text: Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove these contaminants and produce environmentally safe treated wastewater (or treated effluent). A by-product of sewage treatment is usually a semi-solid waste or slurry, called sewage sludge, that has to undergo further treatment before being suitable for disposal or land application.

text: Sewage treatment is the process of removing

entity_name: Pollutant

text: contaminants

text: from

entity_name: Wastewater

text: wastewater

text: , primarily from household

entity_name: Sewage

text: sewage

text: . It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove these contaminants and produce environmentally safe treated wastewater (or treated

entity_name: Effluent

text: effluent

text: ). A by-product of sewage treatment is usually a semi-solid waste or slurry, called

entity_name: Sewage sludge

text: sewage sludge

text: , that has to undergo further

entity_name: Sewage sludge treatment

text: treatment

text: before being suitable for disposal or land application.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

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answers: sewage

answer_match: Using FLAN-T5-Large with this prompt: For the question "{question}" the correct answer is "{correct_answer}". Is "{answer}" an equally correct response to this question? Answer yes or no.

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text: In the past, the water was very polluted. This affects the river itself, underground water and local villages. The main source of pollution is the Arpechim Refinery. Even today, when the filters stop working, the river is again polluted. To stop this disaster, record fines were given recently. However, there are other sources of pollution, like petrol, when oil pipes are broken by thieves. In the lower part of the valley, pollution may accidentally come from local villagers who wash their cars and animals in the river or take construction materials from the riverbed.

text: In the past, the water was very polluted. This affects the river itself, underground water and local villages. The main source of pollution is the

entity_name: Arpechim Refinery

text: Arpechim

text: Refinery. Even today, when the filters stop working, the river is again polluted. To stop this disaster, record fines were given recently. However, there are other sources of pollution, like

entity_name: Gasoline

text: petrol

text: , when oil pipes are broken by thieves. In the lower part of the valley, pollution may accidentally come from local villagers who wash their cars and animals in the river or take construction materials from the riverbed.

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text: Amman management contract. In 1999, a public-private partnership (PPP) started with the signing of a Management Contract between WAJ and the private joint venture Lyonnaise des Eaux - Montgomery Watson - Arabtech Jardaneh (LEMA), led by the French company Lyonnaise des Eaux, now known as Suez Environnement. According to the contract, LEMA was responsible for operating and managing water and wastewater services in the Greater Amman area on behalf of WAJ. The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006. The contract was intended to strengthen the technical structure and management capability as well as to develop the skills and knowledge of the staff. To this end, a small team of experienced expatriates worked with, and trained, around 1250 local staff. LEMA received treated water from number of WAJ sources. It also collected wastewater and transported it to treatment plants. The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets. In the service area, i.e. in the Amman Governorate, access to supply increased from 90% in 2000 to universal access in 2005. At the same time, sewer connections increased from 69% to 80%. In 2007, the Jordan Water Company Miyahuna replaced LEMA after its contract had been extended one final time for an extra six months.

text: Amman management contract. In 1999, a

entity_name: Public–private partnership

text: public-private partnership

text: (PPP) started with the signing of a Management Contract between WAJ and the private joint venture Lyonnaise des Eaux - Montgomery Watson - Arabtech Jardaneh (LEMA), led by the French company Lyonnaise des Eaux, now known as

entity_name: Suez Environnement

text: Suez Environnement

text: . According to the contract, LEMA was responsible for operating and managing water and wastewater services in the Greater Amman area on behalf of WAJ. The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006. The contract was intended to strengthen the technical structure and management capability as well as to develop the skills and knowledge of the staff. To this end, a small team of experienced expatriates worked with, and trained, around 1250 local staff. LEMA received treated water from number of WAJ sources. It also collected wastewater and transported it to treatment plants. The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets. In the service area, i.e. in the Amman Governorate, access to supply increased from 90% in 2000 to universal access in 2005. At the same time, sewer connections increased from 69% to 80%. In 2007, the Jordan Water Company Miyahuna replaced LEMA after its contract had been extended one final time for an extra six months.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

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answers: The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006

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answers: The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006

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answers: WAJ sources

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answers: The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets

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answers: 69%

text: The Pakistani Ministry of Water and Power reported in 2002 that only 1% of the domestic and industrial wastewater receives treatment. According to the Pakistan Water Situational Analysis, there are three wastewater treatment plants in Islamabad, of which only one is functional. Karachi has two trickling filters, where effluents generally receive screening and sedimentation. Lahore has some screening and grit removal systems, but they are hardly functional. In Faisalabad, there is a wastewater treatment plant, in which wastewater receives primary treatment, but it treats only 7 percent of the collected wastewater in the city. Multan, Rawalpindi and Gujranwala have no wastewater treatment plants at all. In rural areas, wastewater treatment is nonexistent, leading to pollution of surface and groundwater.

