text: The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776-1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.

text: The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776-1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.

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text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a tournament to determine the inaugural Wave Single Champion and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the 2013 Catch the Wave, Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal submission match by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the 2014 Catch the Wave tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a

entity_name: Wave Single Championship

entity_section: Regina di Wave tournament

text: tournament

text: to determine the inaugural

text: Wave Single Champion

text: and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the

entity_name: Catch the Wave

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: , Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the

entity_name: Dual Shock Wave

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal

entity_name: Professional wrestling match types

entity_section: Variations of singles matches

text: submission match

text: by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the

text: 2014 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

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answers: Las Aventureras

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answers: Shidarezakura

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answers: Ohka defeated Kana

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answers: Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa)

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answers: Ohka defeated Kana in the finals

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answers: Ohka defeated Kana in the finals

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answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Shidare Giann's

text: The effects of Hurricane Isabel were generally light in the southeastern portion of the state. Sustained winds reached 72 mph (116 km/h) offshore in the Frying Pan Shoals, where a gust of 82 mph (132 km/h) was also reported. Sustained winds were lighter along the coast, peaking at 45 mph (72 km/h) at the Wilmington International Airport, while gusts reached 66 mph (106 km/h) at a North Carolina State Ports Authority facility in Wilmington. Tropical storm force wind gusts were reported as far inland as Lumberton, where gusts reached 52 mph (54 km/h). The large circulation of Isabel dropped moderate rainfall across the area, peaking at 4.51 inches (115 mm) in Whiteville. Additionally, weather radars estimated over 5 inches (125 mm) of precipitation fell in portions of New Hanover County. The rainfall resulted in ponding on roadways, though no severe flooding was reported. Storm tides were generally around 1 foot (0.3 m) above normal, though Wilmington reported a storm tide of 3.22 feet (1 m). Rough waves resulted in moderate beach erosion near Cape Fear and minor erosion along eastward-facing beaches north of Cape Fear.

text: The effects of Hurricane Isabel were generally light in the southeastern portion of the state. Sustained winds reached 72 mph (116 km/h) offshore in the

entity_name: Frying Pan Shoals

text: Frying Pan Shoals

text: , where a gust of 82 mph (132 km/h) was also reported. Sustained winds were lighter along the coast, peaking at 45 mph (72 km/h) at the

entity_name: Wilmington International Airport

text: Wilmington International Airport

text: , while gusts reached 66 mph (106 km/h) at a

entity_name: North Carolina State Ports Authority

text: North Carolina State Ports Authority

text: facility in

entity_name: Wilmington, North Carolina

text: Wilmington

text: . Tropical storm force wind gusts were reported as far inland as

entity_name: Lumberton, North Carolina

text: Lumberton

text: , where gusts reached 52 mph (54 km/h). The large circulation of Isabel dropped moderate rainfall across the area, peaking at 4.51 inches (115 mm) in

entity_name: Whiteville, North Carolina

text: Whiteville

text: . Additionally, weather radars estimated over 5 inches (125 mm) of precipitation fell in portions of

entity_name: New Hanover County, North Carolina

text: New Hanover County

text: . The rainfall resulted in ponding on roadways, though no severe flooding was reported. Storm tides were generally around 1 foot (0.3 m) above normal, though Wilmington reported a storm tide of 3.22 feet (1 m). Rough waves resulted in moderate beach erosion near Cape Fear and minor erosion along eastward-facing beaches north of Cape Fear.

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answers: Rough waves resulted in moderate beach erosion

text: P-waves are a type of elastic wave, and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, called seismic waves in seismology, that travel through a continuum and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The continuum is made up of gases (as sound waves), liquids, or solids, including the Earth. P-waves can be produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismographs. The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating compressions and rarefactions or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: P-waves are a type of

entity_name: Linear elasticity

entity_section: Elastic wave

text: elastic wave

text: , and are one of the two main types of elastic

entity_name: Seismic wave

text: body waves

text: , called

text: seismic waves

text: in seismology, that travel through a

entity_name: Continuum mechanics

text: continuum

text: and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The

entity_name: Continuum (measurement)

text: continuum

text: is made up of

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es (as

entity_name: Sound

text: sound

text: waves), liquids, or solids, including the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: . P-waves can be produced by

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquakes

text: and recorded by

entity_name: Seismometer

text: seismographs

text: . The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating

entity_name: Compression (physics)

text: compression

text: s and

entity_name: Rarefaction

text: rarefaction

text: s or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

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answers: P-waves can be produced by earthquakes

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answers: P-waves are a type of elastic wave

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answers: P-waves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The continuum

text: Spurn Point at the tip of the Spurn peninsula is made of hard glacial moraine so is less liable to erosion than areas further north on the Holderness coast. The Spurn peninsula is a beach with dunes which moves in response to the action of the waves. The wave action removes sand from the east of the beach and deposits it on the western side. The coast is influenced mainly by wave action but in the estuary the processes are driven by the power of the tides. The incoming tidal currents carry more sediment into the estuary than the ebb tides carry out.

text: Spurn Point at the tip of the Spurn peninsula is made of hard glacial moraine so is less liable to erosion than areas further north on the Holderness coast. The Spurn peninsula is a beach with dunes which moves in response to the action of the waves. The wave action removes sand from the east of the beach and deposits it on the western side. The coast is influenced mainly by wave action but in the estuary the processes are driven by the power of the tides. The incoming tidal currents carry more sediment into the estuary than the ebb tides carry out.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Spurn peninsula

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: power of the tides

answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach with dunes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach with dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach with dunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: beach with dunes which moves in response to the action of the waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The coast is influenced mainly by wave action

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: ebb tides

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: tidal currents

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The Spurn peninsula

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Spurn Point

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: peninsula

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The Spurn peninsula is a beach with dunes

text: Directs a study for shoreline protection in New York.

text: Directs a study for shoreline protection in New York.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach erosion or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the Hindenburgdamm in northern Germany. During hurricane seasons, the winds and rains of approaching tropical storms—as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize traffic jams on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself), emergency evacuation of island residents is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities.

text: Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach

entity_name: Erosion

text: erosion

text: or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the

entity_name: Hindenburgdamm

text: Hindenburgdamm

text: in northern Germany. During

entity_name: Tropical cyclone

text: hurricane

text: seasons, the winds and rains of approaching

entity_section: Tropical storm

text: tropical storm

text: s—as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize

entity_name: Traffic congestion

text: traffic jam

text: s on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself),

entity_name: Emergency evacuation

text: emergency evacuation

text: of

entity_name: Island

text: island

text: residents is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities.

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Causeways

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: causeway

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Causeways

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: winds and rains

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: causeways

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: causeway

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: beach erosion

text: Living shorelines are a relatively new approach for addressing shoreline erosion and protecting marsh areas. Unlike traditional structures such as bulkheads or seawalls that worsen erosion, living shorelines incorporate as many natural elements as possible which create more effective buffers in absorbing wave energy and protecting against shoreline erosion. The process of creating a living shoreline is referred to as soft engineering, which utilizes techniques that incorporate ecological principles in shoreline stabilization. The natural materials used in the construction of living shorelines create and maintain valuable habitats. Structural and organic materials commonly used in the construction of living shorelines include sand, wetland plants, sand fill, oyster reefs, submerged aquatic vegetation, stones and coir fiber logs.

text: Living shorelines are a relatively new approach for addressing

entity_name: Coastal erosion

text: shoreline erosion

text: and protecting

entity_name: Marsh

text: marsh

text: areas. Unlike traditional structures such as

entity_name: Bulkhead (barrier)

text: bulkhead

text: s or

entity_name: Seawall

text: seawall

text: s that worsen erosion, living shorelines incorporate as many natural elements as possible which create more effective buffers in absorbing

entity_name: Wave power

text: wave energy

text: and protecting against shoreline erosion. The process of creating a living shoreline is referred to as

entity_name: Soft engineering

text: soft engineering

text: , which utilizes techniques that incorporate ecological principles in shoreline stabilization. The natural materials used in the construction of living shorelines create and maintain valuable habitats. Structural and organic materials commonly used in the construction of living shorelines include sand,

entity_name: Wetland

text: wetland

text: plants, sand fill,

entity_name: Oyster reef restoration

text: oyster reefs

text: , submerged

entity_name: Aquatic plant

text: aquatic vegetation

text: , stones and

entity_name: Coir

text: coir

text: fiber logs.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: seawalls

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: bulkheads

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: seawalls

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: seawalls

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wave energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: bulkheads

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: marsh areas

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bulkheads

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: marsh areas

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Living shorelines

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Living shorelines

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: bulkheads or seawalls

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Living shorelines

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: bulkheads

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Unlike most islands in Lake Erie, Turtle Island consists primarily of clay and gravel deposits and was subjected to constant erosion, which is why some believed it to not be a real island.  By 1839, lake storms and waves reduced the island by approximately 77% down to an area of only .  Congress spent tens of thousands of dollars to no avail to prevent the erosion of the island.  In 1866, an updated lighthouse costing $12,000 was constructed.  It was described as one of the finest lighthouses on the Great Lakes, and its light could be seen up to  away.  However, the erosion of the island continued to threaten the lighthouse to the point where a  tall concrete wall was constructed in 1883 around the lighthouse to prevent crashing waves and erosion from damaging the structure.  Constant lake storms bombarded the tiny island.  When the nearby Toledo Harbor Light was completed in 1904, the Turtle Island Lighthouse was no longer needed and was decommissioned after having cost the United States an untold amount of money to continuously maintain over the past 72 years.  During those 72 years, there were no shipwrecks within the vicinity of Turtle Island.

text: Unlike most islands in Lake Erie, Turtle Island consists primarily of clay and gravel deposits and was subjected to constant erosion, which is why some believed it to not be a real island.  By 1839, lake storms and waves reduced the island by approximately 77% down to an area of only .  Congress spent tens of thousands of dollars to no avail to prevent the erosion of the island.  In 1866, an updated lighthouse costing $12,000 was constructed.  It was described as one of the finest lighthouses on the Great Lakes, and its light could be seen up to  away.  However, the erosion of the island continued to threaten the lighthouse to the point where a  tall concrete wall was constructed in 1883 around the lighthouse to prevent crashing waves and erosion from damaging the structure.  Constant lake storms bombarded the tiny island.  When the nearby

entity_name: Toledo Harbor Light

text: Toledo Harbor Light

text: was completed in 1904, the Turtle Island Lighthouse was no longer needed and was decommissioned after having cost the United States an untold amount of money to continuously maintain over the past 72 years.  During those 72 years, there were no shipwrecks within the vicinity of Turtle Island.

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: concrete wall

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: tall concrete wall

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: constant lake storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: gravel deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: the lighthouse

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: lighthouse

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: lake storms

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: gravel deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Most waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Turtle Island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Some depositional formation is quite recent, such as in the case of Florida Bay, where much of the bay mud has accumulated since 2000 BC, and consists of primarily decayed organic material.  In the case of Florida Bay these bay muds can accrete as much as 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters per annum, although the dynamic equilibrium of erosion, wave action redistribution and deposition complicate the net rate of layer growth. In the case of the Bristol Channel in the United Kingdom bay, mud formation has been occurring at least since the Eemian Stage (known as the Sangamonian Stage in North America), or about 130,000 years ago.  In other cases such as with San Francisco Bay, deposition has been interrupted by sea-level changes, and strata of vastly different vintages are found. In the San Francisco Bay Area, these are  called Young bay mud and Older bay mud by geologists. Human activities can also affect deposition; close to half of the Young Bay Mud in San Francisco Bay was placed in the period 1855–1865, as a result of placer mining in the Sierra Nevada foothills.

text: Some depositional formation is quite recent, such as in the case of Florida Bay, where much of the bay mud has accumulated since 2000 BC, and consists of primarily decayed organic material.  In the case of Florida Bay these bay muds can accrete as much as 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters per annum, although the dynamic equilibrium of

text: erosion

entity_name: Wind wave

text: wave action

text: redistribution and deposition complicate the net rate of layer growth. In the case of the

entity_name: Bristol Channel

text: Bristol Channel

text: in the United Kingdom bay, mud formation has been occurring at least since the Eemian Stage (known as the

entity_name: Sangamonian

text: Sangamonian Stage

text: in

entity_name: North America

text: North America

text: ), or about 130,000 years ago.  In other cases such as with

entity_name: San Francisco Bay

text: San Francisco Bay

text: , deposition has been interrupted by sea-level changes, and strata of vastly different vintages are found. In the San Francisco Bay Area, these are  called

text: Young bay mud

text: and

text: Older bay mud

text: by

entity_name: Geologist

text: geologist

text: s. Human activities can also affect deposition; close to half of the Young Bay Mud in San Francisco Bay was placed in the period 1855–1865, as a result of

entity_name: Placer mining

text: placer mining

text: in the

entity_name: Sierra Nevada (U.S.)

text: Sierra Nevada

text: foothills.

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answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sea-level changes

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: organic material

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Florida Bay

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Florida Bay

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Young bay mud and Older bay mud

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The dynamic equilibrium of erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: San Francisco Bay

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters per annum

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Bristol Channel

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Florida

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: In the case of Florida Bay

text: The early Mauch Chunk beds were deposited on a large basin receiving most of its sediments from distant highlands. Sea levels fluctuated and allowed some limestone deposition to occur early as well. Since the dominant color of the Mauch Chunk is red, much of the sediment was deposited above sea level in oxidizing conditions. The green-colored members indicate a reducing environment characterized by frequent inundation by water in a swamp, delta, or shallow sea. Later beds have frequent conglomerate beds signaling the first wave of the Alleghenian orogeny.

text: The early Mauch Chunk beds were deposited on a large basin receiving most of its sediments from distant highlands. Sea levels fluctuated and allowed some limestone deposition to occur early as well. Since the dominant color of the Mauch Chunk is red, much of the sediment was deposited above sea level in

text: oxidizing

text: conditions. The green-colored members indicate a reducing environment characterized by frequent inundation by water in a swamp, delta, or shallow sea. Later beds have frequent conglomerate beds signaling the first wave of the

text: Alleghenian orogeny

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: swamp

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Mauch Chunk

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Mauch Chunk

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: conglomerate

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Mauch Chunk

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Sea levels fluctuated

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shallow sea

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sediments from distant highlands

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Mauch Chunk

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: delta

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: conglomerate beds

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: the first wave of the Alleghenian orogeny

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: large basin

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shallow sea

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: frequent inundation by water

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shallow sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Mauch Chunk

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Mauch Chunk

text: The adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion.  Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.

text: The adjacent

text: bathymetry

text: , or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion.  Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 1

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Shoals

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Shoals

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Shoals

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: adjacent bathymetry

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shoals

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Shoals and bars

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Shoals

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Shoals and bars

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Shoals and bars

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The adjacent bathymetry

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: cliff erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: dynamic nature of the seafloor

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Shoals

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Shoals and bars

text: The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the ratio of the voltage and current of a wave travelling along the line.  When the wave reaches the end of the line, in general, there will be a reflected wave which travels back along the line in the opposite direction.  When this wave reaches the source, it adds to the transmitted wave and the ratio of the voltage and current at the input to the line will no longer be the characteristic impedance.  This new ratio is called the input impedance.  The input impedance of an infinite line is equal to the characteristic impedance since the transmitted wave is never reflected back from the end.  It can be shown that an equivalent definition is: the characteristic impedance of a line is that impedance which when terminating an arbitrary length of line at its output will produce an input impedance equal to the characteristic impedance.  This is so because there is no reflection on a line terminated in its own characteristic impedance.

text: The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the ratio of the voltage and current of a wave travelling along the line.  When the wave reaches the end of the line, in general, there will be a reflected wave which travels back along the line in the opposite direction.  When this wave reaches the source, it adds to the transmitted wave and the ratio of the voltage and current at the input to the line will no longer be the characteristic impedance.  This new ratio is called the

text: input impedance

text: .  The input impedance of an infinite line is equal to the characteristic impedance since the transmitted wave is never reflected back from the end.  It can be shown that an equivalent definition is: the characteristic impedance of a line is that impedance which when terminating an arbitrary length of line at its output will produce an input impedance equal to the characteristic impedance.  This is so because there is no reflection on a line terminated in its own characteristic impedance.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: The characteristic impedance

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: a hole

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a transmission line

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: a ridge

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: voltage and current

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: transmission lines

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: transmission line

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: coastal plains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves travelling along the line

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: When this wave reaches the source, it adds to the transmitted wave

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: It can be shown that an equivalent definition is: the characteristic impedance of a line

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: When the wave reaches the end of the line

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The characteristic impedance of a line

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The characteristic impedance of a line

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It can be shown

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: None

text: Leading up to it culmination in 2008, CESP joined with the local groups in Richmond to create a vision to protect the Richmond shoreline for open space, public access, habitat protection and recreation. CESP advocated for the direct acquisition of Breuner Marsh as part of the East Bay Regional Park system. As part of the North Richmond Shoreline Open Space Alliance, CESP urged the East bay Regional Park District to acquire the property. The East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) attempted to purchase the land from the landowner who instead announced intentions to build a development partly in the marsh, with the matter ending up in court finally and in 2008 the Court rule that the acquisition could go forward and put the price at $6.85 million. CESP and other environmental allies encouraged this acquisition to preserve and restore more than  of the North Richmond Shoreline.

text: Leading up to it culmination in 2008, CESP joined with the local groups in Richmond to create a vision to protect the Richmond shoreline for open space, public access, habitat protection and recreation. CESP advocated for the direct acquisition of Breuner Marsh as part of the East Bay Regional Park system. As part of the North Richmond Shoreline Open Space Alliance, CESP urged the East bay Regional Park District to acquire the property. The East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) attempted to purchase the land from the landowner who instead announced intentions to build a development partly in the marsh, with the matter ending up in court finally and in 2008 the Court rule that the acquisition could go forward and put the price at $6.85 million. CESP and other environmental allies encouraged this acquisition to preserve and restore more than  of the North Richmond Shoreline.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Breuner Marsh

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: marsh

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Breuner Marsh

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Breuner Marsh

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Marsh

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Breuner Marsh

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Breuner Marsh

text: Sediment accumulation can also be a result of wave action. Wave currents occur in a swash and backwash  motion. This continual wave action allows for the movement of sediment. The angles at which the swash and backwash occur, are associated with the off shore transport current as well as the change in winter and summer ocean currents.

text: Sediment accumulation can also be a result of wave action. Wave currents occur in a swash and backwash  motion. This continual wave action allows for the movement of sediment. The angles at which the swash and backwash occur, are associated with the off shore transport current as well as the change in winter and summer ocean currents.

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: off shore

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: off shore transport current

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: swash

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: off shore transport current

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: swash

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: swash

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: off shore transport

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: change in winter and summer ocean currents

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wave action

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sediment

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: offshore transport current

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sediment

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: wave action

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: off shore transport

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: angles

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: off shore transport current

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: This continual wave action allows for the movement of sediment

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: off shore

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sediment accumulation

text: The second main point about the regular spacing of cusps is that negative feedback will decrease the amount of net erosion and deposition within a well-formed cusp. As the wave strikes the beach, it will first come into contact with the cusp horns, which will slow the water down. This causes it to lose energy and some of the heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited.  The loss of this sediment, however, gives the water extra energy, and it uses this to remove sediment from the embayment on the backwash.

text: The second main point about the regular spacing of cusps is that negative feedback will decrease the amount of net erosion and deposition within a well-formed cusp. As the wave strikes the beach, it will first come into contact with the cusp horns, which will slow the water down. This causes it to lose energy and some of the heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited.  The loss of this sediment, however, gives the water extra energy, and it uses this to remove sediment from the embayment on the backwash.

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answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: embayment

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: embayment

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: embayment

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: embayment

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: cusp horns

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: heavier sediment

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: loss of energy

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: cusp horns

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: As the wave strikes the beach

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Cusp horns

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: It scrapes rocks like sandpaper

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: As the wave strikes the beach

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: As the wave strikes the beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The loss of this sediment, however, gives the water extra energy

text: The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face depends on many factors.

text: The ability of

text: waves

text: to cause

text: erosion

text: of the

text: cliff

text: face depends on many factors.

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: many factors

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: cliff face

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Factors

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: a groin

text: Longshore drift is influenced by numerous aspects of the coastal system, with processes that occur within the surf zone largely influencing the deposition and erosion of sediments. Longshore currents can generate oblique breaking waves which result in longshore transport.

text: Longshore drift is influenced by numerous aspects of the coastal system, with processes that occur within the surf zone largely influencing the

text: deposition

text: and

text: erosion

text: of sediments. Longshore currents can generate oblique breaking waves which result in longshore transport.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Longshore

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Longshore

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: processes that occur within the surf zone

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Longshore

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: deposition and erosion of sediments

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: oblique

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Longshore

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Longshore transport

text: With the further settlement of the Ore Mountains in the 15th century, new, rich, ore deposits were eventually discovered around Schneeberg Annaberg and St. Joachimsthal. The Second Berggeschrey started and triggered a massive wave of colonization. In quick succession, new, planned, mining towns were built across the Ore Mountains in the vicinity of newly discovered ore deposits. Typical examples are the towns of Marienberg, Oberwiesenthal, Gottesgab (Boží Dar), Sebastiansberg (Hora Sv. Šebestiána) and Platten (Horní Blatná). Economically, however, only silver and tin ores were used. From that time, the wealth of Saxony was built on the silver mines of the Ore Mountains. As  a metal used for coinage, silver was minted on site in the mountain towns into money. The Joachimsthaler coins, minted in the valley of Joachimsthal, became famous and gave their name to the medieval coin known as the Thaler from which the word "dollar" is derived. After the end of the Hussite Wars, the economy in Bohemia, which had been disrupted by the conflict, recovered.

text: With the further settlement of the Ore Mountains in the 15th century, new, rich, ore deposits were eventually discovered around

text: Schneeberg

text: Annaberg

text: and

text: St. Joachimsthal

text: . The

text: Second Berggeschrey

text: started and triggered a massive wave of colonization. In quick succession, new, planned, mining towns were built across the Ore Mountains in the vicinity of newly discovered ore deposits. Typical examples are the towns of

text: Marienberg

text: Oberwiesenthal

text: Gottesgab

text: (Boží Dar),

text: Sebastiansberg

text: (Hora Sv. Šebestiána) and

text: Platten

text: (Horní Blatná). Economically, however, only

text: silver

text: and

text: tin

text: ores were used. From that time, the wealth of Saxony was built on the silver mines of the Ore Mountains. As  a metal used for coinage, silver was minted on site in the mountain towns into money. The

text: Joachimsthaler

text: coins, minted in the valley of Joachimsthal, became famous and gave their name to the medieval coin known as the

text: Thaler

text: from which the word "

text: dollar

text: " is derived. After the end of the

text: Hussite Wars

text: , the economy in Bohemia, which had been disrupted by the conflict, recovered.

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Berggeschrey

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: rich, ore deposits

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: ore deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: ore deposits

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Ore Mountains

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: massive wave

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Ocean water scrapes rocks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The Second Berggeschrey

text: Sediment transport is important in the fields of sedimentary geology, geomorphology, civil engineering and environmental engineering (see applications, below). Knowledge of sediment transport is most often used to determine whether erosion or deposition will occur, the magnitude of this erosion or deposition, and the time and distance over which it will occur.

text: Sediment transport is important in the fields of

text: sedimentary geology

text: geomorphology

text: civil engineering

text: and

text: environmental engineering

text: (see

text: applications

text: , below). Knowledge of sediment transport is most often used to determine whether

text: erosion

text: or

text: deposition

text: will occur, the magnitude of this erosion or deposition, and the time and distance over which it will occur.

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answers: Sediment transport

text: Nintoku Seamount apparently remained at or above sea level long enough to be almost completely devastated by subaerial erosion and wave action. Reefs were not indicated in the seismic studies, but fragmented pieces of coral were recovered and documented, showing a shallow-water sediment-rich condition. The rock records indicate deposition in waters cooler than the present tropical condition. Shallow-water sedimentary deposition ceased in Paleogene times.

text: Nintoku Seamount apparently remained at or above

text: sea level

text: long enough to be almost completely devastated by subaerial erosion and wave action. Reefs were not indicated in the seismic studies, but fragmented pieces of coral were recovered and documented, showing a shallow-water sediment-rich condition. The rock records indicate deposition in waters cooler than the present tropical condition. Shallow-water sedimentary deposition ceased in

text: Paleogene times

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shallow-water sediment-rich condition

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Shallow-water

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Nintoku Seamount

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Subaerial

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shallow-water sedimentary deposition

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: subaerial erosion

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answers: reefs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Subaerial erosion

text: Historically part of Christchurch, Mudeford Spit was sold to Bournemouth Borough Council in 1935. It is the larger of the two features, the other being the Haven, that almost encloses Christchurch Harbour, leaving the water within to exit through a narrow channel known as The Run. Formed by sand and shingle brought around Hengistbury Head by longshore drift and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east, the spit is the most mobile of Dorset's geographical features. Prior to the construction of the long groyne at Hengistbury Head in 1938, it tended to grow steadily in a north-easterly direction and on occasion stretched as far as Steamer Point and Highcliffe Castle; most notably in 1880. It has been breached a number of times naturally; 1883, 1911, 1924, 1935 and once deliberately in the 17th century when an attempt was made to construct another entrance to the harbour. After the last breaching in 1935, the end of the spit broke off and drifted towards the beach at Friars Cliff where it formed a lagoon. The groyne built in 1938 to protect Hengistbury Head from erosion had an adverse effect on the spit as it prevented movement of material around it. The spit began to erode due to wave action from the east and many attempts have been made since to stabilise the situation. Small seawalls were constructed on the spit in the 1960s and a large number of rubble groynes were put down during the 1980s.

text: Historically part of Christchurch, Mudeford Spit was sold to Bournemouth Borough Council in 1935. It is the larger of the two features, the other being the Haven, that almost encloses Christchurch Harbour, leaving the water within to exit through a narrow channel known as The Run. Formed by sand and shingle brought around Hengistbury Head by

text: longshore drift

text: and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east, the spit is the most mobile of Dorset's geographical features. Prior to the construction of the long groyne at Hengistbury Head in 1938, it tended to grow steadily in a north-easterly direction and on occasion stretched as far as Steamer Point and

text: Highcliffe Castle

text: ; most notably in 1880. It has been breached a number of times naturally; 1883, 1911, 1924, 1935 and once deliberately in the 17th century when an attempt was made to construct another entrance to the harbour. After the last breaching in 1935, the end of the spit broke off and drifted towards the beach at Friars Cliff where it formed a lagoon. The groyne built in 1938 to protect Hengistbury Head from erosion had an adverse effect on the spit as it prevented movement of material around it. The spit began to erode due to wave action from the east and many attempts have been made since to stabilise the situation. Small seawalls were constructed on the spit in the 1960s and a large number of rubble groynes were put down during the 1980s.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: lagoon

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: movement of material around it

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: east

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: After the last breaching in 1935, the end of the spit broke off

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Mudeford Spit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groyne

text: The interaction between marine biota and geologic processes is very important to shoreline stability, especially in soft sedimentary environments where sediments are more likely to erode away. Benthic, and planktonic organisms, as well as Shellfish filter, package, and even bind fine sediments together in tidal regions.  This action reduces turbidity in the area by solidifying and protecting loose, soft sediments, and thus allowing for more colonization by other organisms. If disturbance of these soft sediments occurs, particularly through human interaction like shellfish harvesting, dredging, or the introduction of toxins the environment may drastically change.  If this occurs, and marine biota are removed from the environment, erosion can occur, or increase, especially in regions prone to wave action and tidal resuspension (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

text: The interaction between marine biota and geologic processes is very important to shoreline stability, especially in soft

text: sedimentary environments

text: where sediments are more likely to erode away. Benthic, and planktonic organisms, as well as Shellfish filter, package, and even bind fine sediments together in tidal regions.  This action reduces turbidity in the area by solidifying and protecting loose, soft sediments, and thus allowing for more colonization by other organisms. If disturbance of these soft sediments occurs, particularly through human interaction like shellfish harvesting, dredging, or the introduction of toxins the environment may drastically change.  If this occurs, and marine biota are removed from the environment, erosion can occur, or increase, especially in regions prone to wave action and tidal resuspension (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

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answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Shoreline stability

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Shoreline stability

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: disturbance of these soft sediments

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: soft sediments

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shoreline stability

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dredging

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: tidal regions

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion can occur, or increase

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fine sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shoreline stability

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: sediments are more likely to erode away

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoreline stability

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediments are more likely to erode away

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: prone to wave action

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The interaction between marine biota and geologic processes

text: In the 2016 merger between Tahoe Resources and Lake Shore Gold, Tahoe Resources acquired the Timmins West mine, located 18 km. west of Timmins, Ontario, Canada, which in 2013 was ranked the 8th largest gold-producing region in the world. The mine contains three deposits: the Timmins deposit, which has been in commercial production since January 2011; the Thunder Creek deposit, which achieved commercial production in January 2012; and the 144 Gap deposit, approximately 600 meters from the Thunder Creek deposit, which is under development as of this writing, with commercial production expected in 2017. All three deposits are connected by underground drifts.

text: In the 2016 merger between Tahoe Resources and Lake Shore Gold, Tahoe Resources acquired the Timmins West mine, located 18 km. west of Timmins, Ontario, Canada, which in 2013 was ranked the 8th largest gold-producing region in the world. The mine contains three deposits: the Timmins deposit, which has been in commercial production since January 2011; the Thunder Creek deposit, which achieved commercial production in January 2012; and the 144 Gap deposit, approximately 600 meters from the Thunder Creek deposit, which is under development as of this writing, with commercial production expected in 2017. All three deposits are connected by underground drifts.

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answers: 144 Gap

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 144 Gap

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 144 Gap

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Gap

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Timmins

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: gold

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Timmins

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Timmins

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: mine

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Thunder Creek

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: underground drifts

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: underground drifts

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 18 km.

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 18 km.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: underground drifts

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Timmins West mine

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: west

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: west

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Timmins

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 144 Gap

text: Recurring Deposit is a special kind of Term Deposit offered by banks in India which help people with regular incomes to deposit a fixed amount every month into their Recurring Deposit account and earn interest at the rate applicable to Fixed Deposits. It is similar to making FDs of a certain amount in monthly installments, for example ₹  1000 every month. This deposit matures on a specific date in the future along with all the deposits made every month. Thus, Recurring Deposit schemes  allow customers with an opportunity to build up their savings through regular monthly deposits of fixed sum over a fixed period of time. Minimum Period of RD is 6 months and maximum is 10 years.

text: Recurring Deposit is a special kind of Term Deposit offered by banks in India which help people with regular incomes to deposit a fixed amount every month into their Recurring Deposit account and earn interest at the rate applicable to

text: Fixed Deposits

text: . It is similar to making FDs of a certain amount in monthly installments, for example ₹  1000 every month. This deposit matures on a specific date in the future along with all the deposits made every month. Thus, Recurring Deposit schemes  allow customers with an opportunity to build up their savings through regular monthly deposits of fixed sum over a fixed period of time. Minimum Period of RD is 6 months and maximum is 10 years.

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text: Senator Charles Schumer (D-NY) would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of Indymac's total deposits and ask the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits. With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31, Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits. While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly, a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month, had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30.

text: Senator

text: Charles Schumer

text: (D-NY) would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of Indymac's total deposits and ask the

text: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

text: (FDIC) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits. With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31, Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits. While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly, a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month, had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30.

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answers: The breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly

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answers: Senator Charles Schumer

text: Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences.

text: Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing

text: beach

text: es using materials such as

text: sand

text: or

text: mud

text: from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from

text: beach starvation

text: or erosion from

text: longshore drift

text: . It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of

text: coastal defences

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answers: Beach rebuilding

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

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text: Neither of these definitions make any mention of any field equation; in fact, they are entirely independent of physics.  In this sense, the notion of a pp-wave spacetime is entirely mathematical and belongs to the study of pseudo-Riemannian geometry.In the next section, we will turn to the physical interpretation of pp-waves.

text: Neither of these definitions make any mention of any field equation; in fact, they are entirely independent of physics.  In this sense, the notion of a pp-wave spacetime is entirely mathematical and belongs to the study of

text: pseudo-Riemannian geometry

text: .In the next section, we will turn to the physical interpretation of pp-waves.

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text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a Fresnel diffraction pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide" wave moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "plane wave modes", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of Fourier analysis and synthesis – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing techniques, as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in quantum optics. To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of frequency and time used in traditional  Fourier transform theory, Fourier optics makes use of the spatial frequency domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional signal processing are commonly used.

text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a

text: Fraunhofer diffraction

text: pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a

text: Fresnel diffraction

text: pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide"

text: wave

text: moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "

text: plane wave modes

text: ", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of

text: Fourier analysis and synthesis

text: – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind

text: image processing techniques

text: , as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in

text: quantum optics

text: . To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of

text: frequency

text: and

text: time

text: used in traditional

text: Fourier transform theory

text: , Fourier optics makes use of the

text: spatial frequency

text: domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional

text: signal processing

text: are commonly used.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: Fourier optics

answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing techniques

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Fourier transform

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: wave propagation

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Fourier optics

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing techniques, as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Fourier optics

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Fourier optics

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answers: Fourier optics

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answers: Fourier optics

text: The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of coastal erosion in Europe: 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by longshore drift with about 3% of material being deposited at Spurn Head spit, to the south. The coastline has retreated noticeably in the last 2,000 years, with many former settlements now flooded, particularly Ravenser Odd and Ravenspurn, which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century. Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area. The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between Sewerby and Kilnsea since 1951. The Holderness area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous River Hull drains the area north of Hull.

text: The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of

text: coastal erosion

text: in Europe: 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by

text: longshore drift

text: with about 3% of material being deposited at

text: Spurn

text: Head spit, to the south. The coastline has

text: retreated

text: noticeably in the last 2,000 years, with many former settlements now flooded, particularly

text: Ravenser Odd

text: and

text: Ravenspurn

text: , which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century. Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area. The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between

text: Sewerby

text: and

text: Kilnsea

text: since 1951. The

text: Holderness

text: area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous

text: River Hull

text: drains the area north of Hull.

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answers: The Holderness area drains mostly into the Humber

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text: Provides for the Secretary to carry out various beach erosion control, navigation, storm protection, streambank and shoreline erosion control, and harbor maintenance projects.

text: Provides for the Secretary to carry out various beach erosion control, navigation, storm protection, streambank and shoreline erosion control, and harbor maintenance projects.

