quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate was carried eastward by this valley glacier. After leaving its valley within the Rocky Mountains, this valley glacier coalesced with other valley glaciers to form part of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. The former valley glacier as part of this ice sheet collided with the Laurentide Ice Sheet and it and the erratics of quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate were diverted southward along the boundary between these two ice sheets. Together they flowed parallel to the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains as far south as northern Montana before the ice sheet stagnated and melted. As the ice sheet melted, the erratics of Gog quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate were deposited as the narrow line of rocks known as the Foothills Erratics Train.

text: Near the end of the Pleistocene, between 12,000 and 17,000 years ago, a massive landslide occurred within the Tonquin Valley in the Rocky Mountains of central western Alberta. This landslide deposited millions of tonnes of beige to pinkish quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate of the Gog Group onto the top of a valley glacier. This mass of quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate was carried eastward by this valley glacier. After leaving its valley within the Rocky Mountains, this valley glacier coalesced with other valley glaciers to form part of the

text: Cordilleran Ice Sheet

text: . The former valley glacier as part of this ice sheet collided with the

text: Laurentide Ice Sheet

text: and it and the erratics of quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate were diverted southward along the boundary between these two ice sheets. Together they flowed parallel to the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains as far south as northern Montana before the ice sheet stagnated and melted. As the ice sheet melted, the erratics of Gog quartzite and quartzitic conglomerate were deposited as the narrow line of rocks known as the Foothills Erratics Train.

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answers: 17,000 years ago

text: Barrick's plans for the project have changed over time.  In June 2005, Barrick intended to commence building in January 2006, after responding to a questionnaire put to it by CONAMA, Chile's National Environmental Commission. In November 2005, however, the company published a report stating that it had scrapped its original plans, presented in December 2004, for "transplanting" three glaciers in order to gain access to the deposits beneath them, moving them to another glacier with which they were to bond. This change was publicly supported by Fernando González, the chairman of the council of Huasco Valley farmers. In 2013, the Argentine non-profit environmental organization, CEDHA published a report entitled, "Barrick's Glaciers", claiming that Barrick failed to report or conduct studies on hundreds of glaciers in Pascua Lama's project area. Another report by the same organization also focused on glacier impacts by Barrick Gold to the lands belonging to the Diguita Huascoaltino community in Chile.

text: Barrick's plans for the project have changed over time.  In June 2005, Barrick intended to commence building in January 2006, after responding to a questionnaire put to it by

text: CONAMA

text: , Chile's National Environmental Commission. In November 2005, however, the company published a report stating that it had scrapped its original plans, presented in December 2004, for "transplanting" three glaciers in order to gain access to the deposits beneath them, moving them to another glacier with which they were to bond. This change was publicly supported by Fernando González, the chairman of the council of Huasco Valley farmers. In 2013, the Argentine non-profit environmental organization, CEDHA published a report entitled, "Barrick's Glaciers", claiming that Barrick failed to report or conduct studies on hundreds of glaciers in Pascua Lama's project area. Another report by the same organization also focused on glacier impacts by Barrick Gold to the lands belonging to the Diguita Huascoaltino community in Chile.

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answers: In June 2005, Barrick intended to commence building in January 2006

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answers: December 2004

text: During the ice ages, the Rhône glacier split into two branches when leaving the Alps, covering the whole western Swiss Plateau reaching today's regions of Solothurn and Aarau. In the region of Bern it merged with the Aar Glacier. The glaciers of the Reuss, the Limmat and the Rhine advanced sometimes as well until the Jura. The glaciers formed the land by erosion, but also by base moraines (very fine stone meal) often several meters thick, and by the meltwater streams depositing gravel.

text: During the ice ages, the

text: Rhône

text: glacier split into two branches when leaving the Alps, covering the whole western Swiss Plateau reaching today's regions of

text: Solothurn

text: and

text: Aarau

text: . In the region of Bern it merged with the

text: Aar Glacier

text: . The glaciers of the

text: Reuss

text: , the

text: Limmat

text: and the

text: Rhine

text: advanced sometimes as well until the Jura. The glaciers formed the land by erosion, but also by base

text: moraine

text: s (very fine stone meal) often several meters thick, and by the meltwater streams depositing gravel.

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answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The glaciers formed the land

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Rhône glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The Rhône glacier split into two branches

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: base moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: when leaving the Alps

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The glaciers formed the land

answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000199

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answers: during the ice ages

text: A glacial lake is a lake with origins in a melted glacier. They are formed when a glacier erodes the land, and then melts, filling the hole or space that it has created. Near the end of the last glacial period, roughly 10,000 years ago, glaciers began to retreat. A retreating glacier often left behind large deposits of ice in hollows between drumlins or hills. As the ice age ended, these melted to create lakes. This is apparent in the Lake District in Northwestern England where post-glacial sediments are normally between 4 and 6 metres deep. These lakes are often surrounded by drumlins, along with other evidence of the glacier such as moraines, eskers and erosional features such as striations and chatter marks.

text: A glacial lake is a

text: lake

text: with origins in a melted

text: glacier

text: . They are formed when a glacier erodes the land, and then melts, filling the hole or space that it has created. Near the end of the last

text: glacial period

text: , roughly 10,000 years ago, glaciers began to retreat. A retreating glacier often left behind large deposits of ice in hollows between

text: drumlins

text: or

text: hills

text: . As the ice age ended, these melted to create lakes. This is apparent in the

text: Lake District

text: in Northwestern

text: England

text: where post-glacial sediments are normally between 4 and 6 metres deep. These lakes are often surrounded by

text: drumlins

text: , along with other evidence of the glacier such as

text: moraines

text: esker

text: s and

text: erosion

text: al features such as

text: striations

text: and

text: chatter mark

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

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answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Near the end of the last glacial period

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: moraines, eskers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: post-glacial sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: They are formed when a glacier erodes the land

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers began to retreat

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: retreating glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: hills

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Northwestern England

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: eskers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: lake with origins in a melted glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: drumlins

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: roughly 10,000 years ago

text: The Davidson Glacier is a large valley glacier near Haines, Alaska that finds its source in the Chilkat Range.

text: The Davidson Glacier is a large

text: valley glacier

text: near

text: Haines

text: Alaska

text: that finds its source in the

text: Chilkat Range

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Davidson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Davidson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: The Davidson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The Davidson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Chilkat Range

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: large valley

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Chilkat Range

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Davidson Glacier

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Chilkat Range

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Davidson Glacier

text: Some domes in the park were covered by glaciers and modified into roche moutonnées, which are characterized by having a smooth, rounded side and a steep face. The rounded side was where the glacier flowed over the dome and the steep side is where the glacier flowed away from it. The steepness is caused by glacial plucking of rock along fracture joints. Good examples in the park are Liberty Cap, Lembert Dome, and Mount Broderick. Half Dome was created by a different process, but erosion acting on jointing planes was still the major factor.

text: Some domes in the park were covered by glaciers and modified into

text: roche moutonnée

text: s, which are characterized by having a smooth, rounded side and a steep face. The rounded side was where the glacier flowed over the dome and the steep side is where the glacier flowed away from it. The steepness is caused by glacial plucking of rock along fracture joints. Good examples in the park are

text: Liberty Cap

text: Lembert Dome

text: , and

text: Mount Broderick

text: Half Dome

text: was created by a different process, but erosion acting on jointing planes was still the major factor.

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answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial plucking

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: the steep side

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial plucking

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: roche moutonnées

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Lembert Dome

answers: NDQ_000188

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: glacier

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answers: glacial plucking

text: Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable.  Areas of the Arctic, such as Banks Island, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are considered polar deserts where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold.  Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor.  Even during glacial periods of the Quaternary, Manchuria, lowland Siberia, and central and northern Alaska, though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.

text: Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable.  Areas of the

text: Arctic

text: , such as

text: Banks Island

text: , and the

text: McMurdo Dry Valleys

text: in Antarctica are considered

text: polar desert

text: s where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold.  Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor.  Even during glacial periods of the

text: Quaternary

text: Manchuria

text: , lowland

text: Siberia

text: , and

text: central

text: and

text: northern Alaska

text: , though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.