text: The Pakistani Ministry of Water and Power reported in 2002 that only 1% of the domestic and industrial

text: wastewater

text: receives treatment. According to the Pakistan Water Situational Analysis, there are three wastewater treatment plants in Islamabad, of which only one is functional. Karachi has two

entity_name: Trickling filter

text: trickling filter

text: s, where effluents generally receive screening and

entity_name: Sedimentation (water treatment)

text: sedimentation

text: . Lahore has some screening and grit removal systems, but they are hardly functional. In Faisalabad, there is a

entity_name: Sewage treatment

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: , in which wastewater receives

entity_section: Primary treatment

text: primary treatment

text: , but it treats only 7 percent of the collected wastewater in the city. Multan, Rawalpindi and Gujranwala have no wastewater treatment plants at all. In rural areas, wastewater treatment is nonexistent, leading to pollution of surface and groundwater.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

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text: Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh is characterized by a number of achievements and challenges. The share of the population with access to an improved water source was estimated at 98% in 2004, a very high level for a low-income country. This has been achieved to a large extent through the construction of handpumps with the support of external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered that groundwater, the source of drinking water for 97% of the rural population and a significant share of the urban population, is in many cases naturally contaminated with arsenic. It gradually emerged that 70 million people drank water which exceeds the WHO guidelines of 10 microgram of arsenic per liter, and 30 million drank water containing more than the Bangladesh National Standard of 50 microgram per liter, leading to chronic arsenic poisoning. On the other hand, surface water is usually polluted and requires treatment. Taking arsenic contamination into account, it was estimated that in 2004 still 74% of the population had access to arsenic-free drinking water. Another challenge is the low level of cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor economic efficiency, especially in urban areas where revenues from water sales do not even cover operating costs. In rural areas, users contribute 34% of investment costs, and at least in piped water schemes supported by the Rural Development Academy recover operating costs.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh is characterized by a number of achievements and challenges. The share of the population with access to an

entity_name: Improved water source

text: improved water source

text: was estimated at 98% in 2004, a very high level for a low-income country. This has been achieved to a large extent through the construction of handpumps with the support of external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered that groundwater, the source of drinking water for 97% of the rural population and a significant share of the urban population, is in many cases naturally

entity_name: Arsenic contamination of groundwater

text: contaminated with arsenic

text: . It gradually emerged that 70 million people drank water which exceeds the WHO guidelines of 10 microgram of arsenic per liter, and 30 million drank water containing more than the Bangladesh National Standard of 50 microgram per liter, leading to

entity_name: Arsenic poisoning

entity_section: Arsenicosis:chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water

text: chronic arsenic poisoning

text: . On the other hand, surface water is usually polluted and requires treatment. Taking arsenic contamination into account, it was estimated that in 2004 still 74% of the population had access to arsenic-free drinking water. Another challenge is the low level of cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor

entity_name: Economic efficiency

text: economic efficiency

text: , especially in urban areas where revenues from water sales do not even cover operating costs. In rural areas, users contribute 34% of investment costs, and at least in piped water schemes supported by the

entity_name: Rural Development Academy

text: Rural Development Academy

text: recover operating costs.

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text: The Athens County Infirmary is a registered historic district near Chauncey, Ohio, listed in the National Register on 2003-05-01.  It contains five contributing buildings. The property is commonly known locally as the County Farm or the County Home. It currently houses the county's recycling center, dog shelter, and offices of Job & Family Services.  There is also an historic cemetery on the property. The Burr Oak Water District recently has established a wellfield in the riparian zone, in deep unconsolidated sediments along the Hocking River for their primary water source, because their former water source, Burr Oak Lake, is polluted with unacceptable contaminants.

text: The Athens County Infirmary is a registered historic district near

entity_name: Chauncey, Ohio

text: Chauncey

entity_name: Ohio

text: Ohio

text: , listed in the

entity_name: National Register of Historic Places

text: National Register

text: on 2003-05-01.  It contains five contributing buildings. The property is commonly known locally as the County Farm or the County Home. It currently houses the county's recycling center, dog shelter, and offices of Job & Family Services.  There is also an historic cemetery on the property. The Burr Oak Water District recently has established a wellfield in the riparian zone, in deep unconsolidated sediments along the

entity_name: Hocking River

text: Hocking River

text: for their primary water source, because their former water source,

entity_name: Burr Oak State Park

text: Burr Oak Lake

text: , is polluted with unacceptable contaminants.

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answers: 1%

text: The amount of wastewater treatment possible can also be compromised by the networks required to bring the wastewater to the treatment plants. It is estimated that 15% of China's wastewater treatment facilities are not being used to capacity due to a limited pipe network to collect and transport wastewater. In São Paulo, Brazil, a lack of sanitation infrastructure results in the pollution of the majority of its water supply and forces the city to import over 50% of its water from outside watersheds. Polluted water increases a developing country's operating costs, as lower quality water is more expensive to treat. In Brazil, polluted water from the Guarapiranga Reservoir costs $0.43 per m to treat to usable quality, while water from the compared to only $0.10 per m for water coming from the Cantareira Mountains.

text: The amount of wastewater treatment possible can also be compromised by the networks required to bring the wastewater to the treatment plants. It is estimated that 15% of China's wastewater treatment facilities are not being used to capacity due to a limited pipe network to collect and transport wastewater. In

entity_name: São Paulo

text: São Paulo

text: , Brazil, a lack of sanitation infrastructure results in the pollution of the majority of its water supply and forces the city to import over 50% of its water from outside watersheds. Polluted water increases a developing country's operating costs, as lower quality water is more expensive to treat. In Brazil, polluted water from the

entity_name: Guarapiranga

text: Guarapiranga

text: Reservoir costs $0.43 per m to treat to usable quality, while water from the compared to only $0.10 per m for water coming from the Cantareira Mountains.