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text: The Langlee wave energy converter (WEC) is a floating device utilizing the horizontal wave movements by vertical water wings.The water-wing system had already been used by other companies like AW Energy OY, Finland and Aquamarine Power, Scotland. Langlee Wave Power AS developed a floating device with a pair of water wings with half wavelength distance. Further, a floating construction allows installation farther away from the shoreline. The design is based on standard steel pipes.The technology is patented in 10 countries.

text: The Langlee wave energy converter (WEC) is a floating device utilizing the horizontal wave movements by vertical water wings.The water-wing system had already been used by other companies like AW Energy OY, Finland and

text: Aquamarine Power, Scotland

text: . Langlee Wave Power AS developed a floating device with a pair of water wings with half

text: wavelength

text: distance. Further, a floating construction allows installation farther away from the

text: shore

text: line. The design is based on standard steel pipes.The technology is patented in 10 countries.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a floating construction

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: wave energy converter

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a floating construction

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Aquamarine

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wavelength distance

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: floating device

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: horizontal wave movements

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: larger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: horizontal

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: farther away from the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks like sandpaper

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The floating device with a pair of water wings

text: The Carlin–type deposits represent some of the largest hydrothermal gold deposits in the world. The invisible nature of the gold in the deposit makes it difficult to find deposits of that kind. The class of deposit was defined after the Carlin mine became a mass producer of gold in the 1960s and it was recognized that other deposits of that type should exist. Most of the mines in the Great Basin in the United States belong to the Carlin type. Carlin type deposits have also been found in China, Iran, and Macedonia.

text: The Carlin–type deposits represent some of the largest hydrothermal gold deposits in the world. The invisible nature of the gold in the deposit makes it difficult to find deposits of that kind. The class of deposit was defined after the Carlin mine became a mass producer of gold in the 1960s and it was recognized that other deposits of that type should exist. Most of the mines in the Great Basin in the United States belong to the Carlin type. Carlin type deposits have also been found in China, Iran, and Macedonia.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Carlin type deposits

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Carlin type deposits

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: hydrothermal

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: hydrothermal gold deposits

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: gold

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: gold deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: mine

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: hydrothermal

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Larger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Most of the mines in the Great Basin

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks like sandpaper

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: end of a spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Carlin–type deposits

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Carlin–type deposits

text: Mangroves protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge, and tsunamis. The massive root systems of mangroves are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Mangroves retard the tidal movement of water, allowing sediment to be deposited as the tide comes in, and leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. Mangroves therefore build their own environment.

text: Mangroves protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge, and tsunamis. The massive root systems of mangroves are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Mangroves retard the tidal movement of water, allowing sediment to be deposited as the tide comes in, and leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. Mangroves therefore build their own environment.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: waves energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: fine particles

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal areas

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sediment to be deposited as the tide comes in

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sediment to be deposited

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fine particles

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Mangroves

text: Surface waves are seismic waves that travel at the surface of the earth, along the air/earth boundary.  Surface waves are slower than P-waves(compressional waves) and S-waves(transverse waves).  Surface waves are classified into two basic types, Rayleigh waves and Love waves.  Rayleigh waves travel in a longitudinal manner (the wave motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation) with particle motion in a retrograde elliptical motion (Figure 1).  The Rayleigh waves result from the interaction between P-waves and vertically polarized S-waves.  Conversely, Love waves travel in a traverse manner (Figure 1) (the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation), consisting of horizontally polarized S-waves.In seismology, surface waves are collected along with other seismic data, but are traditionally considered noise and an impedance in interpreting deeper reflection and refraction information.   Seismologists usually modify seismic equipment and experimental procedures to remove surface wave information from the data.   Earthquake seismologists however require the information seismic surface waves provide and thus design their equipment to amplify and gather as much information on these waves as possible.  The work by early earthquake seismologists to extract substantial information from surface wave data was the basis for surface wave inversion theory.

text: Surface waves are seismic waves that travel at the surface of the earth, along the air/earth boundary.  Surface waves are slower than

text: P-waves

text: (compressional waves) and

text: S-waves

text: (transverse waves).  Surface waves are classified into two basic types,

text: Rayleigh waves

text: and

text: Love waves

text: .  Rayleigh waves travel in a longitudinal manner (the wave motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation) with particle motion in a retrograde elliptical motion (Figure 1).  The Rayleigh waves result from the interaction between P-waves and vertically polarized S-waves.  Conversely, Love waves travel in a traverse manner (Figure 1) (the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation), consisting of horizontally polarized S-waves.In seismology, surface waves are collected along with other seismic data, but are traditionally considered noise and an impedance in interpreting deeper

text: reflection

text: and

text: refraction

text: information.   Seismologists usually modify seismic equipment and experimental procedures to remove surface wave information from the data.   Earthquake seismologists however require the information seismic surface waves provide and thus design their equipment to amplify and gather as much information on these waves as possible.  The work by early earthquake seismologists to extract substantial information from surface wave data was the basis for surface wave inversion theory.

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answers: The work by early earthquake seismologists to extract substantial information from surface wave data

text: St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep phreatic cave system at a depth of not less than  beneath the contemporary water table. It contains inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of sediment deposition, stalagmite deposition and stream erosion have been recognised at the site, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through the warm and cold phases of the Ice Age.

text: St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep

text: phreatic

text: cave system at a depth of not less than  beneath the contemporary water table. It contains inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of

text: sediment

text: deposition,

text: stalagmite

text: deposition and stream erosion have been recognised at the site, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through the warm and cold phases of the

text: Ice Age

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Swallet

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answers: phreatic

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answers: Swallet

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Swallet

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answers: water table

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answers: stalagmite

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answers: water table

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answers: phreatic cave system

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Swallet

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: St Cuthbert's Swallet

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: successive phases

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: stream erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: inclined

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: stream erosion

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answers: inclined bedding plane mazes

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: stream erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: rifts

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Swallet

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: inclined bedding plane

text: In parallel with the construction of MOSE, the Venice Water Authority and Venice Local Authority are raising quaysides and paving in the city in order to protect built-up areas in the lagoon from medium high tides (below , the height at which the mobile barriers will come into operation). These measures are extremely complex, particularly in urban settings such as Venice and Chioggia where the raising must take account of the delicate architectural and monumental context.Measures to improve the shallow lagoon environment are aimed at slowing degradation of the morphological structures caused by subsidence, eustatism, and erosion due to waves and wash. Work is underway throughout the lagoon basin to protect, reconstruct, and renaturalise salt marshes, mud flats and shallows; restore the environment of the smaller islands; and dredge lagoon canals and channels.

text: In parallel with the construction of MOSE, the Venice Water Authority and Venice Local Authority are raising quaysides and paving in the city in order to protect built-up areas in the lagoon from medium high tides (below , the height at which the mobile barriers will come into operation). These measures are extremely complex, particularly in urban settings such as Venice and Chioggia where the raising must take account of the delicate architectural and monumental context.Measures to improve the shallow lagoon environment are aimed at slowing degradation of the morphological structures caused by subsidence,

text: eustatism

text: , and

text: erosion

text: due to waves and wash. Work is underway throughout the lagoon basin to protect, reconstruct, and renaturalise salt marshes, mud flats and shallows; restore the environment of the smaller islands; and dredge lagoon canals and channels.

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: salt marshes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: MOSE

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: lagoon

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: MOSE

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: morphological structures

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: mud flats

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: quayside

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: tides

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: mud

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: morphological structures

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: mud flats

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: mobile barriers

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shallow lagoon

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: mud flats

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shallow lagoon

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: raised quaysides

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: mobile barriers

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: small islands

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: smaller islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: The deposits from well recorded historical tsunamis can be compared with those from well recorded storm events. In both cases these overwash deposits are found in low-lying areas behind the coastline, such as lagoons. These depositional environments are generally characterised by slow lacustrine to swamp sedimentation, producing a sequence of fine-grained sediments. Both tsunami deposits and storm deposits may have strongly erosive bases and mainly consist of sand, often with shell fragments. The most reliable indicator of a tsunami origin appears to be the extent of the inundation, with tsunamis generally inundating further than storms on a particular coast. In some cases, tsunami deposits show clear separation into distinct sub-units deposited by successive tsunami waves, whereas storm waves normally show a higher number of sub-divisions. The presence of  material eroded from the shelf is considered more likely to suggest a tsunami rather than a storm event due to the much greater energy and erosive power associated with individual waves in the tsunami. The movement of large boulders has also been used to argue for a tsunami origin, but probably only the largest boulders represent good evidence of this as major storms, such as cyclones are known to be able to move large boulders. The amount of movement is also likely to be greater with tsunami waves  due to their much longer period.

text: The deposits from well recorded historical tsunamis can be compared with those from well recorded storm events. In both cases these

text: overwash

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: lagoons

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: lagoons

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: lagoons

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: the presence of material eroded from the shelf

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Tsunami deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: lagoons

answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: lagoons

answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fine-grained sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: tsunamis generally inundating further than storms

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: tsunamis generally inundating further than storms

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Both tsunami deposits and storm deposits may have strongly erosive bases

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The presence of material eroded from the shelf

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: tsunami deposits and storm deposits may have strongly erosive bases

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: mainly consist of sand

text: Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments.

text: Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where

text: wave

text: or

text: current

text: action

text: deposits

text: and reworks sediments.

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answers: Beaches

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answers: Beaches

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answers: Beaches

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answers: Beaches

text: Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.

text: Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during

text: hurricanes

text: ), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national

text: biodiversity action plan

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Mangrove swamps

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answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: massive root systems

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: fine particles

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal areas

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: storm surge (especially during hurricanes)

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fine particles

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Tidal water

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: as the tide comes in

text: Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave that it be distinctly vibratory.

text: Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave that it be distinctly vibratory.

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answers: 4

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answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: moving two-dimensional surfaces

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: foliation

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: foliated

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: A lung flute is a medical device used to clear mucus from congested lungs with low-frequency sound waves. The device consists of a mouthpiece and a plastic reed which vibrates within a chamber to create sound waves in the chest cavity. These sound waves vibrate and break up mucus deposits in the lungs, allowing cilia to more easily move these deposits from the lungs to the throat.

text: A lung flute is a medical device used to clear

text: mucus

text: from congested lungs with low-frequency sound waves. The device consists of a mouthpiece and a plastic reed which vibrates within a chamber to create sound waves in the chest cavity. These sound waves vibrate and break up mucus deposits in the lungs, allowing

text: cilia

text: to more easily move these deposits from the lungs to the throat.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sound waves

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Mucus

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: flute

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Lung flute

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Low-frequency sound waves

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Mucus

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper: Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite, Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation. Dogtooth mountains, such as Mount Louis, exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross gullies. The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper:

text: Mount Rundle

text: is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite,

text: Castle Mountain

text: is composed of numerous

text: Cambrian

text: age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the

text: Stephen Formation

text: and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the

text: Cathedral Formation

text: . Dogtooth mountains, such as

text: Mount Louis

text: , exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross

text: gullies

text: . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in

text: scree

text: deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: mountains

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: limestones

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: dip slope mountain

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: dip slope mountain

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The Sawback Range

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sedimentary layers

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: dip

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: cross gullies

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The Sawback Range

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: gullies

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Dogtooth mountains

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: cross gullies

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand

text: dunes

text: , on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous,

text: friable

text: , slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained,

text: silt

text: y, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian)

text: sediment

text: . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: climatic conditions

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: big trees

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: ecological succession

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Loess deposits

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Loess

text: The Milbanke Sound Group in the Kitimat Ranges consists of young lava flows and monogenetic cinder cones that were probably formed in the last 10,000 years. Like Silverthrone and Franklin, little is known about the Milbanke Sound Group. As a result, its affinity also remains unclear. It may reflect a northern extension of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but there is not enough data to support this hypothesis. Its formation might have also resulted from other tectonic processes that are currently not understood. Swindle Island contains a  high symmetrical cinder cone on its southern shoreline. This volcano, known as Kitasu Hill, comprises tephra and volcanic bombs. Its summit contains a volcanic crater that is breached to the east. Helmet Peak, a steep-sided cinder cone on Lake Island with an elevation of , consists of welded volcanic blocks and basaltic feeder dikes. During eruption, basaltic tuff breccia was deposited throughout Lake Island and nearby Lady Douglas Island. Lava flows on the shores of Price Island and Dufferin Island were erupted from forest-covered basalt cones, which have been reduced in size to small volcanic mounds. Basaltic lava flows on Finngal Island comprise well-developed columnar jointing. Like other volcanic deposits in the Milbanke Sound Group, very little is known about these lava flows. Although the Milbanke Sound Group was probably formed in the last 10,000 years, the exact age of the lava flows and cinder cones is unknown. It probably formed in the last 10,000 years because the volcanic formations have minimal erosion, indicative of post-glacial volcanism.

text: The

text: Milbanke Sound Group

text: in the Kitimat Ranges consists of young lava flows and monogenetic cinder cones that were probably formed in the last 10,000 years. Like Silverthrone and Franklin, little is known about the Milbanke Sound Group. As a result, its affinity also remains unclear. It may reflect a northern extension of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but there is not enough data to support this hypothesis. Its formation might have also resulted from other tectonic processes that are currently not understood.

text: Swindle Island

text: contains a  high symmetrical cinder cone on its southern shoreline. This volcano, known as

text: Kitasu Hill

text: , comprises tephra and

text: volcanic bomb

text: s. Its summit contains a

text: volcanic crater

text: that is breached to the east.

text: Helmet Peak

text: , a steep-sided cinder cone on Lake Island with an elevation of , consists of welded

text: volcanic block

text: s and basaltic feeder dikes. During eruption, basaltic tuff breccia was deposited throughout

text: Lake Island

text: and nearby

text: Lady Douglas Island

text: . Lava flows on the shores of

text: Price Island

text: and

text: Dufferin Island

text: were erupted from forest-covered basalt cones, which have been reduced in size to small volcanic mounds. Basaltic lava flows on Finngal Island comprise well-developed columnar jointing. Like other volcanic deposits in the Milbanke Sound Group, very little is known about these lava flows. Although the Milbanke Sound Group was probably formed in the last 10,000 years, the exact age of the lava flows and cinder cones is unknown. It probably formed in the last 10,000 years because the volcanic formations have minimal erosion, indicative of

text: post-glacial

text: volcanism.

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dikes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: crater

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dikes

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: crater

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Milbanke Sound

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: tectonic processes that are currently not understood

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: tuff breccia

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Milbanke Sound Group

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Price Island and Dufferin Island

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: crater

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: the Kitimat Ranges

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Basaltic lava flows on Finngal Island

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The Milbanke Sound Group in the Kitimat Ranges

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The Milbanke Sound Group

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The Milbanke Sound Group

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: minimal erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The Milbanke Sound Group

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Milbanke Sound Group

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Swindle Island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: It probably formed in the last 10,000 years because the volcanic formations have minimal erosion

text: It is now believed that all three of these types of craters result from impacts into an icy layer.  Excess ejecta craters and perched craters, the larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer and also went into a rocky lower layer.  A portion of the rocky layer was deposited around the rim of the crater forming a rough ejecta deposit.  That ejecta protected the area beneath it from erosion.  Subsequent erosion left the craters sitting above the surrounding surface.  The smaller, "pedestal craters," developed a protective covering by a different process.  Simulations show that a large impact into ice would generate a great burst of heat that would be sufficient to melt some of the ice.  The resulting water could dissolve salts and minerals and produce a coating resistant to erosion.

text: It is now believed that all three of these types of craters result from impacts into an icy layer.  Excess ejecta craters and perched craters, the larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer and also went into a rocky lower layer.  A portion of the rocky layer was deposited around the rim of the crater forming a rough ejecta deposit.  That ejecta protected the area beneath it from erosion.  Subsequent erosion left the craters sitting above the surrounding surface.  The smaller, "pedestal craters," developed a protective covering by a different process.  Simulations show that a large impact into ice would generate a great burst of heat that would be sufficient to melt some of the ice.  The resulting water could dissolve salts and minerals and produce a coating resistant to erosion.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Perched craters

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Perched craters

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: ice

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: salts

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: craters

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: rocky lower layer

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: perched craters

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: ejecta craters

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Larger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: "pedestal craters"

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Impacts into an icy layer

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: rough ejecta deposit

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: a rocky lower layer

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: "pedestal craters"

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: ejecta deposit

text: Cusps and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines.

text: Cusps

text: and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand

text: shoreline

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 5

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: incoming waves divide

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Cusps and horns

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Cusps

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: horns

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Cusps

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Cusps and horns

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: incoming waves divide

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: incoming waves divide

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Cusps

text: Sanaroa island is experiencing erosion due to wave action, and some smaller islands appear to be  sinking slowly.

text: Sanaroa island is experiencing erosion due to wave action, and some smaller islands appear to be  sinking slowly.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

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answers: erosion

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answers: a barrier

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a barrier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: island

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wave action

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sinking

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: island

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: smaller islands

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: smaller islands

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sinking

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Kirby R. (2002) takes this concept further explaining that the fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore. Cheniers can be found at any level on the foreshore and predominantly characterise an erosion-dominated regime.

text: Kirby R. (2002) takes this concept further explaining that the fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form

text: chenier

text: ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore. Cheniers can be found at any level on the foreshore and predominantly characterise an erosion-dominated regime.

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: foreshore

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Chenier ridge

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: waves and currents

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: lag deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: foreshore

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Cheniers

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Erosion-dominated regime

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Tidal zone

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Kirby R.

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Cheniers

text: The Facho-Pico Alto Volcanic Complex was constructed in three phases: the first related to stratovolcanic unit of Facho, and then, two lateral centres associated with Pico Alto. The volcanism that originated Facho was submarine in nature, with two visible centres positioned in the southern part of the island: Pico do Facho and a second pyroclastic cone situated  west of Rocha Alta (the remains of its chamber still visible along the coast). Both these emission centre were responsible for pyroclastic and submarine lava flows. In the northern coast, there was likely another eruptive centre associated within this volcanic unit, but erosion makes its localization difficult. Following a long period of volcanic activity, conditions changed, allowing the deposition of sediments and formation of beaches. These deposits were constructed of conglomerates of stone and marine fossils, such as in Pedraque-Pica.

text: The Facho-Pico Alto Volcanic Complex was constructed in three phases: the first related to stratovolcanic unit of Facho, and then, two lateral centres associated with Pico Alto. The volcanism that originated Facho was submarine in nature, with two visible centres positioned in the southern part of the island: Pico do Facho and a second pyroclastic cone situated  west of Rocha Alta (the remains of its chamber still visible along the coast). Both these emission centre were responsible for pyroclastic and submarine lava flows. In the northern coast, there was likely another eruptive centre associated within this volcanic unit, but erosion makes its localization difficult. Following a long period of volcanic activity, conditions changed, allowing the deposition of sediments and formation of beaches. These deposits were constructed of conglomerates of stone and marine fossils, such as in Pedraque-Pica.

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answers: Beaches

text: The present landscape is not fixed. The land continues to change slowly due to the erosion by wind and water, shoreline wave action, and other acts of mother nature.

text: The present landscape is not fixed. The land continues to change slowly due to the erosion by wind and water, shoreline wave action, and other acts of mother nature.

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answers: Shoreline wave action

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answers: Shoreline wave action

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answers: shoreline wave action

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answers: Shoreline wave action

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

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answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: shoreline wave action

text: Longshore drift, along with wave energy, has shaped the shore.  As waves curve along the beach they also pick up the finest bits of marble; this creates sediment plumes that follow the curve of the beach with the direction of the waves giving the water a shade of turquoise.

text: Longshore drift

text: , along with wave energy, has shaped the shore.  As waves curve along the beach they also pick up the finest bits of marble; this creates sediment plumes that follow the curve of the beach with the direction of the waves giving the water a shade of

text: turquoise

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sediment plumes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: marble

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sediment plumes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves curve along the beach

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: waves curve along the beach

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves curve

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: sediment plumes

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Marble

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: As waves curve along the beach

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Longshore drift

text: Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.

text: Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as

text: parrotfish

text: sea urchin

text: s,

text: sponges

text: , and other forces and organisms act as

text: bioeroders

text: , breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner.

text: Coralline algae

text: are important contributors to reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: reef front

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: reef front

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: reef lagoon

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: reef front

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: reef front facing the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: calcium carbonate

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sandy bottoms

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sandy bottoms

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: reef lagoon

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: reef front facing the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: reef front facing the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sandy bottoms

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: bioeroders

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: reef front

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: reef lagoons

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: reef lagoons

text: Acoustic radiation force is a phenomenon associated with the propagation of acoustic waves in attenuating media. Attenuation includes both scattering and absorption of the acoustic wave. Attenuation is a frequency dependent phenomenon, and in soft tissues it is dominated by absorption. With increasing acoustic frequencies, the tissue does not respond fast enough to the transitions between positive and negative pressures, thus its motion becomes out of phase with the acoustic wave, and energy is deposited into the tissue. This energy results in a momentum transfer in the direction of wave propagation and tissue heating.  The momentum transfer generates a force that causes displacement of the tissue, and the time scale of this response is much slower than that of the ultrasonic wave propagation. This displacement (typically a few micrometers), which is typically detected by computing the correlation of ultrasonic RF signal, can be used to derive additional information about the tissue beyond what is normally provided in an ultrasonic image. The magnitude, location, spatial extent, and duration of acoustic radiation force can be controlled to interrogate the mechanical properties of the tissue.

text: Acoustic radiation force is a phenomenon associated with the propagation of acoustic waves in attenuating media.

text: Attenuation

text: includes both scattering and absorption of the acoustic wave. Attenuation is a frequency dependent phenomenon, and in soft tissues it is dominated by absorption. With increasing acoustic frequencies, the tissue does not respond fast enough to the transitions between positive and negative pressures, thus its motion becomes out of phase with the acoustic wave, and energy is deposited into the tissue. This energy results in a

text: momentum

text: transfer in the direction of wave propagation and tissue heating.  The momentum transfer generates a force that causes displacement of the tissue, and the time scale of this response is much slower than that of the

text: ultrasonic wave

text: propagation. This displacement (typically a few micrometers), which is typically detected by computing the correlation of ultrasonic RF signal, can be used to derive additional information about the tissue beyond what is normally provided in an ultrasonic image. The magnitude, location, spatial extent, and duration of acoustic radiation force can be controlled to interrogate the mechanical properties of the tissue.

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answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Attenuation

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Acoustic radiation force

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Attenuation

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Attenuation

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: frequency

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Acoustic radiation force

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: ocean waves

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: positive and negative pressures

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: With increasing acoustic frequencies

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: typically a few micrometers

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: With increasing acoustic frequencies

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Attenuating media

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The momentum transfer generates a force that causes displacement of the tissue

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: With increasing acoustic frequencies

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Attenuating media

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by

text: weathering

text: of earlier rocks by

text: erosion

text: in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: mass movement

text: or

text: glacier

text: s (agents of

text: denudation

text: ). Mud rocks comprise 65% (

text: mudstone

text: shale

text: and

text: siltstone

text: sandstone

text: s 20 to 25% and

text: carbonate rock

text: s 10 to 15% (

text: limestone

text: and

text: dolostone

text: ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and

text: arkose

text: s (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain

text: fossil

text: s. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or

text: strata

text: and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: steep slopes

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandstones

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: cross bedding

text: Sea defences at West Runton consist of revetments, angled sea wall and a rather prominent wooden groyne stretching out to sea. This does slow down the process of longshore drift but is used mainly as a wave break so the boats can enter the sea more easily.

text: Sea defences at West Runton consist of

text: revetments

text: , angled

text: sea wall

text: and a rather prominent wooden

text: groyne

text: stretching out to sea. This does slow down the process of

text: longshore drift

text: but is used mainly as a wave break so the boats can enter the sea more easily.

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answers: sea wall

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: angled sea wall

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea wall

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sea wall

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wood

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: angled sea wall

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: defences

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: angled sea wall

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: angled sea wall

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: angled sea wall

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: West Runton

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: groyne

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groyne

text: During late Cenozoic Era, because of sustained transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate along the nearby San Andreas Fault Zone, there was continued uplift of the entire coastline of California, so that erosive action of marine waves cut these terraces in the Monterey Bay area. Those Pleistocene marine terraces are composed of clay, silt, sand and gravel with a basal unconformity of gravel on top of rock. The creation of uplifted marine terraces that started to appear during the Pleistocene Epoch continues throughout the (present) Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period due to transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate.  During the October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the marine terraces of the Monterey Bay were further uplifted.  Both Monterey and Santa Cruz have classical uplifted wave-cut shorelines with multiple sets of uplifted and exposed marine terraces.

text: During late

text: Cenozoic Era

text: , because of sustained transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate along the nearby

text: San Andreas Fault

text: Zone, there was continued uplift of the entire coastline of California, so that

text: erosive

text: action of marine waves cut these

text: terraces

text: in the Monterey Bay area. Those Pleistocene marine terraces are composed of

text: clay

text: silt

text: , sand and gravel with a basal unconformity of gravel on top of rock. The creation of uplifted marine terraces that started to appear during the

text: Pleistocene

text: Epoch continues throughout the (present)

text: Holocene

text: Epoch of the Quaternary Period due to transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate.  During the October

text: 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake

text: , the marine terraces of the Monterey Bay were further uplifted.  Both Monterey and Santa Cruz have classical uplifted wave-cut shorelines with multiple sets of uplifted and exposed marine terraces.

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: San Andreas Fault Zone

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: wave-cut shorelines

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: San Andreas Fault Zone

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Pacific Plate onto the American Plate

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: classical uplifted wave-cut shorelines

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: marine terraces

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: classical uplifted wave-cut

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosive action

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Because of sustained transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: marine waves

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Monterey

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Monterey

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave

text: crest

text: is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: crest

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Bunch together

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: wave crest

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Bunch together

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Bunch together

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: crest

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: crest

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: the source of waves is moving towards the observer

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: waves "bunch together"

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Bunch together

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: observer

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: ocean wave fronts

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: successive wave fronts

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: not enough information

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: At an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The distance between successive wave fronts

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: When the source of waves is moving towards the observer

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced

text: The islands were originally a -long peninsula or sand spit extending from the mainland. The islands are composed of alluvial deposits from the erosion of the Scarborough Bluffs. The flow from the Niagara River to the south across Lake Ontario causes a counter-clockwise east-to-west current which has, over time, deposited sediments at the south end of the harbour to form a sand spit.

text: The islands were originally a -long

text: peninsula

text: or

text: sand spit

text: extending from the mainland. The islands are composed of

text: alluvial deposit

text: s from the erosion of the

text: Scarborough Bluffs

text: . The flow from the Niagara River to the south across Lake Ontario causes a counter-clockwise east-to-west current which has, over time, deposited sediments at the south end of the harbour to form a sand spit.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sand spit

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sand spit

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sand spit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Sand spit

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: harbour

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sand spit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Scarborough Bluffs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand spit

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: counter-clockwise

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: counter-clockwise

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sand spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: peninsula or sand spit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sand spit

text: A Geomembrane drainage system was incorporated into the design to discharge water through 3 holes in the dam. Joints and cracks in the concrete were treated with an acrylic resin where the perimeter seal crosses the joint to prevent reservoir water bypassing the perimeter seal. A reinforced concrete wave wall was constructed to the same dimensions and levels as the existing but it extended into the high ground at the left and right ends of the dam. Finally, riprap erosion protection was laid at the left hand end of the dam to arrest erosion of the embankment. The material for the erosion protection was sourced from the reservoir basin.

text: A Geomembrane drainage system was incorporated into the design to discharge water through 3 holes in the dam. Joints and cracks in the concrete were treated with an

text: acrylic resin

text: where the perimeter seal crosses the joint to prevent reservoir water bypassing the perimeter seal. A reinforced concrete wave wall was constructed to the same dimensions and levels as the existing but it extended into the high ground at the left and right ends of the dam. Finally,

text: riprap

text: erosion

text: protection was laid at the left hand end of the dam to arrest erosion of the embankment. The material for the erosion protection was sourced from the reservoir basin.

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text: A little more than 13,000 years ago, a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years. Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows. Mixed with snow, ice and water, these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers, filling their valleys with deep deposits. Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River (at that time an outlet of the Sauk River) and Skagit Rivers. In Arlington,  downstream, lahars deposited seven feet of sediment. Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near Darrington led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk/Skagit Rivers. Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to Puget Sound. A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally. However, most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere, and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles. Deposits from this congregation were as thick as  near Chelan and  near Missoula, Montana.

text: A little more than 13,000 years ago, a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years. Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows. Mixed with snow, ice and water, these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers, filling their valleys with deep deposits. Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the

text: Stillaguamish River

text: (at that time an outlet of the

text: Sauk River

text: ) and

text: Skagit River

text: s. In

text: Arlington

text: ,  downstream, lahars deposited seven feet of sediment. Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near

text: Darrington

text: led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk/Skagit Rivers. Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to

text: Puget Sound

text: . A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally. However, most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere, and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles. Deposits from this congregation were as thick as  near

text: Chelan

text: and  near

text: Missoula, Montana

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answers: Puget Sound

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answers: Puget Sound

answers: NDQ_000113

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text: The Vanderbilt Archeological Site is an archaeological site located on the shore of Lake Oahe in Campbell County, South Dakota, near Pollock, South Dakota.  The site contains the remains of a Native American Plains village which has been tentatively dated to about 1300 AD.  Despite the fact that site is subject to erosive destruction from wave action on the lake, has been determined likely to yield significant information about the movements and living patterns of prehistoric Native Americans in the region.  The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1997.

text: The Vanderbilt Archeological Site is an

text: archaeological site

text: located on the shore of

text: Lake Oahe

text: in

text: Campbell County, South Dakota

text: , near

text: Pollock, South Dakota

text: .  The site contains the remains of a Native American Plains village which has been tentatively dated to about 1300 AD.  Despite the fact that site is subject to erosive destruction from wave action on the lake, has been determined likely to yield significant information about the movements and living patterns of prehistoric Native Americans in the region.  The site was declared a

text: National Historic Landmark

text: in 1997.

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text: The onshore flow from the hurricane disrupted a heat wave in Delaware and Maryland, while the rough surf caused beach erosion and beach closures. Several people were injured in New Jersey by the rough surf, and over 150 people required rescue in Cape May. Waves of  in Atlantic City forced beaches to close for the first time since Hurricane Gloria in 1985, and beaches were closed across the region for about five days. There was minor tidal flooding in the state due to astronomically low tides, although extensive beach erosion occurred after a week of strong waves; in Ocean City, the storm eroded about  of beaches, leaving behind  cliffs. Five people drowned in the state due to rough surf. While still offshore, Felix produced wind gusts of 36 mph (57 km/h) in Atlantic City. On Fire Island in New York, the waves washed away two houses. In Rhode Island,  waves overturned a boat along the Sakonnet River, killing one passenger. Along Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, waves reached , and several beaches were closed across the state. In Maine on Bailey Island, a woman required rescue after being swept away by a wave, who became hypothermic and injured due to cuts. Two lobster boats sank in the state, with one occupant requiring rescue and the other swimming ashore. Damage to the boats totaled $75,000 (1995 USD).

text: The onshore flow from the hurricane disrupted a heat wave in Delaware and Maryland, while the rough surf caused beach erosion and beach closures. Several people were injured in New Jersey by the rough surf, and over 150 people required rescue in

text: Cape May

text: . Waves of  in

text: Atlantic City

text: forced beaches to close for the first time since

text: Hurricane Gloria

text: in 1985, and beaches were closed across the region for about five days. There was minor tidal flooding in the state due to

text: astronomically low tides

text: , although extensive beach erosion occurred after a week of strong waves; in

text: Ocean City

text: , the storm eroded about  of beaches, leaving behind  cliffs. Five people drowned in the state due to rough surf. While still offshore, Felix produced wind gusts of 36 mph (57 km/h) in Atlantic City. On

text: Fire Island

text: in New York, the waves washed away two houses. In Rhode Island,  waves overturned a boat along the

text: Sakonnet River

text: , killing one passenger. Along

text: Martha's Vineyard

text: in Massachusetts, waves reached , and several beaches were closed across the state. In Maine on

text: Bailey Island

text: , a woman required rescue after being swept away by a wave, who became hypothermic and injured due to cuts. Two lobster boats sank in the state, with one occupant requiring rescue and the other swimming ashore. Damage to the boats totaled $75,000 (1995 USD).

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text: August 24, 2015, an article in The Huffington Post titled "10 Years After Katrina, Louisiana Is Becoming A Model For Climate Resilience" summarized the current state of Louisiana's shoreline and coastal community protection.

text: August 24, 2015, an article in

text: The Huffington Post

text: titled "10 Years After Katrina, Louisiana Is Becoming A Model For Climate Resilience" summarized the current state of Louisiana's shoreline and coastal community protection.

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text: Beginning with the Big Bang he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

text: Beginning with the

text: Big Bang

text: he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: the Big Bang

answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: national groups

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Big Bang

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: The first wave

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: the Big Bang

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: the Big Bang

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

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answers: The seventh wave encompasses human awareness

answers: NDQ_000135

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text: Adults aggregate in large numbers (>20 individuals) under rocks and logs along the immediate edge of the breeding sites and breed explosively over a few days. Suitable breeding sites include small fish-free ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands. Like other ambystomatid salamanders, they have evolved a characteristic courtship dance where they rub bodies and release pheromones from their chin gland prior to assuming a copulatory mating position. Once in position, the male deposits a spermatophore, which is a gooey stalk tipped with a packet of sperm, and walks the female forward to be inseminated. Males may mate more than once and may deposit as many as 15 spermatophores over the course of a five-hour period. The courtship dance for the long-toed salamander is similar to other species of Ambystoma and very similar to A. jeffersonianum. In the long-toed salamander, there is no rubbing or head-butting; the males directly approach females and grab on, while the females try to rapidly swim away. The males clasp the female from behind the forelimbs and shake, a behavior called amplexus. Males sometimes clasp other amphibian species during breeding and shake them as well. The male only grabs with the front limbs and never uses his hind limbs during the courtship dance as he rubs his chin side to side pressing down on the female's head. The female struggles but later becomes subdued. Males increase the tempo and motions, rubbing over the female's nostrils, sides, and sometimes the vent. When the female becomes quite docile the male moves forward with his tail positioned over her head, raised, and waving at the tip. If the female accepts the males courtship, the male directs her snout toward his vent region while both move forward stiffly with pelvic undulations. As the female follows, the male stops and deposits a spermatophore, and the female will move forward with the male to raise her tail and receive the sperm packet. The full courtship dance is rarely accomplished in the first attempt. Females deposit their eggs a few days after mating.

text: Adults aggregate in large numbers (>20 individuals) under rocks and logs along the immediate edge of the breeding sites and breed explosively over a few days. Suitable breeding sites include small fish-free ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands. Like other

text: ambystomatid

text: salamanders, they have evolved a characteristic

text: courtship dance

text: where they rub bodies and release

text: pheromones

text: from their chin gland prior to assuming a copulatory

text: mating

text: position. Once in position, the male deposits a

text: spermatophore

text: , which is a gooey stalk tipped with a packet of sperm, and walks the female forward to be

text: inseminate

text: d. Males may mate more than once and may deposit as many as 15 spermatophores over the course of a five-hour period. The courtship dance for the long-toed salamander is similar to other species of Ambystoma and very similar to

text: A. jeffersonianum

text: . In the long-toed salamander, there is no rubbing or head-butting; the males directly approach females and grab on, while the females try to rapidly swim away. The males clasp the female from behind the forelimbs and shake, a behavior called

text: amplexus

text: . Males sometimes clasp other amphibian species during breeding and shake them as well. The male only grabs with the front limbs and never uses his hind limbs during the courtship dance as he rubs his chin side to side pressing down on the female's head. The female struggles but later becomes subdued. Males increase the tempo and motions, rubbing over the female's nostrils, sides, and sometimes the vent. When the female becomes quite docile the male moves forward with his tail positioned over her head, raised, and waving at the tip. If the female accepts the males courtship, the male directs her snout toward his vent region while both move forward stiffly with pelvic undulations. As the female follows, the male stops and deposits a spermatophore, and the female will move forward with the male to raise her tail and receive the sperm packet. The full courtship dance is rarely accomplished in the first attempt. Females deposit their eggs a few days after mating.

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sand dunes

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answers: male releases a spermatophore

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: rocks and logs

answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The male only grabs with the front limbs

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Males clasp the female from behind the forelimbs and shake

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: the males courtship dance, she tries to swim away.

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: male deposits a spermatophore

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins are built to prevent the formation of sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Small fish-free ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The males directly approach females and grab on, while the females try to rapidly swim away.

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: male deposits a spermatophore

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The male rubs his chin

text: The main agents responsible for deposition and erosion along coastlines are waves, tides and currents. The formation of coasts also depends on the nature of the rocks they are made of – the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode, so variations in rock hardness result in coastlines with different shapes.

text: The main agents responsible for deposition and

text: erosion

text: along coastlines are

text: waves

text: tide

text: s and

text: currents

text: . The formation of coasts also depends on the

text: nature of the rocks

text: they are made of – the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode, so variations in rock hardness result in coastlines with different shapes.

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answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: hardness

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a barrier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: variations in rock hardness

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: coastlines with different shapes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: tide

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: deposition and erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: currents

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: variations in rock hardness

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: deposition and erosion

text: The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation. This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow changes the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles: examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of meander bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional: erosion can occur due to dam removal and base level fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool, and deposit its entire load or due to base level rise.

text: The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the

text: Exner equation

text: . This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow changes the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles: examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of

text: meander

text: bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional: erosion can occur due to

text: dam removal

text: and

text: base level

text: fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool, and deposit its entire load or due to base level rise.

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: bed elevation

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: scour holes

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: scour holes

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: bed elevation

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: scour holes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: power of the flow

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: boulders

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: scour holes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: scour holes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: scour holes behind boulders

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: meander bends

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: the power of the flow changes the ability of the flow to carry sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: This can be localized

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: dams

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: scour holes behind boulders

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: This can be localized

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: boulders

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: inside of meander bends

text: The land is tilled after harvesting and has become sensitive to sheet erosion. The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts. Increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir. As a result, sediment deposition in the dam gradually decreased the water storage capacity from 150 million m3 in 1970 to 121 and 108 million m3 in 1983 and 1991 respectivelyThe suspended sediments in the water bodies also affect water quality and cause pollution because of various agrochemicals adsorbed by the sediments into the catchments.

text: The land is tilled after harvesting and has become sensitive to sheet erosion. The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts. Increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir. As a result, sediment deposition in the dam gradually decreased the water storage capacity from 150 million m3 in 1970 to 121 and 108 million m3 in 1983 and 1991 respectivelyThe suspended sediments in the water bodies also affect water quality and cause pollution because of various agrochemicals adsorbed by the sediments into the catchments.