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answers: glacier formation is not inevitable

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: high latitudes

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: at high latitudes

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers can not form

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: latitude

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Cold air is unable to transport much water

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: lowland

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000196

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answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

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answers: glacial period

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Quaternary

text: Subglacial streams are streams which flow in a channel at the bottom of an ice-sheet or a glacier, and are usually close to the glacier terminus or snout. These are fed by streams on top of the glacier which descend through ducts in the ice. The pressures are very high in these streams due to the huge mass of ice above them, consequently, they have very high erosive power meaning they will increase the volume of water flowing through, maintaining the high pressure. Some subglacial streams have the strange property of 'flowing' uphill due to the colossal pressures that are present.

text: Subglacial streams are streams which flow in a channel at the bottom of an

text: ice-sheet

text: or a

text: glacier

text: , and are usually close to the

text: glacier terminus

text: or snout. These are fed by streams on top of the glacier which descend through ducts in the ice. The pressures are very high in these streams due to the huge mass of ice above them, consequently, they have very high erosive power meaning they will increase the volume of water flowing through, maintaining the high pressure. Some subglacial streams have the strange property of 'flowing' uphill due to the colossal pressures that are present.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacier terminus or snout

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Subglacial streams

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: snout

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Subglacial streams

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier terminus

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answers: ice-sheet

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answers: Antarctica

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answers: glacier terminus or snout

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answers: valley glacier

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answers: ice-sheet

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: Ledyard is among the areas of the United States that was covered by a continental ice sheet during the last Ice Age. Therefore, Ledyard has its share of interesting glacial geology. The glaciers that covered Ledyard carried the many large boulders that litter the town. The town has set aside land designated as a "Glacial Park" which consists of a section of end moraine and outwash deposits (containing kettles).  This area encompasses a segment of the "Ledyard Moraine"—a clast-supported boulder deposit that is anomalous in nature.

text: Ledyard is among the areas of the United States that was covered by a continental ice sheet during the last

text: Ice Age

text: . Therefore, Ledyard has its share of interesting glacial geology. The glaciers that covered Ledyard carried the many large boulders that litter the town. The town has set aside land designated as a "Glacial Park" which consists of a section of

text: end moraine

text: and

text: outwash

text: deposits (containing

text: kettles

text: ).  This area encompasses a segment of the "Ledyard Moraine"—a

text: clast

text: -supported boulder deposit that is anomalous in nature.

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answers: The glaciers that covered Ledyard

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers that covered Ledyard

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers that covered Ledyard

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers that covered Ledyard

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: end moraine

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: end moraine

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: continental ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: end moraine

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Ledyard

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: kettles

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Ledyard Moraine

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: end moraine

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: end moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the last Ice Age

text: Other areas of the Northern Hemisphere did not bear extensive ice sheets, but local glaciers in high areas. Parts of Taiwan, for example, were repeatedly glaciated between 42,250 and 8,680 BCE as well as the Japanese Alps. In both areas maximum glacier advance occurred between 58,000 and 28,000 BCE (starting roughly during the Toba catastrophe). To a still lesser extent glaciers existed in Africa, for example in the High Atlas, the mountains of Morocco, the Mount Atakor massif in southern Algeria, and several mountains in Ethiopia. In the Southern Hemisphere, an ice cap of several hundred square kilometers was present on the east African mountains in the Kilimanjaro massif, Mount Kenya and the Ruwenzori Mountains, still bearing remnants of glaciers today.

text: Other areas of the Northern Hemisphere did not bear extensive ice sheets, but local glaciers in high areas. Parts of

text: Taiwan

text: , for example, were repeatedly glaciated between 42,250 and 8,680 BCE as well as the

text: Japanese Alps

text: . In both areas maximum glacier advance occurred between 58,000 and 28,000 BCE (starting roughly during the

text: Toba catastrophe

text: ). To a still lesser extent glaciers existed in Africa, for example in the

text: High Atlas

text: , the mountains of

text: Morocco

text: , the

text: Mount Atakor

text: massif in southern

text: Algeria

text: , and several mountains in

text: Ethiopia

text: . In the Southern Hemisphere, an ice cap of several hundred square kilometers was present on the east African mountains in the

text: Kilimanjaro

text: massif,

text: Mount Kenya

text: and the

text: Ruwenzori Mountains

text: , still bearing remnants of glaciers today.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: In the Southern Hemisphere

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: extensive ice sheets

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers in high areas

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: glacier advance

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacier advance

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacier advance

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Mount Atakor

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: extensive ice sheets

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Mountains

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: local

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: massif

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Mount Atakor

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: In the Southern Hemisphere

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: In both areas maximum glacier advance occurred between 58,000 and 28,000 BCE

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ice cap

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 28,000 BCE

text: The upper contact, which is part of the Great Unconformity, of the Sixtymile Formation is a disconformity that laterally becomes an angular unconformity. Within the center of Chuar syncline, this upper contact is a disconformity. Away from the center, the strata of the Sixtymile Formation an angular discordance between the formations of 6° to 10° can be seen. The Great Unconformity has an irregular hilly surface. In case of the Sixtymile Formation, a small amount of relief,  to , in the Sixtymile Canyon area was the result of resistance to erosion of the Middle Member of the Sixtymile Formation (fig. 4). Prior to the deposition of the Tapeats Sandstone, erosion removed all of the Upper Member of the Sixtymile from all but the central part of the Chuar syncline.

text: The upper contact, which is part of the Great Unconformity, of the Sixtymile Formation is a disconformity that laterally becomes an angular unconformity. Within the center of Chuar syncline, this upper contact is a disconformity. Away from the center, the strata of the Sixtymile Formation an angular discordance between the formations of 6° to 10° can be seen. The Great Unconformity has an irregular hilly surface. In case of the Sixtymile Formation, a small amount of relief,  to , in the Sixtymile Canyon area was the result of resistance to erosion of the Middle Member of the Sixtymile Formation (fig. 4). Prior to the deposition of the Tapeats Sandstone, erosion removed all of the Upper Member of the Sixtymile from all but the central part of the Chuar syncline.

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answers: The Great Unconformity

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Sixtymile Canyon

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: The Great Unconformity

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Chuar syncline

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Sixtymile Formation

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Away from the center

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Sixtymile Canyon

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Sixtymile Canyon

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Great Unconformity

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Chuar syncline

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Chuar

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Chuar syncline

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Great Unconformity

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: relief

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Chuar syncline

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: hilly surface

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The Great Unconformity has an irregular hilly surface

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Canyon

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: canyon

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Chuar syncline

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: before the deposition of the Tapeats Sandstone

text: Roll is located at .  The Blackford County area sits on top of former gas and oil fields.  The area also has limestone formed from silt and mud deposited from an ancient sea.  The land is flat from the work of a glacier, and the soil is excellent for farming.

text: Roll is located at .  The Blackford County area sits on top of former gas and oil fields.  The area also has limestone formed from silt and mud deposited from an ancient sea.  The land is flat from the work of a glacier, and the soil is excellent for farming.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: sea

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: the work of a glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: mud

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: The land is flat

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The land is flat

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: The land is flat

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: flat

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Blackford County

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Blackford County

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: The land is flat

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Blackford County

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: an ancient sea

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: flat

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: limestone

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: an ancient sea

text: In northeastern Minnesota, the glaciers were thousands of feet thick. As the glaciers moved through the area they eroded large quantities of rock away. Ice itself is not very abrasive, but by picking up and moving pieces of rock it was able to scrape away softer underlying materials. Volcanic rocks underlie the area. Along the Rove region of the Arrowhead Region, there are multiple tilted layers of volcanic rocks interspersed with layers of shale; the shalelayers are softer than the volcanic basalt. As the glaciers eroded the materials, the shales were removed. The topography in the Rove region alternates hills (composed of diabase) and valleys (former shale layers); these hills and valley orient in a west to east direction. Many of these valleys are now lakes. Because the lakes are oriented west-east, visitors to the Rove region think that the ice moved in an east-west direction. Glacial striations (scratches) show that the ice moved from north-to-south, perpendicular to the orientation of the lakebeds themselves.