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answers: 50%

text: Total suspended solids (TSS) is  the dry-weight of particles trapped by a filter. It is a water quality parameter used for example to assess the quality of wastewater after treatment in a wastewater treatment plant. It is listed as a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act.

text: Total suspended solids (TSS) is  the dry-weight of particles trapped by a

entity_name: Filtration

text: filter

text: . It is a

entity_name: Water quality

text: water quality

text: parameter used for example to assess the quality of

text: wastewater

text: after treatment in a

entity_name: Wastewater treatment

entity_section: Wastewater treatment plants

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: . It is listed as a

entity_name: Conventional pollutant

text: conventional pollutant

text: in the U.S.

entity_name: Clean Water Act

text: Clean Water Act

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answers: a wastewater treatment plant

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answers: U.S.

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: U.S.

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment in a wastewater treatment plant

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: In response to a 1999 survey, 70% of the poor in Conakry said that shallow wells and polluted, temporary streams were their main source of water for non-potable uses. 18% of the poor said these were their main sources of drinking water. Other important sources of drinking water for the poor were the resale of piped water (41%), standpipes (13%) and piped water connections in their homes (28%). Rainwater harvesting is also common for non-potable uses during the rainy season.

text: In response to a 1999 survey, 70% of the poor in Conakry said that shallow wells and polluted, temporary streams were their main source of water for non-potable uses. 18% of the poor said these were their main sources of drinking water. Other important sources of drinking water for the poor were the resale of piped water (41%), standpipes (13%) and piped water connections in their homes (28%).

entity_name: Rainwater harvesting

text: Rainwater harvesting

text: is also common for non-potable uses during the rainy season.

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answers: shallow wells and polluted, temporary streams

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: polluted, temporary streams

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: standpipes

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: rainwater harvesting

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: resale of piped water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 28%

text: The vast majority of surface water on the Earth is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true when seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.

text: The vast majority of

entity_name: Surface water

text: surface water

text: on the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: is neither

entity_name: Drinking water

text: potable

text: nor

entity_name: Toxicity

text: toxic

text: . This remains true when

entity_name: Seawater

text: seawater

text: in the

entity_name: Ocean

text: oceans

text: (which is too

entity_name: Salinity

text: salty

text: to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is

entity_name: Pollution

text: polluted

text: or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the

entity_name: Ecology

text: ecology

text: of the Earth.

entity_name: Industry

text: Industrial

text: and

entity_name: Commerce

text: commercial

text: activities (e.g.

entity_name: Manufacturing

text: manufacturing

entity_name: Mining

text: mining

entity_name: Construction

text: construction

entity_name: Transport

text: transport

text: ) are a major cause of

entity_name: Water pollution

text: water pollution

text: as are

entity_name: Surface runoff

text: runoff

text: from

entity_name: Farm

text: agricultural

text: areas,

entity_name: Urban runoff

text: urban runoff

text: and discharge of treated and untreated

text: sewage

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answers: surface water on the Earth

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The vast majority of surface water on the Earth is neither potable nor toxic

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Industrial and commercial activities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: neither potable nor toxic

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is a major cause of water pollution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: The vast majority

text: Information concerning Nurhaci can be found in later, propagandistic works such as the Manchu Veritable Records (in Chinese, Mǎnzhōu Shílù 滿洲實錄; in Manchu, Yargiyan kooli). Good contemporary sources are also available. For instance, much material concerning Nurhaci's rise is preserved within Korean sources such as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon Wangjo Sillok 朝鮮王朝實錄), especially the Seonjo Sillok and the Gwanghaegun Ilgi. Indeed, the record of Sin Chung-il's trip to Jianzhou is preserved in the Seonjo Sillok.

text: Information concerning Nurhaci can be found in later, propagandistic works such as the Manchu Veritable Records (in Chinese, Mǎnzhōu Shílù 滿洲實錄; in Manchu, Yargiyan kooli). Good contemporary sources are also available. For instance, much material concerning Nurhaci's rise is preserved within Korean sources such as the

entity_name: Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

text: Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

text: (Joseon Wangjo Sillok 朝鮮王朝實錄), especially the

entity_name: Seonjo of Joseon

text: Seonjo

text: Sillok and the

entity_name: Gwanghaegun

text: Gwanghaegun

text: Ilgi. Indeed, the record of Sin Chung-il's trip to Jianzhou is preserved in the Seonjo Sillok.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Manchu Veritable Records

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It's impossible to say

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Nurhaci

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Gwanghaegun Ilgi

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: good contemporary sources are also available