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment load in rivers

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: flooding and droughts

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: forest clearance

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Increased erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: sheet erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sediment deposition in the dam

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Increased erosion since forest clearance

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sheet

text: The Loe was originally the estuary of the River Cober, a ria or drowned river valley now blocked by a sand and shingle bar with a fresh water lake behind. The valley can be traced several kilometres out to sea.  The age of the bar is disputed, with estimates ranging from several thousand years to c. 700 years. With the melting of ice-sheets and glaciers after the last ice age, sea levels rose and reached their present levels about 6,000 years ago during what is known as the Flandrian Marine Trangression. The most likely origin is a barrier beach, (formed by wave action rather than by tides) that gradually moved onshore, as the sea level rose during the Holocene. The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the English Channel (the nearest onshore source is 120 miles away in East Devon). It is thought that Longshore Drift plays an important part in the maintenance of the Bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the Bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits. The bar itself is a sediment sink as far as the overall beach budget is concerned. The deposits have been tentatively dated as Eocene and compared with Gunwalloe beach material, very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived. The composition of the Bar deposits are: Chalk flint 86%, Quartz 9%, Grit 2.6%, Greensand chert 2% and Serpentine 0.5%.

text: The Loe was originally the estuary of the

text: River Cober

text: , a

text: ria

text: or drowned river valley now blocked by a sand and shingle bar with a fresh water lake behind. The valley can be traced several kilometres out to sea.  The age of the bar is disputed, with estimates ranging from several thousand years to c. 700 years. With the melting of ice-sheets and glaciers after the last ice age, sea levels rose and reached their present levels about 6,000 years ago during what is known as the

text: Flandrian Marine Trangression

text: . The most likely origin is a

text: barrier beach

text: , (formed by wave action rather than by tides) that gradually moved onshore, as the sea level rose during the

text: Holocene

text: . The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the

text: English Channel

text: (the nearest onshore source is 120 miles away in East Devon). It is thought that

text: Longshore Drift

text: plays an important part in the maintenance of the Bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the Bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits. The bar itself is a sediment sink as far as the overall beach budget is concerned. The deposits have been tentatively dated as

text: Eocene

text: and compared with Gunwalloe beach material, very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived. The composition of the Bar deposits are:

text: Chalk

text: flint

text: Quartz

text: Grit

text: Greensand

text: chert

text: 2% and

text: Serpentine

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shingle bar

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shingle bar

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shingle bar

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sea levels

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shingle

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shingle bar

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Holocene

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The most likely origin is a barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Longshore Drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The nearest onshore source is 120 miles away in East Devon

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The most likely origin is a barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sand and shingle bar

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: strong current flowing to the south-east

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The Loe

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sand and shingle bar

text: Buota was joined by a bridge to South Tarawa in 1995 and has since increased in population and is becoming more like part of urban South Tarawa.  Abatao is not accessible by road, but the channel can be easily walked at low tide and there is a boat service at high tide.  For people in Abatao and Buota, it is much easier to access schools, clinics and other services on South Tarawa than to travel to the Government Station in Abaokoro.Apart from the bridge from Buota to Tanaea, small causeways connect the villages of Tebwangoroi and Taratai, Tebwangoroi and Nuatabu. The erosion and accretion that are occurring along the shoreline is identified as being linked to aggregate mining, land reclamation and the construction of causeways that has been thought to change the currents along the shoreline.

text: Buota was joined by a bridge to South Tarawa in 1995 and has since increased in population and is becoming more like part of urban

text: South Tarawa

text: .  Abatao is not accessible by road, but the channel can be easily walked at low tide and there is a boat service at high tide.  For people in Abatao and Buota, it is much easier to access schools, clinics and other services on South Tarawa than to travel to the Government Station in Abaokoro.Apart from the bridge from Buota to Tanaea, small causeways connect the villages of Tebwangoroi and Taratai, Tebwangoroi and Nuatabu. The erosion and accretion that are occurring along the shoreline is identified as being linked to aggregate mining, land reclamation and the construction of causeways that has been thought to change the currents along the shoreline.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: causeways

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Abatao

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: causeways

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: high tide

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: aggregate mining

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Buota

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: causeways

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion and accretion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: accretion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: causeways

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion and accretion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: high tide

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Buota

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: erosion and accretion

text: Longshore drift affects numerous sediment sizes as it works in slightly different ways depending on the sediment (e.g. the difference in long shore drift of sediments from a sandy beach to that of sediments from a shingle beach). Sand is largely affected by the oscillatory force of breaking waves, the motion of sediment due to the impact of breaking waves and bed shear from long shore current. Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones, plunging breakers are more likely to form, causing the majority of long shore transport to occur in the swash zone, due to a lack of an extended surf zone.

text: Longshore drift affects numerous sediment sizes as it works in slightly different ways depending on the sediment (e.g. the difference in long shore drift of sediments from a sandy beach to that of sediments from a

text: shingle beach

text: ). Sand is largely affected by the oscillatory force of breaking

text: waves

text: , the motion of sediment due to the impact of breaking waves and bed shear from long shore current. Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones, plunging breakers are more likely to form, causing the majority of long shore transport to occur in the swash zone, due to a lack of an extended surf zone.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shingle beach

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: plunging breakers

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shingle beach

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: breakers

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: swash zone

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: swash zone

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shingle beaches

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones, plunging breakers are more likely to form

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Because shingle beaches are much steeper

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandy beaches are much steeper than sandy ones

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shingle beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The oscillatory force of breaking waves

text: The Cambrian Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of geologic formations that represent the basal section of Paleozoic rocks in the Grand Canyon. The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone was deposited upon the erosion surface of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called Tonto Platform, that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the Bright Angel Shale and Muav Limestone, rest on.

text: The

text: Cambrian

text: Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of

text: geologic formations

text: that represent the basal section of

text: Paleozoic

text: rocks in the

text: Grand Canyon

text: . The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the

text: Cambrian

text: Tapeats Sandstone

text: was deposited upon the

text: erosion surface

text: of the

text: Vishnu Basement Rocks

text: , which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called

text: Tonto Platform

text: , that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the

text: Bright Angel Shale

text: and

text: Muav Limestone

text: , rest on.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: erosion surface

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Sandstone

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: the Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: platform

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Tonto Platform

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sandstone

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The Cambrian Tonto Group

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sandstone

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Granite Gorge

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The Cambrian Tonto Group

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Granite Gorge

text: A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at a harbor entrance or river mouth by: the deposition of freshwater sediment, or the action of waves on the sea floor or up—current beaches.

text: A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at a

text: harbor

text: entrance or

text: river mouth

text: by: the deposition of freshwater

text: sediment

text: , or the action of waves on the sea floor or up—current beaches.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: up—current beaches

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: river bar

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: river bar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: bar

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: deposition of freshwater sediment

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: freshwater sediment

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: harbor or river bar

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: up—current beaches

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: harbor or river bar

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: up—current beaches

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sedimentary deposit

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: freshwater sediment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: up—current beaches

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: A harbor or river bar

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: up—current

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: mouth

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: The high pressure gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "wavefront" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in wave dynamics.An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

text: The high

text: pressure

text: gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "

text: wave

text: front" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in

text: cross section

text: or

text: temperature

text: it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in

text: wave dynamics

text: .An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: An expansion chamber

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: a wave front

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: An expansion chamber

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: wavefront

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wavefront

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Wavefront

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: cross section or temperature

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wavefront

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: an increase in area

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: wavefront

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: expansion chamber

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: seamounts

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: a decrease in area

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: If this wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Wave front

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: This wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The basic principle is described in wave dynamics

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The basic principle is described in wave dynamics

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The basic principle is described in wave dynamics

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: This wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The basic principle is described in wave dynamics

text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity.

text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an

text: unconformity

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: period of erosion/non-deposition

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: non-deposition

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Unconformable

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: non-deposition

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion/non-deposition

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: unconformable

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Unconformable

text: Lake Mataro has been identified in the northern Altiplano, where deposits from this stage are found at an altitude of . For comparison, Lake Cabana deposits are found at altitudes of  and Lake Ballivian at an altitude of . Both Mataro and Cabana were named by Lavenu and others in 1984. The height of Lake Mataro was  above that of Lake Titicaca. It formed a single large lake over the central and northern Altiplano. Progressive erosion of the outlet of Lake Titicaca may be responsible for the observed reduction of the levels of the northern paleolakes during time, as it allowed water from the northern lakes to spill into the southern ones.

text: Lake Mataro has been identified in the northern Altiplano, where deposits from this stage are found at an altitude of . For comparison, Lake Cabana deposits are found at altitudes of  and Lake Ballivian at an altitude of . Both Mataro and Cabana were named by Lavenu and others in 1984. The height of Lake Mataro was  above that of Lake Titicaca. It formed a single large lake over the central and northern Altiplano. Progressive erosion of the outlet of Lake Titicaca may be responsible for the observed reduction of the levels of the northern paleolakes during time, as it allowed water from the northern lakes to spill into the southern ones.

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answers: Progressive erosion

text: Some artificial reefs are used to prevent coastal erosion. Artificial reefs that are used to prevent coastal erosion can be designed to act in several ways. Some are designed to force waves to break off shore and deposit their energy in a different area than directly on the coastline and ripping apart beaches and establishments. Other reefs are designed to hold in sediment on beaches. These reefs trap the sediment and prevent the sediment from being dispersed. The reefs are specifically designed for each unique zone to preserve the existing coast from erosion. (Morang et, al 2014)

text: Some artificial reefs are used to prevent

text: coastal erosion

text: . Artificial reefs that are used to prevent coastal erosion can be designed to act in several ways. Some are designed to force

text: waves

text: to break off shore and deposit their energy in a different area than directly on the coastline and ripping apart beaches and establishments. Other reefs are designed to hold in

text: sediment

text: on beaches. These reefs trap the sediment and prevent the sediment from being dispersed. The reefs are specifically designed for each unique zone to preserve the existing coast from erosion. (Morang et, al 2014)

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves to break off shore

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sediment from being dispersed

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: dispersed

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: break off shore and deposit their energy in a different area

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: break off shore

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: artificial reefs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Beatrice Islets are pair of islets located in Nepean Bay about  east of Kingscote on Kangaroo Island in South Australia.  The Beatrice Islets along with Busby Islet are three high points on the southern edge of a spit that is exposed at low water.  The spit which is named ‘The Spit’ extends from Cape Rouge about  north of Kingscote in a south easterly direction across the opening of the Bay of Shoals for a distance of about .  The islets which are separated by a distance of about , have a north-south alignment.  The islets historically consisted of sand dunes that were permanently above high water.  However, an exercise to remove South African boxthorn, an introduced species considered to an infestation risk, which occurred either during the 1960s or the 1970s and which resulted in the islets becoming ‘susceptible to erosion, and tides and rough weather’ thereby reducing the ‘once stable vegetated islets to bare, wave-washed sand spits’.  Subsequent attempts to stabilise the islets and encourage the deposition of sand were unsuccessful.  As of 1987, the islets were reported as existing ‘only as a mudflat/cocklebed which emerges above the sea at low tide.’

text: Beatrice Islets are pair of islets located in Nepean Bay about  east of

text: Kingscote

text: on Kangaroo Island in South Australia.  The Beatrice Islets along with Busby Islet are three high points on the southern edge of a

text: spit

text: that is exposed at low water.  The spit which is named ‘The Spit’ extends from Cape Rouge about  north of Kingscote in a south easterly direction across the opening of the

text: Bay of Shoals

text: for a distance of about .  The islets which are separated by a distance of about , have a north-south alignment.  The islets historically consisted of sand dunes that were permanently above high water.  However, an exercise to remove South African boxthorn, an introduced species considered to an infestation risk, which occurred either during the 1960s or the 1970s and which resulted in the islets becoming ‘susceptible to erosion, and tides and rough weather’ thereby reducing the ‘once stable vegetated islets to bare, wave-washed sand spits’.  Subsequent attempts to stabilise the islets and encourage the deposition of sand were unsuccessful.  As of 1987, the islets were reported as existing ‘only as a mudflat/cocklebed which emerges above the sea at low tide.’

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: islets

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: rough weather

answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: islets

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Sand spits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sand spits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The Beatrice Islets

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Beatrice Islets

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Kangaroo Island

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Beatrice Islets

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Beatrice Islets

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The Spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: islets

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: north-south alignment

text: Wave refraction disperses wave energy through the bay, and along with the sheltering effect of the headlands this protects bays from storms. This effect means that the waves reaching the shore in a bay are weaker than the waves reaching the headland, and the bay is thus a safer place for water activities like surfing or swimming. Through the deposition of sediment within the bay and the erosion of the headlands, coastlines eventually straighten out. But then the same process starts all over again.

text: Wave refraction disperses wave energy through the bay, and along with the sheltering effect of the headlands this protects bays from storms. This effect means that the waves reaching the shore in a bay are weaker than the waves reaching the headland, and the bay is thus a safer place for water activities like surfing or swimming. Through the deposition of sediment within the bay and the erosion of the headlands, coastlines eventually straighten out. But then the same process starts all over again.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: coastlines

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: headland

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The same process starts all over again

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Deposition of sediment within the bay

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: coastlines eventually straighten out

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The deposition of sediment

text: Generally speaking, there are six potential sediment sources for beach environments. These are longshore transport, onshore transport, wind transport, river transport (and alluvial cliffs for the Canterbury Bight), biogenous (mainly in shell form) deposition and hydrogenous deposition (Kirk, 1967). In the Canterbury Bight system, wind transport and biogenous and hydrogenous deposition can be excluded as agents of sediment inputs. Wind can be excluded as it acts to remove sediment from the beach although this is not a significant amount. Biogenous deposition can be excluded as the high-energy environment and coarse sediment deter shelled animals from occupying the area. Lastly, hydrogenous deposition is not considered important to the Canterbury Bight system (Kirk, 1967). This means that rivers, longshore transport and onshore transport are the main sediment sources for the Canterbury Bight.

text: Generally speaking, there are six potential sediment sources for beach environments. These are

text: longshore transport

text: , onshore transport, wind transport, river transport (and alluvial cliffs for the Canterbury Bight), biogenous (mainly in shell form)

text: deposition

text: and hydrogenous deposition (Kirk, 1967). In the Canterbury Bight system, wind transport and biogenous and hydrogenous

text: deposition

text: can be excluded as agents of sediment inputs. Wind can be excluded as it acts to remove sediment from the beach although this is not a significant amount. Biogenous deposition can be excluded as the high-energy environment and coarse sediment deter shelled animals from occupying the area. Lastly, hydrogenous deposition is not considered important to the Canterbury Bight system (Kirk, 1967). This means that rivers,

text: longshore transport

text: and onshore transport are the main sediment sources for the Canterbury Bight.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: the Canterbury Bight

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: the Canterbury Bight

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Canterbury Bight

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wind transport

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: rivers, longshore transport and onshore transport

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach environments

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: alluvial cliffs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: alluvial cliffs

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: alluvial cliffs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: wind transport

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: onshore transport

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Wind can be excluded

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Bight

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Bight

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: longshore transport

text: Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multi-step process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an insulator is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using platinum, leaving a gap of about 60 micrometres between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nm thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting to them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents though them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled in order to work properly, and this proved difficult to control in practice.

text: Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multi-step process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an

text: insulator

text: is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using

text: platinum

text: , leaving a gap of about 60 micrometres between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nm thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting to them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents though them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled in order to work properly, and this proved difficult to control in practice.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: This proved difficult to control in practice

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answers: This proved difficult to control in practice

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answers: groin

text: Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform

text: Almost periodic function

text: Amplitude modulation

text: Amplitude

text: Beat

text: Chaos theory

text: Cyclic group

text: Diffraction

text: Doppler effect

text: Eigenstate

text: Eigenvalue

text: Fibonacci sequence

text: Fourier series

text: Frequency domain

text: Frequency spectrum

text: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Harmonic oscillator

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: Longitudinal wave

text: Mechanical wave

text: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Partial differential equation

text: Periodic function

text: Permutation

text: Phase (waves)

text: Physics of music

text: Power spectrum

text: Signal

text: Sine wave

text: Spectrum of an operator

text: Translational symmetry

text: Transverse wave

text: Wave equation

text: Wave–particle duality

text: Wave

text: Waveform

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answers: Amplitude modulation

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answers: Transverse wave

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answers: Longitudinal

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answers: Longitudinal wave

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude

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answers: Amplitude

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answers: Longitudinal wave

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answers: Longitudinal wave

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave equation – Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave–particle duality

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answers: Wave–particle duality

text: There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face — the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.

text: There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The

text: berm

text: is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face — the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: trough

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: beach berm

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach berm

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: tide

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach berm

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach berm

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: long shore bars

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The berm

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach berm

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: slope

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Beach berm

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: at some point in the tide

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shore bars

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: trough

text: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave becomes dependent on the wavelength (and therefore frequency), a phenomenon referred to as dispersion. Waves affected by dispersion have a different wave train shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion. However, if a solid or structure has a density or sound velocity that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earth's surface: those waves with a higher frequency travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency. This occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long wavelength. The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves. Since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength (low frequency) waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength (high frequency) waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on seismograms recorded at distant earthquake recording stations. It is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures.

text: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave becomes dependent on the

text: wavelength

text: (and therefore

text: frequency

text: ), a phenomenon referred to as

text: dispersion

text: . Waves affected by dispersion have a different

text: wave train

text: shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion. However, if a solid or structure has a

text: density

text: or

text: sound velocity

text: that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earth's surface: those waves with a higher

text: frequency

text: travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency. This occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long

text: wavelength

text: . The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves. Since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength (

text: low frequency

text: ) waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength (

text: high frequency

text: ) waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on

text: seismogram

text: s recorded at distant earthquake recording stations. It is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures.

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Waves affected by dispersion have a different wave train shape

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: the changing properties of the material

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: a different wave train shape

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: flat elastic solids

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: structure

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: waves on the Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: earthquake recording stations

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: It is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on seismograms

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in Cape May, which were the strongest winds in association with the storm. Sustained winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore Long Branch, waves reached heights of . In South Jersey, the storm surge struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in Ocean City, which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a lunar tide, causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in Perth Amboy along the Raritan River, which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962. The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in Morristown, along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in Sussex County. Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in

text: Cape May

text: , which were the strongest winds in association with the storm.

text: Sustained

text: winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore

text: Long Branch

text: , waves reached heights of . In

text: South Jersey

text: , the

text: storm surge

text: struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in

text: Ocean City

text: , which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a

text: lunar tide

text: , causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in

text: Perth Amboy

text: along the

text: Raritan River

text: , which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the

text: Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962

text: . The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in

text: Morristown

text: , along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in

text: Sussex County

text: . Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

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answers: high tides and a lunar tide

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: the nor'easter produced waves of up to in height

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: beach erosion

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answers: Groins

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answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: offshore

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The nor'easter

text: Procopius claims that the White Huns lived in a prosperous territory, and that they were the only Huns with fair complexions. According to him, they did not live as nomads, did acknowledge a single king, observed a well-regulated constitution, and behaved justly towards neighboring states. He also describes the burial of their nobles in tumuli, accompanied by their closest associates. This practice contrasts with evidence of cremation among the Chionites in Ammianus and with remains found by excavators of the European Huns and remains in some deposits ascribed to the Chionites in Central Asia. Scholars believe that the Hephthalites constituted a second "Hunnish" wave who entered Bactria early in the 5th century, and who seem to have driven the Kidarites into Gandhara.

text: Procopius claims that the White Huns lived in a prosperous territory, and that they were the only Huns with fair complexions. According to him, they did not live as nomads, did acknowledge a single king, observed a well-regulated constitution, and behaved justly towards neighboring states. He also describes the

text: burial

text: of their nobles in

text: tumuli

text: , accompanied by their closest associates. This practice contrasts with evidence of

text: cremation

text: among the Chionites in

text: Ammianus

text: and with remains found by excavators of the European Huns and remains in some deposits ascribed to the Chionites in Central Asia. Scholars believe that the Hephthalites constituted a second "Hunnish" wave who entered

text: Bactria

text: early in the 5th century, and who seem to have driven the

text: Kidarites

text: into

text: Gandhara

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text: The first permanent crossing over the river was Princes Bridge, which first opened as a wooden trestle bridge in 1844, the current bridge was constructed in 1888. In the early days, the river would frequently flood. While this was not considered a problem in the floodplains near Yarra Glen and Coldstream, however it caused much trouble further downstream in settlements such as Warrandyte, Templestowe, Bulleen, Heidelberg and Ivanhoe. The Upper Yarra Dam was later constructed to alleviate the flooding, protecting settlements along the river, yet depriving the river banks of soil and silt deposits and causing other problems such as erosion and salinity.

text: The first permanent crossing over the river was

text: Princes Bridge

text: , which first opened as a wooden

text: trestle bridge

text: in 1844, the current bridge was constructed in 1888. In the early days, the river would frequently flood. While this was not considered a problem in the floodplains near

text: Yarra Glen

text: and

text: Coldstream

text: , however it caused much trouble further downstream in settlements such as

text: Warrandyte

text: Templestowe

text: Bulleen

text: Heidelberg

text: and

text: Ivanhoe

text: . The

text: Upper Yarra Dam

text: was later constructed to alleviate the flooding, protecting settlements along the river, yet depriving the river banks of soil and silt deposits and causing other problems such as

text: erosion

text: and

text: salinity

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answers: Yarra Glen

text: Among various failure mechanisms that cause levee breaches, soil erosion is found to be one of the most important factors . Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and floodwalls. There have been numerous studies to investigate the erodibility of soils. Briaud et al. (2008)  used Erosion Function Apparatus (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software, numerical simulations were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an erosion chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed.  Hughes and Nadal in 2009  studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation similar to the experimental tests while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions.Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate score characterization of different levees due to floodwall overtopping.

text: Among various failure mechanisms that cause

text: levee breach

text: es,

text: soil erosion

text: is found to be one of the most important factors . Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and

text: floodwalls

text: . There have been numerous studies to investigate the

text: erodibility

text: of soils. Briaud et al. (2008)  used

text: Erosion Function Apparatus

text: (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software,

text: numerical simulations

text: were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an

text: erosion

text: chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed.  Hughes and Nadal in 2009  studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation similar to the experimental tests while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions.Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate

text: score characterization

text: of different levees due to

text: floodwall

text: overtopping.

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answers: Sand collects on both sides of a groin

text: There are various types of natural sources and sinks within a coastal system. Sediment sources can include river transport, sea cliff erosion and longshore drift into an area. Sediment sinks can include longshore drift of sediment away from an area and sediment deposition into an estuary.

text: There are various types of natural sources and sinks within a coastal system. Sediment sources can include river transport, sea cliff erosion and

text: longshore drift

text: into an area. Sediment sinks can include longshore drift of sediment away from an area and sediment deposition into an

text: estuary

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text: Manten (1966) deduces that the Burgsvik beds were formed fairly close to the shoreline on a beach "faintly sloping towards the open sea", and that they were extensively reworked by the action of tides and storms.  Evidence from cross-bedding and ripple marks is taken to imply a subaquaeous origin; rounded oolite pebbles and slightly rounded, size-sorted fossils are evidence of a high-energy environment.  The presence of certain species of lamellibranch molluscs suggest a marine setting, and the thick shells present are also indicative of that type of environment.  Rare burrows, sometimes found in clay lenses, may have formed in quieter waters that were protected by low sand or reef barriers from wave action. Features that only form on sub-aerial ground, including erosion channels, pothole-like excavations, mud cracks and dendritic rill marks are all present, and provide firm evidence that parts of the environment consisted of beaches or unvegetated ground that occasionally ran dry. Detailed petrographic and paleæoecological analysis of the upper and top few metres of the middle Burgsvik beds by Stel and de Coo (1977) confirm that this section of the sequence was deposited between the beach and the lower foreshore; oolites and oncolites in the upper strata form in an "agitated shallow marine setting", implying a minor tidal influence. The paleoshoreline was located to the north-east, and facies become progressively more marine in character progressing to the south-west (Jeppsson 2005).

text: Manten (1966) deduces that the Burgsvik beds were formed fairly close to the shoreline on a beach "faintly sloping towards the open sea", and that they were extensively reworked by the action of

text: tide

text: s and storms.  Evidence from cross-bedding and ripple marks is taken to imply a subaquaeous origin; rounded oolite pebbles and slightly rounded, size-sorted

text: fossil

text: s are evidence of a high-energy environment.  The presence of certain species of

text: lamellibranch

text: molluscs suggest a

text: marine

text: setting, and the thick shells present are also indicative of that type of environment.  Rare burrows, sometimes found in clay lenses, may have formed in quieter waters that were protected by low sand or

text: reef

text: barriers from wave action. Features that only form on

text: sub-aerial

text: ground, including erosion channels, pothole-like excavations, mud cracks and

text: dendritic

text: rill

text: marks are all present, and provide firm evidence that parts of the environment consisted of beaches or unvegetated ground that occasionally ran dry. Detailed

text: petrographic

text: and paleæoecological analysis of the upper and top few metres of the middle Burgsvik beds by Stel and de Coo (1977) confirm that this section of the sequence was deposited between the beach and the lower foreshore; oolites and oncolites in the upper strata form in an "agitated shallow marine setting", implying a minor tidal influence. The paleoshoreline was located to the north-east, and facies become progressively more marine in character progressing to the south-west (Jeppsson 2005).

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answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: The paleoshoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: The paleoshoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: tides and storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: oolites and oncolites

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Features that only form on sub-aerial ground

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beaches or unvegetated ground that occasionally ran dry

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: reef

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: low sand or reef barriers

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: The paleoshoreline

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Larger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: subaquaeous

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: low sand or reef barriers

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion channels, pothole-like excavations, mud cracks and dendritic rill marks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sloping towards the open sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: reef barriers

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Cross-bedding

text: There is little significant protection for shorelines from development in the form of designated parks or conservation areas. In addition, Nova Scotia does not provide much protection of rural areas from subdivision of property.  Despite this, most of the shoreline is undeveloped.

text: There is little significant protection for shorelines from development in the form of designated parks or conservation areas. In addition, Nova Scotia does not provide much protection of rural areas from subdivision of property.  Despite this, most of the shoreline is undeveloped.

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: conservation areas

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: designated parks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: development

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: protection

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shorelines

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Shorelines

text: The Purmer's being directly connected to open sea resulted in large-scale shoreline erosion due to wave dynamics and water currents. The high rate of erosion and the need for arable land gave rise to plans for reclamation.Once reclaimed, Purmer was given to farming, but the polder is now highly urbanised. Most of this urban sprawl is due to the town of Purmerend, which has derived its name from Purmer (the "end of Purmer"). During the 1980s and '90s Purmerend had two residential areas built in Purmer, Purmer-Noord and Purmer-Zuid. In contrast to Beemster and Schermer, Purmer is not a municipality in its own right, being divided among the municipalities of Purmerend, Edam-Volendam, and Waterland. The sparse habitation between Purmerend and Edam-Volendam is often referred to as the hamlet of Purmer.

text: The Purmer's being directly connected to open sea resulted in large-scale

text: shoreline erosion

text: due to wave dynamics and water currents. The high rate of erosion and the need for

text: arable land

text: gave rise to plans for reclamation.Once reclaimed, Purmer was given to farming, but the polder is now highly urbanised. Most of this urban sprawl is due to the town of

text: Purmerend

text: , which has derived its name from Purmer (the "end of Purmer"). During the 1980s and '90s Purmerend had two residential areas built in Purmer, Purmer-Noord and Purmer-Zuid. In contrast to Beemster and Schermer, Purmer is not a municipality in its own right, being divided among the municipalities of Purmerend, Edam-Volendam, and

text: Waterland

text: . The sparse habitation between Purmerend and Edam-Volendam is often referred to as the hamlet of Purmer.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: reclamation

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: polder

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: reclamation

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: polder

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: water currents

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wave dynamics

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: large-scale shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: wave dynamics and water current

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: large-scale shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The Purmer

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: large-scale shoreline erosion

text: Spits are formed when longshore drift travels past a point (e.g. river mouth or re-entrant) where the dominant drift direction and shoreline do not veer in the same direction. As well as dominant drift direction, spits are affected by the strength of wave driven current, wave angle and the height of incoming waves.

text: Spit

text: s are formed when longshore drift travels past a point (e.g. river mouth or re-entrant) where the dominant drift direction and shoreline do not veer in the same direction. As well as dominant drift direction, spits are affected by the strength of wave driven

text: current

text: , wave

text: angle

text: and the height of incoming waves.

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answers: spits

text: The course of the upper Mississippi River is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern Minnesota. The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of Hudson Bay, Lake Superior and the Gulf of Mexico evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the Saint Anthony Falls (determining the site of Minneapolis) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the Ohio River, the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller radii than the curves of the valley. Lake Pepin (30 mi [50 km] below St. Paul), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the Chippewa River, coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

text: The course of the upper

text: Mississippi River

text: is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern

text: Minnesota

text: . The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of

text: Hudson Bay

text: Lake Superior

text: and the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the

text: Saint Anthony Falls

text: (determining the site of

text: Minneapolis

text: ) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the

text: Ohio River

text: , the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller

text: radii

text: than the curves of the valley.

text: Lake Pepin

text: (30 mi [50 km] below

text: St. Paul

text: ), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the

text: Chippewa River

text: , coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: rapids

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answers: rapids

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answers: The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

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answers: The course of the upper Mississippi River

text: A wave-cut platform, coastal benches, or wave-cut benches  is the narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shoreline of a lake, bay, or sea that was created by the erosion of waves. Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat rock. Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.

text: A wave-cut platform, coastal benches, or wave-cut benches  is the narrow flat area often found at the base of a

text: sea cliff

text: or along the shoreline of a

text: lake

text: bay

text: , or

text: sea

text: that was created by the erosion of

text: wave

text: s. Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat rock. Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.

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answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sea cliff

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: sea cliff

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: low tide

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: huge areas of flat rock

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: sea cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sea cliff

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion of waves

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: low tide

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The landward side of the platform

text: Oyster reefs can also impact the carbon sequestration and excess nutrient uptake. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.

text: Oyster reefs can also impact the carbon sequestration and excess nutrient uptake. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: marsh

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: marsh

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: oysters

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: marsh areas

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: oyster reef

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: marsh areas

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: oyster reefs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sediment deposition

text: Sediments that are found within Yaquina Bay are derived from tertiary rocks from the Central Oregon Coast Range, Pleistocene marine sediments and estuarine deposits. These sediments have three realms of deposition; marine deposition, fluviatile, and an intermediate transition state called marine-fluviatile. Marine deposition is found within the initial 2.4 km (1.5 mi) of the estuary and is associated with average ocean salinity and turbulent mixing. The sediment is similar in texture to sand and other fine grains. Fluviatile deposition extends from the point of freshwater input up to 9.7 km (6 mi) into the Bay, with its sediments more coarse. The transition stage between these two realms contains sediment mixes from the marine and fluviatile areas.

text: Sediments that are found within Yaquina Bay are derived from tertiary rocks from the Central Oregon Coast Range, Pleistocene marine sediments and estuarine deposits. These sediments have three realms of deposition; marine deposition, fluviatile, and an intermediate transition state called marine-fluviatile. Marine deposition is found within the initial 2.4 km (1.5 mi) of the estuary and is associated with average ocean salinity and turbulent mixing. The sediment is similar in texture to sand and other fine grains. Fluviatile deposition extends from the point of freshwater input up to 9.7 km (6 mi) into the Bay, with its sediments more coarse. The transition stage between these two realms contains sediment mixes from the marine and fluviatile areas.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: estuary

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: estuary

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Bay

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: estuary

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Bay

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Fluviatile

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Fluviatile

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: average ocean salinity

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Yaquina Bay

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: estuary

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: coastal plains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: marine sediments and estuarine deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: turbulent mixing

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Marine deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: turbulent mixing

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Yaquina Bay

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The sediment is similar in texture to sand

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: marine sediments and estuarine deposits

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Yaquina Bay

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Coast

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Marine deposition

text: As an example, the New Brighton spit in Canterbury, New Zealand, was created by longshore drift of sediment from the Waimakariri River to the north. This spit system is currently in equilibrium but undergoes phases of deposition and erosion.

text: As an example, the

text: New Brighton

text: spit in Canterbury, New Zealand, was created by longshore drift of sediment from the

text: Waimakariri River

text: to the north. This spit system is currently in equilibrium but undergoes phases of deposition and erosion.

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: New Brighton spit

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: New Brighton spit

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: New Brighton spit

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: New Brighton spit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: stages of deposition and erosion

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: longshore

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: New Brighton spit

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: longshore drift

text: Ocean processes grade loose sediments to particle sizes other than sand, such as gravel or cobbles. Waves breaking on a beach can leave a berm, which is a raised ridge of coarser pebbles or sand, at the high tide mark. Shingle beaches are made of particles larger than sand, such as cobbles, or small stones. These beaches make poor habitats. Little life survives because the stones are churned and pounded together by waves and currents.

text: Ocean processes grade loose sediments to

text: particle sizes

text: other than sand, such as

text: gravel

text: or

text: cobble

text: s. Waves breaking on a beach can leave a

text: berm

text: , which is a raised ridge of coarser pebbles or sand, at the high tide mark.

text: Shingle beach

text: es are made of particles larger than sand, such as cobbles, or small stones. These beaches make poor habitats. Little life survives because the stones are churned and pounded together by waves and currents.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: loose sediments

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: a berm

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: larger than sand

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: berm

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Shingle beaches

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Shingle beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: ST - Sediment Transport: simulates in-pipe sediment transport, erosion and deposition for uniform or graded sediments.

text: ST - Sediment Transport: simulates in-pipe sediment transport, erosion and deposition for uniform or graded sediments.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: uniform

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: in-pipe

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: graded sediments

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: transport, erosion and deposition

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediment transport, erosion and deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment transport

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sediment Transport

text: Coastal bulkheads are most often referred to as seawalls, bulkheading, or riprap revetments. These manmade structures are constructed along shorelines with the purpose of controlling beach erosion. Construction materials commonly used include wood pilings, commercially developed vinyl products, large boulders stacked to form a wall, or a seawall built of concrete or another hard substance.

text: Coastal bulkheads are most often referred to as

text: seawall

text: s, bulkheading, or

text: riprap

text: revetments. These manmade structures are constructed along

text: shoreline

text: s with the purpose of controlling

text: beach

text: erosion

text: . Construction materials commonly used include wood pilings, commercially developed vinyl products, large

text: boulder

text: s stacked to form a wall, or a

text: seawall

text: built of

text: concrete

text: or another hard substance.

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text: This grading is commonly attributed to longshore drift, but is in fact a result of the diligent labours of the Pippos. Living in "pods" of three or more, along its length, they work nocturnally to grade the pebbles, and thus maintain the integrity of the beach. Without their efforts there would most certainly be extensive flooding through the beach, leading to the Isle of Portland being cut off from the mainland.

text: This grading is commonly attributed to

text: longshore drift

text: , but is in fact a result of the diligent labours of the Pippos. Living in "pods" of three or more, along its length, they work nocturnally to grade the pebbles, and thus maintain the integrity of the beach. Without their efforts there would most certainly be extensive flooding through the beach, leading to the Isle of Portland being cut off from the mainland.

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answers: longshore drift

text: On a rocky cliffed coast made up of material which is relatively resistant to erosion such as sandstone, limestone or granite, a flat rocky wave-cut platform or abrasion platform is formed in front of the cliff. It represents the foot of the cliff preserved at and below the level of water table. If there is a tectonic uplift of the coast, these abrasion platforms can be raised to form coastal terraces, from which the amount of uplift can be calculated from their elevation relative to the sea level, taking into account any eustatic sea level changes. On a cliffed coast made up of material which is only fairly or even hardly resistant to erosion no wave-cut platform but a beach is formed in front of the sea cliff.

text: On a rocky cliffed coast made up of material which is relatively resistant to erosion such as sandstone, limestone or granite, a flat rocky

text: wave-cut platform

text: or abrasion platform is formed in front of the cliff. It represents the foot of the cliff preserved at and below the level of water table. If there is a

text: tectonic

text: uplift of the coast, these abrasion platforms can be raised to form coastal terraces, from which the amount of uplift can be calculated from their elevation relative to the sea level, taking into account any

text: eustatic sea level changes

text: . On a cliffed coast made up of material which is only fairly or even hardly resistant to erosion no wave-cut platform but a beach is formed in front of the sea cliff.