text: In northeastern Minnesota, the glaciers were thousands of feet thick. As the glaciers moved through the area they eroded large quantities of rock away. Ice itself is not very abrasive, but by picking up and moving pieces of rock it was able to scrape away softer underlying materials. Volcanic rocks underlie the area. Along the

text: Rove region

text: of the

text: Arrowhead Region

text: , there are multiple tilted layers of volcanic rocks interspersed with layers of shale; the shalelayers are softer than the volcanic basalt. As the glaciers eroded the materials, the shales were removed. The topography in the Rove region alternates hills (composed of diabase) and valleys (former shale layers); these hills and valley orient in a west to east direction. Many of these valleys are now lakes. Because the lakes are oriented west-east, visitors to the Rove region think that the ice moved in an east-west direction. Glacial striations (scratches) show that the ice moved from north-to-south, perpendicular to the orientation of the lakebeds themselves.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000200

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Ice itself is not very abrasive

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Glacial striations

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The glaciers were thousands of feet thick

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Glacial striations

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: picking up and moving pieces of rock

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Rove region

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Rove region

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Arrowhead Region

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Rove region

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: striations

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Glacial striations

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Glacial striations

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: northeastern Minnesota

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: hills

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Rove region of the Arrowhead Region

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: lake

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: shale

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: north-to-south

text: Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.

text: Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both

text: downward

text: , deepening the valley, and

text: headward

text: , extending the valley into the hillside, creating

text: head cuts

text: and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some

text: base level

text: is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream

text: meander

text: s across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles,

text: pebble

text: s and

text: boulder

text: s can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: It is not the water alone that erodes

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: linear feature

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: It is not the water alone that erodes

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Head cuts and steep banks

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: headward

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys have a typical V cross-section

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: meanders

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: head cuts

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: head cuts

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: a narrow floodplain

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: steep banks

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep banks

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: narrow floodplain

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: floodplain

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: during times of flood

text: The trough of this glacier is very wide. Small valley glaciers form icefalls where they meet the trunk glacier. The sidewalls vary from very steep to precipitous. The glacier has carved striations on the surrounding country rocks. Moving ice has formed depressions, which serve as basins for numerous glacial lakes.

text: The trough of this glacier is very wide. Small valley glaciers form icefalls where they meet the trunk glacier. The sidewalls vary from very steep to precipitous. The glacier has carved striations on the surrounding country rocks. Moving ice has formed depressions, which serve as basins for numerous glacial lakes.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: The trough

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: striations

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Moving ice has formed depressions

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Small valley glaciers form icefalls

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The glacier has carved depressions

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: depressions

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

answers: trunk glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

answers: the surrounding country

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: striations on the surrounding country rocks

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: sidewalls vary from very steep to precipitous

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: steep

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: glacial lakes

text: Moon Valley was formed during the retreat of the last continental glacier, approximately 14,000 years ago.  As they retreated, the glaciers left behind debris, called moraines, and valleys.  The retreating glaciers also formed numerous lakes.

text: Moon Valley was formed during the retreat of the last continental glacier, approximately 14,000 years ago.  As they retreated, the glaciers left behind debris, called

text: moraine

text: s, and valleys.  The retreating glaciers also formed numerous lakes.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

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answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Gravity

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: continental

answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000190

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Moon Valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Moon Valley

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 14,000 years ago

text: Glaciers carved out the valleys during the late Pleistocene, which left a number of moraines. The series of moraines is formed by a series of glacial advances and retreats. Glacial till is also a common feature of the valleys. The melting of the glaciers produced a large quantity of water, which carried sediment to the valley bottoms, leaving delta deposits on top of the former deposits.

text: Glacier

text: s carved out the valleys during the late

text: Pleistocene

text: , which left a number of

text: moraine

text: s. The series of moraines is formed by a series of

text: glacial advances

text: and retreats.

text: Glacial till

text: is also a common feature of the valleys. The melting of the glaciers produced a large quantity of water, which

text: carried sediment

text: to the valley bottoms, leaving delta deposits on top of the former deposits.

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answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: advances

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacial advances and retreats

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial advances and retreats

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacial advances and retreats

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: late Pleistocene

text: At some point, if an Alpine glacier becomes too thin it will stop moving.  This will result in the end of any basal erosion. The stream issuing from the glacier will then become clearer as glacial flour diminishes. Lakes and ponds can also be caused by glacial movement. Kettle lakes form when a retreating glacier leaves behind an underground chunk of ice. Moraine-dammed lakes occur when a stream (or snow runoff) is dammed by glacial till.

text: At some point, if an

text: Alpine glacier

text: becomes too thin it will stop moving.  This will result in the end of any basal erosion. The stream issuing from the glacier will then become clearer as

text: glacial flour

text: diminishes. Lakes and ponds can also be caused by glacial movement.

text: Kettle lake

text: s form when a retreating glacier leaves behind an underground chunk of ice. Moraine-dammed lakes occur when a stream (or snow runoff) is dammed by

text: glacial till

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answers: glaciers cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Alpine glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Alpine glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Alpine glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Kettle lakes

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: Kettle lakes

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It is impossible to say

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Basal erosion

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Alpine glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Kettle lakes

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: Alpine glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Moraine

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answers: Alpine

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: Kettle lakes

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answers: Alpine glacier becomes too thin

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: Alpine glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: pond

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Alpine glaciers

text: For the last 30 million years, glaciers have periodically filled much of the valley. The most current glaciation, the Wisconsinian was not, however, the most severe. Ice ages previous to the Wisconsinian were colder and lasted longer. Their glaciers were huge and covered nearly all the landmarks around Yosemite Valley except Half Dome, Eagle Peak, Sentinel Dome, and the top of El Capitan. Wisconsinian glaciers, however, only reached Bridalveil Fall in the valley. The glaciers widened the valley, but much of its width is in fact due to previous stream erosion and mass wasting along vertical joints in the valley's walls.

text: For the last 30 million years,

text: glacier

text: s have periodically filled much of the valley. The most current

text: glaciation

text: , the

text: Wisconsinian

text: was not, however, the most severe.

text: Ice age

text: s previous to the Wisconsinian were colder and lasted longer. Their glaciers were huge and covered nearly all the landmarks around Yosemite Valley except Half Dome,

entity_name: Eagle Peak (Mariposa County, California)

text: Eagle Peak

text: Sentinel Dome

text: , and the top of El Capitan. Wisconsinian glaciers, however, only reached

text: Bridalveil Fall

text: in the valley. The glaciers widened the valley, but much of its width is in fact due to previous stream

text: erosion

text: and

text: mass wasting

text: along vertical

text: joints

text: in the valley's walls.

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answers: huge

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answers: glaciers have periodically filled much of the valley

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley's walls

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: vertical joints

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: vertical joints

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: mass wasting

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: mass wasting

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Yosemite Valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: huge

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Ice ages

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answers: vertical joints

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: vertical joints

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Half Dome

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Yosemite

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Bridalveil Fall

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glaciers have periodically filled much of the valley

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: vertical joints

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answers: valley

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answers: glaciation

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answers: the Wisconsinian

text: The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a Quaternary loess layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through erosion and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last Ice Age. Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the periglacial area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.

text: The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a

text: Quaternary

text: loess

text: layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through

text: erosion

text: and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last

text: Ice Age

text: . Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the

text: periglacial

text: area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.