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: Boric acid, oxides and salts (borates) are effective wood preservatives and are supplied under numerous brand names throughout the world. One of the most common compounds used is disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (commonly abbreviated DOT). Borate treated wood is of low toxicity to humans, and does not contain copper or other heavy metals. However, unlike most other preservatives, borate compounds do not become fixed in the wood and can be partially leached out if exposed repeatedly to water that flows away rather than evaporating (evaporation leaves the borate behind so is not a problem). Even though leaching will not normally reduce boron concentrations below effective levels for preventing fungal growth, borates should not be used where they will be exposed to repeated rain, water or ground contact unless the exposed surfaces are treated to repel water.  Zinc-borate compounds are less suspectible to leaching than sodium-borate compounds, but are still not recommended for below-ground use unless the timber is first sealed. Recent interest in low toxicity timber for residential use, along with new regulations restricting some wood preservation agents, has resulted in a resurgence of the use of borate treated wood for floor beams and internal structural members. Researchers at CSIRO in Australia have developed organoborates which are much more resistant to leaching, while still providing timber with good protection from termite and fungal attack. The cost of the production of these modified borates will limit their widespread take-up but they are likely to be suitable for certain niche applications, especially where low mammalian toxicity is of paramount importance.

text: Boric acid, oxides and salts (borates) are effective wood preservatives and are supplied under numerous brand names throughout the world. One of the most common compounds used is

entity_name: Disodium octaborate tetrahydrate

text: disodium octaborate tetrahydrate

text: (commonly abbreviated DOT). Borate treated wood is of low toxicity to humans, and does not contain copper or other heavy metals. However, unlike most other preservatives,

entity_name: Borate

text: borate

text: compounds do not become fixed in the wood and can be partially leached out if exposed repeatedly to water that flows away rather than evaporating (evaporation leaves the borate behind so is not a problem). Even though leaching will not normally reduce boron concentrations below effective levels for preventing fungal growth, borates should not be used where they will be exposed to repeated rain, water or ground contact unless the exposed surfaces are treated to repel water.  Zinc-borate compounds are less suspectible to leaching than sodium-borate compounds, but are still not recommended for below-ground use unless the timber is first sealed. Recent interest in low toxicity timber for residential use, along with new regulations restricting some wood preservation agents, has resulted in a resurgence of the use of borate treated wood for floor beams and internal structural members. Researchers at CSIRO in Australia have developed organoborates which are much more resistant to leaching, while still providing timber with good protection from termite and fungal attack. The cost of the production of these modified borates will limit their widespread take-up but they are likely to be suitable for certain niche applications, especially where low mammalian toxicity is of paramount importance.

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answers: The cost of the production of these modified borates

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is not a problem

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: DOT

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is of paramount importance

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: The cost of the production of these modified borates

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 20%

text: Portugal's membership of the European Community in 1986 and the EU Urban waste water framework directive of 1991 triggered a series of reforms undertaken by the government of then Prime Minister Cavaco Silva in order to modernize the sector, to improve service quality and to effectively use EU funds destined to the sector. Until then service provision had been the sole responsibility of the municipalities, with the exception of the metropolitan area of Lisbon which was served by the multi-municipal company called Empresa Portuguesa das Águas Livres (EPAL).  Many municipalities were small and did not have the financial or human resources to modernize their water and sanitation services. Furthermore, the need to buy water from sources located in other municipalities and to lower costs by constructing wastewater treatment plants serving several municipalities, provided incentives for municipalities to cooperate.

text: Portugal's membership of the European Community in 1986 and the

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in the European Union

text: EU Urban waste water framework directive of 1991

text: triggered a series of reforms undertaken by the government of then Prime Minister

text: Cavaco Silva

text: in order to modernize the sector, to improve service quality and to effectively use EU funds destined to the sector. Until then service provision had been the sole responsibility of the municipalities, with the exception of the metropolitan area of Lisbon which was served by the multi-municipal company called Empresa Portuguesa das Águas Livres (EPAL).  Many municipalities were small and did not have the financial or human resources to modernize their water and sanitation services. Furthermore, the need to buy water from sources located in other municipalities and to lower costs by constructing wastewater treatment plants serving several municipalities, provided incentives for municipalities to cooperate.

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answers: The need to buy water from sources located in other municipalities

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Many municipalities were small

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: municipalities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Urban waste water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Urban waste water framework directive

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: lower costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The Wood River located in Southwestern Rhode Island is a protected and beneficial source of water to the Northeast Corridor. The Wood River is actually one of the last remaining pristine bodies of water of the Northeast between New York and Boston, the river being so pure is one of the main reasons the River is known by several people. According to the Wood-Pawcatuck Watershed Association, “The Pawcatuck Watershed provides drinking water to over 100,000 residents”. There are various laws that have been created in order to preserve this natural source. The Wood-Pawcatuck Watershed Association has a mission to protect the land and water of the Wood-Pawcatuck River from any pollution, such as boating, in order to protect the water sources for over ten towns. The River has been considered one of the most untouched for several years, and it is because of the Wood-Pawcatuck Water Association, WPWA, we can thank for this. The WPWA works to monitor the use of any non- electric powered boats entering the river, as this could be a huge pollution to the water. The Wood River is opposed to the use of any contaminating factors because so many people fish in the river and often eat the catch of the day, the water in the river is also used by not only the visiting but the residents that surround this area.