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text: These ideas may be expressed in ordinary language as follows. In the account of ordinary physical waves, a 'point' refers to a position in ordinary physical space at an instant of time, at which there is specified a 'displacement' of some physical quantity. But in the account of quantum mechanics, a 'point' refers to a configuration of the system at an instant of time, every particle of the system being in a sense present in every 'point' of configuration space, each particle at such a 'point' being located possibly at a different position in ordinary physical space. There is no explicit definite indication that, at an instant, this particle is 'here' and that particle is 'there' in some separate 'location' in configuration space. This conceptual difference entails that, in contrast to de Broglie's pre-quantum mechanical wave description, the quantum mechanical probability packet description does not directly and explicitly express the Aristotelian idea, referred to by Newton, that causal efficacy propagates through ordinary space by contact, nor the Einsteinian idea that such propagation is no faster than light. In contrast, these ideas are so expressed in the classical wave account, through the Green's function, though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.

text: Green's function

text: , though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.

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text: H.A.R.D. has partnered with the Hayward Area Historical Society to restore the Meek Mansion, and to manage the open space portions of the site. The Hayward Area Shoreline Planning Agency, created in 1970, is a joint project of H.A.R.D., the East Bay Regional Parks District and the city of Hayward to protect shoreline resources from San Lorenzo Creek to New Alameda Creek on the border of Hayward and Fremont.

text: H.A.R.D. has partnered with the

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text: Over the years, people have built many structures too close to the shoreline. As a result, they became threatened by the ocean’s force, and owners built revetments as a defense. However, the armoring has severely narrowed some beaches. Public access to the beaches has also been reduced in areas where development exists in an unbroken line contiguous to the beach. Properties act as barriers to the public by preventing entrance to the shore. Vertical access is also restricted, stopping public roads leading to the shoreline.

text: Over the years, people have built many structures too close to the shoreline. As a result, they became

text: threatened

text: by the ocean’s force, and owners built

text: revetment

text: s as a defense. However, the armoring has severely narrowed some beaches. Public access to the beaches has also been reduced in areas where development exists in an unbroken line contiguous to the beach. Properties act as barriers to the public by preventing entrance to the shore. Vertical access is also restricted, stopping public roads leading to the shoreline.

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text: Lake Manly left behind many deposits, indicating the range of its waters. Geologists have discovered 30 distinct deposits. The deposits range from strandlines to shoreline gravel to spit and bar complexes, among others. The numerous features span Death Valley from north to south, but are primarily located on the eastern side. Despite how far ranging the features are, the record of deposition is far more incomplete than other Pleistocene pluvial lakes such as Lake Bonneville or Lake Lahontan. Deposits from Lake Manly are often only partially intact because they have been affected by erosion or faulting. The depositional features provide insight into Lake Manly's history and expand the geologic understanding of the region.

text: Lake Manly left behind many deposits, indicating the range of its waters. Geologists have discovered 30 distinct deposits. The deposits range from strandlines to shoreline gravel to spit and bar complexes, among others. The numerous features span Death Valley from north to south, but are primarily located on the eastern side. Despite how far ranging the features are, the record of deposition is far more incomplete than other

text: Pleistocene

text: pluvial lakes such as

text: Lake Bonneville

text: or

text: Lake Lahontan

text: . Deposits from Lake Manly are often only partially intact because they have been affected by erosion or faulting. The depositional features provide insight into Lake Manly's history and expand the geologic understanding of the region.

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Lake Manly left behind many deposits

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline gravel

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: strandlines

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: Groins

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answers: spit and bar complexes

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answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The deposits range from strandlines

text: Until the discovery of the Happisburgh footprints in England in 2013, they were the oldest known hominid footprints outside Africa. The tracks were originally dated to between 385,000 and 325,000 years ago, but subsequent studies using argon-argon dating placed the date more precisely as around 349–350,000 years ago. The pyroclastic deposits in which the footprints were imprinted were laid down around 349,000 years ago (±3,000 years), while the layer of volcanic ash which subsequently covered and preserved them was deposited around 350,000 years ago (±3,000 years). The footprints are thought to have been exposed by erosion caused by heavy precipitation and landslides in the early 19th century, when the name Ciampate del Diavolo was first recorded.

text: Until the discovery of the

text: Happisburgh footprints

text: in England in 2013, they were the oldest known hominid footprints outside Africa. The tracks were originally dated to between 385,000 and 325,000 years ago, but subsequent studies using

text: argon-argon dating

text: placed the date more precisely as around 349–350,000 years ago. The pyroclastic deposits in which the footprints were imprinted were laid down around 349,000 years ago (±3,000 years), while the layer of volcanic ash which subsequently covered and preserved them was deposited around 350,000 years ago (±3,000 years). The footprints are thought to have been exposed by erosion caused by heavy precipitation and landslides in the early 19th century, when the name Ciampate del Diavolo was first recorded.

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answers: Happisburgh footprints

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: landslides

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: heavy precipitation

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: volcanic ash

answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: heavy precipitation and landslides

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: heavy precipitation and landslides

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answers: the Happisburgh footprints

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The footprints

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answers: England

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

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answers: heavy precipitation and landslides

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

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answers: Happisburgh

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answers: Happisburgh footprints

text: Hydraulic action is erosion that occurs when the motion of water against a rock surface produces mechanical weathering. Most generally, it is the ability of moving water (flowing or waves) to dislodge and transport rock particles.  Within this rubric are a number of specific erosional processes, including abrasion, attrition, corrasion, saltation, and scouring (downcutting).  Hydraulic action is distinguished from other types of water facilitated erosion, such as static erosion where water leaches salts and floats off organic material from unconsolidated sediments, and from chemical erosion more often called chemical weathering.It is a mechanical process, in which the moving water current flows against the banks and bed of a river, thereby removing rock particles.

text: Hydraulic action is erosion that occurs when the motion of water against a rock surface produces mechanical weathering. Most generally, it is the ability of moving water (flowing or waves) to dislodge and transport rock particles.  Within this

text: rubric

text: are a number of specific erosional processes, including

text: abrasion

text: , attrition,

text: corrasion

text: , saltation, and scouring (

text: downcutting

text: ).  Hydraulic action is distinguished from other types of water facilitated erosion, such as static erosion where water leaches salts and floats off organic material from unconsolidated sediments, and from chemical erosion more often called

text: chemical weathering

text: .It is a mechanical process, in which the moving water current flows against the banks and bed of a river, thereby removing rock particles.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: saltation

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: downcutting

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: corrasion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: corrasion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: corrasion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: motion of water

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: salts

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Hydraulic action

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: banks and bed

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: river

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: corrasion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: banks and bed

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Hydraulic action

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Hydraulic action

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Hydraulic action

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Hydraulic action

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Hydraulic

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Hydraulic action

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a

text: dune

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answers: crests

answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: normal waves

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answers: larger storm waves

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answers: sand size

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answers: normal waves

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answers: sand deposit may extend well inland

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answers: dune

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answers: Sand size or smaller

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: sand deposit may extend well inland

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: dune

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text: Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

text: Sediment

text: is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (

text: longshore drift

text: ). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of

text: deposition

text: . These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a

text: spit

text: Armoured

text: beaches and submerged offshore

text: sandbanks

text: may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

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answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Armoured beaches

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Armoured beaches

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoals

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: prevailing current

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Sand or gravel banks

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sand or gravel banks

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: a spit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sand or gravel banks

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand or gravel banks

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Bend in the coastline

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: In the direction of the prevailing current

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: direction of the longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Where there is a bend in the coastline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sand or gravel banks

text: Cape Fear experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of Nags Head from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

text: Cape Fear

text: experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of

text: Nags Head

text: from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

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text: According to the superposition principle of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a Hilbert space. The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the Born rule, relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other waves, such as water waves or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of wave equation. This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to wave–particle duality. However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different interpretations, which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

text: According to the

text: superposition principle

text: of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a

text: Hilbert space

text: . The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the

text: Born rule

text: , relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other

text: wave

text: s, such as

text: water wave

text: s or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of

text: wave equation

text: . This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to

text: wave–particle duality

text: . However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different

text: interpretations

text: , which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

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text: Bedrock in the range includes faulted and folded fossil bearing limestones. The slopes of the range have been terraced by shoreline erosion and deposition from Lake Bonneville.

text: Bedrock in the range includes

text: faulted

text: and

text: folded

text: fossil

text: bearing

text: limestone

text: s. The slopes of the range have been terraced by shoreline

text: erosion

text: and deposition from

text: Lake Bonneville

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text: Battjes was born on 22 February 1939 in Winschoten. He studied civil engineering at Delft University of Technology, earning his M.Sc in 1962. Battjes subsequently spent four years as an assistant professor at the Laboratory of Coastal Engineering at the University of Florida, in the United States. He started working as a professor at Delft University of Technology in the late 1960s, where he held the chair of fluid dynamics. In 1974 Battjes obtained his Doctor title in technical sciences at Delft University under Johan Schönfeld, with a thesis titled Computation of Set-up, Longshore Currents, Run-up and Overtopping due to Wind-generated Waves. Battjes retired in 2004.

text: Battjes was born on 22 February 1939 in

text: Winschoten

text: . He studied civil engineering at

text: Delft University of Technology

text: , earning his M.Sc in 1962. Battjes subsequently spent four years as an assistant professor at the Laboratory of Coastal Engineering at the

text: University of Florida

text: , in the United States. He started working as a professor at

text: Delft University of Technology

text: in the late 1960s, where he held the chair of fluid dynamics. In 1974 Battjes obtained his

text: Doctor

text: title in technical sciences at Delft University under Johan Schönfeld, with a thesis titled Computation of Set-up, Longshore Currents, Run-up and Overtopping due to Wind-generated Waves. Battjes retired in 2004.

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text: In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted. Vapor pockets in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded, then the force of the wave compresses the vapor pockets until the bubble implodes, becoming liquid, giving off various forms of energy that blast apart the rock.

text: In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted. Vapor pockets in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded, then the force of the wave compresses the vapor pockets until the bubble implodes, becoming liquid, giving off various forms of energy that blast apart the rock.

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: Vapor pockets

text: Some third-wave feminists prefer not to call themselves feminists, as the word feminist can be misinterpreted as insensitive to the fluid notion of gender and the potential oppressions inherent in all gender roles, or perhaps misconstrued as exclusive or elitist by critics. Others have kept and redefined the term to include these ideas. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge any universal definition of femininity. In the introduction of To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism, the Third Wave Foundation founder and leader Rebecca Walker writes:

text: Some third-wave feminists prefer not to call themselves feminists, as the word feminist can be misinterpreted as insensitive to the

text: fluid notion of gender

text: and the potential

text: oppression

text: s inherent in all

text: gender roles

text: , or perhaps misconstrued as exclusive or elitist by critics. Others have kept and redefined the term to include these ideas. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge any universal definition of femininity. In the introduction of To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism, the Third Wave Foundation founder and leader

text: Rebecca Walker

text: writes:

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answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment.

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answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

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answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

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answers: Sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks like sandpaper

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Changing the Face of Feminism

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier islands are generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The word feminist can be misinterpreted as insensitive

text: Concrete seawalls, bulkheads and revetments are examples of hardened structures traditionally used to stabilize shorelines that ironically increase erosion rates, reduce the shoreline’s capacity to undergo natural processes and minimize estuarine habitats. NCCF feels that the best approach to battle erosion issues is to plan for erosion to occur and build as distant from the water’s edge as possible. However, when this isn’t possible NCCF supports utilizing stabilization techniques that induce the least amount of damage to natural ecosystems and uphold the natural structure of the marsh areas. One such approach NCCF takes is advocating for the construction of “living shorelines” when necessary. Living shorelines are new alternatives to stabilize shorelines that utilize organic materials such as oyster reefs, coir fiber logs, wetland plants, stones, sand fill, and submerged aquatic vegetation. Living shorelines protect surrounding intertidal and riparian environments, improve water quality by filtration of runoff, decrease erosion rates and create terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

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answers: Ironically increase erosion rates

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answers: Living shorelines

text: Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented.  Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories:  shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.

text: Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented.  Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories:  shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Shoreline

text: A soil erosion study of the beach at Rossnowlagh, known officially as Belalt Strand, has been made. The area consists mainly of sandy beach, but also rocky shore platform, sand dunes, grassland, boulder clay cliffs and rock cliffs. Over the last 60 years it has been determined that the central section of the dune front has been eroding at rates up to 0.6 metres (2 ft) per year, with the highest erosion rate between 1951 and 1977. Starting in 1972, short lengths of rock armour were constructed at first in front of the Sandhouse Hotel and with further additions along the shore-line; this stopped the erosion in protected parts but the dune front has a ragged appearance with up to  of erosion where half of the sandy shoreline has no protection.

text: A soil erosion study of the beach at Rossnowlagh, known officially as Belalt Strand, has been made. The area consists mainly of sandy beach, but also rocky shore platform, sand dunes, grassland, boulder clay cliffs and rock cliffs. Over the last 60 years it has been determined that the central section of the dune front has been eroding at rates up to 0.6 metres (2 ft) per year, with the highest erosion rate between 1951 and 1977. Starting in 1972, short lengths of

text: rock armour

text: were constructed at first in front of the Sandhouse Hotel and with further additions along the shore-line; this stopped the erosion in protected parts but the dune front has a ragged appearance with up to  of erosion where half of the sandy shoreline has no protection.

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: rock armour

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: rock armour

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: dune front

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: armour

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: the highest erosion rate between 1951 and 1977

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Rossnowlagh

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Rossnowlagh

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: rock armour

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sandy beach

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Rossnowlagh

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Rossnowlagh

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sand dunes

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: coastline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: eroded cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: the larger the wave the more energy it releases

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Waves erode coastline

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sediment

text: In 1845 the Frenchman Elie de Beaumont published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine bar when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands.

text: In 1845 the Frenchman

text: Elie de Beaumont

text: published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine

text: bar

text: when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands.

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answers: 2

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: submarine bar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shallow water

answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: The coastal land masses are formed or modified both by action of the sea currents and tides, and by the rainwater flow through the estuaries, from the rivers and backwater systems, supplying sediments. Deposition or erosion of coastal areas are common and dynamic. Sea erosion claims land in some areas with the eroded soil being deposited in other areas. Severe floods and tidal changes have caused more abrupt and drastic transformations at times. The Cochin estuary itself is said to have resulted from the floods of 1341, which caused the silting up of the ancient harbor of Muziris and the opening of the channel at Cochin Azhi.

text: The coastal land masses are formed or modified both by action of the sea currents and tides, and by the rainwater flow through the estuaries, from the rivers and backwater systems, supplying sediments. Deposition or erosion of coastal areas are common and dynamic. Sea erosion claims land in some areas with the eroded soil being deposited in other areas. Severe floods and tidal changes have caused more abrupt and drastic transformations at times. The Cochin estuary itself is said to have resulted from the floods of 1341, which caused the silting up of the ancient harbor of

text: Muziris

text: and the opening of the channel at Cochin Azhi.

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: action of the sea currents and tides

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: rainwater

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: abrupt and drastic transformations

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: ancient harbor of Muziris

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: harbor

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Cochin estuary

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Severe floods and tidal changes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Severe floods

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sea erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Estuaries

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sea erosion claims land

text: The Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscope (HRG), also called wine-glass gyroscope or mushroom gyro, is made using a thin solid-state hemispherical shell, anchored by a thick stem. This shell is driven to a flexural resonance by electrostatic forces generated by electrodes which are deposited directly onto separate fused-quartz structures that surround the shell. Gyroscopic effect is obtained from the inertial property of the flexural standing waves. HRG has no moving parts, is extremely reliable and very accurate.

text: The Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscope (HRG), also called wine-glass gyroscope or mushroom gyro, is made using a thin solid-state hemispherical shell, anchored by a thick stem. This shell is driven to a flexural resonance by electrostatic forces generated by electrodes which are deposited directly onto separate fused-quartz structures that surround the shell. Gyroscopic effect is obtained from the inertial property of the flexural standing waves. HRG has no moving parts, is extremely reliable and very accurate.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: mushroom

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a thick stem

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: mushroom gyro

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: anchored by a thick stem

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: mushroom gyro

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: standing waves

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: standing waves

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: electrostatic forces

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wine-glass

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: flexural standing waves

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: a thick stem

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: gyroscope

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: flexural standing waves

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: standing waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Gyroscopic effect

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: flexural

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: anchored by a thick stem

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: anchored by a thick stem

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: hemispherical

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Gyroscope

text: Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than  of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100 keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

text: Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in

text: Florida Bay

text: are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than  of Florida Bay is protected by

text: Everglades National Park

text: , representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100

text: keys

text: in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of

text: turtle grass

text: and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay.

text: Sea turtle

text: s and

text: manatee

text: s eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: estuaries

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: estuaries

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sea grasses

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: fresh water

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: worms clams

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shorelines from erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: plankton

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Sea grasses

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sea grasses

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: estuaries

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Keys

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sea grasses

text: Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas. In Finland, glacial erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring by sea waves, followed by isostatic uplift has produced a large number of smooth coastal and littoral outcrops.

text: Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of

text: soil

text: and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through

text: erosion

text: or

text: tectonic uplift

text: , the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where

text: erosion

text: is rapid and exceeds the

text: weathering

text: rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and

text: tectonically active

text: areas. In

text: Finland

text: glacial

text: erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring by sea waves, followed by

text: isostatic uplift

text: has produced a large number of smooth coastal and littoral outcrops.

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answers: 1

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: littoral

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: isostatic

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: outcrops

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: river banks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: outcrops

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: littoral

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Outcrops

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: glacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sea waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: outcrops

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal and littoral

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: river banks

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: coastal and littoral

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: isostatic uplift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: scouring

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: littoral

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: steep hillsides

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: coastal and littoral

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: river banks

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sea waves

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: littoral

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: outcrops

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: crop out

text: Sediment deposition throughout a shoreline profile conforms to the null point hypothesis; where gravitational and hydraulic forces determine the settling velocity of grains in a seaward fining sediment distribution. Long shore occurs in a 90 to 80 degree backwash so it would be presented as a right angle with the wave line.

text: Sediment deposition

text: throughout a shoreline profile conforms to the

text: null point hypothesis

text: ; where gravitational and hydraulic forces determine the settling velocity of grains in a seaward fining sediment distribution. Long shore occurs in a 90 to 80 degree backwash so it would be presented as a right angle with the wave line.

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answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Long shore

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Long shore

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Long shore

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Shoreline profile

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Shoreline profile

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment deposition

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: grains

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shoreline profile

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline profile

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Long shore

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: seaward fining sediment distribution

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 90 to 80 degree backwash

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Gravitational and hydraulic forces determine the settling velocity

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Seaward fining sediment distribution

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Long shore

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The null point hypothesis

text: In seismology, several types of surface waves are encountered. Surface waves, in this mechanical sense, are commonly known as either Love waves (L waves) or Rayleigh waves. A seismic wave is a wave that travels through the Earth, often as the result of an earthquake or explosion. Love waves have transverse motion (movement is perpendicular to the direction of travel, like light waves), whereas Rayleigh waves have both longitudinal (movement parallel to the direction of travel, like sound waves) and transverse motion. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists and measured by a seismograph or seismometer. Surface waves span a wide frequency range, and the period of waves that are most damaging is usually 10 seconds or longer. Surface waves can travel around the globe many times from the largest earthquakes. Surface waves are caused when P waves and S waves come to the surface.

text: In

text: seismology

text: , several types of surface waves are encountered. Surface waves, in this mechanical sense, are commonly known as either

text: Love wave

text: s (L waves) or

text: Rayleigh wave

text: s. A

text: seismic wave

text: is a wave that travels through the Earth, often as the result of an earthquake or explosion. Love waves have transverse motion (movement is perpendicular to the direction of travel, like light waves), whereas Rayleigh waves have both longitudinal (movement parallel to the direction of travel, like sound waves) and transverse motion. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists and measured by a seismograph or seismometer. Surface waves span a wide frequency range, and the period of waves that are most damaging is usually 10 seconds or longer. Surface waves can travel around the globe many times from the largest earthquakes. Surface waves are caused when P waves and S waves come to the surface.

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answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Seismograph or seismometer

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a seismic wave

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: frequency range

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: the largest earthquakes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Sound waves

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: the largest earthquakes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Surface waves can travel around the globe many times

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Surface waves

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Love waves have transverse motion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: In seismology, several types of surface waves are encountered

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Seismic waves travel through the Earth

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Surface waves can travel around the globe many times

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Rayleigh waves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Love waves have transverse motion

text: The coastal cliffs at Covehithe are formed of glacial sands and other deposits. Loose and unconsolidated, they erode rapidly, currently at around 4.5 metres a year, although Environment Agency studies found that 75 metres had been lost between 1992 and 2006 at a rate of 5.3 metres a year. The main part of the settlement at Covehithe, around 250 metres from the current shoreline, is expected to be lost to erosion by 2110, possibly even by 2040. Any future attempts to protect Covehithe are thought to be unsustainable, and would likely increase erosion rates at the larger settlement of Southwold to the south.

text: The coastal cliffs at Covehithe are formed of glacial sands and other deposits. Loose and unconsolidated, they erode rapidly, currently at around 4.5 metres a year, although

text: Environment Agency

text: studies found that 75 metres had been lost between 1992 and 2006 at a rate of 5.3 metres a year. The main part of the settlement at Covehithe, around 250 metres from the current shoreline, is expected to be lost to erosion by 2110, possibly even by 2040. Any future attempts to protect Covehithe are thought to be unsustainable, and would likely increase erosion rates at the larger settlement of

text: Southwold

text: to the south.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: attempts to protect Covehithe

answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 250 metres from the current shoreline

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Covehithe

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Loose

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Covehithe

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: a groin

text: The location of the shoreline and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002). Present day shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008). More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of coastal protection, to calibrate and verify numerical models to assess sea level rise, map hazard zones and formulate policies to regulate coastal development. Accurate and consistent delineation of the shoreline is integral to all of these tasks.  The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures, beach width, volume and rates of historical change (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002).

text: The location of the shoreline and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002). Present day shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008). More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of

text: coastal protection

text: , to calibrate and verify

text: numerical models

text: to assess

text: sea level rise

text: , map hazard zones and formulate policies to regulate coastal development. Accurate and consistent delineation of the shoreline is integral to all of these tasks.  The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures,

text: beach

text: width, volume and rates of historical change (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002).

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: coastal protection

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: coastal protection

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sea level rise

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach width

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shoreline reorientation

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The location of the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Shoreline reorientation

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline reorientation

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The location of the shoreline

text: The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.

text: The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: mean water line

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wind

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: water particles

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: water particles moving toward the shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: parallel

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Surface waves carry considerable water shoreward

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum

text: While a terrace sequence can date back hundreds of thousands of years, its degradation is a rather fast process. On the one hand a deeper transgression of cliffs into the shoreline may completely destroy previous terraces; on the other hand older terraces might be decayed or covered by deposits, colluvia or alluvial fans.  Erosion and backwearing of slopes caused by incisive streams play another important role in this degradation process.

text: While a terrace sequence can date back hundreds of thousands of years, its degradation is a rather fast process. On the one hand a deeper transgression of cliffs into the shoreline may completely destroy previous terraces; on the other hand older terraces might be decayed or covered by deposits,

text: colluvia

text: or

text: alluvial fan

text: s.  Erosion and backwearing of slopes caused by incisive streams play another important role in this degradation process.

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answers: 2

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: colluvia

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: terrace sequence

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: deeper transgression of cliffs

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: colluvia or alluvial fans

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: cliffs into the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: terrace sequence

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: incisive streams

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: alluvial fans

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: incisive streams

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: alluvial fans

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: colluvia

text: Soundwise, combo organs are very similar to each other, although there are definite discernible tonal characteristics that differ between models that might be considered "default" for each model. For instance, the Vox Continental tends toward having somewhat of a Hammond-like, or "sine wave"-like sound (only thinner); while the Farfisa Combo Compact has an aggressive, raspy quality to some of its boosted tones, and the Gibson G-101 has a cleaner, contoured, more "sawtooth wave"-like tone, with harpsichord-like, percussive sound capabilities and a slight "after-jingle", with Sustain selected, on some voice settings.

text: Soundwise, combo organs are very similar to each other, although there are definite discernible tonal characteristics that differ between models that might be considered "default" for each model. For instance, the

text: Vox Continental

text: tends toward having somewhat of a

text: Hammond

text: -like, or "

text: sine wave

text: "-like sound (only thinner); while the

text: Farfisa

text: Combo Compact has an aggressive, raspy quality to some of its boosted tones, and the

text: Gibson G-101

text: has a cleaner, contoured, more "

text: sawtooth wave

text: "-like tone, with

text: harpsichord

text: -like, percussive sound capabilities and a slight "after-jingle", with

text: Sustain

text: selected, on some voice settings.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: sawtooth

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Hammond

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: contoured

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: "sawtooth wave"

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Sawtooth wave

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sand

text: Specific trap sites for heavy mineral sand placer deposits are in beaches on the leeward side of headlands, as this forms a low-energy zone which traps sediments carried along by the longshore drift. Also, sand bars developed at the mouths of rivers which feed the placer deposits are rich trap sites where the winnowing action of the waves are most efficient, because heavy minerals, if they are going to be too heavy to be moved, will deposit at an isthmus in preference to drifting too far down the beach.

text: Specific trap sites for heavy mineral sand placer deposits are in beaches on the

text: leeward

text: side of

text: headland

text: s, as this forms a low-energy zone which traps sediments carried along by the

text: longshore drift

text: . Also,

text: sand bar

text: s developed at the

text: mouths of river

text: s which feed the placer deposits are rich trap sites where the winnowing action of the waves are most efficient, because heavy minerals, if they are going to be too heavy to be moved, will deposit at an

text: isthmus

text: in preference to drifting too far down the beach.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: low-energy zone

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: placer deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: placer deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: leeward side of headlands

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sand bars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: winnowing action

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: leeward

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: isthmus

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: isthmus

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for ore extraction from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface gophering for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (strecks). Prospecting or trial pits are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and sandy loam.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for

text: ore extraction

text: from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface

text: gophering

text: for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (

text: streck

text: s).

text: Prospecting or trial pits

text: are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and

text: sandy loam

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sandstone or crag

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Drifts

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: composition of the ore layers

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sandy loam

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Drifts

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: galleries

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: crag

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: galleries

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: horizontal

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Drifts and galleries

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sandstone or crag

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: strecks

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The second type occurs as galleries

text: Authorizes the Secretary to conduct a study of shoreline protection and beach erosion policy and related projects in view of the expected increases in the levels of the Great Lakes.

text: Authorizes the Secretary to conduct a study of shoreline protection and beach erosion policy and related projects in view of the expected increases in the levels of the Great Lakes.

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/76b18f669bfff3a0a096201dd2e19893

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/6f459b1b1eea48f7978c0f83b4966548

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/d619abcad841305cae1b300dfb2874bb

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/c6f2193fe1aedb50215d3082649c2917

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Great Lakes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline protection

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: beach erosion

text: LSD helps create many landforms including barrier islands, bay beaches and spits. In general LSD action serves to straighten the coast because the creation of barriers cuts off bays from the sea while sediment usually builds up in bays because the waves there are weaker (due to wave refraction), while sediment is carried away from the exposed headlands. The lack of sediment on headlands removes the protection of waves from them and makes them more vulnerable to weathering while the gathering of sediment in bays (where longshore drift is unable to remove it) protects the bays from further erosion and makes them pleasant recreational beaches.

text: LSD helps create many landforms including

text: barrier island

text: s, bay beaches and

text: spits

text: . In general LSD action serves to straighten the coast because the creation of barriers cuts off

text: bays

text: from the sea while sediment usually builds up in bays because the waves there are weaker (due to wave refraction), while sediment is carried away from the exposed

text: headlands

text: . The lack of sediment on headlands removes the protection of waves from them and makes them more vulnerable to weathering while the gathering of sediment in bays (where longshore drift is unable to remove it) protects the bays from further erosion and makes them pleasant

text: recreational beaches

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0036/890ab9838556d1930fa2eadf0f5ac5db

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0038/7d0bb97d0295908edb3e4c80a44f0e61

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0038/0cec8940d0ce66368e6d224c1e12a973

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/e7feca71ab3f4f35f1201ad7d43149eb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/76b18f669bfff3a0a096201dd2e19893

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/ed262e70626597f33bff40fb351ee3ad

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/6f459b1b1eea48f7978c0f83b4966548

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/d619abcad841305cae1b300dfb2874bb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/c6f2193fe1aedb50215d3082649c2917

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wave refraction

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: LSD

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: bay beaches

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: LSD

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: bays

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: LSD

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: LSD

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Longshore drift

text: In Barbados, Gabrielle brought 10 feet (3 m) waves and flooding to the island nation, causing minor damage. There were no fatalities or injuries. In Dominica and Guadeloupe, waves from Gabrielle caused severe beach erosion along the north and east coasts of the island but moderate damage was reported. However, the erosion brought by Gabrielle and later Hurricane Hugo resulted loss of 14 feet (4.4 m) of beach. The Caribbean islands of Nevis and British Virgin Islands also sustained minor to moderate beach erosion. In Bermuda, waves of 10–20 feet (4.6–6 m) were reported.

text: In

text: Barbados

text: , Gabrielle brought 10 feet (3 m) waves and flooding to the island nation, causing minor damage. There were no fatalities or injuries. In

text: Dominica

text: and

text: Guadeloupe

text: , waves from Gabrielle caused severe beach erosion along the north and east coasts of the island but moderate damage was reported. However, the erosion brought by Gabrielle and later

text: Hurricane Hugo

text: resulted loss of 14 feet (4.4 m) of beach. The Caribbean islands of

text: Nevis

text: and British Virgin Islands also sustained minor to moderate beach erosion. In Bermuda, waves of 10–20 feet (4.6–6 m) were reported.

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: minor damage

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: coast

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves from Gabrielle

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: coasts of the island

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Barbados

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: beach erosion

text: They can be found all over the world and are most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as pebble beaches. However, they can occur with sediment of any size. They  nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps of equal size and spacing appearing along stretches of the shoreline. These cusps are most often a few metres long. However, they may reach  across. Although the origin of beach cusps has yet to be proven, once cusps have been created they are a self-sustaining formation. This is because when an oncoming wave hits the horn of a beach cusp, it is split and forced into two directions. The crashing of the wave into the cusps slows its velocity,  causing coarser sediment to fall out of suspension and be deposited on the horns. The waves then flow along the embayments (picking up finer sediment) and run into one another in the middle. After this collision these waves attempt to flow back out to sea where they are met by incoming waves. Therefore, once the cusp is established, coarser sediment is constantly being deposited on the horn and finer sediment is being eroded away from the embayments. This process causes the horns and embayments to at least maintain their size, if not grow larger.

text: They can be found all over the world and are most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as

text: pebble

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach cusp

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach cusp

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: coarser sediment

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: pebble beaches

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach cusps

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach cusps

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach cusp

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach cusps

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: beach cusps

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The crashing of the wave into the cusps

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: finer sediment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: They nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: embayments

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: beach cusps

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: These cusps are most often a few metres long

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: pebble beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: beach cusps

text: The rocks were deposited in shallow seas, in the photic zone yet below storm wave base, yet were deposited in predominantly anoxic conditions.  The fossils are located on the bedding planes, and are randomly oriented.

text: The rocks were deposited in shallow seas, in the

text: photic zone

text: yet below

text: storm wave base

text: , yet were deposited in predominantly

text: anoxic conditions

text: .  The fossils are located on the bedding planes, and are randomly oriented.

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answers: randomly oriented

text: Metro City was under siege from the crime wave that was begun by "the Outfit", a crime group led in the pilot by a man known only as Mr. Townsend (played by William Russ), and later led by Lane Cassidy (played by Richard Burgi). The Metro City Police Department, or MetroPol, was unable to get a handle on the situation. This led to the creation of the Viper Project, a special top-secret task force created by the federal government to fight the wave of violence sweeping Metro City.

text: Metro City was under siege from the crime wave that was begun by "the Outfit", a crime group led in the pilot by a man known only as Mr. Townsend (played by

text: William Russ

text: ), and later led by Lane Cassidy (played by

text: Richard Burgi

text: ). The Metro City Police Department, or MetroPol, was unable to get a handle on the situation. This led to the creation of the Viper Project, a special top-secret task force created by the federal government to fight the wave of violence sweeping Metro City.

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text: When waves travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom.  The free orbital motion of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the wave breaks, it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

text: When

text: waves

text: travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the

text: ocean

text: bottom.  The free

text: orbital motion

text: of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the

text: wave breaks

text: , it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: ocean bottom

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The free orbital motion of the water

text: Storm induced large erosion events are a part of the natural evolutionary process of fine sediment, gently sloping beaches. Increased wave energy in storms leads to the removal of foreshore, berm and dune sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near shore sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment deposition. This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the mainland from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.

text: Storm induced large erosion events are a part of the natural

text: evolutionary

text: process of fine

text: sediment

text: , gently sloping

text: beaches

text: . Increased

text: wave energy

text: in storms leads to the removal of

text: foreshore

text: berm

text: and

text: dune

text: sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near

text: shore

text: sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment

text: deposition

text: . This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the

text: mainland

text: from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: gently sloping

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: Storm induced large erosion events

answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: coastal retreat

answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sand bars

text: In some areas the Wave exposes deformed laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae were deformed prior to the lithification of the sand to form sandstone. Judging from their physical characteristics, this deformation likely represents the trampling and churning of these sands by dinosaurs after their deposition. Dinosaur tracks and the fossil burrows of desert-dwelling arthropods, such as beetles and other insects, have been found in the Navajo Sandstone within the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area.

text: In some areas the Wave exposes deformed laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae were deformed prior to the lithification of the sand to form sandstone. Judging from their physical characteristics, this deformation likely represents the trampling and churning of these sands by

text: dinosaur

text: s after their deposition. Dinosaur

text: tracks and the fossil burrows

text: of desert-dwelling arthropods, such as beetles and other insects, have been found in the Navajo Sandstone within the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area.

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answers: Trampling and churning

answers: NDQ_000130

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text: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin covers about .  Main kukersite deposits are Estonian and Tapa deposits in Estonia, and Leningrad deposit in Russia (also known as Gdov or Oudova deposit). Other occurrences in Russia  are Veimarn and Chudovo–Babinskoe deposits.  The Estonian deposit, which covers about , is exploited industrially; the Tapa deposit is not accounted as reserves due its lower value which makes its extraction economically inexpedient.  The Leningrad deposit was exploited industrially but operations have ceased.

text: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin covers about .  Main kukersite deposits are Estonian and Tapa deposits in Estonia, and Leningrad deposit in Russia (also known as Gdov or Oudova deposit). Other occurrences in Russia  are Veimarn and Chudovo–Babinskoe deposits.  The Estonian deposit, which covers about , is exploited industrially; the Tapa deposit is not accounted as reserves due its lower value which makes its extraction economically inexpedient.  The Leningrad deposit was exploited industrially but operations have ceased.