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answers: NDQ_000180

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text: While the Scandinavian Alps gradually increase altitude, erosion can negate this slow growth. While this includes river erosion, the glacial erosion, especially during the great glaciations of the Quaternary (from 1.5 Ma) has had the most influence on the current geomorphology of the chain and the reserve. Glaciers grew and invaded the valleys, and then gradually unified to form a continuous ice sheet that completely covered the area. The nature of the rocks had a considerable influence on amount of glacial erosion. Most of soft rocks of Koli layer were quickly eroded while the rocks of the Seve layer were more resistant to erosion. Thus, the peaks of Stor-Aigert, as well as the Ammarfjället, Rerrogaise, Sulåive and Stubebakte mountain ranges currently consist of amphibolites and have steep reliefs. Similarly, the highest points of the Artfjället and Norra Storfjället mountain ranges consist largely of gabbros. The general direction of water flow also affects the relief: the layers tend to rise from west to east, which implies that the west-facing slopes are gentle in general, while the eastern slopes are often steep. The most visible signs of the glacial morphology are glacial valleys and U-valleys, such as Syterskalet, the top of the Vindelälven Valley, Skebleskalet, etc. There are also some forty small glacial craters or niches, most facing east, on the leeward side.

text: While the Scandinavian Alps gradually increase altitude, erosion can negate this slow growth. While this includes

text: river erosion

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answers: glaciers grew and invaded the valleys

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacial valleys and U-valleys

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: most facing east

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glacial craters or niches

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: west-facing slopes are gentle in general

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: continuous ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: continuous ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: relief

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: reliefs

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: The Scandinavian Alps

answers: NDQ_000195

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answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacial valleys and U-valleys

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1.5 Ma

text: Stryn is world-famous for its beautiful scenery with glaciers and majestic mountains running into the mirroring fjords and lakes. The most famous glacier is Briksdalsbreen and it lies in the Oldedalen valley, but the Stryn area offers numerous spectacular valley glaciers including Tindefjellbreen, Tystigsbreen, and Myklebustbreen. Most of the valley glaciers in Stryn are originating from the great Jostedal glacier (Jostedalsbreen) between the Nordfjord and Sogn areas.

text: Stryn is world-famous for its beautiful scenery with

text: glacier

text: s and majestic mountains running into the mirroring

text: fjord

text: s and lakes. The most famous glacier is

text: Briksdalsbreen

text: and it lies in the

text: Oldedalen

text: valley, but the Stryn area offers numerous spectacular valley glaciers including

text: Tindefjellbreen

text: Tystigsbreen

text: , and

text: Myklebustbreen

text: . Most of the valley glaciers in Stryn are originating from the great

text: Jostedal

text: glacier (

text: Jostedalsbreen

text: ) between the

text: Nordfjord

text: and

text: Sogn

text: areas.

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answers: majestic mountains

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answers: mountains running into the mirroring fjords and lakes

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The most famous glacier is Briksdalsbreen

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

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answers: valley

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: ice age

text: The Coropuna glacier is located  northwest of Arequipa. Exceeded in size solely by the Quelccaya ice cap, it is the second-largest tropical ice cap in the world. The highest point of the Coropuna ice cap is measured at  altitude. A 2010 study showed the average thickness was , with a total volume of . In 1962 at least 17 glaciers combined to form this ice cap. Present-day outlet glaciers reach down to  and  on the southern and northern side, respectively. The northeastern glaciers are smaller than the southeastern ones. Beneath the glacier above  altitude, gelifluction and other periglacial features form the terrain. No significant valley glaciers are present on Coropuna.

text: The Coropuna glacier is located  northwest of

text: Arequipa

text: . Exceeded in size solely by the

text: Quelccaya ice cap

text: , it is the second-largest tropical ice cap in the world. The highest point of the Coropuna ice cap is measured at  altitude. A 2010 study showed the average thickness was , with a total volume of . In 1962 at least 17 glaciers combined to form this ice cap. Present-day outlet glaciers reach down to  and  on the southern and northern side, respectively. The northeastern glaciers are smaller than the southeastern ones. Beneath the glacier above  altitude,

text: gelifluction

text: and other

text: periglacial

text: features form the terrain. No significant valley glaciers are present on Coropuna.

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answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: No significant valley glaciers are present

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: periglacial features

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Beneath the glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: northeastern

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Beneath the glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Beneath the glacier

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: No significant valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Coropuna

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: periglacial features

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Coropuna glacier is located northwest of Arequipa

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

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answers: valley

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answers: periglacial

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1962

text: During the Last Glacial Maximum valley glaciers merged and descended from the Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes. Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most Chiloé glacier advance peaked in 26,000 yrs BP forming a long north-south moraine system along the eastern cost of Chiloé Island.

text: During the

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: valley glacier

text: s merged and descended from the Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large

text: piedmont glacier lobes

text: . Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it.

text: Nahuel Huapi Lake

text: in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most

text: Chiloé

text: glacier advance peaked in 26,000 yrs BP forming a long north-south

text: moraine

text: system along the eastern cost of

text: Chiloé Island

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answers: 5

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: long north-south moraine system

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacier lobes

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: west

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: piedmont

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: piedmont

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: piedmont

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: piedmont

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Chiloé

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: long north-south moraine system

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Lacustrine and marine basins

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: cost

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: lake

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The ice sheet advances of the cold period were mostly well beyond the glacial lake of the previous ice sheet. In most areas, the Riss terminal moraines have formed as low embankments, for example in the area of the Inn Glacier, the Isar-Loisach Glacier, the Iller Glacier, and in the area of the western Rhine Glacier. In the type region in Biberach there is a clear, but rather atypical double moraine ridge, also atypical is the double terrace here, which is probably due to heavy erosion as the meltwater runoff moved from the Wellheim dry valley and Altmühl valley into the present day Danube valley, a process that took place during the Riss glaciation. The double ridge of the type region (Doppelwallriß, with an outer and inner ridge) is a result of two superimposed sequences of glacial deposits which indicates that the Riss was subdivided into at least two stadials.

text: The ice sheet advances of the cold period were mostly well beyond the

text: glacial lake

text: of the previous ice sheet. In most areas, the Riss

text: terminal moraine

text: s have formed as low embankments, for example in the area of the

text: Inn Glacier

text: , the

text: Isar-Loisach Glacier

text: , the

text: Iller Glacier

text: , and in the area of the western

text: Rhine Glacier

text: . In the

text: type region

text: in Biberach there is a clear, but rather atypical double moraine ridge, also atypical is the double terrace here, which is probably due to heavy

text: erosion

text: as the meltwater runoff moved from the

text: Wellheim dry valley

text: and

text: Altmühl valley

text: into the present day

text: Danube

text: valley, a process that took place during the Riss glaciation. The double ridge of the type region (Doppelwallriß, with an outer and inner ridge) is a result of two superimposed sequences of glacial deposits which indicates that the Riss was subdivided into at least two stadials.

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0006/T_0057/809f31823882f834903e05d22a926109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: low embankments

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Rhine Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial deposits

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: terminal moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: heavy erosion

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Meltwater runoff

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Danube valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacial lake

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacial lake

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glacial lake

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: moraine

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: double moraine ridge

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: terrace

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Danube valley

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: double terrace

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: In most areas, the Riss terminal moraines have formed as low embankments

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: present day river valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: the Riss glaciation

text: The mountain chain was renewed and after that it was subjected to a new period of glacial erosion. In the beginning of the Quaternary period, 15 million years ago, a significant glacial advance occurred. The glaciers began to grow and move into the valleys where they gradually merged to form an ice sheet that covered the entire region. Several further glaciations followed, forming the current landscape, with glacial valleys, cirques, nunataks etc.The degree to which the chain was affected by the erosion depended mainly on the structure of the terrain, which explains the diversity in the topography of the area. The topography of Sarek, similar to that of Kebnekaise, is divided into sharply defined zones, particularly in respect to the two neighbouring national parks. This is mainly due to the existence of diabase and diorite dikes which are more resistant to erosion. The park is intersected by a tangle of dikes created 608 million years ago, an era that probably corresponds with the first appearance of the rift during the formation of the Iapetus ocean. These dikes represent intrusions into the Sarektjåkkå nappe, which is composed of sediments probably deposited in the rift basin.