text: The Wood River located in Southwestern Rhode Island is a protected and beneficial source of water to the Northeast Corridor. The Wood River is actually one of the last remaining pristine bodies of water of the Northeast between New York and Boston, the river being so pure is one of the main reasons the River is known by several people. According to the Wood-Pawcatuck Watershed Association, “The Pawcatuck Watershed provides drinking water to over 100,000 residents”. There are various laws that have been created in order to preserve this natural source. The Wood-Pawcatuck Watershed Association has a mission to protect the land and water of the Wood-Pawcatuck River from any pollution, such as boating, in order to protect the water sources for over ten towns. The River has been considered one of the most untouched for several years, and it is because of the Wood-Pawcatuck Water Association, WPWA, we can thank for this. The WPWA works to monitor the use of any non- electric powered boats entering the river, as this could be a huge pollution to the water. The Wood River is opposed to the use of any contaminating factors because so many people fish in the river and often eat the catch of the day, the water in the river is also used by not only the visiting but the residents that surround this area.

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answers: The Wood River is actually one of the last remaining pristine bodies of water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: One of the last remaining pristine bodies of water of the Northeast

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: non-electric powered boats

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: the Northeast

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: various laws that have been created to preserve this natural source

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: provides drinking water to over 100,000 residents

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The isotopic compositions of biomolecules preserved in the sedimentary record can be used as a proxy for paleoenvironment reconstructions. Since water is the primary hydrogen source for photoautotrophs, the hydrogen isotope composition of their biomass can be related to the composition of their growth water and thereby used to gain insight into some properties of ancient environments. Studying hydrogen isotopes can be very valuable, as hydrogen is more directly related to climate than other relevant stable isotope systems. However, hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur atoms are exchangeable with environmental hydrogen, which makes this system less straightforward [ref to earlier H exchange section]. To study the hydrogen isotope composition of biomolecules, it is preferable to use compounds where the hydrogen is largely bound to carbon, and therefore not exchangeable on experimental timescales. By this criteria, lipids are a much better subject for hydrogen isotope studies than sugars or amino acids.

text: The isotopic compositions of

text: biomolecule

text: s preserved in the sedimentary record can be used as a

text: proxy

text: for paleoenvironment reconstructions. Since water is the primary hydrogen source for

text: photoautotrophs

text: , the hydrogen isotope composition of their biomass can be related to the composition of their growth water and thereby used to gain insight into some properties of ancient environments. Studying hydrogen isotopes can be very valuable, as hydrogen is more directly related to climate than other relevant stable isotope systems. However, hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur atoms are exchangeable with environmental hydrogen, which makes this system less straightforward [ref to earlier H exchange section]. To study the hydrogen isotope composition of biomolecules, it is preferable to use compounds where the hydrogen is largely bound to carbon, and therefore not exchangeable on experimental timescales. By this criteria,

text: lipid

text: s are a much better subject for hydrogen isotope studies than sugars or amino acids.

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answers: water is the primary hydrogen source for photoautotrophs

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answers: hydrogen isotope composition of their biomass can be related to the composition of their growth water

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text: Las Vegas Springs Preserve consists of  dedicated to nature walks and displays and is owned and operated by the Las Vegas Valley Water District. The Preserve is located approximately three miles west of downtown Las Vegas, Nevada. The Preserve is built around the original water source for Las Vegas, the Las Vegas Springs.

text: Las Vegas Springs Preserve consists of  dedicated to nature walks and displays and is owned and operated by the

text: Las Vegas Valley Water District

text: . The Preserve is located approximately three miles west of downtown

text: Las Vegas

text: Nevada

text: . The Preserve is built around the original water source for Las Vegas, the

text: Las Vegas Springs

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text: Many of the smaller wastewater treatment plants are waste stabilization ponds, a low-cost and low-energy treatment that eliminates pathogens while conserving nutrients. An example is the Arab village of Kfar Manda in the Western Galilee, whose wastewater is being treated and reused for irrigation in the neighboring Jewish community of Yodfat.

text: Many of the smaller wastewater treatment plants are

text: waste stabilization ponds

text: , a low-cost and low-energy treatment that eliminates

text: pathogen

text: s while conserving nutrients. An example is the Arab village of

text: Kfar Manda

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text: , whose wastewater is being treated and reused for irrigation in the neighboring Jewish community of

text: Yodfat

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text: The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit and a water source – a problem that also applies to septic tanks. Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect groundwater sources from pollution from on-site sanitation. However, these are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition to that, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

text: The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit and a water source – a problem that also applies to

text: septic tank

text: s. Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect

text: groundwater

text: sources from pollution from on-site

text: sanitation

text: . However, these are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition to that, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe This results in

text: groundwater pollution

text: and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

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text: It is important to note that if the WSC encounters a significant amount of ice along the continental shelves of Spitsbergen, then the WSC advancing poleward will sink much faster, due to a greater amount of freshwater melt from the increased sea-ice. The ability to sink faster means more of the heat content of the WSC will be preserved and not lost to the atmosphere or surrounding waters and thus warmer waters will be transported into the Arctic. This could have profound impacts on sea-ice melting.

text: It is important to note that if the WSC encounters a significant amount of ice along the continental shelves of Spitsbergen, then the WSC advancing poleward will sink much faster, due to a greater amount of freshwater melt from the increased sea-ice. The ability to sink faster means more of the heat content of the WSC will be preserved and not lost to the atmosphere or surrounding waters and thus warmer waters will be transported into the Arctic. This could have profound impacts on sea-ice melting.