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Basin

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Leningrad deposit

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: kukersite

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Tapa deposit

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: kukersite

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Basin

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Basin

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Tapa deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: kukersite deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Tapa deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Basin

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Tapa deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Leningrad deposit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Leningrad deposit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin

text: The well-sorted nature of the unit suggests that it was probably deposited close to the shoreline, in a high energy environment.  This is backed up by the absence of clay-sized particles, and the rounded, spherical shape of quartz grains.

text: The well-sorted nature of the unit suggests that it was probably deposited close to the shoreline, in a high energy environment.  This is backed up by the absence of clay-sized particles, and the rounded, spherical shape of quartz grains.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

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answers: 1

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: high energy environment

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: quartz grains

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: quartz grains

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: clay-sized particles

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: well-sorted

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: high energy environment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: clay

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: quartz grains

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: quartz grains

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Europe's natural history is the product of a complex history stretching back half a billion years. Its most ancient mountains, the Caledonites and Urals, were formed during the collision of continental plates from which modern Europe is assembled, described as "the first act of European union". During the Carboniferous period, Europe's equatorial jungles harboured giant predatory invertebrates, and the landmarks of Paris, Frankfurt and Berlin would have stood amid unbroken primeval forests. By 270 million years ago, Europe had drifted north and become part of the supercontinent Pangaea. The forests of the interior, cut off from life-giving rains, turned to desert, their remains forming the rich coal seams deposited in Europe's rocks. The Swiss Jura and other limestone regions are formed from the remains of marine creatures deposited as shallow seas evaporated. This was a time when reptiles ruled, and Oxford would have been roamed by dinosaurs. Rising sea levels triggered by a warming climate would have submerged much of Europe around 100 million years ago: only London's tallest buildings would have risen above the waves. The demise of the dinosaurs created opportunities for birds and mammals, evidence of whose ancestors has been unearthed at Messel pit. The subsequent break up of Pangaea, the birth of the Atlantic and Mediterranean and the creation of the Alps and Pyrenees were driven by tectonic forces which continue to this day in Iceland. The cyclic draining and flooding of the Mediterranean was the last geological act in the genesis of the continent.

text: Europe's natural history is the product of a complex history stretching back half a billion years. Its most ancient mountains, the

text: Caledonites

text: and

text: Urals

text: , were formed during the collision of

text: continental plate

text: s from which modern Europe is assembled, described as "the first act of European union". During the

text: Carboniferous

text: period, Europe's equatorial

text: jungle

text: s harboured giant predatory

text: invertebrate

text: s, and the landmarks of

text: Paris

text: Frankfurt

text: and

text: Berlin

text: would have stood amid unbroken

text: primeval forest

text: s. By 270 million years ago, Europe had drifted north and become part of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: . The forests of the interior, cut off from life-giving rains, turned to

text: desert

text: , their remains forming the rich

text: coal

text: seams deposited in Europe's rocks. The

text: Swiss Jura

text: and other

text: limestone

text: regions are formed from the remains of marine creatures deposited as shallow seas evaporated. This was a time when

text: reptile

text: s ruled, and

text: Oxford

text: would have been roamed by

text: dinosaur

text: s. Rising sea levels triggered by a warming climate would have submerged much of Europe around 100 million years ago: only

text: London

text: 's tallest buildings would have risen above the waves. The demise of the dinosaurs created opportunities for

text: bird

text: s and

text: mammal

text: s, evidence of whose ancestors has been unearthed at

text: Messel pit

text: . The subsequent break up of Pangaea, the birth of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Mediterranean

text: and the creation of the

text: Alps

text: and

text: Pyrenees

text: were driven by tectonic forces which continue to this day in

text: Iceland

text: . The cyclic draining and flooding of the Mediterranean was the last geological act in the genesis of the continent.

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0035/20a6a71718aef5a0e2cce60c11babbec

answers: 4

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: desert

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Caledonites

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Messel pit

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Messel pit

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Caledonites

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Messel pit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Caledonites

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Rising sea levels

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: marine creatures

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Rising sea levels

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Caledonites and Urals

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Caledonites and Urals

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: The Swiss Jura

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Rising sea levels

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shallow seas

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Rising sea levels

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The Swiss Jura and other limestone regions

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: cyclic draining and flooding

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The Swiss Jura and other limestone regions are formed from the remains of marine creatures

text: Its principal fluvial course is the river Piedras, which constitutes the oriental limit of its term and delimits it with the municipality of Lepe. It is born in the municipal area of El Almendro, though most of the creeks that give origin and come from the highlands of El Almendro, are born in Villanueva de los Castillejos's municipal area. Originally it flowed into the village of El Rompido, toponym that originated because it was in that zone where the waves were breaking against the river sediment. These sediments deposited in an easterly direction, it made possible great mobility in the ria Piedras, quickly developing many places like the Lagoon of El Portil when it is closed.

text: Its principal fluvial course is the river Piedras, which constitutes the oriental limit of its term and delimits it with the municipality of Lepe. It is born in the municipal area of

text: El Almendro

text: , though most of the creeks that give origin and come from the highlands of El Almendro, are born in

text: Villanueva de los Castillejos

text: 's municipal area. Originally it flowed into the village of El Rompido, toponym that originated because it was in that zone where the waves were breaking against the river sediment. These sediments deposited in an easterly direction, it made possible great mobility in the

text: ria

text: Piedras, quickly developing many places like the Lagoon of El Portil when it is closed.

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answers: Its principal fluvial course is the river Piedras

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text: The coast does provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like gravel bars and sand dune systems but also ecosystems such as salt marshes and mangrove forests (Fig. 2) have a buffering function. Mangroves and wetlands are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis and shoreline erosion through their ability to attenuate wave energy. Therefore, to protect the coastal zone from flooding, these natural defences should be protected and maintained.

text: The coast does provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like

text: gravel bars

text: and

text: sand dune

text: systems but also

text: ecosystems

text: such as

text: salt marshes

text: and

text: mangrove

text: forests (Fig. 2) have a buffering function. Mangroves and

text: wetlands

text: are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis and shoreline

text: erosion

text: through their ability to attenuate wave energy. Therefore, to protect the coastal zone from flooding, these natural defences should be protected and maintained.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: flooding

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sand dune

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: storm waves, tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: gravel bars

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Attenuate wave energy

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sand dune systems

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Sand dune systems

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text: Although all electromagnetic fields are classically governed according to Maxwell's equations, different technologies or problems have certain types of expected solutions, and when the primary solutions involve wave propagation the term "evanescent" is frequently applied to field components or solutions which do not share that property. For instance, the propagation constant of a hollow metal waveguide is a strong function of frequency (a so-called dispersion relation). Below a certain frequency (the cut-off frequency) the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number. A solution to the wave equation having an imaginary wavenumber does not propagate as a wave but falls off exponentially, so the field excited at that lower frequency is considered evanescent. It can also be simply said that propagation is "disallowed" for that frequency. The formal solution to the wave equation can describe modes having an identical form, but the change of the propagation constant from real to imaginary as the frequency drops below the cut-off frequency totally changes the physical nature of the result. One can describe the solution then as a "cut-off mode" or an "evanescent mode";  while a different author will just state that no such mode exists. Since the evanescent field corresponding to the mode was computed as a solution to the wave equation, it is often discussed as being an "evanescent wave" even though its properties (such as not carrying energy) are inconsistent with the definition of wave.

text: Although all electromagnetic fields are classically governed according to

text: Maxwell's equations

text: , different technologies or problems have certain types of expected solutions, and when the primary solutions involve wave propagation the term "evanescent" is frequently applied to field components or solutions which do not share that property. For instance, the

text: propagation constant

text: of a hollow metal

text: waveguide

text: is a strong function of frequency (a so-called

text: dispersion relation

text: ). Below a certain frequency (the

text: cut-off frequency

text: ) the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number. A solution to the

text: wave equation

text: having an imaginary wavenumber does not propagate as a wave but falls off exponentially, so the field excited at that lower frequency is considered evanescent. It can also be simply said that propagation is "disallowed" for that frequency. The formal solution to the wave equation can describe modes having an identical form, but the change of the propagation constant from real to imaginary as the frequency drops below the cut-off frequency totally changes the physical nature of the result. One can describe the solution then as a "cut-off mode" or an "evanescent mode";  while a different author will just state that no such mode exists. Since the evanescent field corresponding to the mode was computed as a solution to the wave equation, it is often discussed as being an "evanescent wave" even though its properties (such as not carrying energy) are inconsistent with the definition of

text: wave

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

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answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

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answers: Below a certain frequency the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number

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answers: It can also be simply said that propagation is "disallowed" for that frequency

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answers: Below a certain frequency the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number

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answers: Below a certain frequency

text: Yet today, the Yacht Club boasts Seaside views and as recently as 5 to 10 years ago had its roof blown off and severely damaged in a large storm after decades of erosion drew a new coastline almost to the doorstep of the Yacht Club. Seawalls constructed of natural rocks have been strategically placed around the coastline of Somers Beach complemented by wooden seawalls and many small wave-breaks that have all slowly succumbed to the waves of the sea. Experts such as marine geomorphologists have assessed the erosion situation, however no definitive explanation can be found as to why the erosion occurs. The most popular theory is that of Longshore Drift, where successive "waves" of sand pass Somers, with sand build up when such a wave passes, and erosion at other times. A commonly held view is that the man-made channelisation of Merricks Creek has upset the delicate equilibrium of the coastline. In recent years the erosion has slowed and almost stopped, and experts predict it could be due to a major decrease in easterly winds, tending to slow the effects of longshore drift, thus the erosion. An alternative view is that the decrease in rainfall has limited the period when Merricks Creek is flowing into the sea, thus allowing sand build up at the mouth of the creek, which then allows the sand build up to propagate along the beach. Between 2011 and 2015, the beaches of Somers have lost a considerable amount of dunage and sand, seen most evidently west of the Wits End Creek and west of Merricks Creek. These areas have lost up to as much as six to eight metres of dunes in a five-year period. As recently as May 2015, the beach west of Merricks Creek lost three metres of dunes in as little as three days, caused by gale-force winds, large swell and king tides.

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answers: Longshore Drift

text: From west of Henfield, the two branches of the river meet, before flowing between Upper Beeding and Bramber, past Coombes, through a gap in the South Downs near Lancing College where the Adur is fed by the Ladywell Stream. The river continues on to the English Channel at Shoreham-by-Sea. The mouth of the Adur is now two miles (3 km) from the town centre of Shoreham due to longshore drift.

text: From west of Henfield, the two branches of the river meet, before flowing between

text: Upper Beeding

text: and

text: Bramber

text: , past

text: Coombes

text: , through a gap in the

text: South Downs

text: near

text: Lancing College

text: where the Adur is fed by the Ladywell Stream. The river continues on to the

text: English Channel

text: at

text: Shoreham-by-Sea

text: . The mouth of the Adur is now two miles (3 km) from the town centre of Shoreham due to

text: longshore drift

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Stream

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: South Downs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: gap

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a gap

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: gap

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Stream

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Adur

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Gap in the South Downs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: gap

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: due to longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: English Channel

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: English Channel

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: gap

text: The original definition resulted from work by the oceanographer Walter Munk during World War II. The significant wave height was intended to mathematically express the height estimated by a "trained observer".  It is commonly used as a measure of the height of ocean waves.

text: The original definition resulted from work by the oceanographer

text: Walter Munk

text: during World War II. The significant wave height was intended to mathematically express the height estimated by a "trained observer".  It is commonly used as a measure of the height of ocean waves.

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Munk

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: significant wave height

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Munk

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: significant wave height

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: trained observer

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: ocean waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: significant wave height

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal plains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: trained observer

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: significant wave height

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: ocean waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The original definition

text: A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light detonation is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits have melted.

text: A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light

text: detonation

text: is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits have melted.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/6f459b1b1eea48f7978c0f83b4966548

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/d619abcad841305cae1b300dfb2874bb

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/c6f2193fe1aedb50215d3082649c2917

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Sandblasted erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Sandblasted erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Sandblasted erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: heavy detonation

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Sandblasted erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Sandblasted erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Discoloration of the tip

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Sandblasted

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sandblasted

text: Fluting is a process of differential weathering and erosion by which an exposed well-jointed coarse-grained rock such as granite or gneiss, develops a corrugated surface of flutes; especially the formation of small-scale ridges and depressions by wave action.

text: Fluting is a process of differential

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: by which an exposed well-jointed coarse-grained rock such as

text: granite

text: or

text: gneiss

text: , develops a corrugated surface of flutes; especially the formation of small-scale ridges and depressions by wave action.

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0035/20a6a71718aef5a0e2cce60c11babbec

answers: 4

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answers: 4

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text: The formation of the cinder cone is currently a point of contention, with some arguing that lava flowing into the sea was suddenly cooled, forming an edifice on the coastline (a literal cone) and others noting that the cone was most likely too far away from the ocean at the time of formation to make such an event possible. Regardless of how it was formed according to the United States Geological Survey, the last lava flow in the area ended over 10,000 years ago, making the area one of the more stable features in the geologically turbulent Kaū region. As such, the geologic history of the site can be seen in the rock surrounding the beach and bay, which are not subject to erosion and thus display geologic layers formed by previous eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. In addition, the current patterns of erosion can be seen first-hand, as only the portions at the bottom of the cinder cone collapse have been subject to the waves and turned into green sand; the remaining portions appear gray.

text: The formation of the cinder cone is currently a point of contention, with some arguing that lava flowing into the sea was suddenly cooled, forming an edifice on the coastline (a literal cone) and others noting that the cone was most likely too far away from the ocean at the time of formation to make such an event possible. Regardless of how it was formed according to the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: , the last lava flow in the area ended over 10,000 years ago, making the area one of the more stable features in the geologically turbulent Kaū region. As such, the geologic history of the site can be seen in the rock surrounding the beach and bay, which are not subject to erosion and thus display geologic layers formed by previous eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. In addition, the current patterns of erosion can be seen first-hand, as only the portions at the bottom of the cinder cone collapse have been subject to the waves and turned into green sand; the remaining portions appear gray.

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text: Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers, which are called agents of denudation. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

text: Sedimentary rocks are types of

text: rock

text: that are formed by the

text: deposition

text: and subsequent cementation of that material at the

text: Earth's surface

text: and within bodies of water.

text: Sedimentation

text: is the collective name for processes that cause

text: mineral

text: and/or

text: organic

text: particles (

text: detritus

text: ) to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called

text: sediment

text: . Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: from the source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: mass movement

text: or

text: glacier

text: s, which are called agents of

text: denudation

text: . Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

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answers: Sedimentation

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answers: Sedimentary rocks

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answers: sedimentary rocks

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answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: water, wind

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shells

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: sedimentary rock

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sediment was formed by weathering

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: water

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sediment

text: One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.

text: One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "

text: hot money

text: " as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the

text: global financial crisis

text: had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the

text: savings and loan crisis

text: of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: beach barrier

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: "hot money"

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a barrier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: real estate investments

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: failure of the bank

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bank

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: breaking deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: local deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The practice can be a source of external funding

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Barrier islands are generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms

text: The Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup is a conservation initiative of the Vancouver Aquarium and WWF-Canada. The Shoreline Cleanupencourages people across Canada to remove shoreline litter to help create healthy waters for everyone, including the wildlife and communities that depend on them.

text: The Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup is a conservation initiative of the

text: Vancouver Aquarium

text: and

text: WWF-Canada

text: . The Shoreline Cleanupencourages people across Canada to remove shoreline litter to help create healthy waters for everyone, including the wildlife and communities that depend on them.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Shoreline Cleanup

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Shoreline Cleanup

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: litter

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shoreline litter

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Aquarium

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Great Canadian Shoreline

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: litter

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: shoreline litter

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Siliclasitc and carbonate deposition continued through the Cambrian and into the Ordovician period. During the Taconic orogeny, more igneous intrusions and metamorphism occurred as the ancestral Taconic Mountains were pushed up. The sediments that were deposited in a sea between an island-arc and the Iapetus eventually were squeezed and deformed along a subduction zone. The sediments deposited in that sea are now located in the Great Valley section. (See below) The sediments placed from the rifting of Rodinia became the roots of the ancestral Taconics and went through their first wave of metamorphism during the Taconic orogeny. Additional waves of metamorphism continued up until the Alleghanian orogeny.

text: Siliclasitc and carbonate deposition continued through the Cambrian and into the Ordovician period. During the Taconic orogeny, more igneous intrusions and metamorphism occurred as the ancestral Taconic Mountains were pushed up. The sediments that were deposited in a sea between an island-arc and the Iapetus eventually were squeezed and deformed along a

text: subduction

text: zone. The sediments deposited in that sea are now located in the Great Valley section. (See below) The sediments placed from the rifting of Rodinia became the roots of the ancestral Taconics and went through their first wave of metamorphism during the Taconic orogeny. Additional waves of metamorphism continued up until the Alleghanian orogeny.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: subduction zone

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Iapetus

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Island-arc

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: subduction zone

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediments that were deposited in a sea

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: carbonate

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: subduction zone

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: ancestral Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: island-arc

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: ancestral Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Taconic Mountains

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: waves of metamorphism

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments deposited in that sea

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike the shore at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: sediments deposited in that sea are now located in the Great Valley section

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: a subduction zone

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediments that were deposited in a sea

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: island-arc

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sediments that were deposited in a sea

text: The term "molasse" refers to sandstones, shales and conglomerates that form as terrestrial or shallow marine deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a foreland basin, especially on top of flysch—like, for example, those that left from the rising Alps, or erosion in the Himalaya. These deposits are typically the non-marine alluvial and fluvial sediments of lowlands, as compared to deep-water flysch sediments.  Sedimentation stops when the orogeny stops, or when the mountains have eroded flat.

text: The term "molasse" refers to

text: sandstones

text: shales

text: and

text: conglomerate

text: s that form as terrestrial or shallow

text: marine

text: deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a

text: foreland basin

text: , especially on top of

text: flysch

text: —like, for example, those that left from the rising

text: Alps

text: , or erosion in the

text: Himalaya

text: . These deposits are typically the non-marine

text: alluvial

text: and

text: fluvial

text: sediments

text: of lowlands, as compared to deep-water flysch sediments.  Sedimentation stops when the

text: orogeny

text: stops, or when the mountains have eroded flat.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: mountain chains

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Himalaya

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Himalaya

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: fluvial

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: flysch

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: mountain chains

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: non-marine

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: molasse

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: mountain chains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Alps

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: mountain chains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: mountain chains

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Fluvial

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shallow marine

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sedimentation

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: shallow marine

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: marine

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: molasse

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sedimentation

text: In the formation of sea cliffs, wave erosion undercuts the slopes at the shoreline, which retreat landward. This increases the shear stress in the cliff-forming material and accelerates mass movement. The debris from these landslides collects at the base of the cliff and is also removed by the waves, usually during storms, when wave energy is greatest. This debris provides sediment, which is transported through longshore current for the nearby bay. Joints in the headlands are eroded back to form caves, which erode further to form arches. These gaps eventually collapse and leave tall stacks at the ends of the headlands. Eventually these too are eroded by the waves.

text: In the formation of sea cliffs, wave erosion undercuts the slopes at the shoreline, which retreat landward. This increases the shear stress in the cliff-forming material and accelerates mass movement. The debris from these landslides collects at the base of the cliff and is also removed by the waves, usually during storms, when wave energy is greatest. This debris provides sediment, which is transported through longshore current for the nearby bay. Joints in the headlands are eroded back to form caves, which erode further to form arches. These gaps eventually collapse and leave tall stacks at the ends of the headlands. Eventually these too are eroded by the waves.

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answers: longshore current

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: caves

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: debris

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: landslides

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bay

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sea cliffs

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: caves, which erode further to form arches

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: storms, when wave energy is greatest

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The nearby bay

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sea cliffs

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore current

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Joints

text: First, the differential erosion of rocks or sediments of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. Earth scientists called such benches "structural benches." Second, other benches are narrow fluvial terraces created by the abandonment of a floodplain by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. These benches are typically referred to as either "coastal benches," "wave-cut benches," or "wave-cut platforms."

text: First, the differential

text: erosion

text: of rocks or

text: sediment

text: s of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. Earth scientists called such benches "structural benches." Second, other benches are narrow

text: fluvial terrace

text: s created by the abandonment of a

text: floodplain

text: by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. These benches are typically referred to as either "coastal benches," "wave-cut benches," or "

text: wave-cut platform

text: s."

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: platforms

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: a bench

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: bench

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: coastal benches

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: resistance to erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: hardness and resistance to erosion

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bench

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: wave-cut benches

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: wave-cut benches

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: wave-cut benches

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: benches

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: bench

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: benches

text: This completes the sequence of events leading up to the formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora; with rapid sea-level rise drowning the seaward edge of plains, rapid erosion of coast to south changing its position and providing, in addition to direct river-borne sediments, a massive supply of sea borne sediments and strong net northwards longshore drift by waves, moving the sediments towards Banks Peninsula and providing the materials to construct Kaitorete Barrier, that now encloses the lake.

text: This completes the sequence of events leading up to the formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora; with rapid sea-level rise drowning the seaward edge of plains, rapid erosion of coast to south changing its position and providing, in addition to direct river-borne sediments, a massive supply of sea borne sediments and strong net northwards

text: longshore drift

text: by waves, moving the sediments towards

text: Banks Peninsula

text: and providing the materials to construct

text: Kaitorete Barrier

text: , that now encloses the lake.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sea-level rise

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: Barrier

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sequence of events

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: strong net northwards longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: rapid erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Kaitorete Barrier

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: strong net

text: As a result of their intricately entangled above-ground root systems, mangrove communities protect shorelines during storm events by absorbing wave energy and reducing the velocity of water passing through the root barrier. In addition, mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round. As new cities are developed, mangrove forests around the world have felt a great impact not only on their ecosystems health, but also their wave-attenuating capacity. Wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent in the wave's passage through 200 meters of mangrove forests, a very substantial amount once the mangrove has been removed. Mangrove covered shorelines are less likely to erode, or will erode significantly more slowly, than unvegetated shorelines during periods of high wave energy. Other factors mangroves have an influence on, include coastal profile, water depth and bottom configuration. The mangrove population has felt both direct and indirect effects due to coastal engineering and human development, resulting in a devastating decline in population. This decline has led to a negative chain of effects in other ecosystems that are dependent on mangrove forest for survival. In just the last decade, at least 35 percent of the world's mangroves have been destroyed, exceeding the rate of the disappearance of tropical rainforests. Mangroves provide a number of essentials for many different ecosystems, including food and shelter for a diverse animal community, living both below and above sea level. Maintaining a healthy mangrove forest sustains natural protection and is less expensive than seawalls and similar erosion control structures, which can increase erosion in front of the structure and at adjacent properties due to coastal currents. Unless ecosystems have the space to adjust their location or elevation in the intertidal zone to the sea-level rise, they will be stressed by changed inundation periods. The Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) has risen 4 to 8 inches over the past century, almost twice the average rate of 80 years prior. It appears that as the sea-level is slowly rising, mangroves are a better alternative to protecting coastlines from eroding than other man made structures, such as seawalls.

text: As a result of their intricately entangled above-ground root systems, mangrove communities protect shorelines during storm events by absorbing

text: wave energy

text: and reducing the velocity of water passing through the root barrier. In addition, mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round. As new cities are developed, mangrove forests around the world have felt a great impact not only on their ecosystems health, but also their wave-attenuating capacity. Wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent in the wave's passage through 200 meters of mangrove forests, a very substantial amount once the mangrove has been removed. Mangrove covered shorelines are less likely to erode, or will erode significantly more slowly, than unvegetated shorelines during periods of high wave energy. Other factors mangroves have an influence on, include coastal profile, water depth and bottom configuration. The mangrove population has felt both direct and indirect effects due to

text: coastal engineering

text: and human development, resulting in a devastating decline in population. This decline has led to a negative chain of effects in other ecosystems that are dependent on mangrove forest for survival. In just the last decade, at least 35 percent of the world's mangroves have been destroyed, exceeding the rate of the disappearance of tropical rainforests. Mangroves provide a number of essentials for many different ecosystems, including food and shelter for a diverse animal community, living both below and above sea level. Maintaining a healthy mangrove forest sustains natural protection and is less expensive than

text: seawalls

text: and similar

text: erosion

text: control structures, which can increase erosion in front of the structure and at adjacent properties due to coastal currents. Unless ecosystems have the space to adjust their location or elevation in the

text: intertidal zone

text: to the sea-level rise, they will be stressed by changed inundation periods. The Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) has risen 4 to 8 inches over the past century, almost twice the average rate of 80 years prior. It appears that as the sea-level is slowly rising, mangroves are a better alternative to protecting coastlines from eroding than other man made structures, such as seawalls.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: Mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: erosion control structures

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent in the wave's passage through 200 meters of mangrove forests

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round

text: Because of the constant erosion by waves, the coastal landforms demonstrate various bizarre stones. All over Dongao are sea arches, sea gulfs, cliffs, and wave-cut platforms, and so on. Over the cliff, right under your nose is the marvelous scenery, with bright blue sea in the backdrop.

text: Because of the constant erosion by waves, the coastal landforms demonstrate various bizarre stones. All over Dongao are sea arches, sea gulfs, cliffs, and wave-cut platforms, and so on. Over the cliff, right under your nose is the marvelous scenery, with bright blue sea in the backdrop.

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answers: 3

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: constant erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: bizarre stones

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: bizarre stones

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: bizarre stones

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: wave-cut platforms

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: All over Dongao

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: gulfs

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: gulfs

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: sea arches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: gulfs

text: The most common type of tessellated pavement consists of relatively flat rock surfaces, typically the tops of beds of sandstones and other sedimentary rocks, that are subdivided into either more or less regular rectangles or blocks approaching rectangles by well-developed systematic orthogonal joint systems. The surface of individual beds, as exposed by erosion, are typically divided into either squares, rectangles, and less commonly triangles or other shapes, depending on the number and orientation of the joint sets that comprise the joint system. This relatively flat surface of individual beds of sedimentary rocks are frequently altered by weathering along joints as to cause the bedrock along the joints to be either raised or recessed as the result of differential erosion. This type of tessellated pavement is commonly observed along shorelines where wave action has created relatively flat and extensive wave-cut platforms that expose jointed bedrock and keeps the surfaces of these platforms relatively clear of debris.

text: The most common type of tessellated pavement consists of relatively flat rock surfaces, typically the tops of

text: beds

text: of sandstones and other

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, that are subdivided into either more or less regular rectangles or blocks approaching rectangles by well-developed systematic orthogonal joint systems. The surface of individual beds, as exposed by

text: erosion

text: , are typically divided into either squares, rectangles, and less commonly triangles or other shapes, depending on the number and orientation of the joint sets that comprise the joint system. This relatively flat surface of individual beds of sedimentary rocks are frequently altered by

text: weathering

text: along joints as to cause the bedrock along the joints to be either raised or recessed as the result of differential erosion. This type of tessellated pavement is commonly observed along shorelines where wave action has created relatively flat and extensive

text: wave-cut platform

text: s that expose jointed

text: bedrock

text: and keeps the surfaces of these platforms relatively clear of debris.

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answers: number and orientation of the joint sets

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: debris

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answers: Wave action has created relatively flat and extensive wave-cut platforms

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answers: Longshore drift

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answers: shorelines

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answers: less commonly triangles

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: While not as impressive at 1,772 feet (540 m) as some other peaks, Taum Sauk and the St. Francois range are true mountains, being the result of a volcanic orogeny.  Whereas vertical relief in the rest of the Ozarks region is the result of erosion of sedimentary strata, the St. Francois are an ancient Precambrian igneous uplift several times older than the Appalachians.  Geologists believe that Taum Sauk and its neighbors may be among the few areas in the US never to have been submerged in ancient seas. The peaks of the St. Francois range existed as islands in the shallow seaway throughout most of the Paleozoic Era as the sandstones, limestones, and shales typical of the Ozarks were deposited. Weathering and erosion of these ancient peaks provided the clastic sediments of the surrounding rock layers.

text: While not as impressive at 1,772 feet (540 m) as some

text: other peaks

text: , Taum Sauk and the St. Francois range are true

text: mountain

text: s, being the result of a

text: volcanic

text: orogeny

text: .  Whereas vertical relief in the rest of the

text: Ozark

text: s region is the result of

text: erosion

text: of

text: sedimentary

text: strata

text: , the St. Francois are an ancient

text: Precambrian

text: igneous

text: uplift several times older than the

text: Appalachians

text: .  Geologists believe that Taum Sauk and its neighbors may be among the few areas in the US never to have been submerged in ancient seas. The peaks of the St. Francois range existed as islands in the shallow seaway throughout most of the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era as the

text: sandstone

text: s,

text: limestone

text: s, and

text: shale

text: s typical of the Ozarks were deposited.

text: Weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: of these ancient peaks provided the

text: clastic

text: sediment

text: s of the surrounding

text: rock layers

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answers: St. Francois range

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: St. Francois range

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: seaway

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: vertical relief

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sedimentary strata

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: limestones

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: islands in the shallow seaway

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: sandstones, limestones, and shales

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answers: St. Francois range

text: A deposit slip is a form supplied by a bank for a depositor to fill out, designed to document in categories the items included in the deposit transaction. The categories include type of item, and if it is a cheque, where it is from such as a local bank or a state if the bank is not local. The teller keeps the deposit slip along with the deposit (cash and checks), and provides the depositor with a receipt. They are filled in a store and not a Bank, so it is  very convenient in paying. They also are a means  of transport of money. Pay-in slips encourage the sorting of cash and coins, are filled in and signed by the person who deposited the money, and some tear off from a record that is also filled in by the depositor. Deposit slips are also called deposit tickets and come in a variety of designs. They are signed by the depositor if the depositor is cashing some of the accompanying check and depositing the rest.

text: A deposit slip is a form supplied by a

text: bank

text: for a

text: depositor

text: to fill out, designed to document in categories the items included in the deposit transaction. The categories include type of item, and if it is a

text: cheque

text: , where it is from such as a local bank or a

text: state

text: if the bank is not local. The teller keeps the deposit slip along with the deposit (cash and checks), and provides the depositor with a receipt. They are filled in a store and not a Bank, so it is  very convenient in paying. They also are a means  of transport of money. Pay-in slips encourage the sorting of cash and coins, are filled in and signed by the person who deposited the money, and some tear off from a record that is also filled in by the depositor. Deposit slips are also called deposit tickets and come in a variety of designs. They are signed by the depositor if the depositor is cashing some of the accompanying check and depositing the rest.

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answers: Sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a deposit slip

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Pay-in

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a deposit slip

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: type of item

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: cash and coins

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: deposit slips

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: deposit slips

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: deposit slip

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: deposit slips

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Deposit slips

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: designed to document in categories the items included in the deposit transaction

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Deposit slips

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The teller keeps the deposit slip along with the deposit

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: deposit slip

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: A deposit slip

text: The spelling of the compound varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture of waving). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary present participle and gerund in this usage, and hand-wave of the simple present verb, hand wave dominates as the noun-phrase form. Handwaving and handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested. "Hand waving" is mostly used otherwise, e.g. "she had one hand waving, the other on the rail", but is found in some dictionaries in this form. A more arch, mock-antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands. Superlative constructions such as "vigorous hand-waving", "waved their hand[s] furiously", "lots of waving of hands", etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks confidence in the information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common.  The opposite of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics .

text: The spelling of the

text: compound

text: varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture of

text: waving

text: ). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary

text: present participle

text: and

text: gerund

text: in this usage, and hand-wave of the

text: simple present

text: verb, hand wave dominates as the

text: noun-phrase

text: form. Handwaving and handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested. "Hand waving" is mostly used otherwise, e.g. "she had one hand waving, the other on the rail", but is found in some dictionaries in this form. A more arch, mock-antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands.

text: Superlative

text: constructions such as "vigorous hand-waving", "waved their hand[s] furiously", "lots of waving of hands", etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks confidence in the information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common.  The opposite of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics .

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: hand-wave

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: hand wave

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: hand waving

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: hand wave

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: rail

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: hand wave

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: antiquarian

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The opposite of hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: hand-waving

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: hand-waving

text: The valley occupies an erosion-tectonic basin in north-western Kazakhstan, between the Urals and Mugodzhar Hills in the west and the Kazakh Steppes in the east.  In the north are dry steppes with semi-steppes in the south. Deposits of iron ore and other minerals occur in the basin.

text: The valley occupies an erosion-tectonic basin in north-western Kazakhstan, between the

text: Urals

text: and

text: Mugodzhar Hills

text: in the west and the

text: Kazakh Steppes

text: in the east.  In the north are dry steppes with semi-steppes in the south. Deposits of iron ore and other minerals occur in the basin.

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Hills

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Hills

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Hills

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Hills

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: erosion-tectonic

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: iron ore

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Mugodzhar Hills

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Mugodzhar Hills

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Mugodzhar Hills

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: dry steppes with semi-steppes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion-tectonic basin

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The valley occupies an erosion-tectonic basin

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: ocean water

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Mushroom stones, or wave stones, are limestone boulders undercut by water. These take the form of solitary sentinels of limestone which still bear the unmistakable marks of long-continued erosion by lapping waves at the edge of lakes which have since vanished or retreated. These stones are sometimes shaped like mushrooms, others have an overhang facing in just one direction, but all are notched and undercut in such a fashion as to suggest prolonged exposure to standing water at some time in the past. The mushroom-shaped stones are produced where the notching forms a fairly even circle around the stone.

text: Mushroom stones, or wave stones, are

text: limestone

text: boulders undercut by water. These take the form of solitary sentinels of limestone which still bear the unmistakable marks of long-continued

text: erosion

text: by lapping waves at the edge of lakes which have since vanished or retreated. These stones are sometimes shaped like

text: mushroom

text: s, others have an overhang facing in just one direction, but all are notched and undercut in such a fashion as to suggest prolonged exposure to standing water at some time in the past. The mushroom-shaped stones are produced where the notching forms a fairly even circle around the stone.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: exposure to standing water

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answers: sentinels

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answers: Mushroom stones

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Lapping waves at the edge of lakes

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: lapping waves

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: facing in just one direction

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

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answers: Groins

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answers: It may hook around toward the open ocean

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text: The Hellas quadrangle contains part of the Hellas Basin, the largest known impact crater on the surface of Mars and the second largest in the Solar System. The depth of the crater is 7152 m (23,000 ft) below the standard topographic datum of Mars. The basin is located in the southern highlands of Mars and is thought to have been formed about 3.9 billion years ago, during the Late Heavy Bombardment.It is believed that a giant lake existed in the Hellas Basin early in the planet's history with a possible depth of 5.5 km.   Possible shorelines have been discovered.  These shorelines are evident in alternating benches and scarps visible in Mars orbiting camera narrow-angle images. A good example of layers that were deposited in Hellas, and later exposed by erosion, is visible in Terby Crater on the north rim of Hellas. It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta. However, newer observations have led researchers to think of the layered sequence as part of a group of layers that may have extended all the across Hellas. There is no valley at the northern rim of Terby large enough to have carried the large amount of sediments necessary to produce the layers.  Other observations argue against Terby containing a delta. In addition, Mars orbiting laser altimeter (MOLA) data show that the contacts of these sedimentary units mark contours of constant elevation for thousands of km, and in one case all around the basin.Channels, believed to be formed by water, enter the basin on all sides.

text: The

text: Hellas quadrangle

text: contains part of the

text: Hellas Basin

text: , the largest known impact crater on the surface of Mars and the second largest in the Solar System. The depth of the crater is 7152 m (23,000 ft) below the standard topographic

text: datum

text: of Mars. The basin is located in the southern highlands of Mars and is thought to have been formed about 3.9 billion years ago, during the Late Heavy Bombardment.It is believed that a giant lake existed in the Hellas Basin early in the planet's history with a possible depth of 5.5 km.   Possible shorelines have been discovered.  These shorelines are evident in alternating benches and scarps visible in Mars orbiting camera narrow-angle images. A good example of layers that were deposited in Hellas, and later exposed by erosion, is visible in

text: Terby Crater

text: on the north rim of Hellas. It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta. However, newer observations have led researchers to think of the layered sequence as part of a group of layers that may have extended all the across Hellas. There is no valley at the northern rim of Terby large enough to have carried the large amount of sediments necessary to produce the layers.  Other observations argue against Terby containing a delta. In addition, Mars orbiting laser altimeter (MOLA) data show that the contacts of these sedimentary units mark contours of constant elevation for thousands of km, and in one case all around the basin.Channels, believed to be formed by water, enter the basin on all sides.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Narrow-angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland.