text: The mountain chain was renewed and after that it was subjected to a new period of glacial erosion. In the beginning of the

text: Quaternary

text: period, 15 million years ago, a significant

text: glacial advance

text: occurred. The glaciers began to grow and move into the valleys where they gradually merged to form an

text: ice sheet

text: that covered the entire region. Several further glaciations followed, forming the current landscape, with glacial valleys,

text: cirque

text: s,

text: nunatak

text: s etc.The degree to which the chain was affected by the erosion depended mainly on the structure of the terrain, which explains the diversity in the topography of the area. The topography of Sarek, similar to that of Kebnekaise, is divided into sharply defined zones, particularly in respect to the two neighbouring national parks. This is mainly due to the existence of

text: diabase

text: and

text: diorite

text: dikes

text: which are more resistant to erosion. The park is intersected by a tangle of dikes created 608 million years ago, an era that probably corresponds with the first appearance of the rift during the formation of the Iapetus ocean. These dikes represent intrusions into the Sarektjåkkå

text: nappe

text: , which is composed of sediments probably deposited in the rift basin.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: NDQ_000192

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answers: NDQ_000193

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answers: NDQ_000194

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: valley glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: sediments probably deposited

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: valleys

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacial advance

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: move into the valleys

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: glacial valleys

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glacial valley

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: nunataks

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: nunataks

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Sarek

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: cirques, nunataks

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Sarek, similar to that of Kebnekaise

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: dikes

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: cirques

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: ice sheet

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 608 million years ago

text: They realised that they would have to return to the Kharta valley and to achieve this they climbed the  Kartse on 7 August so they could examine the North Col as well as the Kangshung Face. They wondered if the glacier in the valley to the north was the one that came down from the North Col or whether that glacier was further north again. Everest's northeast ridge they judged very difficult. The North Col and the north ridge above it were the only possibility left. They descended Kartse to Kama and returned to the Kharta valley.

text: They realised that they would have to return to the Kharta valley and to achieve this they climbed the

text: Kartse

text: on 7 August so they could examine the North Col as well as the Kangshung Face. They wondered if the glacier in the valley to the north was the one that came down from the North Col or whether that glacier was further north again. Everest's northeast ridge they judged very difficult. The North Col and the north ridge above it were the only possibility left. They descended Kartse to Kama and returned to the Kharta valley.

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answers: Glaciers

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answers: glaciers are long and narrow

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answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

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answers: glaciers

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answers: It picks up sediments

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answers: glaciers move because of gravity

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answers: Ice wedging

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: 7 August

text: The Tahoma Glacier is a long glacier mostly on the western flank of Mount Rainier in Washington. It covers  and contains  of ice. The glacier starts out near the summit of the volcano at over . As the glacier flows west-southwest out of the summit area, it cascades down a steep rocky face as an icefall from  to , where the glacier is connected to the South Mowich Glacier to the north in the Sunset Amphitheater. As the glacier drops below , it broadens and joins the smaller South Tahoma Glacier. After the broad expanse of ice at over , the Tahoma Glacier narrows as it descends around the rocky  Glacier Island, a sub-peak of Rainier once fully encircled by both the South Tahoma and Tahoma Glaciers. Leaving the bottleneck in the glacier, the glacier splits; the larger, longer northern arm continues flowing west-southwest and terminates at around . The southern arm flows south towards the arm of the South Tahoma Glacier, but this arm terminates before it rejoins the South Tahoma at . Meltwater from the glacier is the source of the South Puyallup River and Tahoma Creek, a tributary of the Nisqually River.

text: The Tahoma Glacier is a long

text: glacier

text: mostly on the western flank of

text: Mount Rainier

text: in

text: Washington

text: . It covers  and contains  of ice. The glacier starts out near the summit of the volcano at over . As the glacier flows west-southwest out of the summit area, it cascades down a steep rocky face as an

text: icefall

text: from  to , where the glacier is connected to the

text: South Mowich Glacier

text: to the north in the Sunset Amphitheater. As the glacier drops below , it broadens and joins the smaller

text: South Tahoma Glacier

text: . After the broad expanse of ice at over , the Tahoma Glacier narrows as it descends around the rocky

text: Glacier Island

text: , a sub-peak of Rainier once fully encircled by both the South Tahoma and Tahoma Glaciers. Leaving the bottleneck in the glacier, the glacier splits; the larger, longer northern arm continues flowing west-southwest and terminates at around . The southern arm flows south towards the arm of the South Tahoma Glacier, but this arm

text: terminates

text: before it rejoins the South Tahoma at . Meltwater from the glacier is the source of the South

text: Puyallup River

text: and Tahoma Creek, a tributary of the

text: Nisqually River

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answers: It covers and contains of ice

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answers: Tahoma Glacier

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answers: valley glaciers

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answers: Meltwater

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answers: bottleneck

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answers: It covers and contains of ice

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answers: as an icefall

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answers: global warming

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answers: Mount Rainier

text: Stream erosion has played a significant role in dissecting the mountain range, and many of its peaks are dotted with glaciers. This dissection has resulted in a variety of landforms, such as valleys, crags and domes. Small graveled creeks flow from alpine mountains out onto the regional prairies where there are pale blue rock-bottomed lakes, including the so-named Itcha Lake. Three streams drain the Itcha Range, namely Corkscrew Creek, Downton Creek and Shag Creek. Although the Itcha Range has been dissected by stream erosion and subsequently glaciated, its original shape has been largely preserved. Rocks in the Itcha Range are a variety of colours, including red, white and yellow.

text: Stream

text: erosion

text: has played a significant role in dissecting the mountain range, and many of its peaks are dotted with

text: glacier

text: s. This dissection has resulted in a variety of

text: landform

text: s, such as

text: valley

text: s,

text: crags

text: and domes. Small graveled creeks flow from alpine mountains out onto the regional

text: prairies

text: where there are pale blue rock-bottomed

text: lake

text: s, including the so-named

text: Itcha Lake

text: . Three streams drain the Itcha Range, namely Corkscrew Creek,

text: Downton Creek

text: and Shag Creek. Although the Itcha Range has been dissected by stream erosion and subsequently glaciated, its original shape has been largely preserved. Rocks in the Itcha Range are a variety of colours, including red, white and yellow.

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text: Harrison Glacier is located in the US state of Montana in Glacier National Park. Situated on a southeast facing ridge immediately south of Mount Jackson, Harrison Glacier is the largest glacier in Glacier National Park and was estimated in 2005 to have an area of . Though many experts have stated that all the glaciers in Glacier National Park may disappear by the year 2030, Harrison Glacier lost only 9 percent of its surface area in the 40-year period between 1966 and 2005 and will likely still exist well beyond 2030. Compared to many of the vanishing glaciers in Glacier National Park, Harrison Glacier has a much higher altitude accumulation zone (approximately ) which has allowed it to maintain some equilibrium in its glacier mass balance. Comparing images of the glacier taken in 1913 with those from 2009, indicates that the glacier has experienced thinning and retreat.

text: Harrison Glacier is located in the US state of

text: Montana

text: in

text: Glacier National Park

text: . Situated on a southeast facing ridge immediately south of

text: Mount Jackson

text: , Harrison Glacier is the largest glacier in Glacier National Park and was estimated in 2005 to have an area of . Though many experts have stated that all the glaciers in Glacier National Park may disappear by the year 2030, Harrison Glacier lost only 9 percent of its surface area in the 40-year period between 1966 and 2005 and will likely still exist well beyond 2030. Compared to many of the vanishing glaciers in Glacier National Park, Harrison Glacier has a much higher altitude

text: accumulation zone

text: (approximately ) which has allowed it to maintain some equilibrium in its

text: glacier mass balance

text: . Comparing images of the glacier taken in 1913 with those from 2009, indicates that the glacier has experienced thinning and retreat.

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answers: It has experienced thinning and retreat.