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answers: This could have profound impacts on sea-ice melting

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text: The vendace has only ever been known as a native species at four sites in Britain: Bassenthwaite Lake and Derwent Water in the English Lake District, and the Castle Loch and Mill Loch in Lochmaben, Scotland. The species is thought to have died out at all of these sites except Derwent Water. The Castle Loch population disappeared in the early part of the 20th Century, and the Mill Loch population disappeared in the 1990s. The fish has not been recorded at Bassenthwaite Lake since 2001, but was recently rediscovered in 2014. The declining populations of the fish are thought to be due to introduced species that utilise the native vendace as a food source, and also due to pollution. For example, a water treatment works near the lake had been overflowing with raw sewage at times of high water levels, causing severe algae blooms that were depleting the lake's oxygen supply, but the plant was to be renovated in 2004 in order to prevent this.

text: The vendace has only ever been known as a native species at four sites in Britain:

text: Bassenthwaite Lake

text: and

text: Derwent Water

text: in the English

text: Lake District

text: , and the

text: Castle Loch

text: and

text: Mill Loch

text: in

text: Lochmaben

text: , Scotland. The species is thought to have died out at all of these sites except Derwent Water. The Castle Loch population disappeared in the early part of the 20th Century, and the Mill Loch population disappeared in the 1990s. The fish has not been recorded at Bassenthwaite Lake since 2001, but was recently rediscovered in 2014. The declining populations of the fish are thought to be due to

text: introduced species

text: that utilise the native vendace as a food source, and also due to pollution. For example, a water treatment works near the lake had been overflowing with raw sewage at times of high water levels, causing severe

text: algae bloom

text: s that were depleting the lake's oxygen supply, but the plant was to be renovated in 2004 in order to prevent this.

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text: She also looks at the difference between the archaeological remains left behind by pastoralists and hunger-gatherer groups. Identifying pastoralists sites is not always easy. Pastoralists tend to not leave well-defined sites behind after they move on, and what they do leave behind does not always preserve well. In East Africa, the thing that tends to differentiate the two is the type of lithics that they create. Ceramics in this area are associated with both hunter-gatherers and pastoralists, although interaction between pastoralists and hunter-gatherer groups blurs these lines a little and makes it much harder for archaeologists to distinguish the two from each other. One of the things that Marshall says that can be a key to distinguishing the pastoralist sites and the hunter-gatherer sites is the amount of dung that is collected from the animals being in corrals. The only problem with that is that dung is organic material which means that it will degrade over time. Marshall is suggesting that when archaeologists select a site that might have been a pastoralist site, that they choose a site that is away from the water sources because some things, like phosphate minerals, will be better preserved for testing.

text: She also looks at the difference between the archaeological remains left behind by

text: pastoralists

text: and

text: hunger-gatherer

text: groups. Identifying

text: pastoralists

text: sites is not always easy.

text: Pastoralists

text: tend to not leave well-defined sites behind after they move on, and what they do leave behind does not always preserve well. In

text: East Africa

text: , the thing that tends to differentiate the two is the type of

text: lithics

text: that they create.

text: Ceramics

text: in this area are associated with both hunter-gatherers and pastoralists, although interaction between

text: pastoralists

text: and

text: hunter-gatherer

text: groups blurs these lines a little and makes it much harder for

text: archaeologists

text: to distinguish the two from each other. One of the things that Marshall says that can be a key to distinguishing the

text: pastoralist

text: sites and the

text: hunter-gatherer

text: sites is the amount of

text: dung

text: that is collected from the animals being in corrals. The only problem with that is that

text: dung

text: is

text: organic material

text: which means that it will

text: degrade

text: over time. Marshall is suggesting that when

text: archaeologists

text: select a site that might have been a

text: pastoralist

text: site, that they choose a site that is away from the water sources because some things, like

text: phosphate minerals

text: , will be better

text: preserved

text: for testing.

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answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: The only problem with that is that dung is organic

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answers: water sources

text: Holcomb's preservation of San Bernardino's local water rights is also credited with attracting California State University system to the city, which constructed California State University, San Bernardino. A local supply of water was needed to construct the campus.

text: Holcomb's preservation of San Bernardino's local water rights is also credited with attracting

text: California State University

text: system to the city, which constructed

entity_name: California State University, San Bernardino

text: California State University, San Bernardino

text: . A local supply of water was needed to construct the campus.