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: alternating benches and scarps

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shorelines

answers: NDQ_000138

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text: Most meanders occur in the region of a river channel with shallow gradients, a well-developed floodplain, and cohesive floodplain material. Deposition of sediment occurs on the inner edge, because the secondary flow of the river sweeps and rolls sand, rocks and other submerged objects across the bed of the river towards the inside radius of the river bend, creating a point bar below the slip-off slope. Meandering morphology is dependent upon similar bank erosion and bar growth rates. Erosion is greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by deposits of sand and rocks. The current on the outside bend is more effective in eroding the unprotected soil, and the inside bend receives steadily increasing deposits of sand and rocks, and the meander tends to grow in the direction of the outside bend, forming a small cliff called a cut bank. This can be seen in areas where willows grow on the banks of rivers; on the inside of meanders, willows are often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend, the roots of the willows are often exposed and undercut, eventually leading the trees to fall into the river. This demonstrates the river's movement. Slumping usually occurs on the concave sides of the banks resulting in mass movements such as slides.

text: Most meanders occur in the region of a river channel with shallow

text: gradient

text: s, a well-developed

text: floodplain

text: , and cohesive floodplain material.

text: Deposition

text: of

text: sediment

text: occurs on the inner edge, because the

text: secondary flow

text: of the river sweeps and rolls sand, rocks and other submerged objects across the bed of the river towards the inside radius of the river bend, creating a

text: point bar

text: below the slip-off slope. Meandering morphology is dependent upon similar bank erosion and bar growth rates. Erosion is greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by deposits of sand and rocks. The current on the outside bend is more effective in eroding the unprotected soil, and the inside bend receives steadily increasing deposits of sand and rocks, and the meander tends to grow in the direction of the outside bend, forming a small cliff called a

text: cut bank

text: . This can be seen in areas where

text: willows

text: grow on the banks of rivers; on the inside of meanders, willows are often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend, the roots of the willows are often exposed and undercut, eventually leading the trees to fall into the river. This demonstrates the river's movement. Slumping usually occurs on the concave sides of the banks resulting in mass movements such as slides.

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cut bank

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shallow gradients

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: unprotected soil

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cut bank

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cut bank

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: willows

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Erosion is greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by deposits of sand and rocks

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: submerged objects

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Gradients

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sand, rocks and other submerged objects

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The current on the outside bend

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Slumping

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: point bar

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Deposition of sediment occurs on the inner edge

text: The occurrence at Dalarna (Dala sandstone), with its 50 km x 150 km area, constitutes the largest region known to be covered at present with Jotnian sediments. The sandstone extends beyond Sweden's border into Hedmark in Norway where it is known as the "Trysil sandstone". At Idre drilling has revealed that the Dala sandstone extends beneath the Caledonian nappes. The Dala sanstone unconformably overlies the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt basement. The unconformity, believed to have been formed by subaereal erosion, was the surface of a peneplain at the time of deposition of the Dala sandstone. The peneplain landscape formed after protracted periods of erosion. Sedimentation of the Dala sandstone happened between 1650 and 1200 million years ago.

text: The occurrence at Dalarna (Dala sandstone), with its 50 km x 150 km area, constitutes the largest region known to be covered at present with Jotnian sediments. The sandstone extends beyond Sweden's border into

text: Hedmark

text: in

text: Norway

text: where it is known as the "Trysil sandstone". At

text: Idre

text: drilling has revealed that the Dala sandstone extends beneath the

text: Caledonian

text: nappe

text: s. The Dala sanstone

text: unconformably

text: overlies the

text: Transscandinavian Igneous Belt

text: basement. The unconformity, believed to have been formed by subaereal erosion, was the surface of a

text: peneplain

text: at the time of deposition of the Dala sandstone. The peneplain landscape formed after protracted periods of erosion. Sedimentation of the Dala sandstone happened between 1650 and 1200 million years ago.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Dalarna

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Dalarna

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sandstone

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sandstone

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: unconformity

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: subaereal erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: peneplain

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: protracted periods of erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: subaereal

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Dalarna

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The sandstone extends beyond Sweden's border into Hedmark in Norway

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Dalarna

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Subaereal erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: The peneplain landscape formed after protracted periods of erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Dalarna (Dala sandstone)

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Dalarna

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Dalarna

text: Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.  Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.

text: Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous,

text: friable

text: , slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained,

text: silt

text: y, pale yellow or buff, windblown (

text: Aeolian

text: sediment

text: . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.  Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the

text: Great Plains

text: , it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Aeolian

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Aeolian

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: vertical faces

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: weather conditions

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: loess

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Loess deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: big trees

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: wind

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Loess

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Loess stands in either steep or vertical faces

text: A cuspate foreland can form in a strait or along a coastline that has no islands or shoals in the area. In this case, longshore drift as well as prevailing wind and waves bring sediment together from opposite directions. If there is a large angle between the waves and the shoreline, the sediment converges, accumulates, and forms beach ridges. Over time, a cuspate foreland forms as a result of continued accretion and progradation. An example of this type of cuspate foreland is the one found at Dungeness along the southern coast of Britain. This cuspate foreland has formed as a result of the merging of SW waves from the English Channel, and waves from the east from the Strait of Dover. Another example is the cuspate foreland found between Awatere River and White Bluffs in Marlborough, New Zealand. This foreland has ridges on the eastern and northern sides which face the prominent waves.

text: A cuspate foreland can form in a strait or along a coastline that has no islands or

text: shoal

text: s in the area. In this case, longshore drift as well as prevailing wind and waves bring sediment together from opposite directions. If there is a large angle between the waves and the shoreline, the sediment converges, accumulates, and forms

text: beach ridge

text: s. Over time, a cuspate foreland forms as a result of continued accretion and progradation. An example of this type of cuspate foreland is the one found at

text: Dungeness

text: along the southern coast of Britain. This cuspate foreland has formed as a result of the merging of SW waves from the English Channel, and waves from the east from the Strait of Dover. Another example is the cuspate foreland found between Awatere River and White Bluffs in Marlborough, New Zealand. This foreland has ridges on the eastern and northern sides which face the prominent waves.

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text: A scientific study of the characteristics of the sediments deposited at the beach was conducted from May 2009 to May 2010. The study found that the location of Pigeon Hill has a major impact on how deposits are added to the beach and removed through erosion.

text: A scientific study of the characteristics of the sediments deposited at the beach was conducted from May 2009 to May 2010. The study found that the location of Pigeon Hill has a major impact on how deposits are added to the beach and removed through erosion.

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text: However, shingle continued to accumulate and so the mouth of the Ouse began to migrate eastwards again. Under the Ouse Navigation Act (1790), a western breakwater was constructed to arrest longshore drift and so cut off the supply of shingle to the spit. A new outlet (The Cut) was built on the river's present course, below Castle Hill. At that time the settlement began to be known as the "new haven". The present breakwater was built in 1890.

text: However, shingle continued to accumulate and so the mouth of the Ouse began to migrate eastwards again. Under the Ouse Navigation Act (1790), a western

text: breakwater

text: was constructed to arrest

text: longshore drift

text: and so cut off the supply of shingle to the spit. A new outlet (The Cut) was built on the river's present course, below Castle Hill. At that time the settlement began to be known as the "new haven". The present breakwater was built in 1890.

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text: Some parts of Mars show inverted relief. This occurs when sediments are deposited on the floor of a stream and then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually, erosion removes the covering layer and the former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process. Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of Mars, especially in the Medusae Fossae Formation, Miyamoto Crater, Saheki Crater, and the Juventae Plateau.

text: Some parts of Mars show

text: inverted relief

text: . This occurs when sediments are deposited on the floor of a stream and then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually, erosion removes the covering layer and the former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process. Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of Mars, especially in the

text: Medusae Fossae Formation

text: Miyamoto Crater

text: Saheki Crater

text: , and the Juventae Plateau.

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text: However, for waves perpendicular to a coast line or in closed laboratory wave channel, the second definition (S2) is more appropriate. These wave systems have zero mass flux and momentum when using the second definition. In contrast, according to Stokes' first definition (S1), there is a wave-induced mass flux in the wave propagation direction, which has to be balanced by a mean flow U in the opposite direction – called the undertow.

text: However, for waves perpendicular to a coast line or in closed laboratory

text: wave channel

text: , the second definition (S2) is more appropriate. These wave systems have zero mass flux and momentum when using the second definition. In contrast, according to Stokes' first definition (S1), there is a wave-induced mass flux in the wave propagation direction, which has to be balanced by a mean flow U in the opposite direction – called the

text: undertow

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text: A corduroy or beach ladder (or board and chain) is an array of planks (usually hardwood or treated timber) laid close together and perpendicular to the direction of traffic flow, and secured at each end by a chain or cable to form a pathway or ramp over the sand dune.  Corduroys are cheap and easy to construct and quick to deploy or relocate.  They are commonly used for pedestrian access paths and light duty vehicular access ways.  They naturally conform to the shape of the underlying beach or dune profile, and adjust well to moderate erosion, especially longshore drift.  However, they can cease to be an effective access surface if they become buried or undermined by erosion by surface runoff coming from the beach head.  If the corduroy is not wide enough for vehicles using it, the sediment on either side may be displaced creating a spoon drain that accelerates surface run off and can quickly lead to serious  erosion.  Significant erosion of the sediment beside and under the corduroy can render it completely ineffective and make it dangerous to pedestrian users who may fall between the planks.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: longshore drift

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: surface run off

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answers: perpendicular

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answers: Surface runoff coming from the beach head

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: surface runoff coming from the beach head

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: perpendicular

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: dune

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answers: spoon drain

text: The main break extends from La Punta to the township, a distance of about 800m, although single rides do not normally connect the sections through the whole distance. There are three main sections: the top of the point is a hollow and fast wave called "La Punta". The middle section is in front of the cemetery. The inside cove, fronting the town's restaurants, is called "La Paz"; this section is good for longboarding. On a good day, when the swell is 6 to 8 feet high (Hawaiian scale), the upper part of the point produces the best waves, allowing a ride of about 300m or more. It is relatively easy to "drop in" on the long, fast, and powerful walls, which turn into hollow barrels on the best days. The main takeoff is close to a dangerous rock which often sticks out of the water, and has caused injuries. Surfing is good on all tides, although low tide probably produces more barreled waves. The wave form of this break is unusual in that it often breaks at a slight angle to the shoreline, hitting it slightly squarely, creating powerful and fast walls. It can be difficult to get outside in large swells, and the rocky shoreline is notorious for its difficult entry.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: barrels

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: The inside cove

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: barrels

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: La Punta

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: point

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: cove

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: rocky shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Hawaiin scale

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: rock

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: rocky shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: rocky shoreline

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cove

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: rocky shoreline

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: It can be difficult to get outside in large swells

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: La Punta

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at a slight angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: La Punta to the township

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The main takeoff is close to a dangerous rock

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: It can be difficult to get outside in large swells

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: At a slight angle to the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is relatively easy to "drop in" on the long, fast, and powerful walls

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The main takeoff

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an

text: abrasion

text: or

text: cliffed coast

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: abrasion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliffed coast

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: abrasion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: cliff faces

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: cliffed coast

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliffed coast

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: coasts with cliffs and short shore faces

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: It carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sediment

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Sediment deposited by waves

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: coasts with cliffs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Sediment

text: Some commentators have identified three waves of historical comparative research. The first wave of historical comparative research concerned how societies came to be modern, i.e. based on individual and rational action, with exact definitions varying widely. Some of the major researchers in this mode were Alexis de Tocqueville, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber,  and W.E.B. Du Bois. The second wave reacted to a perceived ahistorical body of theory and sought to show how social systems were not static, but developed over time. Notable authors of this wave include Barrington Moore, Jr., Theda Skocpol, Charles Tilly, Michael Mann, and Mark Gould. Some have placed the Annales school and Pierre Bourdieu in this general group, despite their stylistic differences. The current wave of historical comparative research sociology is often but not exclusively post-structural in its theoretical orientation. Influential current authors include Julia Adams, Anne Laura Stoler, Philip Gorski, and James Mahoney.

text: Some commentators have identified three waves of historical comparative research. The first wave of historical comparative research concerned how societies came to be

text: modern

text: , i.e. based on individual and rational action, with exact definitions varying widely. Some of the major researchers in this mode were

text: Alexis de Tocqueville

text: Karl Marx

text: Emile Durkheim

text: Max Weber

text: ,  and

text: W.E.B. Du Bois

text: . The second wave reacted to a perceived ahistorical body of theory and sought to show how social systems were not static, but developed over time. Notable authors of this wave include

text: Barrington Moore, Jr.

text: Theda Skocpol

text: Charles Tilly

text: Michael Mann

text: , and Mark Gould. Some have placed the Annales school and Pierre Bourdieu in this general group, despite their stylistic differences. The current wave of historical comparative research sociology is often but not exclusively post-structural in its theoretical orientation. Influential current authors include Julia Adams, Anne Laura Stoler,

text: Philip Gorski

text: , and James Mahoney.

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answers: The second wave

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Annales school

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: The second wave

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: exact definitions

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: waves of historical comparative research

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal plains

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: coastal plains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The second wave

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The first wave of historical comparative research

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The second wave

text: The inherent functionality of a surface acoustic wave sensor can be extended by the deposition of a thin film of material across the delay line which is sensitive to the physical phenomena of interest.  If a physical phenomenon causes a change in length or mass in the deposited thin film, the surface acoustic wave will be affected by the mechanisms mentioned above.  Some extended functionality examples are listed below:

text: The inherent functionality of a surface acoustic wave sensor can be extended by the deposition of a thin film of material across the delay line which is sensitive to the physical phenomena of interest.  If a physical phenomenon causes a change in length or mass in the deposited thin film, the surface acoustic wave will be affected by the mechanisms mentioned above.  Some extended functionality examples are listed below:

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a thin film of material

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: wave-cut cliff

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: delay line

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: deposition line

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Delay line

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: length or mass

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: thin film of material

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: delay line

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: landforms

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The inherent functionality of a surface acoustic wave sensor

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: surface acoustic wave sensor

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: surface acoustic wave sensor

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks like sandpaper

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: surface acoustic wave sensor

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier islands are generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: surface acoustic wave

text: Internationally, sediment starvation is causing the erosion of many important coastal features. Breakwaters and other man-made structures in Thailand are responsible for accelerated beach erosion which may start to affect tourism in the coming years.In Hallsands, Devon, England, a combination of an existing seawall and new gravel dredging to form a harbour from 1986 to 1902, caused the erosion of the whole village by 1917. This was due to sediment starvation causing the erosion of the mixed sand and gravel barrier beaches which protected the village. They are not alone, the effects of man-made structures on restricting or diverting natural sediment transport are now well known and to some extent there is now a move away from these.

text: Internationally, sediment starvation is causing the erosion of many important coastal features. Breakwaters and other man-made structures in Thailand are responsible for accelerated beach erosion which may start to affect tourism in the coming years.In Hallsands, Devon, England, a combination of an existing seawall and new gravel dredging to form a harbour from 1986 to 1902, caused the erosion of the whole village by 1917. This was due to sediment starvation causing the erosion of the mixed sand and gravel barrier beaches which protected the village. They are not alone, the effects of man-made structures on restricting or diverting natural sediment transport are now well known and to some extent there is now a move away from these.

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: mixed sand and gravel barrier beaches

answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000130

answers: starvation

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Beach erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Breakwaters

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sediment starvation

text: A place where erosion of a cliffed coast has occurred is at Wamberal in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.

text: A place where erosion of a

text: cliffed coast

text: has occurred is at

text: Wamberal

text: in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliffs

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: houses built on top of the cliffs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sedimentary

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Central Coast region

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Sandy shores, also called beaches, are coastal shorelines where sand accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand, continually building and eroding the shoreline. Longshore currents flow parallel to the beaches, making waves break obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming spits, barrier islands and tombolos. Longshore currents also commonly create offshore bars, which give beaches some stability by reducing erosion.

text: Sandy shores, also called

text: beach

text: es, are coastal shorelines where

text: sand

text: accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand, continually building and eroding the shoreline.

text: Longshore current

text: s flow parallel to the beaches, making waves break obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming

text: spits

text: barrier island

text: s and

text: tombolo

text: s. Longshore currents also commonly create

text: offshore bar

text: s, which give beaches some stability by reducing erosion.

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answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore currents

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: barrier islands and tombolos

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: These currents transport large amounts of sand

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: obliquely

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore currents flow parallel to the beaches

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longshore currents

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore currents

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: offshore bars

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Longshore currents flow parallel

text: The 1985 Mexico City earthquake of September 19, 1985 is a good example of earthquake damage to a modern city built on soft sediment. Though the earthquake epicenter was located around 350 km from the city, the sites with soft clay deposits exhibited a huge amplification of ground motion resulting in severe damage. Mexico City is built on a thick layer of soft soil over a hard stratum. The western part of the city is located on the edge of an old lakebed, whereas, soft clay deposits filling the former lakebed underline the eastern part. In the lake bed area, the soft clay deposits have shear wave velocities ranging from 40 to 90 m/s and the underlying hard strata has a shear wave velocity in the range 500 m/s or greater. During the earthquake of 1985, the seismic waves were trapped in the soft strata. The soft soil layer allowed the upward propagating shear waves to propagate easily; however, the hard strata at the bottom acted like a reflector and bounced back the downward propagating waves. This kind of trapping of waves created a resonance and consequently resulted in an enormous amplification of the ground motion. As a result, the lake bed area suffered catastrophic damage; however, in the southwest part of the city, ground motions were moderate and building damage was minor. The acceleration recorded in the hill-zones were relatively low-amplitude, short period ground motions compared to high amplitude and long period ground motions recorded at stations located in the lake zone.

text: The

text: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: of September 19, 1985 is a good example of earthquake damage to a modern city built on soft sediment. Though the earthquake

text: epicenter

text: acceleration

text: recorded in the hill-zones were relatively low-amplitude, short period ground motions compared to high amplitude and

text: long period ground motion

text: s recorded at stations located in the lake zone.

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: lakebed

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Soft clay deposits filling the former lakebed

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: lake bed

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: an old lakebed

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: old lakebed

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: lakebed

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: hill-zones

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: shear wave velocities

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: soft clay deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: earthquake damage

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: old lakebed

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: reflector

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: old lakebed

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: hill-zones

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The soft soil layer allowed the upward propagating shear waves to propagate easily

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Soft clay deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: This kind of trapping of waves created a resonance

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The 1985 Mexico City earthquake of September 19, 1985

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Soft clay deposits filling the former lakebed underline the eastern part

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is not possible to tell

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: This kind of trapping of waves created a resonance

text: While some beaches are predominantly made of black sand, even other colour beaches (e.g. gold and white) can often have deposits of black sand, particularly after storms. Larger waves can sort out sand grains leaving deposits of heavy minerals visible on the surface of erosion scarps.

text: While some beaches are predominantly made of black sand, even other colour beaches (e.g. gold and white) can often have deposits of black sand, particularly after storms. Larger waves can sort out sand grains leaving deposits of heavy minerals visible on the

text: surface of erosion

text: scarps.

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: scarps

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: scarp

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: black sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: black sand

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: scarps

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Larger waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand grains

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion scarps

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Larger waves

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater) due to accretion of sand in the lee of the island where wave energy and longshore drift are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs.

text: The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater) due to accretion of sand in the lee of the island where wave energy and

text: longshore drift

text: are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs.

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: detached breakwater

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: lee

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wave energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: detached breakwater

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: island

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: detached breakwater

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The shoreline moves toward the island

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Accretion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: detached breakwater

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: detached breakwater

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: lee

text: Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.

text: Varve

text: (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in

text: erosion

text: and organic content. This type of

text: deposit

text: is common in former

text: glacial lake

text: s. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: varve

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: varve

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: varve

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: varve

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: varve

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: differences in erosion and organic content

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: fine sediments

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Varve

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: glacial lakes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: glacial lake basins

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: waters

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: fine sediments

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: differences in erosion and organic content

text: Wetter climates brought upon by ice ages starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon, which was nearly as deep as it is now, 1.2 million years ago.  Volcanic activity deposited lava over the area 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago. At least 13 lava dams blocked the Colorado River, forming lakes that were up to  deep. The end of the last ice age and subsequent human activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon. Dams in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and deposition. Controlled floods from Glen Canyon Dam upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect. Earthquakes and mass wasting erosive events still affect the region.

text: Wetter

text: climate

text: s brought upon by

text: ice age

text: s starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon, which was nearly as deep as it is now, 1.2 million years ago.

text: Volcanic

text: activity deposited

text: lava

text: over the area 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago. At least 13

text: lava dam

text: s blocked the Colorado River, forming

text: lake

text: s that were up to  deep. The end of the last ice age and subsequent

text: human

text: activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon.

text: Dam

text: s in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and

text: deposition

text: . Controlled floods from

text: Glen Canyon Dam

text: upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect.

text: Earthquake

text: s and

text: mass wasting

text: erosive events still affect the region.

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Glen Canyon Dam

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Glen Canyon Dam

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: climates

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: lava dams

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Earthquakes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sediment transport and deposition

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Earthquakes

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: At least 13 lava dams

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Dams

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Colorado River

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Dams

text: Surface erosion of the surface of a levee is usually caused by the action of wind and water (waves but also normal flow). Erosion can be worsened by pre-existing or new damage to a levee. Areas with no surface protection are more prone to erosion. A levee grazed by certain types of animals, like sheep, can show trails used by the animals where grass does not grow.

text: Surface erosion of the surface of a levee is usually caused by the action of wind and water (waves but also normal flow). Erosion can be worsened by pre-existing or new damage to a levee. Areas with no surface protection are more prone to erosion. A levee grazed by certain types of animals, like

text: sheep

text: , can show trails used by the animals where grass does not grow.

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answers: 1

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: action of wind and water

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Areas with no surface protection

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves but also normal flow

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Surface erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Surface erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Waves strike at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Surface erosion of the surface of a levee

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: waves but also normal flow

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: levee

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: A groin

text: Bako National Park is a national park in Kuching Division, Sarawak, Malaysia. Established in 1957, it is the oldest national park in Sarawak. It covers an area of  at the tip of the Muara Tebas peninsula at the mouth of the Bako and Kuching Rivers. It is approximately   by road from Kuching. Millions of years of erosion of the sandstone have created a coastline of steep cliffs, rocky headlands and stretches of white, sandy bays. Wave erosion at the base of the cliffs has carved many of the rocky headlands into fantastically shaped sea arches  and seastacks with colored patterns formed by iron deposition.The most famous of them is shaped like a cobra's head which can be spotted on a boat ride from the headquarters or one of the beaches. Some of these rock formations can be seen on entry to the Teluk Assam Beach, which fronts the park. The park can only be reached by a 20-minute boat ride from the village of Kampung Bako. It is often visited as a day-trip from Kuching, though accommodations (campground and forestry service bungalows) are available.

text: Bako National Park is a national park in

text: Kuching Division

text: Sarawak

text: Malaysia

text: . Established in 1957, it is the oldest national park in Sarawak. It covers an area of  at the tip of the Muara Tebas peninsula at the mouth of the Bako and Kuching Rivers. It is approximately   by road from

text: Kuching

text: . Millions of years of erosion of the sandstone have created a coastline of steep cliffs, rocky headlands and stretches of white, sandy bays. Wave erosion at the base of the cliffs has carved many of the rocky headlands into fantastically shaped sea arches  and seastacks with colored patterns formed by iron deposition.The most famous of them is shaped like a cobra's head which can be spotted on a boat ride from the headquarters or one of the beaches. Some of these rock formations can be seen on entry to the

text: Teluk Assam Beach

text: , which fronts the park. The park can only be reached by a 20-minute boat ride from the village of Kampung Bako. It is often visited as a day-trip from Kuching, though accommodations (campground and forestry service bungalows) are available.

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: steep cliffs

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Bako National Park

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sea arches

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Bako National Park

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: seastacks

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: seastacks

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: rocky headlands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: white, sandy bays

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: sea arches and seastacks

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: steep cliffs, rocky headlands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: sea arches and seastacks

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: steep cliffs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Muara Tebas

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: rocky headlands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: seastacks

text: A groyne creates and maintains a wide area of beach or sediment on its updrift side, and reduces erosion on the other. It is a physical barrier to stop sediment transport in the direction of longshore drift (also called longshore transport). This causes a build-up, which is often accompanied by accelerated erosion of the downdrift beach, which receives little or no sand from longshore drift (this is known as terminal groyne syndrome, as it occurs after the terminal groyne in a group of groynes). Groynes add sediment to the beach by capturing downward drift. However, this can cause severe erosion on shorelines downstream from the groyne.  If a groyne is correctly designed, then the amount of material it can hold will be limited, and excess sediment will be free to move on through the system. However, if a groyne is too large it may trap too much sediment, which can cause severe beach erosion on the down-drift side.

text: A groyne creates and maintains a wide area of beach or sediment on its updrift side, and reduces erosion on the other. It is a physical barrier to stop

text: sediment transport

text: in the direction of

text: longshore drift

text: (also called longshore transport). This causes a build-up, which is often accompanied by accelerated erosion of the downdrift beach, which receives little or no sand from longshore drift (this is known as terminal groyne syndrome, as it occurs after the terminal groyne in a group of groynes). Groynes add sediment to the beach by capturing downward drift. However, this can cause severe erosion on shorelines downstream from the groyne.  If a groyne is correctly designed, then the amount of material it can hold will be limited, and excess sediment will be free to move on through the system. However, if a groyne is too large it may trap too much sediment, which can cause severe beach erosion on the down-drift side.

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answers: It is a physical barrier to stop sediment transport in the direction of longshore drift

text: Nourishment is one of three commonly accepted methods for protecting shorelines. The structural alternative involves constructing a seawall, revetment, groyne or breakwater. Alternatively, with "managed retreat" the shoreline is left to erode, while relocating buildings and infrastructure further inland. Nourishment gained popularity because it preserved beach resources and avoided the negative effects of hard structures.  Instead, nourishment creates a “soft” (i.e., non-permanent) structure by creating a larger sand reservoir, pushing the shoreline seaward.

text: Nourishment is one of three commonly accepted methods for protecting shorelines. The structural alternative involves constructing a

text: seawall

text: revetment

text: groyne

text: or

text: breakwater

text: . Alternatively, with "managed retreat" the shoreline is left to erode, while relocating buildings and infrastructure further inland. Nourishment gained popularity because it preserved beach resources and avoided the negative effects of hard structures.  Instead, nourishment creates a “soft” (i.e., non-permanent) structure by creating a larger sand reservoir, pushing the shoreline seaward.

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shoreline is left to erode

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: erode

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shorelines

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Nourishment

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erode

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: pushing the shoreline seaward

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: seaward

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groyne

text: Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and swales.

text: Erosion control

text: manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and

text: swales

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answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: stepped shapes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: sloped

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: storms

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: stepped shapes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: armoring solution

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: stepped shapes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: sloped

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sloped, stepped shapes

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Shoreline erosion

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoreline

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: stepped shapes

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a fjord. Rias are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the folding of the earth's crust, and by coastal erosion due to waves and currents. Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving headlands. The Gulf of California is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a

text: fjord

text: Ria

text: s are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the

text: folding

text: of the earth's

text: crust

text: , and by coastal erosion due to

text: waves

text: and

text: currents

text: . Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving

text: headland

text: s. The

text: Gulf of California

text: is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

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answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Rias

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Rias

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: glacial and river erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: soft rocks

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bay

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: bays

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: glacial and river

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: waves and currents

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Most gulf and bays

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: bays

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Soft rocks speed erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: headlands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The Gulf of California

text: A single, all-encompassing definition for the term wave is not straightforward. A vibration can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value. However, a vibration is not necessarily a wave.  An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a phenomenon to be called a wave results in a fuzzy border line.

text: A single, all-encompassing definition for the term wave is not straightforward. A

text: vibration

text: can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value. However, a vibration is not necessarily a wave.  An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a

text: phenomenon

text: to be called a wave results in a fuzzy border line.

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answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a wave

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: a wave

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: A wave

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: a wave

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: a reference value

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: wave

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: landforms

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: fuzzy border line

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: back-and-forth motion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: A single, all-encompassing definition

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: motion around a reference value

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: unanswerable

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: fuzzy border line

text: As the tide changes, Emerita changes its position on the beach; most individuals stay in the zone of breaking waves. This may be detected by the physical characteristics of the sand. As the tide falls, the sand is allowed to settle; when Emerita detects this, it uses the temporary liquefaction from a breaking wave to emerge from its burrow, and is carried down the beach by the wave action. Longshore drift may also drag Emerita laterally along a beach.

text: As the

text: tide

text: changes, Emerita changes its position on the beach; most individuals stay in the zone of breaking waves. This may be detected by the physical characteristics of the sand. As the tide falls, the sand is allowed to settle; when Emerita detects this, it uses the temporary liquefaction from a breaking wave to emerge from its burrow, and is carried down the beach by the wave action.

text: Longshore drift

text: may also drag Emerita laterally along a beach.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: breaking waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Laterally

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift may also drag Emerita laterally

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The physical characteristics of the sand

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The sand is allowed to settle

text: Coe determined that the destructive force of the waves lay not in their impact against the bank, but in their retreat or undertow, which dragged away and undermined it. Experiment proved that a smooth surface, over which the heavy seas might glide and in their retreat find no hold, offered the best solution to the problem. Material for such a coating was discovered in the marine marl deposits along the line. This form of clay spread over the surface of the embankments, hardened on exposure to the air, and was capable of withstanding the heaviest seas.

text: Coe determined that the destructive force of the waves lay not in their impact against the bank, but in their retreat or undertow, which dragged away and undermined it. Experiment proved that a smooth surface, over which the heavy seas might glide and in their retreat find no hold, offered the best solution to the problem. Material for such a coating was discovered in the marine marl deposits along the line. This form of clay spread over the surface of the embankments, hardened on exposure to the air, and was capable of withstanding the heaviest seas.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: bank

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: impact against the bank

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: marine marl

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: bank

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: marine marl deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: dragged away and undermined it

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: marine marl

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: marine marl deposits

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: marine marl

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: in their retreat find no hold

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: embankments

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: Until 1900 Poetto beach was not very popular with Cagliaritans who instead preferred the west side of the gulf, with the beaches of  Sa Perdixedda (in Sardinian "small stone") and Giorgino. It was during the first decades of the 20th century that people began to appreciate the white dunes of Poetto and that the first seaside resorts ( "Lido" and "D'Aquila"), bars and even a Hospital (Ospedale Marino) was built.  A number of casotti (coloured wooden constructions halfway between a dressing room and a tiny house on the seashore) were built, imitating the first Lido's "cabine" (Dressing rooms).  The casotti, however, were entirely removed in 1986 for sanitation reasons. Due to their removal, the overcrowding, and a lack of erosion prevention work, there was gradual dispersal of sand and a fast erosion of the shoreline in the nineties.

text: Until 1900 Poetto beach was not very popular with Cagliaritans who instead preferred the west side of the

text: gulf

text: , with the beaches of  Sa Perdixedda (in

text: Sardinian

text: "small stone") and Giorgino. It was during the first decades of the 20th century that people began to appreciate the white

text: dune

text: s of Poetto and that the first seaside resorts ( "Lido" and "D'Aquila"), bars and even a Hospital (Ospedale Marino) was built.  A number of casotti (coloured wooden constructions halfway between a dressing room and a tiny house on the seashore) were built, imitating the first Lido's "cabine" (Dressing rooms).  The casotti, however, were entirely removed in 1986 for sanitation reasons. Due to their removal, the overcrowding, and a lack of erosion prevention work, there was gradual dispersal of sand and a fast erosion of the shoreline in the nineties.

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answers: 2

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: gulf

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: erosion prevention work

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: gulf

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: casotti

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Poetto beach

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: erosion prevention work

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Poetto beach

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: white dunes

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: casotti

text: The most effective known method for erosion prevention is to increase vegetative cover on the land, which helps prevent both wind and water erosion. Terracing is an extremely effective means of erosion control, which has been practiced for thousands of years by people all over the world. Windbreaks (also called shelterbelts) are rows of trees and shrubs that are planted along the edges of agricultural fields, to shield the fields against winds. In addition to significantly reducing wind erosion, windbreaks provide many other benefits such as improved microclimates for crops (which are sheltered from the dehydrating and otherwise damaging effects of wind), habitat for beneficial bird species, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic improvements to the agricultural landscape. Traditional planting methods, such as mixed-cropping (instead of monocropping) and crop rotation have also been shown to significantly reduce erosion rates. Crop residues play a role in the mitigation of erosion, because they reduce the impact of raindrops breaking up the soil particles. There is a higher potential for erosion when producing potatoes than when growing cereals, or oilseed crops.  Forages have a fibrous root system, which helps combat erosion by anchoring the plants to the top layer of the soil, and covering the entirety of the field, as it is a non-row crop. In tropical coastal systems, properties of mangroves have been examined as a potential means to reduce soil erosion. Their complex root structures are known to help reduce wave damage from storms and flood impacts while binding and building soils. These roots can slow down water flow, leading to the deposition of sediments and reduced erosion rates. However, in order to maintain sediment balance, adequate mangrove forest width needs to be present.

text: The most effective known method for erosion prevention is to increase vegetative cover on the land, which helps prevent both wind and water erosion.

text: Terracing

text: is an extremely effective means of erosion control, which has been practiced for thousands of years by people all over the world.

text: Windbreaks

text: (also called shelterbelts) are rows of trees and shrubs that are planted along the edges of agricultural fields, to shield the fields against winds. In addition to significantly reducing wind erosion, windbreaks provide many other benefits such as improved

text: microclimate

text: s for crops (which are sheltered from the dehydrating and otherwise damaging effects of wind), habitat for beneficial bird species,

text: carbon sequestration

text: , and aesthetic improvements to the agricultural landscape. Traditional planting methods, such as mixed-cropping (instead of

text: monocropping

text: ) and

text: crop rotation

text: have also been shown to significantly reduce erosion rates. Crop residues play a role in the mitigation of erosion, because they reduce the impact of raindrops breaking up the soil particles. There is a higher potential for erosion when producing potatoes than when growing cereals, or oilseed crops.  Forages have a fibrous root system, which helps combat erosion by anchoring the plants to the top layer of the soil, and covering the entirety of the field, as it is a non-row crop. In tropical coastal systems, properties of mangroves have been examined as a potential means to reduce soil erosion. Their complex root structures are known to help reduce wave damage from storms and flood impacts while binding and building soils. These roots can slow down water flow, leading to the deposition of sediments and reduced erosion rates. However, in order to maintain sediment balance, adequate mangrove forest width needs to be present.

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answers: 0 The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Windbreaks

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: mangrove forest

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Mangroves

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: flood impacts

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shelterbelts

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: These roots can slow down water flow

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition of sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The most effective known method for erosion prevention

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: In tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: In tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The most effective known method for erosion prevention

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: In tropical coastal systems

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Crop residues play a role in the mitigation of erosion

text: All beaches lose and gain sand depending on the tides, precipitation, wind, waves etc. Wet beaches tend to lose sand. Waves infiltrate dry beaches easily and deposit sandy sediment. Generally a beach is wet during falling tide, because the sea sinks faster than the beach drains. As a result, most erosion happens during falling tide. Beach drainage (beach dewatering) using Pressure Equalizing Modules (PEMs) allow the beach to drain more effectively during falling tide. Fewer hours of wet beach translate to less erosion. Permeable PEM tubes inserted vertically into the foreshore connect the different layers of groundwater. The groundwater enters the PEM tube allowing gravity to conduct it to a coarser sand layer, where it can drain more quickly. The PEM modules are placed in a row from the dune to the mean low waterline. Distance between rows is typically  but this is project-specific. PEM systems come in different sizes. Modules connect layers with varying hydraulic conductivity. Air/water can enter and equalize pressure.

text: All beaches lose and gain sand depending on the tides, precipitation, wind, waves etc. Wet beaches tend to lose sand. Waves infiltrate dry beaches easily and deposit sandy sediment. Generally a beach is wet during falling tide, because the sea sinks faster than the beach drains. As a result, most erosion happens during falling tide. Beach drainage (beach dewatering) using Pressure Equalizing Modules (PEMs) allow the beach to drain more effectively during falling tide. Fewer hours of wet beach translate to less erosion.

text: Permeable

text: PEM tubes inserted vertically into the foreshore connect the different layers of

text: groundwater

text: . The groundwater enters the PEM tube allowing gravity to conduct it to a coarser sand layer, where it can drain more quickly. The PEM modules are placed in a row from the dune to the mean low waterline. Distance between rows is typically  but this is project-specific. PEM systems come in different sizes. Modules connect layers with varying

text: hydraulic conductivity

text: . Air/water can enter and equalize pressure.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: precipitation, wind

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sandy sediment

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Wet beaches

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: dune to the mean low waterline

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Wet beaches tend to lose sand

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: At an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: The PEM modules are placed in a row

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Water in ocean water scrapes rocks like sandpaper.

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The sand collects on both sides of a groin.

text: Byōbugaura is noted in Japan for its historical and ongoing marine erosion due to the geological character of the inlet and the near-constant violent waves of the Pacific Ocean in the area. About  of land has been lost to erosion in the past 700 years. In modern times, in the 63 years between 1888 and 1951  of land have been lost. Tetrapods have been extensively installed at Byōbugaura to establish breakwaters, and have softened the retreat of land. The area of Byōbugaura on the border of Chōshi features marine caves, but most have also been lost due to marine erosion.

text: Byōbugaura is noted in Japan for its historical and ongoing marine erosion due to the geological character of the inlet and the near-constant violent waves of the Pacific Ocean in the area. About  of land has been lost to erosion in the past 700 years. In modern times, in the 63 years between 1888 and 1951  of land have been lost.

text: Tetrapods

text: have been extensively installed at Byōbugaura to establish

text: breakwaters

text: , and have softened the retreat of land. The area of Byōbugaura on the border of Chōshi features marine

text: cave

text: s, but most have also been lost due to marine erosion.