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answers: Glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

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answers: 1913

text: In New Zealand, mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890, with an acceleration since 1920. Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size, and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed. Between 1971–75 Ivory Glacier receded  from the glacial terminus, and about 26% of its surface area was lost. Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes formed behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers. Glaciers such as Classen, Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years. Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand. There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Mueller, Maud, Hooker, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Murchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers. The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning.  The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976–2014 is 34 percent of the total.

text: In New Zealand, mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890, with an acceleration since 1920. Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size, and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed. Between 1971–75 Ivory Glacier receded  from the glacial terminus, and about 26% of its surface area was lost. Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes formed behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers. Glaciers such as Classen, Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years. Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand. There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the

text: Tasman

text: , Ivory, Classen,

text: Mueller

text: , Maud,

text: Hooker

text: , Grey, Godley, Ramsay,

text: Murchison

text: , Therma,

text: Volta

text: and Douglas Glaciers. The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning.  The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976–2014 is 34 percent of the total.

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answers: Glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: mountain glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: mountain glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Moraines

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: expanding proglacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller because of global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Ivory Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: moraines

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: largest

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answers: NDQ_000191

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answers: terminus

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: New Zealand

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answers: mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890, with an acceleration since 1920

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: moraines

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answers: mountain

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: moraines

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answers: 1890

text: The Priestley Glacier is a major valley glacier, about 96 km (60 mi) long, originating at the edge of the polar plateau of Victoria Land. The glacier drains southeast between the Deep Freeze and Eisenhower ranges to enter the northern end of the Nansen Ice Sheet.

text: The Priestley Glacier is a major valley

text: glacier

text: , about 96 km (60 mi) long, originating at the edge of the

text: polar plateau

text: of

text: Victoria Land

text: . The glacier drains southeast between the

text: Deep Freeze

text: and

text: Eisenhower

text: ranges to enter the northern end of the

text: Nansen Ice Sheet

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answers: Nansen Ice Sheet

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 96 km

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: drains southeast

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Priestley Glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: drains southeast

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Drains

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: The Priestley Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: major valley

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

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answers: valley glacier

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answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Deep Freeze

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Victoria Land

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: polar plateau

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Priestley Glacier

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Nansen Ice Sheet

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: The Priestley Glacier

text: All Pinedale glaciers probably melted away soon after the start of the Holocene epoch. The dozen small cirque glaciers seen today were formed during a subsequent neoglaciation 5000 years ago. Mount Moran has five such glaciers with Triple Glaciers on the north face, Skillet Glacier on the east face, and Falling Ice Glacier on the southeast face. All the glacial action has made the peaks of the Teton Range jagged from frost wedging. Other glaciers include Teton Glacier, below the east face of Grand Teton, Middle Teton Glacier, situated on the northeast slopes of Middle Teton, and the fast retreating Schoolroom Glacier, west of Grand Teton at Hurricane Pass.

text: All Pinedale glaciers probably melted away soon after the start of the

text: Holocene

text: epoch. The dozen small

text: cirque

text: glaciers seen today were formed during a subsequent

text: neoglaciation

text: 5000 years ago. Mount Moran has five such glaciers with

text: Triple Glaciers

text: on the north face,

text: Skillet Glacier

text: on the east face, and

text: Falling Ice Glacier

text: on the southeast face. All the glacial action has made the peaks of the Teton Range jagged from

text: frost wedging

text: . Other glaciers include

text: Teton Glacier

text: , below the east face of Grand Teton,

text: Middle Teton Glacier

text: , situated on the northeast slopes of Middle Teton, and the fast retreating

text: Schoolroom Glacier

text: , west of Grand Teton at Hurricane Pass.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: southeast

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: glacial action

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: frost wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Pinedale

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Hurricane Pass

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Teton Range

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: jagged

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Teton Range

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: The dozen small cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: The dozen small cirque glaciers

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: cirque

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 5000 years ago

text: Volcanic activity may have caused the glacier changes above 5000 ft between 1949 and 1955 but such activity seems to be minor and localized. It cannot explain the widespread glacier retreat that has occurred since 1955. Heat conducts slowly in snow and the meltwater quickly becomes steam, resulting in a dampened response. The thin deposits of volcanic ash will reduce albedo and accelerate melt, but thicker deposits of debris and cooled lava will remain on the snow or ice for many years, insulating it against solar radiation and thus reducing melt.

text: Volcanic activity may have caused the glacier changes above 5000 ft between 1949 and 1955 but such activity seems to be minor and localized. It cannot explain the widespread

text: glacier retreat

text: that has occurred since 1955.

text: Heat

text: conducts

text: slowly in

text: snow

text: and the

text: meltwater

text: quickly becomes

text: steam

text: , resulting in a

text: dampened

text: response. The thin

text: deposits

text: of

text: volcanic ash

text: will reduce

text: albedo

text: and accelerate

text: melt

text: , but thicker deposits of

text: debris

text: and cooled

text: lava

text: will remain on the

text: snow

text: or

text: ice

text: for many years,

text: insulating

text: it against

text: solar radiation

text: and thus reducing melt.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 5000 ft

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: cirques and horns

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: deposits of debris

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: retreat

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: It cannot explain the widespread glacier retreat

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: meltwater quickly becomes steam

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: widespread

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: albedo

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: snow

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: albedo

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: albedo

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: retreat

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: glacier retreat

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: glacier retreat that has occurred since 1955

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier retreat

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier retreat

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 1955

text: In contrast to a mushroom rock formed by erosion of a single rock, these mushrooms are a type of balancing rock that formed from two separate rocks, one of which came to rest on top of the other. Typically, the uppermost rock was transported and deposited by the slow action of a glacier. The lower part of the rock formation might or might not have also undergone a degree of erosion to accentuate the mushroom shape. Examples of this type of rock are Mushroom Rock in Signal Point National Park, Tennessee, and Le Champignon in Huelgoat, France.

text: In contrast to a mushroom rock formed by erosion of a single rock, these mushrooms are a type of

text: balancing rock

text: that formed from two separate rocks, one of which came to rest on top of the other. Typically, the uppermost rock was transported and deposited by the slow action of a

text: glacier

text: . The lower part of the rock formation might or might not have also undergone a degree of erosion to accentuate the mushroom shape. Examples of this type of rock are Mushroom Rock in

text: Signal Point National Park

text: Tennessee

text: , and Le Champignon in

text: Huelgoat

text: , France.

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answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The uppermost rock was transported and deposited

answers: NDQ_000182

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answers: ice wedging

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answers: Mushroom

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: National Park

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answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Mushroom Rock

text: Retreating glaciers leave behind silt, clay, sand, gravel, and boulders called drift. Glacial drift includes unsorted material called till and layers deposited by meltwater streams called outwash While some glacial drift has been discovered, this is said to be of Pre-Illinoian age, about 500,000 years old.

text: Retreating glaciers leave behind silt, clay, sand, gravel, and boulders called

text: drift

text: . Glacial drift includes unsorted material called

text: till

text: and layers deposited by meltwater streams called

text: outwash

text: While some glacial drift has been discovered, this is said to be of

text: Pre-Illinoian

text: age, about 500,000 years old.

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answers: 500,000 years old

text: Extending north of Mount Meager almost to the Interior Plateau are the Bridge River Cones. This group of small volcanoes on the upper Bridge River includes stratovolcanoes, volcanic plugs and lava flows. These volcanoes are unlike others throughout the Garibaldi Belt in that they are mainly composed of volcanic rocks with mafic compositions, including alkaline basalt and hawaiite. The different magma compositions might be related to a smaller degree of partial melting in the Earth's mantle or a descending plate edge effect. The oldest volcano in the group, known as Sham Hill, is a  high volcanic plug with a potassium-argon date of one million years. It is about  wide and its uncovered glaciated surface is strewn with glacial erratics. Its massive level rock columns were constructed inside the main volcanic vent of a stratovolcano that has since been reduced by erosion. To the southeast, the Salal Glacier volcanic complex was constructed between 970,000 and 590,000 years ago. It consists of subaerial tephra and thin lava flow deposits that are surrounded by  thick ice-ponded lava flows. These ice-marginal lava flows were created when lava ponded against glacial ice in the nearby valleys before the Wisconsin Glaciation. North of the Salal Glacier complex lies a small basaltic stratovolcano named Tuber Hill. It began to form about 600,000 years ago when adjacent valleys were filled by glacial ice. When lava flows were erupted from Tuber Hill, they interacted with the valley-filling glaciers on its southern flank and produced a glacial meltwater lake. Here, more than  of stacked hyaloclastite, lahars and lacustrine tuff were deposited. A series of pillow lavas were also deposited during this eruptive period. The most recent volcanic activity in the Bridge River volcanic field produced a series of basaltic lava flows in the regional valleys that overlie till of the last glacial period. The age of these valley-filling lava flows is unknown but the presence of unconsolidated glacial till under the flows suggests that they are less than 1,500 years old.