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answers: A local supply of water was needed

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answers: California State University

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answers: California State University system

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answers: 100

text: The James River is a drinking water source for the city of Springfield. Springfield Lake is a primary source of water for the cooling system at the James River Power Plant which sits by the dam. James River Freeway on the city's south side is named after the river.

text: The James River is a drinking water source for the city of Springfield. Springfield Lake is a primary source of water for the cooling system at the James River Power Plant which sits by the dam.

text: James River Freeway

text: on the city's south side is named after the river.

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text: Wastewater tariffs typically follow the same structure as water tariffs. They are typically measured based on the volume of water supplied, sometimes after subtracting an allowance made for estimated or actual outdoor use. In the case of industries, wastewater tariffs are sometimes differentiated based on the pollutant load of the wastewater. In some cases wastewater tariffs are a fixed percentage of water tariffs, but usually they are set separately. In addition to regular bills, many utilities levy a one-time connection fee both for water and for sewer connections.

text: Wastewater tariffs typically follow the same structure as water tariffs. They are typically measured based on the volume of water supplied, sometimes after subtracting an allowance made for estimated or actual outdoor use. In the case of industries, wastewater tariffs are sometimes differentiated based on the pollutant load of the wastewater. In some cases wastewater tariffs are a fixed percentage of water tariffs, but usually they are set separately. In addition to regular bills, many utilities levy a one-time connection fee both for water and for sewer connections.

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answers: Wastewater tariffs

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text: The Water Treatment Plant operates 24 hours per day, 7 days per week, treating and pumping an average of 3 million gallons of water per day between Lake Palestine and city residents.  The Wastewater Treatment Plant treats an average of 2.5 millions of gallons of wastewater per day.  The water distribution system employs 26 lift stations and approximately 275 miles of water lines; wastewater involves approximately 250 miles of sanitary sewer lines.

text: The Water Treatment Plant operates 24 hours per day, 7 days per week, treating and pumping an average of 3 million gallons of water per day between Lake Palestine and city residents.  The Wastewater Treatment Plant treats an average of 2.5 millions of gallons of wastewater per day.  The water distribution system employs 26 lift stations and approximately 275 miles of water lines; wastewater involves approximately 250 miles of sanitary sewer lines.

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Water Treatment Plant

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treats an average of 2.5 millions of gallons of wastewater per day

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 2.5

text: This paper published in the South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage describes the water quality status of Gundolav Lake in Rajasthan, which was once used for drinking water as well as for recreational activities under the tutelage of the princely state of Kishangarh. This has now become a site of waste water disposal and facing a critical threat for its sustenance. Recent years have led to an increasing awareness of the importance of water bodies and the need for conservation of water bodies, especially freshwater wetlands. The Ramsar Convention (2002) identifies wetlands as the starting point for integrated water management strategies. This is because they are the source of fresh water, maintain the health of the water course and water bodies, have the capacity to supply water to meet the human needs and are a key to future water security.The study aims at understanding the present situation and ecology of the lake, which can help in making attempts at restoring the balance between ecosystem and human activities in order to secure a continuous and sustainable improvement in the lake.The physico-chemical and planktonic composition of the lake reveals that it is tending, fast towards 'eutrophism' . The quality of water is deteriorating day by day due to inflow of domestic sewage, municipal waste, agricultural runoff and effluents of organic waste of animal and human origin into the lake. This deterioration of water quality and eutrophication are assuming alarming proportions and can be attributed to the casual attitude of people concerned, with the development of the urban population.The study argues for the urgent need to regularly monitor the water quality of the lake and to make attempts at diverting the city sewage away from the lake to preserve the flora and fauna of this ecosystem.Location

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answers: Wetlands

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Gundolav Lake

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: urban population

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: freshwater wetlands

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Ramsar Convention

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preserve the flora and fauna of this ecosystem

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: wetlands

text: The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors of the economy. The water industry includes manufacturers and suppliers of bottled water. Water privatization by companies in the water industry is becoming an issue as water security threatens local communities.

text: The water industry provides

text: drinking water

text: and

text: wastewater

text: services (including

text: sewage treatment

text: ) to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors of the economy. The water industry includes manufacturers and suppliers of

text: bottled water

text: Water privatization

text: by companies in the water industry is becoming an issue as

text: water security

text: threatens local communities.

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text: Research shows that functionalized carbon nanotubes are non-cytotoxic and preserve the functionality of primary immune cells. Two types of f-CNTs were prepared, following the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (f-CNTs 1 and 2) and the oxidation/amidation treatment (f-CNTs 3 and 4), respectively. Both types of f-CNTs were uptaken by B and T lymphocytes as well as macrophages in vitro, without affecting cell viability. Subsequently, the functionality of the different cells was analyzed carefully. It was discovered that f-CNT 1, which is highly water-soluble, did not influence the functional activity of immunoregulatory cells. f-CNT 3, which instead possesses reduced solubility and forms mainly stable water suspensions, preserved lymphocytes’ functionality while provoking secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages. One important thing to note from this study is the fact that certain types of CNTs functionalized with lipids are highly water-soluble which would make their movement through the human body easier and would also reduce the risk of blockage of vital body organ pathways thus making them more attractive as drug delivery vehicles.