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text: NATIONAL SHORELINE EROSION CONTROL DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 54, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 26, known as the Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Act of 1974, directed the Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers, to establish and conduct for a period of five fiscal years a national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration program, to consist of planning, constructing, operating, evaluating, and demonstrating prototype shoreline erosion control devices, both engineered and vegetative, and to be carried out in cooperation with the Secretary of Agriculture, particularly with respect to vegetative means of preventing and controlling shoreline erosion, and in cooperation with Federal, State, and local agencies, private organizations, and the Shoreline Erosion Advisory Panel established pursuant to section 54(d) of Pub. L. 93-251. The Panel was to expire ninety days after termination of the five-year program. The Secretary of the Army was to submit to Congress a final report, sixty days after the fifth fiscal year of funding, such report to include a comprehensive evaluation of the national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration program. TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING ASSISTANCE FOR NON-DEVELOPMENT OF EROSION PREVENTION METHODS Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 55, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 28, provided that: The Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers, is authorized to provide technical and engineering assistance to non-Federal public interests in developing structural and non-structural methods of preventing damages attributable to shore and streambank erosion. VISITOR PROTECTION SERVICES, STUDY; REPORT TO CONGRESS Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 75, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 32, directed Secretary of the Army to conduct a study on need for and means of providing visitor protection services at water resource development projects under jurisdiction of Department of the Army and report on such study to Congress not later than Dec. 31, 1974.

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answers: Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat.

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answers: Shoreline Erosion Control

text: A beach ridge is a wave-swept or wave-deposited ridge running parallel to a shoreline. It is commonly composed of sand as well as sediment worked from underlying beach material. The movement of sediment by wave action is called littoral transport. Movement of material parallel to the shoreline is called longshore transport. Movement perpendicular to the shore is called on-offshore transport. A beach ridge may be capped by, or associated with, sand dunes. The height of a beach ridge is affected by wave size and energy.

text: A beach ridge is a

text: wave

text: -swept or wave-deposited

text: ridge

text: running

text: parallel

text: to a shoreline. It is commonly composed of sand as well as

text: sediment

text: worked from underlying beach material. The movement of sediment by wave action is called

text: littoral

text: transport. Movement of material parallel to the shoreline is called

text: longshore transport

text: . Movement

text: perpendicular

text: to the shore is called on-offshore transport. A beach ridge may be capped by, or associated with,

text: sand dunes

text: . The height of a beach ridge is affected by wave size and energy.

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach ridge

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The movement of sediment by wave action is called littoral transport

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: parallel

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore transport

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment worked from underlying beach material

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: parallel to the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: on-offshore

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: sand dunes

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: on-offshore transport

text: The most common cause of erosion is by acidic foods and drinks. In general, foods and drinks with a pH below 5.0–5.7 have been known to trigger dental erosion effects. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports link erosion to excessive consumption of drinks.  Those thought to pose a risk are soft drinks, some alcohol and fruit drinks, fruit juices such as orange juice (which contain citric acid) and carbonated drinks such as colas (in which the carbonic acid is not the cause of erosion, but citric and phosphoric acid).  Additionally, wine has been shown to erode teeth, with the pH of wine as low as 3.0–3.8. Other possible sources of erosive acids are from exposure to chlorinated swimming pool water, and regurgitation of gastric acids.

text: The most common cause of erosion is by acidic foods and drinks. In general, foods and drinks with a

text: pH

text: below 5.0–5.7 have been known to trigger dental erosion effects. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports link erosion to excessive consumption of drinks.  Those thought to pose a risk are soft drinks, some alcohol and fruit drinks, fruit juices such as

text: orange juice

text: (which contain

text: citric acid

text: ) and

text: carbonated drinks

text: such as

text: cola

text: s (in which the

text: carbonic acid

text: is not the cause of erosion, but citric and

text: phosphoric acid

text: ).  Additionally,

text: wine

text: has been shown to erode teeth, with the pH of wine as low as 3.0–3.8. Other possible sources of erosive acids are from exposure to

text: chlorinated

text: swimming pool

text: water, and regurgitation of

text: gastric acid

text: s.

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: a reef

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: a barrier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: acidic foods and drinks

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: soft drinks

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: acidic foods and drinks

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: swimming pool

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: acids

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: acidic foods and drinks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The most common cause of erosion

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Erosion

text: Much of the money deposits into banks and other financial institutions have also been subsequently seized in the immediate aftermath of the deportations. Once a deposit was made, a certificate was given to the depositor as a proof of deposit. However, once the deportations began, withdrawals were prohibited. Much of the deportees who had held deposits were left with only certificates in their possession. Many of the depositors still carry the certificates of deposit today. Historian Kevork Baghdjian states that the worth of these deposits "should rise to astronomical sums today," with the "deposited capital and interests combined."

text: Much of the money deposits into banks and other financial institutions have also been subsequently seized in the immediate aftermath of the deportations. Once a deposit was made, a certificate was given to the depositor as a proof of deposit. However, once the deportations began, withdrawals were prohibited. Much of the deportees who had held deposits were left with only certificates in their possession. Many of the depositors still carry the certificates of deposit today. Historian Kevork Baghdjian states that the worth of these deposits "should rise to astronomical sums today," with the "deposited capital and interests combined."

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Longshore

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: money deposits

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: money deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: deportees

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: At an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment in ocean water scrapes rocks

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: deportations

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: deportees

text: A contourite is a sedimentary deposit commonly formed on continental rise to lower slope settings, although they may occur anywhere that is below storm wave base. Countourites are produced by thermohaline-induced deepwater bottom currents and may be influenced by wind or tidal forces. The geomorphology of contourite deposits is mainly influenced by the deepwater bottom-current velocity, sediment supply, and seafloor topography.

text: A contourite is a

text: sediment

text: ary deposit commonly formed on

text: continental rise

text: to lower slope settings, although they may occur anywhere that is below storm

text: wave base

text: . Countourites are produced by

text: thermohaline

text: -induced

text: deepwater bottom currents

text: and may be influenced by wind or

text: tidal

text: forces. The geomorphology of contourite deposits is mainly influenced by the deepwater bottom-current velocity, sediment supply, and seafloor topography.

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text: The small island was made from the same longshore drift that created Napatree Point. The two pieces of land were one until the 1938 Hurricane tore several channels in the peninsula. The result was the separation of Napatree at the elbow, making Sandy Point an island. The land is low-lying and nearly all sand, aside from a few trees.

text: The small island was made from the same

text: longshore drift

text: that created Napatree Point. The two pieces of land were one until the 1938 Hurricane tore several channels in the peninsula. The result was the separation of Napatree at the elbow, making Sandy Point an island. The land is low-lying and nearly all sand, aside from a few trees.

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: longshore drift

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text: In northern Germany, individual blocks have been forced up by salt domes, and have been eroded down to the older layers of the Mesozoic platform. Erosion-resistant bedrock on these blocks forms small isolated ridges, especially in the northern Harz foreland region. These include the Elm hills (Muschelkalk), the Asse hills (Buntsandstein and Muschelkalk) and the Grosser Fallstein (Muschelkalk) as well as the island of Heligoland (Buntsandstein). Cretaceous chalk can be found, partly covered by thin Quaternary deposits, only in northern Germany, including in Münsterland Cretaceous Basin, where the Cretaceous deposits directly rest on the Ruhr Carboniferous and continue westward into the Aachen Formation, as well as in the Hanover and Salzgitter area. Probably the most well-known Cretaceous limestones of Germany are the those on the island of Rügen, on Germany's north coast.

text: In northern Germany, individual blocks have been forced up by

text: salt dome

text: s, and have been eroded down to the older layers of the Mesozoic platform. Erosion-resistant bedrock on these blocks forms small isolated ridges, especially in the northern Harz

text: foreland

text: region. These include the

text: Elm hills

text: (Muschelkalk), the

text: Asse hills

text: (Buntsandstein and Muschelkalk) and the

text: Grosser Fallstein

text: (Muschelkalk) as well as the island of

text: Heligoland

text: (Buntsandstein). Cretaceous

text: chalk

text: can be found, partly covered by thin Quaternary deposits, only in northern Germany, including in Münsterland Cretaceous Basin, where the Cretaceous deposits directly rest on the

text: Ruhr

text: Carboniferous and continue westward into the

text: Aachen Formation

text: , as well as in the Hanover and Salzgitter area. Probably the most well-known Cretaceous limestones of Germany are the those on the island of

text: Rügen

text: , on Germany's north coast.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: salt domes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: salt domes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: salt domes

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: erosion-resistant bedrock

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: salt domes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: small isolated ridges

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: ridge

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: small isolated ridges

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: individual blocks have been forced up by salt domes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Quaternary

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: northern Harz foreland region

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: salt domes

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Heligoland

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: ridges

text: Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes of weathering and erosion. Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the lithification of these buried smaller fragments (clastic sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living organisms (biogenic sedimentary rock - fossils), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to evaporation (precipitate sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as erosion or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

text: Rocks exposed to the

text: atmosphere

text: are variably unstable and subject to the processes of

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: . Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the

text: lithification

text: of these buried smaller fragments (

text: clastic

text: sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living

text: organism

text: s (

text: biogenic

text: sedimentary rock -

text: fossil

text: s), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to

text: evaporation

text: precipitate

text: sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as

text: erosion

text: or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of

text: mineral

text: s from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Plant remains

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sea arch

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: weathering and erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Carry away dissolved material

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Clastic rocks

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Clastic rocks

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: weathering and erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: weathering and erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: weathering and erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Sedimentary rocks

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Rocks exposed to the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: This fragmented material accumulates

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a geological engineer and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing fault that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the Kibbey Formation, was deposited on an unconformity, an ancient Mississippian-age karst erosion surface, and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a

text: geological engineer

text: and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing

text: fault

text: that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the

text: Kibbey Formation

text: , was deposited on an

text: unconformity

text: , an ancient Mississippian-age

text: karst

text: erosion surface

text: , and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dike

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: karst

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: depth

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: limestone

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: collapse breccias

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dike

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: karst

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: breccia zones

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shale

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Yogo dike

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: breccias

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: a groin

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to

text: gravity wave

text: dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: mesopause

answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Air rising will expand

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: The summer mesopause

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: downwelling

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: downwelling

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: barrier island

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: downwelling

text: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. In addition to their ugliness, sea walls have two specific weaknesses. First, wave reflection from the wall may result in scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Second, sea walls may accelerate erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas because they affect the littoral drift process. The design and type of sea wall that is appropriate depends on aspects specific to the location, including the surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved or stepped, and mounds, as set out in the table:

text: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. In addition to their ugliness, sea walls have two specific weaknesses. First, wave reflection from the wall may result in scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Second, sea walls may accelerate erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas because they affect the

text: littoral drift

text: process. The design and type of sea wall that is appropriate depends on aspects specific to the location, including the surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved or stepped, and mounds, as set out in the table:

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 3

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: mounds

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: A seawall

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: scour

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: A seawall

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: scour

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: scour

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: littoral drift

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: incident wave energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: lowering of the sand level

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: mounds

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: curved or stepped

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment.

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: curved or stepped

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: scour

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Littoral drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: curved or stepped

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: The stacks are susceptible to further erosion from the waves.  On 3 July 2005, a  stack collapsed, leaving eight remaining (compare the two pictures from 2003 and 2010). On 25 September 2009, it was thought that another of the stacks had fallen, but this was actually one of the smaller stacks of the Three Sisters formation.  The rate of erosion at the base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm per year. Due to wave action eroding the cliff face existing headlands are expected to become new limestone stacks in the future.

text: The stacks are susceptible to further erosion from the

text: waves

text: .  On 3 July 2005, a  stack collapsed, leaving eight remaining (compare the two pictures from 2003 and 2010). On 25 September 2009, it was thought that another of the stacks had fallen, but this was actually one of the smaller stacks of the Three Sisters formation.  The rate of erosion at the base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm per year. Due to wave action eroding the cliff face existing headlands are expected to become new limestone stacks in the future.

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text: Similar to the flint fields in the northern part of the Schmale Heide, but much smaller in size, are ridges of flint at many places in the northern part of Schaabe behind the main line of sand dunes, which were thrown up here by the waves in earlier times, when the sea level was higher. This proves that the erosion and transportation of flints from the chalk cliffs of Wittow and Jasmund has reduced over the centuries and been replaced by the deposition of fine beach sand.

text: Similar to the

text: flint field

text: s in the northern part of the Schmale Heide, but much smaller in size, are ridges of flint at many places in the northern part of Schaabe behind the main line of sand dunes, which were thrown up here by the waves in earlier times, when the sea level was higher. This proves that the erosion and transportation of flints from the

text: chalk cliffs

text: of Wittow and Jasmund has reduced over the centuries and been replaced by the deposition of fine beach sand.

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text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of atmospheric variables (like surface pressure or geopotential height, temperature, or wind velocity) which may either propagate (traveling wave) or not (standing wave). Atmospheric waves range in spatial and temporal scale from large-scale planetary waves (Rossby waves) to minute sound waves. Atmospheric waves with periods which are harmonics of 1 solar day (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as atmospheric tides.

text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of

text: atmospheric

text: variables (like

text: surface pressure

text: or

text: geopotential height

text: temperature

text: , or

text: wind velocity

text: ) which may either propagate (

text: traveling wave

text: ) or not (

text: standing wave

text: ). Atmospheric waves range in

text: spatial

text: and

text: temporal

text: scale from large-scale planetary waves (

text: Rossby wave

text: s) to minute

text: sound wave

text: s. Atmospheric waves with periods which are

text: harmonics

text: of 1

text: solar day

text: (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as

text: atmospheric tide

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: Atmospheric waves

text: The coastal management at Black Rock, on the north-east coast of Phillip Bay, Australia, provides a good example of a structural response to beach erosion which resulted in morphological changes in the swash zone. In the 1930s, a sea wall was built to protect the cliff from recession at Black Rock. This resulted in depletion of the beach in front of the sea wall, which was damaged by repeated storms in winter time. In 1969, the beach was nourished with approximately 5000m of sand from inland in order to increase the volume of sand on the beach to protect the sea wall. This increased the sand volume by about 10%, however, the sand was carried away by northward drifting in autumn to leave the sea wall exposed to the impacts of winter storms again. The project had failed to take the seasonal patterns of longshore drift into account and had underestimated the amount of sand to nourish with, especially on the southern part of the beach.

text: The coastal management at Black Rock, on the north-east coast of Phillip Bay, Australia, provides a good example of a structural response to beach erosion which resulted in morphological changes in the swash zone. In the 1930s, a

text: sea wall

text: was built to protect the cliff from recession at Black Rock. This resulted in depletion of the beach in front of the

text: sea wall

text: , which was damaged by repeated storms in winter time. In 1969, the beach was nourished with approximately 5000m of sand from inland in order to increase the volume of sand on the beach to protect the sea wall. This increased the sand volume by about 10%, however, the sand was carried away by northward drifting in autumn to leave the sea wall exposed to the impacts of winter storms again. The project had failed to take the seasonal patterns of

text: longshore drift

text: into account and had underestimated the amount of sand to nourish with, especially on the southern part of the beach.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: groin

text: Belarus has large amounts of potash with commercial reserves of 10 billion metric tones. All deposits were formed during the Famennian stage of the Late Devonian epoch. Three main potash deposits have been explored — Starobin (, ), Petrikov (, ) and Oktyabrsky (, ). Sylvinite (potash ore) from the Starobin deposit contains up to 28% KCl, sylvinite from the Petrikov deposit — up to 40% KCl, and from the Oktyabrsky deposit — up to 39% KCl. Amounts of MgCl vary from 0.15—0.3% in Starobin to 1.5—4% in Petrikov and more than 5% in Oktyabrsky. Starobin deposit has 2.6 billion tones of proven reserves (A, B, C categories) and 600 million tones of prognosed reserves (C category) of potash, reserves at Petrikov deposit are estimated at 2.12 billion tones (C and C categories) of potash, Oktyabrsky deposit has 637 million tones of potash (C and C) and 1.1 billion tones of carnallite. Only Starobin deposit is used, but in 2014 construction of the first factory in the Petrikov deposit began. Several less explored and lesser deposits are known, mainly in Homiel Voblasts and Minsk Voblasts.

text: Belarus has large amounts of

text: potash

text: with commercial reserves of 10 billion metric tones. All deposits were formed during the

text: Famennian

text: stage of the Late

text: Devonian

text: epoch. Three main potash deposits have been explored — Starobin (, ), Petrikov (, ) and Oktyabrsky (, ).

text: Sylvinite

text: (potash ore) from the Starobin deposit contains up to 28% KCl, sylvinite from the Petrikov deposit — up to 40% KCl, and from the Oktyabrsky deposit — up to 39% KCl. Amounts of MgCl vary from 0.15—0.3% in Starobin to 1.5—4% in Petrikov and more than 5% in Oktyabrsky. Starobin deposit has 2.6 billion tones of proven reserves (A, B, C categories) and 600 million tones of prognosed reserves (C category) of potash, reserves at Petrikov deposit are estimated at 2.12 billion tones (C and C categories) of potash, Oktyabrsky deposit has 637 million tones of potash (C and C) and 1.1 billion tones of

text: carnallite

text: . Only Starobin deposit is used, but in 2014 construction of the first factory in the Petrikov deposit began. Several less explored and lesser deposits are known, mainly in

text: Homiel Voblasts

text: and

text: Minsk Voblasts

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Potash ore

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Famennian

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Starobin

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sylvinite

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: amounts of MgCl

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: carnallite

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: potash deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: potash ore

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Devonian

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

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text: Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.

text: Sedimentary

text: rock

text: s are formed when

text: sediment

text: is

text: deposited

text: out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in

text: suspension

text: . This sediment is often formed when

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then

text: transported

text: from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the

text: hinterland

text: (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as

text: evaporite

text: s, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the

text: sedimentary depositional environment

text: in which it formed.

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text: Drew Carey also requested that Sounders FC have their own marching band.  They are the first club in the MLS to have one. This led to the creation of the Sound Wave, a 53-member marching band consisting of brass and marching percussion. The band plays music from multiple genres such as Latin, rock and pop, and sits with the supporters in the north end of CenturyLink Field. The March to the Match, in which fans march from Occidental Park to CenturyLink before each home game, is led by the Sound Wave.

text: Drew Carey also requested that Sounders FC have their own marching band.  They are the first club in the MLS to have one. This led to the creation of the Sound Wave, a 53-member marching band consisting of brass and marching percussion. The band plays music from multiple genres such as Latin, rock and pop, and sits with the supporters in the north end of CenturyLink Field. The March to the Match, in which fans march from

text: Occidental Park

text: to CenturyLink before each home game, is led by the Sound Wave.

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text: After returning to Japan from the United States in 2011, Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave, where she aligned herself with the villainous Black Dahlia stable. On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and Shuu Shibutani) to win the Wave Tag Team Championship, Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to Yankii Nichokenju (Isami Kodaka and Yuko Miyamoto) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated Hikaru Shida for the Wave Single Championship. On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated Kayoko Haruyama and Tsubasa Kuragaki in the finals of the 2015 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: After returning to Japan from the

text: United States

text: in 2011, Hamada began working for

text: Pro Wrestling Wave

text: , where she aligned herself with the

text: villainous

text: Black Dahlia

entity_name: Glossary of professional wrestling terms

text: stable

text: . On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: ) to win the

text: Wave Tag Team Championship

text: , Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to

text: Yankii Nichokenju

text: Isami Kodaka

text: and

text: Yuko Miyamoto

text: ) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (

text: Kyoko Kimura

text: and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated

text: Hikaru Shida

text: for the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: . On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Tsubasa Kuragaki

text: in the finals of the

text: 2015 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

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answers: Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Hamada

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The end of a spit may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Hamada

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata

text: Although porphyry deposits are associated with arc volcanism, they are not the typical products in that environment. It is believed that tectonic change acts as a trigger for porphyry formation. There are five key factors that can give rise to porphyry development: 1) compression impeding magma ascent through crust, 2) a resultant larger shallow magma chamber, 3) enhanced fractionation of the magma along with volatile saturation and generation of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, 4) compression restricts offshoots from developing into the surrounding rock, thus concentrating the fluid into a single stock, and 5) rapid uplift and erosion promotes decompression and efficient, eventual deposition of ore.

text: Although porphyry deposits are associated with

text: arc volcanism

text: , they are not the typical products in that environment. It is believed that tectonic change acts as a trigger for porphyry formation. There are five key factors that can give rise to porphyry development: 1) compression impeding magma ascent through crust, 2) a resultant larger shallow

text: magma chamber

text: , 3) enhanced

text: fractionation

text: of the magma along with volatile saturation and generation of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, 4) compression restricts offshoots from developing into the surrounding rock, thus concentrating the fluid into a single stock, and 5) rapid uplift and erosion promotes decompression and efficient, eventual deposition of ore.

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answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: tectonic change

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: tectonic change

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: rapid uplift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: a resultant larger shallow magma chamber

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion promotes decompression

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: tectonic change

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Erosion

text: This structure is formed under a combination of unidirectional and oscillatory flow that is generated by relatively large storm waves in the ocean. Deposition involves fallout from suspension and lateral tractive flow due to wave oscillation. As the large waves drape sand over an irregular scoured surface, this strong storm-wave action erodes the seabed into low hummocks and swales that lack any significant orientation. It is usually formed by redeposition below normal fair weather wave base delivered offshore by flooding rivers and shoals by large waves.

text: This structure is formed under a combination of unidirectional and oscillatory flow that is generated by relatively large storm waves in the ocean. Deposition involves fallout from suspension and lateral tractive flow due to wave oscillation. As the large waves drape sand over an irregular scoured surface, this strong storm-wave action erodes the seabed into low hummocks and swales that lack any significant orientation. It is usually formed by redeposition below normal fair weather wave base delivered offshore by flooding rivers and shoals by large waves.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: swales

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shoals

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: scoured surface

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: scoured surface

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: hummocks

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: swales

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: swales

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: relatively large storm waves

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: hummocks and swales

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: swales that lack any significant orientation

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: swales that lack any significant orientation

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: swales that lack any significant orientation

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: As the large waves drape sand

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fallout

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: irregular

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: flooding rivers and shoals

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Storm-wave action

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: lack any significant orientation

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It is usually formed by redeposition

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: hummocks and swales

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: swales

text: The northern frontage of Sheringham is protected by a concrete seawall which also serves as the promenade. It is a vital part of the protection of the town against the natural erosion that occurs along the North Norfolk coast. The storm surge of 1953 considerably damaged Sheringham's wooden sea defences. In front of the sea wall are groynes, armoured at their bases with large blocks of natural rock, which prevent long shore drift. There are numerous drains along the frontage. To the east towards West Runton the seawall ends just below Beeston Bump. From there a timber revetment and groyne system, designed and constructed in 1976, runs eastwards for 2 km (just over a mile) to West Runton Gap. The shoreline management plans of the Department for Environment include a policy of "managed retreat" along this stretch of coast. The revetment between Sheringham and West Runton is no longer being maintained and is thus in a poor state of repair. Sections that become hazardous will be removed. The coastline will then be left to evolve naturally.

text: The northern frontage of Sheringham is protected by a concrete

text: seawall

text: which also serves as the promenade. It is a vital part of the protection of the town against the

text: natural erosion

text: that occurs along the

text: North Norfolk

text: coast. The

text: storm surge

text: of

text: considerably damaged Sheringham's wooden sea defences. In front of the sea wall are

text: groyne

text: s, armoured at their bases with large blocks of natural rock, which prevent

text: long shore drift

text: . There are numerous drains along the frontage. To the east towards

text: West Runton

text: the seawall ends just below

text: Beeston Bump

text: . From there a timber

text: revetment

text: and groyne system, designed and constructed in 1976, runs eastwards for 2 km (just over a mile) to West Runton Gap. The shoreline management plans of the

entity_name: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

text: Department for Environment

text: include a policy of "

text: managed retreat

text: " along this stretch of coast. The revetment between Sheringham and West Runton is no longer being maintained and is thus in a poor state of repair. Sections that become hazardous will be removed. The coastline will then be left to evolve naturally.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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text: The dynamic nature of the coast has meant that accurate mapping of an instantaneous shoreline position has been associated with significant uncertainty. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the short-term effect of the tide and a wide variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along shore littoral sediment movement. Not only does this affect the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position but also any predicted future positions (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008).As mentioned earlier the HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. This can usually be seen as a significant tonal change on aerial photographs. There are however many errors associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position (Leatherman 2003; Moore 2000). Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line may arise from tidal and seasonal changes. Storm-induced erosion is another factor which may cause the wet/dry line to migrate landward. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data (Moore 2000; Leatherman 2003). Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates (Leatherman 2003).  Finally it is important to note that errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.

text: The dynamic nature of the coast has meant that accurate mapping of an instantaneous shoreline position has been associated with significant uncertainty. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the short-term effect of the

text: tide

text: and a wide variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along

text: shore

text: littoral

text: sediment

text: movement. Not only does this affect the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position but also any predicted future positions (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008).As mentioned earlier the HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. This can usually be seen as a significant tonal change on aerial photographs. There are however many errors associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position (Leatherman 2003; Moore 2000). Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line may arise from tidal and

text: seasonal

text: changes. Storm-induced

text: erosion

text: is another factor which may cause the wet/dry line to migrate landward. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data (Moore 2000; Leatherman 2003). Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates (Leatherman 2003).  Finally it is important to note that errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.

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answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: wet/dry line

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: relative sea-level rise and along shore littoral sediment movement

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: wet/dry line

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: the wet/dry line to migrate landward

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: HWL

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: littoral sediment movement

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Storm-induced erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Littoral

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The dynamic nature of the coast

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Storm-induced erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The dynamic nature of the coast

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The dynamic nature of the coast

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The dynamic nature of the coast

text: Downcutting, also called erosional downcutting, downward erosion or vertical erosion is a geological process by hydraulic action that deepens the channel of a stream or valley by removing material from the stream's bed or the valley's floor. The speed of downcutting depends on the stream's base level, the lowest point to which the stream can erode. Sea level is the ultimate base level, but many streams have a higher "temporary" base level because they empty into another body of water that is above sea level or encounter bedrock that resists erosion. A concurrent process called lateral erosion refers to the widening of a stream channel or valley. When a stream is high above its base level, downcutting will take place faster than lateral erosion; but as the level of the stream approaches its base level, the rate of lateral erosion increases. This is why streams in  mountainous areas tend to be narrow and swift, forming V-shaped valleys, while streams in lowland areas tend to be wide and slow-moving, with valleys that are correspondingly wide and flat-bottomed. The term gradient refers to the elevation of a stream relative to its base level. The steeper the gradient, the faster the stream flows. Sometimes geological uplift will increase the gradient of a stream even while the stream downcuts toward its base level, a process called "rejuvenation." This happened in the case of the Colorado River in the western United States, resulting in the process that created the Grand Canyon.

text: Downcutting, also called erosional downcutting, downward erosion or vertical erosion is a

text: geological

text: process by

text: hydraulic action

text: that deepens the

text: channel

text: of a

text: stream

text: or

text: valley

text: by removing material from the stream's bed or the valley's floor. The speed of downcutting depends on the stream's

text: base level

text: , the lowest point to which the stream can

text: erode

text: Sea level

text: is the ultimate base level, but many streams have a higher "temporary" base level because they empty into another body of water that is above sea level or encounter

text: bedrock

text: that resists erosion. A concurrent process called

text: lateral erosion

text: refers to the widening of a stream channel or valley. When a stream is high above its base level, downcutting will take place faster than lateral erosion; but as the level of the stream approaches its base level, the rate of lateral erosion increases. This is why streams in

text: mountain

text: ous areas tend to be narrow and swift, forming

text: V-shaped valley

text: s, while streams in

text: lowland

text: areas tend to be wide and slow-moving, with valleys that are correspondingly wide and flat-bottomed. The term

text: gradient

text: refers to the elevation of a stream relative to its base level. The steeper the gradient, the faster the stream flows. Sometimes geological

text: uplift

text: will increase the gradient of a stream even while the stream downcuts toward its base level, a process called "

text: rejuvenation

text: ." This happened in the case of the

text: Colorado River

text: in the western

text: United States

text: , resulting in the process that created the

text: Grand Canyon

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Bedrock

answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Downcutting

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Sea level

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: the speed of downcutting

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sea level

answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

answers: the Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: body of water

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Grand Canyon

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: V-shaped valleys

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Sea level

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: As the level of the stream approaches its base level, the rate of lateral erosion increases

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Sea level is the ultimate base level

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Sea level

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Sea level

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It is generally small and round in shape

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: V-shaped valleys

text: The protective value of mangrove swamps is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accruing.

text: The protective value of mangrove swamps is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is

text: accruing

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answers: 4

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answers: 3

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: tsunami

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: Wave energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: mangrove swamp

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: bends in river channels

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: high-energy wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Bends in river channels

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: mangrove swamps

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: tsunamis

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: mangroves

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Erosion

text: The larger part of Norfolk's bedrock geology is concealed beneath superficial deposits, the oldest of which is a spread of glacial till dating from the Anglian glaciation. Interspersed with the till are sheets of glacial sands and gravels. The fact that the Chalk scarp in East Anglia is much reduced in height compared to its outcrop in Lincolnshire and the Chiltern Hills has been put down to erosion by the Anglian icesheet which reached as far south as Essex. The late Devensian glaciation resulted in the North Sea icesheet impinging upon the north coast of Norfolk. Of more recent origin are alluvial deposits which extend across the floors of the main river valleys and widely across the flats of the Broads. Coastal alluvium is also present along the north coast from Holme-next-the-Sea to Brancaster. River terrace deposits occur in places, for example around the valley of the River Waveney. Blown sand characterises the lower sections of coast. Peat is widespread in the fenland areas south and west of Downham Market.

text: The larger part of Norfolk's bedrock geology is concealed beneath superficial deposits, the oldest of which is a spread of

text: glacial till

text: dating from the

text: Anglian glaciation

text: . Interspersed with the till are sheets of glacial sands and gravels. The fact that the Chalk scarp in East Anglia is much reduced in height compared to its outcrop in

text: Lincolnshire

text: and the

text: Chiltern Hills

text: has been put down to erosion by the Anglian icesheet which reached as far south as

text: Essex

text: . The late

text: Devensian

text: glaciation resulted in the North Sea icesheet impinging upon the north coast of Norfolk. Of more recent origin are

text: alluvial deposits

text: which extend across the floors of the main river valleys and widely across the flats of the

text: Broads

text: . Coastal alluvium is also present along the north coast from Holme-next-the-Sea to

text: Brancaster

text: River terrace

text: deposits occur in places, for example around the valley of the

text: River Waveney

text: . Blown sand characterises the lower sections of coast.

text: Peat

text: is widespread in the

text: fenland

text: areas south and west of Downham Market.

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Chalk scarp

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Chalk scarp

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Chalk scarp

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Chalk scarp

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: River terrace

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Chalk scarp

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: glacial till

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: flats of the Broads

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: River terrace deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: icesheet

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: River terrace deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The late Devensian glaciation

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Broads

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Blown sand

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The North Sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The late Devensian glaciation

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Blown sand

text: The last recorded rate of sediment deposition was in 1936, with a recorded estimate of 23 cm (9.1 in) annually. However, deposition is subject to seasonal variations. Maximum deposition takes place in the winter and early spring when river runoff is highest due to increased rain, when the longshore drift is coming from the south, and when winds are from the southwest. In the summer, deposition is low because of lower runoff, southward longshore drift and northwest winds.

text: The last recorded rate of sediment deposition was in 1936, with a recorded estimate of 23 cm (9.1 in) annually. However, deposition is subject to seasonal variations. Maximum deposition takes place in the winter and early spring when river runoff is highest due to increased rain, when the

text: longshore drift

text: is coming from the south, and when winds are from the southwest. In the summer, deposition is low because of lower runoff, southward longshore drift and northwest winds.

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answers: NDQ_000113

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift is coming from the south

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: river runoff

answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: river

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answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: NDQ_000131

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answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Longshore drift is coming from the south

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answers: deposition is subject to seasonal variations

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answers: southward

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answers: longshore drift

text: The platform is overlain by raised beach deposits of sand and shingle which contain shell fragments which amongst other methods have given the beach and cliff a general date from the second half of the last (Ipswichian) interglacial. The angle between the beach and the old cliff is filled by great quantities of coarse chalk rubble apparently derived from theweathering and erosion of the cliff in Devensian times. Chalk muds and fine chalk gravel and grit, are banked against the rubble on the west and may represent fan deposits. The muds contain appreciable quantities of loess and are overlain by further, coarser solifluction deposits. The chalk rubble and solifluction deposits are particularly notable for their fossil remains of many Devensian mammals, including Elephas primigenius, Tichorhinus antiquitatus and Equus caballus.

text: The platform is overlain by raised beach deposits of sand and shingle which contain shell fragments which amongst other methods have given the beach and cliff a general date from the second half of the last (

text: Ipswichian

text: interglacial

text: . The angle between the beach and the old cliff is filled by great quantities of coarse

text: chalk

text: rubble apparently derived from the

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: of the cliff in

text: Devensian

text: times. Chalk muds and fine chalk gravel and grit, are banked against the rubble on the west and may represent fan deposits. The muds contain appreciable quantities of

text: loess

text: and are overlain by further, coarser

text: solifluction

text: deposits. The chalk rubble and solifluction deposits are particularly notable for their fossil remains of many Devensian mammals, including

text: Elephas primigenius

text: Tichorhinus antiquitatus

text: and

text: Equus caballus

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answers: raised beach

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: raised beach

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: angle between the beach and the old cliff

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand and shingle

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beach deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: raised beach deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: fan

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: The angle between the beach and the old cliff

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: large quantities of coarse chalk rubble

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: shell fragments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Ipswichian

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: raised beach deposits

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: chalk rubble

answers: NDQ_000135

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: fan deposits

text: The Baum Site (31Ck9) is one of the most prominent Middle and Late Woodland Period sites of the Colington Phase in the state of North Carolina. It is located north of Poplar Branch in Currituck County, North Carolina. This phase, marked by cultures of the Algonkian peoples, aligns with the Late Woodland period in North Carolina, occurring during English explorations between 1584 and 1587, and permanent settlement at 1650. This village is what the first English explorers encountered when entering the coastal region. The site contained ossuaries and evidence for a coastal village adaptation. The site was registered with the National Register of Historic Places on December 8, 1982, after testing and excavations in 1972 and 1973 by David Sutton Phelps, who was an archaeologist at East Carolina University. The site is suffering from erosion due to wave action. After the initial discovery, which was the result of erosion uncovering of remains, Phelps claimed, “this will provide the first glimpse of a coastal village of this type in the state”.  A residential subdivision, Currituck Crossing, is now located on the Baum site.  http://co.currituck.nc.us/pdf/board-of-commissioners-minutes-2013/boc-minutes-13nov04.pdf.

text: The Baum Site (31Ck9) is one of the most prominent Middle and Late

text: Woodland Period

text: sites of the Colington Phase in the state of North Carolina. It is located north of Poplar Branch in

text: Currituck County, North Carolina

text: . This phase, marked by cultures of the Algonkian peoples, aligns with the Late Woodland period in North Carolina, occurring during English explorations between 1584 and 1587, and permanent settlement at 1650. This village is what the first English explorers encountered when entering the coastal region. The site contained ossuaries and evidence for a coastal village adaptation. The site was registered with the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: on December 8, 1982, after testing and excavations in 1972 and 1973 by

text: David Sutton Phelps

text: , who was an archaeologist at

text: East Carolina University

text: . The site is suffering from erosion due to wave action. After the initial discovery, which was the result of erosion uncovering of remains, Phelps claimed, “this will provide the first glimpse of a coastal village of this type in the state”.  A residential subdivision, Currituck Crossing, is now located on the Baum site.  http://co.currituck.nc.us/pdf/board-of-commissioners-minutes-2013/boc-minutes-13nov04.pdf.