text: Extending north of Mount Meager almost to the

text: Interior Plateau

text: are the

text: Bridge River Cones

text: . This group of small volcanoes on the upper

text: Bridge River

text: includes stratovolcanoes, volcanic plugs and lava flows. These volcanoes are unlike others throughout the Garibaldi Belt in that they are mainly composed of volcanic rocks with mafic compositions, including

text: alkaline

text: basalt and

text: hawaiite

text: . The different magma compositions might be related to a smaller degree of

text: partial melting

text: in the Earth's

text: mantle

text: or a descending plate edge effect. The oldest volcano in the group, known as

text: Sham Hill

text: , is a  high volcanic plug with a

text: potassium-argon date

text: of one million years. It is about  wide and its uncovered glaciated surface is strewn with glacial erratics. Its massive level

text: rock column

text: s were constructed inside the main volcanic vent of a stratovolcano that has since been reduced by erosion. To the southeast, the

text: Salal Glacier volcanic complex

text: was constructed between 970,000 and 590,000 years ago. It consists of subaerial

text: tephra

text: and thin lava flow deposits that are surrounded by  thick ice-ponded lava flows. These ice-marginal lava flows were created when lava ponded against glacial ice in the nearby valleys before the

text: Wisconsin Glaciation

text: . North of the Salal Glacier complex lies a small basaltic stratovolcano named

text: Tuber Hill

text: . It began to form about 600,000 years ago when adjacent valleys were filled by glacial ice. When lava flows were erupted from Tuber Hill, they interacted with the valley-filling glaciers on its southern flank and produced a glacial

text: meltwater

text: lake. Here, more than  of stacked hyaloclastite,

text: lahar

text: s and lacustrine tuff were deposited. A series of pillow lavas were also deposited during this eruptive period. The most recent volcanic activity in the Bridge River volcanic field produced a series of basaltic lava flows in the regional valleys that overlie till of the

text: last glacial period

text: . The age of these valley-filling lava flows is unknown but the presence of unconsolidated glacial till under the flows suggests that they are less than 1,500 years old.

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answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

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answers: NDQ_000189

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answers: NDQ_000194

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answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Wisconsin Glaciation

text: Ice sheets are the greatest potential source of global freshwater, holding approximately 77% of the global total. This corresponds to 80 m of world sea-level equivalent, with Antarctica accounting for 90% of this. Greenland accounts for most of the remaining 10%, with other ice bodies and glaciers accounting for less than 0.5%. Because of their size in relation to annual rates of snow accumulation and melt, the residence time of water in ice sheets can extend to 100,000 or 1 million years. Consequently, any climatic perturbations produce slow responses, occurring over glacial and interglacial periods. Valley glaciers respond rapidly to climatic fluctuations with typical response times of 10–50 years. However, the response of individual glaciers may be asynchronous to the same climatic forcing because of differences in glacier length, elevation, slope, and speed of motion. Oerlemans (1994) provided evidence of coherent global glacier retreat which could be explained by a linear warming trend of 0.66 °C per 100 years.

text: Ice sheets are the greatest potential source of global freshwater, holding approximately 77% of the global total. This corresponds to 80 m of world sea-level equivalent, with

text: Antarctica

text: accounting for 90% of this.

text: Greenland

text: accounts for most of the remaining 10%, with other ice bodies and glaciers accounting for less than 0.5%. Because of their size in relation to annual rates of snow accumulation and melt, the residence time of water in ice sheets can extend to 100,000 or 1 million years. Consequently, any climatic perturbations produce slow responses, occurring over glacial and interglacial periods. Valley glaciers respond rapidly to climatic fluctuations with typical response times of 10–50 years. However, the response of individual glaciers may be asynchronous to the same climatic forcing because of differences in glacier length, elevation, slope, and speed of motion. Oerlemans (1994) provided evidence of coherent global

text: glacier retreat

text: which could be explained by a linear warming trend of 0.66 °C per 100 years.

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answers: Greenland accounts for most of the remaining 10%

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answers: linear warming trend of 0.66 °C per 100 years

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answers: 1994

text: The ascent of glaciers (Albaron, Grand Fond, Big Pareis, the Baounet ...), opportunities for loops, the discovery of the highest peak in the Maurienne (the Charbonnel, 3752 m), the Glacier Evettes or Ribon Valley offer multiple opportunities for sporting scenery.

text: The ascent of glaciers (Albaron, Grand Fond, Big Pareis, the Baounet ...), opportunities for loops, the discovery of the highest peak in the Maurienne (the Charbonnel, 3752 m), the Glacier Evettes or Ribon Valley offer multiple opportunities for sporting scenery.

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answers: in the Maurienne

text: During the last ice age glaciers shaped the landscape of the Columbia River Plateau. Ice blocked the Columbia River near the north end of Grand Coulee, creating glacial lakes Columbia and Spokane.  Ice age glaciers also created Glacial Lake Missoula, in what is now Montana.  Erosion allowed glacial Lake Columbia to begin to drain into what became Grand Coulee, which was fully created when glacial Lake Missoula along with glacial Lake Columbia catastrophically emptied. This flood event was one of several known as the Missoula Floods. Unique erosion features, called channeled scablands, are attributed to these amazing floods.

text: During the last ice age

text: glacier

text: s shaped the landscape of the

text: Columbia River Plateau

text: . Ice blocked the Columbia River near the north end of Grand Coulee, creating glacial lakes

text: Columbia

text: and Spokane.  Ice age glaciers also created

text: Glacial Lake Missoula

text: , in what is now

text: Montana

text: .  Erosion allowed glacial Lake Columbia to begin to drain into what became Grand Coulee, which was fully created when glacial Lake Missoula along with glacial Lake Columbia catastrophically emptied. This flood event was one of several known as the

text: Missoula Floods

text: . Unique erosion features, called

text: channeled scablands

text: , are attributed to these amazing floods.

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text: The Menuha Formation records the earliest occurrence of tectonic activity within the Ramon anticline, forming the present erosive valley known as "Makhtesh Ramon" as an outcome of a sequence of erosive events evolving since the Late Cretaceous (Avni, 1993). It consists of white and yellow/brown chalk that is often glauconitic and sometimes conglomeratic or marly. The Menuha Formation likely represents a temperate to subtropical, open shelf environment deposited during the formation of the Ramon anticline. Reworked conglomeratic chalks in the western section represent marginal facies derived from this structural uplift.

text: The Menuha Formation records the earliest occurrence of tectonic activity within the Ramon anticline, forming the present erosive valley known as "

text: Makhtesh Ramon

text: " as an outcome of a sequence of erosive events evolving since the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: (Avni, 1993). It consists of white and yellow/brown chalk that is often glauconitic and sometimes conglomeratic or marly. The Menuha Formation likely represents a temperate to subtropical, open shelf environment deposited during the formation of the Ramon anticline. Reworked conglomeratic chalks in the western section represent marginal facies derived from this structural uplift.