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Poplar Branch

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Poplar Branch

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: The Baum Site

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: coastal village

answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

answers: wave action

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: oyster shells

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: The Baum Site

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: coastal village

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: coastal village

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Colington Phase

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: The site is suffering from erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: ossuaries

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The site is suffering from erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The Baum Site (31Ck9)

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The site is suffering from erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Poplar Branch

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Currituck

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: In the rainshadow of Vancouver Island, Savary receives between 950 and 1,300 mm of precipitation annually, with maximum amounts in late fall through mid-winter. No permanent streams exist on the island, but at least one spring may be found mid-island called Indian Springs. The dry warm summers and erodible soils condition distinctive ecologic settings and surface processes (including wind erosion and deposition). In addition, storm waves, which are predominantly from the southeast, have important erosion and sediment transport effects along the south shore of Savary. It is this unique combination of "ecologic settings", "surface processes" and "transport effects" which gives rise to the wonderful beaches of Savary.

text: In the rainshadow of Vancouver Island, Savary receives between 950 and 1,300 mm of precipitation annually, with maximum amounts in late fall through mid-winter. No permanent streams exist on the island, but at least one spring may be found mid-island called Indian Springs. The dry warm summers and erodible soils condition distinctive ecologic settings and surface processes (including wind erosion and deposition). In addition, storm waves, which are predominantly from the southeast, have important erosion and sediment transport effects along the south shore of Savary. It is this unique combination of "ecologic settings", "surface processes" and "transport effects" which gives rise to the wonderful beaches of Savary.

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answers: 4

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answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: rainshadow

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: rainshadow

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: dry warm summers

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: storm waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: ecologic settings", "surface processes" and "transport effects"

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: storm waves

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: deposition

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: southeast

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: No permanent streams

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Storm waves

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: shore

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Savary

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: This section of the Pumicestone Passage is very narrow and very shallow (less than ) with shifting sand and mud banks, which makes the northern sandspit highly dynamic in shape through natural processes of sand/mud buildup and erosion. During storms, waves may cross over the sandspit from the Coral Sea into the Pumicestone Passage, with the potential to break though the sandspit to create new entrances to Pumicestone Passage. The creation of new entrances would impact on the Caloundra suburbs of Golden Beach and Pelican Waters which would then be exposed more directly to the stronger wave action of the Coral Sea as opposed to the calmer waters of the Pumicestone Passage.

text: This section of the Pumicestone Passage is very narrow and very shallow (less than ) with shifting sand and mud banks, which makes the northern sandspit highly dynamic in shape through natural processes of sand/mud buildup and erosion. During storms, waves may cross over the sandspit from the Coral Sea into the Pumicestone Passage, with the potential to break though the sandspit to create new entrances to Pumicestone Passage. The creation of new entrances would impact on the Caloundra suburbs of

text: Golden Beach

text: and

text: Pelican Waters

text: which would then be exposed more directly to the stronger wave action of the Coral Sea as opposed to the calmer waters of the Pumicestone Passage.

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Pumicestone Passage

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sand/mud buildup

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: new entrances

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: northern sandspit

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: northern sandspit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shifting sand and mud banks

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The northern sandspit

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Pumicestone Passage

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Pumicestone Passage

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: sandspit

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: sand/mud

text: Longshore drift can generally be defined in terms of the systems within the surf zone. Sediment transport along the shore and surf zone is influenced by the swash (occurs in the direction of prevailing wind), which moves the pebble up the beach at the angle of the waves, and moves the pebble back down the beach due to the influence of gravity.

text: Longshore drift can generally be defined in terms of the systems within the surf zone. Sediment transport along the

text: shore

text: and surf zone is influenced by the swash (occurs in the direction of prevailing wind), which moves the pebble up the beach at the angle of the waves, and moves the pebble back down the beach due to the influence of

text: gravity

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: swash

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: prevailing wind

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: pebble

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: surf zone

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: big waves

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: pebble

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Sediment transport along the shore

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: swash

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: direction of prevailing wind

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: direction of prevailing wind

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: pebble

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Longshore drift

text: Pleistocene deposits blanket most of the surface of Faddeyevsky Island. A layer of Late Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and lacustrine deposits largely cover the central and southern parts of Faddeyevsky Island. Middle and Late Pleistocene deposits largely cover the northern part of this island. The permafrost is about 400 to 500 m thick. The central plain of Faddeyevsky Island has been highly altered by thermokarst processes. It contains numerous deep erosive cuts created by the seasonal melting of the permafrost. Numerous baydzharakhs, thermokarst mounds, dot the landscape; they are the result of the melting of polygonal ice wedges within the permafrost.

text: Pleistocene deposits blanket most of the surface of Faddeyevsky Island. A layer of Late Pleistocene and

text: Holocene

text: alluvial and lacustrine deposits largely cover the central and southern parts of Faddeyevsky Island. Middle and Late Pleistocene deposits largely cover the northern part of this island. The permafrost is about 400 to 500 m thick. The central plain of Faddeyevsky Island has been highly altered by thermokarst processes. It contains numerous deep erosive cuts created by the seasonal melting of the permafrost. Numerous baydzharakhs, thermokarst mounds, dot the landscape; they are the result of the melting of polygonal ice wedges within the permafrost.

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: thermokarst

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: seasonal melting

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: deep erosive cuts

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: ice wedges

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Deep erosive cuts

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: lacustrine

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The central plain of Faddeyevsky Island

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Faddeyevsky Island

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Deep erosive cuts

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Faddeyevsky Island

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: baydzharakhs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: baydzharakhs

text: Lower Shoreface refers to the portion of the seafloor, and the sedimentary depositional environment, that lies below the everyday wave base.

text: Lower Shoreface refers to the portion of the seafloor, and the

text: sedimentary depositional environment

text: , that lies below the everyday

text: wave base

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text: Slowly over time sediment simply builds on this area, extending the spit outwards, forming a barrier of sand. Once in a while, the wind direction will change and come from the other direction. During this period the sediment will be pushed along in the other direction. The spit will start to grow backwards, forming a 'hook'. After this time the spit will grow again in the original direction. Eventually the spit will not be able to grow any further because it is no longer sufficiently sheltered from erosion by waves, or because the estuary current prevents sediment resting.  Usually in the salty but calm waters behind the spit there will form a salt marshland. Spits often form around the breakwater of artificial harbours requiring dredging.

text: Slowly over time sediment simply builds on this area, extending the spit outwards, forming a barrier of sand. Once in a while, the wind direction will change and come from the other direction. During this period the sediment will be pushed along in the other direction. The spit will start to grow backwards, forming a 'hook'. After this time the spit will grow again in the original direction. Eventually the spit will not be able to grow any further because it is no longer sufficiently sheltered from erosion by waves, or because the estuary current prevents sediment resting.  Usually in the salty but calm waters behind the spit there will form a salt marshland. Spits often form around the breakwater of artificial harbours requiring dredging.

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answers: NDQ_000129

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: During this period the sediment will be pushed along in the other direction

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Once in a while, the wind direction will change and come from the other direction

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: spit

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answers: spit

text: The salt and fresh water marshes used to be very well protected. However the cost of replenishing the shingle spit grew too much for the village to sustain. Once the repairing stopped, it became easier for waves to get through; in 1953 a large storm, measured at  above ordnance datum (see North Sea flood of 1953) hit the North Norfolk coast and the shingle ridge was mostly destroyed. A further storm surge in 1978 measured  above ordnance datum and the protection measures confined flooding to the marshes and A149 coast road. The North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan introduced by the Environment Agency has proposed a number of strategies in the light of continual erosion and predicted rising sea levels caused by global warming: these include Advance the line, Hold the line, Managed retreat and Do nothing. Even after extensive public consultation there is widespread local concern that the marshes will be lost to the North Sea.

text: The

text: salt

text: and

text: fresh water marshes

text: used to be very well protected. However the cost of replenishing the shingle spit grew too much for the village to sustain. Once the repairing stopped, it became easier for waves to get through; in 1953 a large storm, measured at  above ordnance datum (see

text: North Sea flood of 1953

text: ) hit the

text: North Norfolk

text: coast and the shingle ridge was mostly destroyed. A further storm surge in 1978 measured  above ordnance datum and the protection measures confined flooding to the marshes and A149 coast road. The North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan introduced by the

text: Environment Agency

text: has proposed a number of strategies in the light of continual erosion and predicted rising sea levels caused by

text: global warming

text: : these include Advance the line, Hold the line, Managed retreat and Do nothing. Even after extensive public consultation there is widespread local concern that the marshes will be lost to the North Sea.

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answers: shingle spit

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answers: shingle spit

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shingle ridge

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shingle ridge

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: rising sea levels

answers: NDQ_000116

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answers: NDQ_000117

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answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000120

answers: salt and fresh water marshes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: shingle ridge

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Once the repairing stopped

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: salt and fresh water

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Once the repairing stopped

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shingle ridge

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The salt and fresh water marshes

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: North Sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shingle ridge

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: shingle ridge

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous sediment of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from clays to mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial erosion and entrainment by the moving ice of the glaciers of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial plucking and abrasion and the resulting clasts of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous

text: sediment

text: of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from

text: clay

text: s to mixtures of clay,

text: sand

text: gravel

text: , and

text: boulder

text: s. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial

text: erosion

text: and

text: entrainment

text: by the moving ice of the

text: glacier

text: s of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial

text: plucking

text: and

text: abrasion

text: and the resulting

text: clasts

text: of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: subglacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: entrainment

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: abrasion

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: till

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: glacial drift

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: glacial plucking

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: boulders

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: glacier

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: glaciers

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: subglacial erosion

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: entrainment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Till

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift carries sediments far inland

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Bedrock

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: It may hook around toward the open ocean

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: boulders

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Till

text: Thermal subsidence can have an effect on island formation. Isostatic uplift can be balanced with thermal subsidence in response to erosion on islands without barrier reefs, which sink only when subjected to wave erosion. However, volcanic islands and seamounts with barrier reefs are shielded from wave and stream erosion, and thus the countervailing isostatic uplift is eliminated, causing them to subside and create an atoll.

text: Thermal subsidence can have an effect on island formation.

text: Isostatic uplift

text: can be balanced with thermal subsidence in response to erosion on islands without

text: barrier reefs

text: , which sink only when subjected to wave

text: erosion

text: . However,

text: volcanic islands

text: and

text: seamounts

text: with barrier reefs are shielded from wave and stream erosion, and thus the countervailing isostatic uplift is eliminated, causing them to subside and create an

text: atoll

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answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: atoll

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: atoll

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: atoll

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: thermal subsidence

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: thermal subsidence

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: islands

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: wave and stream

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: wave erosion

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: barrier reefs

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: isostatic uplift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: reefs

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: groin

text: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information, or at least a wasteful use of channel capacity, and duplex the channel by varying the phase, as in polar modulation, or adding another signal that is 90° out of phase (a sine wave), as in quadrature modulation. The result is to send twice as many signals over the channel, at the cost of losing the clock, and thus suffering signal degradation in case of clock drift (the analog equivalent of bit drift).

text: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information, or at least a wasteful use of channel capacity, and duplex the channel by varying the phase, as in

text: polar modulation

text: , or adding another signal that is 90° out of phase (a sine wave), as in

text: quadrature modulation

text: . The result is to send twice as many signals over the channel, at the cost of losing the clock, and thus suffering signal degradation in case of

text: clock drift

text: (the analog equivalent of bit drift).

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: sandbar

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: a sine wave

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: polar

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 90° out of phase

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: clock pulse

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: signal degradation

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: clock drift

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: channel

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: polar modulation

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Clock drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 90°

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: clock drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: (the analog equivalent of bit drift)

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The analog equivalent of bit drift

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are

text: Phanerozoic

text: in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: uplift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Porphyry copper deposits

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Porphyry copper deposits

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: porphyry

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: porphyry copper deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: porphyry deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Phanerozoic

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: at the surface

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 38% (47,789) remain in the crust

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 38% (47,789) remain in the crust

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: sandbars

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 38% (47,789)

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 38% (47,789) remain in the crust

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: It has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age

text: Walls of concrete or rock, built at the base of a cliff or at the back of a beach, are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are usually about  high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which also increase the local turbulence, and thus increasing entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift.

text: Walls of concrete or rock, built at the base of a cliff or at the back of a beach, are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are usually about  high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which also increase the local turbulence, and thus increasing entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift.

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0035/20a6a71718aef5a0e2cce60c11babbec

answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/ed262e70626597f33bff40fb351ee3ad

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/6f459b1b1eea48f7978c0f83b4966548

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/d619abcad841305cae1b300dfb2874bb

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/c6f2193fe1aedb50215d3082649c2917

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 2

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 3

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: seawalls

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: seawalls

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: crest

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: crest

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: flooding

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: cliff

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: recurved crest walls

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: recurved crest

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: recurved crest walls

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: entrainment

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: recurved crest walls

text: Beaches are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment.  The natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds. Man-made elements such as the interruption of sediment supply, such as a dam, and withdrawal of fluid can also affect beach stabilization.  A headland bay beach can be classified as being in three different states of sedimentation.  Static equilibrium refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience littoral drift or sediment deposition or erosion.  Waves generally diffract around the headland(s) and near the beach when the beach is in a state of static equilibrium.  Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the beach sediments are deposited and eroded at approximately equal rates.  Beaches that have dynamic equilibrium are usually near a river that supplies sediment and would otherwise erode away without the river supply.  Unstable beaches are usually a result of human interaction, such as a breakwater or dammed river.  Unstable beaches are reshaped by continual erosion or deposition and will continue to erode or deposit until a state of equilibrium is reached in the bay.

text: Beaches

text: are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment.  The natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds. Man-made elements such as the interruption of sediment supply, such as a dam, and withdrawal of fluid can also affect beach stabilization.  A headland bay beach can be classified as being in three different states of sedimentation.  Static equilibrium refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience

text: littoral drift

text: or

text: sediment deposition

text: or

text: erosion

text: .  Waves generally diffract around the headland(s) and near the beach when the beach is in a state of static equilibrium.  Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the beach sediments are deposited and eroded at approximately equal rates.  Beaches that have dynamic equilibrium are usually near a

text: river

text: that supplies sediment and would otherwise erode away without the river supply.  Unstable beaches are usually a result of human interaction, such as a breakwater or dammed river.  Unstable beaches are reshaped by continual erosion or deposition and will continue to erode or deposit until a state of equilibrium is reached in the bay.

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: headland

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: natural agents of fluctuation

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: a river

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: Unstable beaches

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Beaches

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: dam

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Beaches

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sediments are deposited and eroded at approximately equal rates

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Littoral drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Static equilibrium

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Littoral drift refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience littoral drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Beaches are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Littoral drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: breakwater

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Beaches are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment

text: Longshore drift carries particles of sediment southwards along the Lincolnshire coast; at Skegness, the sand settles out in banks which run at a slight angle to the coast. The slightly elevated dune land sheltered the small natural harbour which the Danes found behind the banks. The finer sediment drifts on to reach the mud of the Wash, beyond Gibraltar Point.

text: Longshore drift

text: carries particles of sediment southwards along the

text: Lincolnshire coast

text: ; at Skegness, the sand settles out in banks which run at a slight angle to the coast. The slightly elevated

text: dune

text: land sheltered the small natural harbour which the

text: Danes

text: found behind the banks. The finer sediment drifts on to reach the mud of

text: the Wash

text: , beyond

text: Gibraltar Point

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 3

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answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: slight angle to the coast

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: harbour

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: dune

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: sand settles out in banks

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: slight angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: The mud of the Wash

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: banks

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: at a slight angle

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Gibraltar Point

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Gibraltar

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: banks

text: Fluvial processes include the motion of sediment and erosion or deposition on the river bed.

text: Fluvial processes include the

text: motion of sediment

text: and

text: erosion

text: or

text: deposition

text: on the

text: river bed

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answers: Erosion

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text: During the Carboniferous period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The coal deposits of Lanarkshire, and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh, among other hills. By the Triassic, Scotland was a desert, the origin of large sandstone outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the chalks of England.

text: During the

text: Carboniferous

text: period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The

text: coal

text: deposits of

text: Lanarkshire

text: , and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed

text: Arthur's Seat

text: in

text: Edinburgh

text: , among other hills. By the

text: Triassic

text: , Scotland was a desert, the origin of large

text: sandstone

text: outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of

text: Cretaceous

text: rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the

text: chalk

text: s of England.

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answers: changes in sea level

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answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: chalks of England

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: erosion

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answers: sedimentary

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answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Several changes in sea level occurred during this time

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

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answers: longshore drift

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answers: Scotland

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Scotland

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: By the Triassic

text: The behaviour of the Ouse and the conditions in its valley have been determined by its exit to the English Channel between Seaford and Newhaven. Eastwards longshore drift has built up and continuously replenished a shingle spit (shoal) at the mouth of the Ouse. In periods when the Ouse has been relatively unimpeded the river has drained the Lewes Levels. In periods when the spit has obstructed the mouth of the river, the river valley has been inundated.

text: The behaviour of the Ouse and the conditions in its valley have been determined by its exit to the

text: English Channel

text: between

text: Seaford

text: and

text: Newhaven

text: . Eastwards

text: longshore drift

text: has built up and continuously replenished a shingle spit (

text: shoal

text: ) at the mouth of the Ouse. In periods when the Ouse has been relatively unimpeded the river has drained the Lewes Levels. In periods when the spit has obstructed the mouth of the river, the river valley has been inundated.

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answers: Shoal

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: English Channel

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: shingle

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: shingle spit

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift has built up and continuously replenished

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Eastwards

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Eastwards

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: English Channel

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Eastwards longshore drift

text: The Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast.  It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second.  The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula.  As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island.  As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.

text: The Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast.  It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second.  The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula.  As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island.  As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.

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answers: 4

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answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000138

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: prevailing southerly sea swells

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: Rakaia River

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: morphological change

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: coast

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: resultant northwards longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Rakaia River

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Banks Peninsula

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: hapua

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: braided river

text: Spits occur when longshore drift reaches a section of headland where the turn is greater than 30 degrees. The spit will continue out into the sea until water pressure (e.g. from a river) becomes too great to allow the sand to deposit. Vegetation may then start to grow on the spit, and the spit may become stable and often fertile. A spit may be considered a special form of a shoal. As spits grow, the water behind them is sheltered from wind and waves, and a salt marsh is likely to develop.

text: Spits occur when

text: longshore drift

text: reaches a section of headland where the turn is greater than 30 degrees. The spit will continue out into the sea until water pressure (e.g. from a river) becomes too great to allow the sand to deposit. Vegetation may then start to grow on the spit, and the spit may become stable and often fertile. A spit may be considered a special form of a

text: shoal

text: . As spits grow, the water behind them is sheltered from wind and waves, and a

text: salt marsh

text: is likely to develop.

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000108

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: spit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Spits

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: water pressure

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: shoal

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: sand to deposit

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sand

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: turn is greater than 30 degrees

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: spits

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The spit will continue out into the sea

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: headland

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: spit

text: This wave has also been referred to as sustainable local economic development (SLED) because of the emphasis on local community. Although there are various definitions of sustainability or SLED, most definitions share the following principles:

text: This wave has also been referred to as sustainable local economic development (SLED) because of the emphasis on local community. Although there are various definitions of sustainability or SLED, most definitions share the following principles:

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text: The gradual evolution of beaches often comes from the interaction of longshore drift, a wave-driven process by which sediments move along a beach shore, and other sources of erosion or accretion, such as nearby rivers.

text: The gradual evolution of beaches often comes from the interaction of

text: longshore drift

text: , a wave-driven process by which sediments move along a beach shore, and other sources of erosion or accretion, such as nearby rivers.

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answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: longshore

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: longshore

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: beaches

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: nearby rivers

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answers: longshore drift

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answers: longshore drift

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answers: beaches

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answers: beach shore

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answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: rivers

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answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

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answers: longshore

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answers: longshore drift

text: The Mesozoic rocks terminate below another unconformity. Above that is the Love Ranch Formation of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone, which was deposited in the Paleocene to early Eocene.  During the Eocene, a wave of arc volcanism was felt across southern New Mexico.  In the Caballo Mountains, this can be seen in the Palm Park Formation, a thick layer of andesitic or tuffaceous mudstones, sandstones, and breccia.  Next is the Bell Top Formation, which consists of rhyolite, basalt flows, and tuffaceous sandstones.  In the southern part of the Caballo Mountains, there are remnants of a region wide sheet of flood basalts and andesite, which was laid during the Oligocene.  Of similar age is the Thurman Formation of white sandstone.  The Santa Fe Group was deposited during the Miocene and Pliocene.This thick layer consists of the Hayner Ranch Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and shale), the Rincon Valley Formation (conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone), the Selden basalts, and the Camp Rice/Palomas Formations (ash fall deposits, basalts, and pumice-clast conglomerates).  Quaternary and Holocene deposits consist of alluvium. On the west side of the range along the Rio Grande, the alluvial fill consists of unconsolidated fluvial deposits of boulders, cobble, and gravel.  In the closed basin on the east side of the range, there are relatively few fluvial deposits.  Instead, the sediment includes a flat, thin veneer of sand and gravel.

text: The Mesozoic rocks terminate below another unconformity. Above that is the Love Ranch Formation of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone, which was deposited in the

text: Paleocene

text: to early

text: Eocene

text: .  During the

text: Eocene

text: , a wave of

text: arc volcanism

text: was felt across southern New Mexico.  In the Caballo Mountains, this can be seen in the Palm Park Formation, a thick layer of

text: andesitic

text: or

text: tuffaceous

text: mudstones, sandstones, and

text: breccia

text: .  Next is the Bell Top Formation, which consists of

text: rhyolite

text: , basalt flows, and tuffaceous sandstones.  In the southern part of the Caballo Mountains, there are remnants of a region wide sheet of

text: flood basalts

text: and andesite, which was laid during the

text: Oligocene

text: .  Of similar age is the Thurman Formation of white sandstone.  The Santa Fe Group was deposited during the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: .This thick layer consists of the Hayner Ranch Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and shale), the Rincon Valley Formation (conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone), the Selden basalts, and the Camp Rice/Palomas Formations (ash fall deposits, basalts, and

text: pumice

text: -clast conglomerates).

text: Quaternary

text: and

text: Holocene

text: deposits consist of

text: alluvium

text: . On the west side of the range along the Rio Grande, the alluvial fill consists of unconsolidated

text: fluvial

text: deposits of boulders,

text: cobble

text: , and gravel.  In the closed basin on the east side of the range, there are relatively few fluvial deposits.  Instead, the sediment includes a flat, thin veneer of sand and gravel.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 1: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with significant gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: Caballo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: sand and gravel

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: breccia

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: closed basin

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Caballo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: flat, thin veneer

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: veneer

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sand and gravel

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: unconsolidated fluvial deposits

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: boulders, cobble, and gravel

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: river

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Caballo Mountains

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: the Love Ranch Formation

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: a region wide sheet of flood basalts

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fluvial deposits

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: wave of arc volcanism

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: groins

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: The Santa Fe Group

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The Santa Fe Group

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: flat, thin veneer

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: The closed basin on the east side

text: There is molecular phylogenetic evidence to suggest two waves of immigration by the Petroica genus from Australia. P. longipes and P. australis can be traced to the first and P. macrocephala to the second wave. The evidence suggests that the two species on the North and South (including Stewart) Islands of New Zealand began to diverge prior to and the two South Island subspecies after the Pleistocene era, with a separation time of about three million years for the former and of only 10,000 years (postglacial) for the latter. Fossils of New Zealand robins can sometimes be found near pit fall deposits, as they do most of their feeding/foraging on the ground. The fossil record also indicates the robins’ presence throughout lowland New Zealand until drastic habitat reduction through deforestation by the Polynesian ancestors of the Māori and later European colonizers.

text: There is molecular phylogenetic evidence to suggest two waves of immigration by the Petroica genus from Australia. P. longipes and P. australis can be traced to the first and P. macrocephala to the second wave. The evidence suggests that the two species on the North and South (including Stewart) Islands of New Zealand began to diverge prior to and the two South Island subspecies after the

text: Pleistocene

text: era, with a separation time of about three million years for the former and of only 10,000 years (postglacial) for the latter. Fossils of New Zealand robins can sometimes be found near pit fall deposits, as they do most of their feeding/foraging on the ground. The fossil record also indicates the robins’ presence throughout lowland New Zealand until drastic habitat reduction through deforestation by the

text: Polynesian

text: ancestors of the

text: Māori

text: and later European colonizers.

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answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

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answers: NDQ_000110

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answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

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answers: NDQ_000134

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answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: deforestation

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: deforestation

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: pit

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: pit fall

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: New Zealand robins

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: New Zealand

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: pit

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: pit fall deposits

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: New Zealand

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Islands

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Pit fall deposits

text: Longdendale is a steep-sided V-shaped valley that is glacial in origin. Longdendale is in the Dark Peak, where a thick blanket of peat overlies the Millstone Grit sandstone, formed on a bed of shale through which flows the Etherow. Directly beneath the upper valley lie areas of Carboniferous Millstone Grit, shales and sandstone. It is on the edge of the Peak District Dome, at the southern edge of the Pennine anticline. The Variscan uplift has caused much faulting and Glossopdale was the product of glacial action in the last glaciation period that exploited the weakened rocks. The steep-sided valleys of the cloughs cause significant erosion and deposition. The layers of sandstone, mudstones and shale in the bedrock act as an aquifer to feed the springs. The valley bottoms have a thin deposit of boulder clay. The brooks are fed by the peaty soils of the moors and are, therefore, acidic (pH5.5–7.0).

text: Longdendale is a steep-sided V-shaped valley that is

text: glacial

text: in origin. Longdendale is in the

text: Dark Peak

text: , where a thick blanket of peat overlies the

text: Millstone Grit

text: sandstone, formed on a bed of

text: shale

text: through which flows the Etherow. Directly beneath the upper valley lie areas of

text: Carboniferous

text: Millstone Grit, shales and

text: sandstone

text: . It is on the edge of the

text: Peak District

text: Dome, at the southern edge of the Pennine

text: anticline

text: . The

text: Variscan uplift

text: has caused much

text: faulting

text: and Glossopdale was the product of

text: glacial

text: action in the last glaciation period that exploited the weakened rocks. The steep-sided valleys of the

text: clough

text: s cause significant

text: erosion

text: and

text: deposition

text: . The layers of sandstone, mudstones and shale in the bedrock act as an

text: aquifer

text: to feed the springs. The valley bottoms have a thin deposit of

text: boulder clay

text: . The brooks are fed by the peaty soils of the moors and are, therefore,

text: acid

text: ic (pH5.5–7.0).

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answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 5

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Longdendale

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: V-shaped valley

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: The steep-sided valleys

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: anticline

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Millstone Grit

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Millstone Grit

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: glacial action

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: sandstone

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: steep-sided valleys

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Glossopdale

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: aquifer

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: glacial

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: steep-sided valleys

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: steep-sided valleys of the cloughs

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediments of the moors

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: V-shaped

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: It is on the edge of the Peak District Dome

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Millstone Grit sandstone

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: Longdendale

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: The southern edge of the Pennine anticline

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Longdendale

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Millstone Grit

text: Kirby explains how sediment deposition through the null point hypothesis leads to the creation of chenier. Sediment fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore.

text: Kirby explains how sediment

text: deposition

text: through the null point hypothesis leads to the creation of chenier. Sediment fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore.

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

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answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sediment fines

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: bivalve and gastropod

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: chenier

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: chenier ridges

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: waves and currents

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: fines

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: The null point hypothesis

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: ridges

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: sediment fines

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Tidal zone

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: foreshore

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: ridges

text: Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.

text: Tide

text: s often determine the range over which

text: sediment

text: is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however,

text: tidal bore

text: s can erode as the waves surge up river

text: estuaries

text: from the ocean.

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 1

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: deprossosition

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: tidal ranges

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: tidal bores

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: estuaries

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: deprossosition

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: estuaries

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: deprossosition

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: size and shape of the coastline

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: waves

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: tidal bores

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: river estuaries

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: estuary

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: river estuaries

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: river estuaries

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: higher tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: sediment is deposited

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: at an angle

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: river estuaries

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Tides

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: Longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: river estuaries

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: The tidal range

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Tides

text: Coastal sediment supply is the transport of sediment to the beach environment by both fluvial and aeolian transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall sedimentary budget for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment entering the ocean.  When sediment reaches the coast it is then entrained by longshore drift and littoral cells until it is accreted upon the beach or dunes.

text: Coastal sediment supply is the transport of

text: sediment

text: to the

text: beach

text: environment by both

text: fluvial

text: and

text: aeolian

text: transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall

text: sedimentary budget

text: for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment entering the ocean.  When sediment reaches the coast it is then entrained by

text: longshore drift

text: and littoral cells until it is accreted upon the beach or dunes.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/da160fa888d2fd797972328cd712ba3d

answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/76b18f669bfff3a0a096201dd2e19893

answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/6f459b1b1eea48f7978c0f83b4966548

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0040/d619abcad841305cae1b300dfb2874bb

answers: 1

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/c6f2193fe1aedb50215d3082649c2917

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/5567ba511650ec33b4254e38d42491b9

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/6159a5040232dfb6204e4ab20eea8809

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/03735694b81d7728f6d25771fa87e353

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/e7fa5712ad7609ac6f8c679039e1dad7

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a872fd7f71daaec28a93cbe568ccff42

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/0648dee7d2ce6ebbdc12d49811af55a3

answers: 4

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/84b20b7f70a4b580969bf80da94c7f5f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/de7fd42b8b7884f9305ec37f36f2364f

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0004/T_0042/a07ada5e34e535265a27356c268d9fd2

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: aeolian

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: fluvial supply

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: beach or dunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: beach

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: littoral cells

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Fluvial supply

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: Littoral cells

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: aeolian

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: longshore drift and littoral cells

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: It moves sand opposite to the direction of prevailing winds

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: longshore drift and littoral cells

text: Portslade has been suggested as being the Roman port Novus Portus mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography of the 2nd century AD. Drove Road, in the original Portslade Village, has been linked with the Roman road (sometimes known as the "London to Portslade Way") that passes through Patcham valley to Haywards Heath and on to Streatham in London. The Old Shoreham Road is thought to form part of the Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) to Portslade Roman road.  Roman remains and a Roman burial site were found in Roman Road. The name of the town had been thought to stem from the Roman placename Portus Adurni (modern Portchester), but this is based on a misidentification of Shoreham-by-Sea as Portus Adurni by Michael Drayton in the 17th century. Indeed, the River Adur, whose mouth has moved many times due to longshore drift and erosion, was also named from this misidentification. The actual etymology of Portslade may be portus- + -ladda, way to the port, where ladda is from the Old English for way, but this is conjectural at best.

text: Portslade has been suggested as being the

text: Roman

text: port Novus Portus mentioned in

text: Ptolemy

text: 's Geography of the 2nd century AD. Drove Road, in the original Portslade Village, has been linked with the

text: Roman road

text: (sometimes known as the "

text: London to Portslade Way

text: ") that passes through

text: Patcham

text: valley to

text: Haywards Heath

text: and on to

text: Streatham

text: in London. The Old Shoreham Road is thought to form part of the

text: Chichester

text: Noviomagus Reginorum

text: ) to Portslade Roman road.  Roman remains and a Roman burial site were found in Roman Road. The name of the town had been thought to stem from the Roman placename Portus Adurni (modern

text: Portchester

text: ), but this is based on a misidentification of Shoreham-by-Sea as Portus Adurni by

text: Michael Drayton

text: in the 17th century. Indeed, the River Adur, whose mouth has moved many times due to

text: longshore drift

text: and erosion, was also named from this misidentification. The actual etymology of Portslade may be portus- + -ladda, way to the port, where ladda is from the

text: Old English

text: for way, but this is conjectural at best.

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answers: NDQ_000112

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answers: NDQ_000114

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answers: NDQ_000115

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answers: NDQ_000116

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000118

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answers: NDQ_000119

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000120

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answers: NDQ_000121

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answers: NDQ_000129

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: 0

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000132

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answers: NDQ_000136

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answers: NDQ_000137

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answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: valley

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: Heath

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Patcham valley

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: River Adur

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Patcham valley

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Patcham valley

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: longshore drift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: longshore drift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: River Adur

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Patcham valley

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: port

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Patcham valley

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: longshore drift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: Shoreham-by-Sea

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: River Adur

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: longshore drift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: longshore drift and erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: longshore drift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: Portslade

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Portslade

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Portslade

text: Human strategies on the coast have been heavily based on a static engineered response, whereas the coast is in, or strives towards, a dynamic equilibrium (Schembri, 2009). Solid coastal structures are built and persist because they protect expensive properties or infrastructures, but they often relocate the problem downdrift or to another part of the coast. Soft options like beach nourishment, while also being temporary and needing regular replenishment, appear more acceptable, and go some way to restore the natural dynamism of the shoreline. However, in many cases there is a legacy of decisions that were made in the past which have given rise to the present threats to coastal infrastructure and which necessitate immediate shore protection. For instance, the seawall and promenade of many coastal cities in Europe represents a highly engineered use of prime seafront space, which might be preferably designated as public open space, parkland and amenities if it were available today. Such open space might also allow greater flexibility in terms of future land-use change, for instance through managed retreat, in the face of threats of erosion or inundation as a result of sea-level rise. Foredunes areas represent a natural reserve which can be called upon in the face of extreme events; building on these areas leaves little option but to undertake costly protective measures when extreme events (whether amplified by gradual global change or not) threaten. Managed retreat can comprise 'setbacks', rolling easements and other planning tools including building within a particular design life. Maintenance of those structures or soft techniques can arrive at a critical point (economically or environmental) to change adopted strategy.

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

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answers: 4

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000108

answers: dunes

answers: NDQ_000109

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000110

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000111

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000112

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000113

answers: Foredune

answers: NDQ_000114

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000115

answers: sea-level rise

answers: NDQ_000116

answers: beach nourishment

answers: NDQ_000117

answers: costly protective measures

answers: NDQ_000118

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000119

answers: seawall

answers: NDQ_000120

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000121

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000129

answers: Bigger waves can carry more sediment

answers: NDQ_000130

answers: beach nourishment

answers: NDQ_000131

answers: natural dynamism of the shoreline

answers: NDQ_000132

answers: downdrift

answers: NDQ_000133

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000134

answers: erosion

answers: NDQ_000135

answers: downdrift

answers: NDQ_000136

answers: downdrift

answers: NDQ_000137

answers: Foredunes

answers: NDQ_000138

answers: Foredunes

text: In 1991, sea defences were built in order to protect the village and B1242 main road from intense sea erosion that had threatened it - Holderness is the most rapidly eroding coastline in Europe.  The cliffs had been eroded at a rate of between  per year on average.  The £2 million project created two large rock groynes to trap materials that are carried in the waves during longshore drift as well as revetments to break the waves. In order to protect the cliffs from undercutting, their gradient was also reduced artificially.

text: In 1991, sea defences were built in order to protect the village and

entity_name: B roads in Zone 1 of the Great Britain numbering scheme

text: B1242 main road

text: from intense sea

text: erosion

text: that had threatened it - Holderness is the most rapidly eroding coastline in Europe.  The

text: cliffs

text: had been eroded at a rate of between  per year on average.  The £2 million project created two large

text: rock groynes

text: to trap materials that are carried in the waves during

text: longshore drift

text: as well as

text: revetment

text: s to break the waves. In order to protect the cliffs from undercutting, their gradient was also reduced artificially.

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text: However, a wave like this with definite wavelength is not localized in space, and so cannot represent a particle localized in space. To localize a particle, de Broglie proposed a superposition of different wavelengths ranging around a central value in a wave packet, a waveform often used in quantum mechanics to describe the wave function of a particle. In a wave packet, the wavelength of the particle is not precise, and the local wavelength deviates on either side of the main wavelength value.

text: However, a wave like this with definite wavelength is not localized in space, and so cannot represent a particle localized in space. To localize a particle, de Broglie proposed a superposition of different wavelengths ranging around a central value in a

text: wave packet

text: , a waveform often used in

text: quantum mechanics

text: to describe the

text: wave function

text: of a particle. In a wave packet, the wavelength of the particle is not precise, and the local wavelength deviates on either side of the main wavelength value.

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text: Authorizes the Secretary to study shoreline protection and beach erosion control policy and related projects in view of the prospect for long-term increases in the levels of the ocean.

text: Authorizes the Secretary to study shoreline protection and beach erosion control policy and related projects in view of the prospect for long-term increases in the levels of the ocean.

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