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answers: It consists of white and yellow/brown chalk

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Valley glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Ramon anticline

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The Menuha Formation

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: western

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: erosive events

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: "Makhtesh Ramon"

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: open shelf

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: glauconitic

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Ramon anticline

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: anticline

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: anticline

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Khamtesh Ramon

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: chalk that is often glauconitic and sometimes conglomeratic or marly

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answers: Ramon anticline

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answers: anticline

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answers: Late Cretaceous

text: Miers Valley () is a valley in the McMurdo Dry Valleys located just south of Marshall Valley and west of Koettlitz Glacier, on the coast of Victoria Land, Antarctica. The valley is ice-free in the Austral summer except for Miers Glacier and Adams Glacier in its upper (western) part, and Lake Miers near its center. It was mapped and named by Robert Falcon Scott's British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13, possibly after Edward J. Miers, a marine biologist from the British Museum (Natural History) who examined crustacea from the Erebus and Terror expeditions. A hut stood in the valley from 1984–94.

text: Miers Valley () is a valley in the

text: McMurdo Dry Valleys

text: located just south of

text: Marshall Valley

text: and west of

text: Koettlitz Glacier

text: , on the coast of

text: Victoria Land

text: Antarctica

text: . The valley is ice-free in the Austral summer except for

text: Miers Glacier

text: and

text: Adams Glacier

text: in its upper (western) part, and

text: Lake Miers

text: near its center. It was mapped and named by

text: Robert Falcon Scott

text: 's

text: British Antarctic Expedition

text: , 1910–13, possibly after

text: Edward J. Miers

text: , a marine biologist from the

text: British Museum (Natural History)

text: who examined crustacea from the Erebus and Terror expeditions. A hut stood in the valley from 1984–94.

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answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Koettlitz Glacier

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: glaciers are long and narrow

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: Miers Glacier

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: Lake Miers near its center

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: western

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: Miers Glacier

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: Ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: Miers Glacier

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Miers Glacier

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Miers Valley

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Antarctica

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: Lake Miers near its center

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Miers Valley is a valley in the McMurdo Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: Dry Valleys

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Antarctica

text: Indian Rock, aka, "Spook Rock" - Dutch word meaning "a hobgoblin,a ghost"), is a large glacial erratic boulder of granite gneiss, formed in the Proterozoic (Precambrian) era, 1.2 billion to 800 million years ago. It is estimated to weigh ~17,300 tons. The source area for the boulder was nearby in the Ramapo Mountains-Hudson Highlands; it is difficult to know for certain exactly where it was picked up by the glacier, but most likely not more than 5 to 10 kilometers from its current location. The boulder rests upon glacial outwash which in turn lies atop Triassic sedimentary red beds (sandstone and shale) of the Newark Basin (circa 145 million years old). The rock was carried to its current location by the internal flow of the continental ice sheet during the last glacial maximum, circa 21,000 years ago. The base of the continental glacier scoured the bedrock terrain across which it moved, thus plucking large and small blocks of rock from their position in the Ramapo Mountains and Hudson Highlands. Indian Rock got as far as Rockland County before being liberated by the ice and deposited along with gravels shifted by glacial meltwater.

text: Indian Rock, aka, "Spook Rock" - Dutch word meaning "a hobgoblin,a ghost"), is a large

text: glacial erratic

text: boulder of

text: granite

text: gneiss

text: , formed in the

text: Proterozoic

text: Precambrian

text: ) era, 1.2 billion to 800 million years ago. It is estimated to weigh ~17,300 tons. The source area for the boulder was nearby in the

text: Ramapo Mountains

text: Hudson Highlands

text: ; it is difficult to know for certain exactly where it was picked up by the glacier, but most likely not more than 5 to 10 kilometers from its current location. The boulder rests upon

text: glacial outwash

text: which in turn lies atop

text: Triassic

text: sedimentary

text: red bed

text: s (sandstone and shale) of the

text: Newark Basin

text: (circa 145 million years old). The rock was carried to its current location by the internal flow of the continental ice sheet during the last glacial maximum, circa 21,000 years ago. The base of the continental glacier scoured the bedrock terrain across which it moved, thus plucking large and small blocks of rock from their position in the Ramapo Mountains and Hudson Highlands. Indian Rock got as far as Rockland County before being liberated by the ice and deposited along with gravels shifted by glacial meltwater.

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answers: NDQ_000177

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answers: NDQ_000178

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000179

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answers: NDQ_000180

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000184

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answers: NDQ_000186

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000187

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000198

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: glacial erratic boulder of granite gneiss

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: It is difficult to know for certain exactly where it was picked up by the glacier, but most likely not more than 5 to 10 kilometers

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: glaciers flow downhill through river valleys

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: The base of the continental glacier scoured the bedrock terrain across which it moved

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: The base of the continental glacier

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: it is difficult to know for certain exactly where it was picked up by the glacier

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: The rock was carried to its current location by the internal flow of the continental ice sheet during the last glacial maximum

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: glacial meltwater

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: glaciers are getting smaller

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: Rockland County

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Ramapo Mountains-Hudson Highlands

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: continental glacier

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: Rockland County

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: continental glacier

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: gravels shifted by glacial meltwater

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: Ramapo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: Indian Rock

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Rockland County

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: large and small blocks of rock

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Indian Rock, aka, "Spook Rock" - Dutch word meaning "a hobgoblin,a ghost")

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: Basin

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: glacial outwash

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 21,000 years ago

text: Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier. The Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of , the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range.

text: Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The

text: Peters Glacier

text: lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the

text: Muldrow Glacier

text: falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the

text: Traleika Glacier

text: . The

text: Ruth Glacier

text: lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the

text: Kahiltna Glacier

text: leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of , the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 5

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000177

answers: Glaciers

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: Kahiltna Glacier

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: Muldrow Glacier

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: massif

answers: NDQ_000181

answers: It picks up sediments

answers: NDQ_000182

answers: northwest

answers: NDQ_000183

answers: flow off the slopes of the mountain

answers: NDQ_000184

answers: ice wedging

answers: NDQ_000185

answers: global warming

answers: NDQ_000186

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000187

answers: Muldrow

answers: NDQ_000188

answers: large

answers: NDQ_000189

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000190

answers: large

answers: NDQ_000191

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000192

answers: massif

answers: NDQ_000193

answers: massif

answers: NDQ_000194

answers: Alaska Range

answers: NDQ_000195

answers: slopes of the mountain

answers: NDQ_000196

answers: Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes

answers: NDQ_000197

answers: slopes

answers: NDQ_000198

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000199

answers: massif

answers: NDQ_000200

answers: Alaska Range

text: Professor Esmark theorized in 1824 that glaciers had once been larger and thicker and had covered much of Norway and the adjacent sea floor. He also attributed erratic boulders and moraines to glacial transportation and deposition. He first recognized glaciers as a powerful agent of erosion that had carved the Norwegian fjords.

text: Professor Esmark theorized in 1824 that glaciers had once been larger and thicker and had covered much of Norway and the adjacent

text: sea floor

text: . He also attributed

text: erratic boulders

text: and

text: moraines

text: to glacial transportation and deposition. He first recognized glaciers as a powerful agent of

text: erosion

text: that had carved the Norwegian

text: fjords

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answers: glaciers presently cover about 40 percent of Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000178

answers: larger and thicker

answers: NDQ_000179

answers: fjords

answers: NDQ_000180

answers: fjords

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answers: deposition

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answers: glaciers are getting smaller

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answers: thicker

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answers: 1824

text: The Cenozoic is characterised by a further shallowing and erosion of earlier sediments. In places a reasonable thickness of Paleocene and Eocene sediments is reached, but most of the subsurface of the Netherlands lack deposits of this age.

text: The

text: Cenozoic

text: is characterised by a further shallowing and erosion of earlier sediments. In places a reasonable thickness of

text: Paleocene

text: and

text: Eocene

text: sediments is reached, but most of the subsurface of the Netherlands lack deposits of this age.

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answers: The Netherlands lack deposits of this age

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answers: shallowing and erosion

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answers: The Cenozoic

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answers: The Cenozoic

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answers: The Cenozoic

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answers: Paleocene

text: Geologists didn’t always believe that glaciers were responsible for U-shaped valleys and other glacial erosional features. Ice is quite soft and it was unbelievable to many that it could be responsible for the severe carving of bedrock characteristic of glacial erosion. German geologist Penck and American geologist Davis were vocal supporters of this unprecedented glacial erosion.

text: Geologists didn’t always believe that glaciers were responsible for U-shaped valleys and other glacial erosional features. Ice is quite soft and it was unbelievable to many that it could be responsible for the severe carving of bedrock characteristic of glacial erosion. German geologist Penck and American geologist Davis were vocal supporters of this unprecedented glacial erosion.

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