text: Research shows that functionalized carbon nanotubes are non-cytotoxic and preserve the functionality of primary immune cells. Two types of f-CNTs were prepared, following the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (f-CNTs 1 and 2) and the oxidation/amidation treatment (f-CNTs 3 and 4), respectively. Both types of f-CNTs were uptaken by B and T lymphocytes as well as macrophages in vitro, without affecting cell viability. Subsequently, the functionality of the different cells was analyzed carefully. It was discovered that f-CNT 1, which is highly water-soluble, did not influence the functional activity of immunoregulatory cells. f-CNT 3, which instead possesses reduced solubility and forms mainly stable water suspensions, preserved lymphocytes’ functionality while provoking secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages. One important thing to note from this study is the fact that certain types of CNTs functionalized with lipids are highly water-soluble which would make their movement through the human body easier and would also reduce the risk of blockage of vital body organ pathways thus making them more attractive as drug delivery vehicles.

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text: One of the main sources of water pollution in the MRSP is the slums around the Guarapiranga and Billings river basins because these neighborhoods often lack adequate sanitation services. The direct discharge of raw sewage into the waterbodies has caused eutrophication in both reservoirs as well as the Baixo Cotia, Biritiba and Ribeirão dos Cristais Rivers. In addition, defects in the wastewater treatment system have caused wastewater to overflow into the tributaries of the Guarapiranga reservoir. Defects in infrastructure for collecting and transporting sewage to the wastewater treatment plants also cause problems. The dumping of industrial effluents and pesticides from agriculture has resulted in additional pollution.

text: One of the main sources of water pollution in the MRSP is the slums around the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and Billings river basins because these neighborhoods often lack adequate sanitation services. The direct discharge of raw sewage into the waterbodies has caused

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text: Rivers. In addition, defects in the wastewater treatment system have caused wastewater to overflow into the tributaries of the Guarapiranga reservoir. Defects in infrastructure for collecting and transporting sewage to the wastewater treatment plants also cause problems. The dumping of industrial effluents and pesticides from agriculture has resulted in additional pollution.

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text: The preservation of aquifers is especially important, since they are used as a primary water source by some municipalities located on or near the moraine. These aquifers also discharge into tributaries that are the headwaters of creeks and rivers which eventually flow into Lake Simcoe, Lake Scugog and Lake Ontario.

text: The preservation of aquifers is especially important, since they are used as a primary water source by some municipalities located on or near the moraine. These aquifers also discharge into tributaries that are the headwaters of creeks and rivers which eventually flow into Lake Simcoe, Lake Scugog and Lake Ontario.

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: primary

text: Mill Creak is a major perennial tributary, its watershed drains large portions of agricultural land in the Lowhill, southern Heidelberg and Washington Townships.  Mill creek does not enter the preserve but forms its geographic western boundary and joins with the Jordan Creek just short of the preserve.   The creek, whose swift waters eroded the valley in which it flows, separates the preserve from the more westerly State Game Lands 205.  Mill creek also provides a perennial source of water which helps to maintain the thicket of deciduous trees (principally oak and maple) which grow on the preserve's north-western boundary.

text: Mill Creak is a major perennial tributary, its watershed drains large portions of agricultural land in the

entity_name: Lowhill Township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

text: Lowhill

text: , southern

entity_name: Heidelberg Township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

text: Heidelberg

text: and

entity_name: Washington Township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

text: Washington

text: Townships.  Mill creek does not enter the preserve but forms its geographic western boundary and joins with the Jordan Creek just short of the preserve.   The creek, whose swift waters eroded the valley in which it flows, separates the preserve from the more westerly State Game Lands 205.  Mill creek also provides a perennial source of water which helps to maintain the thicket of

text: deciduous

text: trees (principally

text: oak

text: and

text: maple

text: ) which grow on the preserve's north-western boundary.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Mill creek also provides a perennial source of water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Mill creek also provides a perennial source of water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural land

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: perennial

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Mill Creek

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: maintains the thicket of deciduous trees

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: The shrinking of the lake has also caused several different conflicts to emerge as to which countries that border Lake Chad have the rights to the remaining water. Along with the conflicts that involve the countries, violence is increasing among the lake's dwellers. Farmers and herders want the water for their crops and livestock and are constantly diverting the water. The fishermen, however, want the remaining water in the lake to stay so they can continue to fish and not have to worry about the lake shrinking more and decreasing their already strained supply of fish. Furthermore, the birds and animals in the area are threatened as they are important sources of food for the local human population.

text: The shrinking of the lake has also caused several different conflicts to emerge as to which countries that border Lake Chad have the rights to the remaining water. Along with the conflicts that involve the countries, violence is increasing among the lake's dwellers. Farmers and herders want the water for their crops and livestock and are constantly diverting the water. The fishermen, however, want the remaining water in the lake to stay so they can continue to fish and not have to worry about the lake shrinking more and decreasing their already strained supply of fish. Furthermore, the birds and animals in the area are threatened as they are important sources of food for the local human population.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: The shrinking of the lake

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Lake Chad

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Farmers

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Lake Chad

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Lake Chad

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: decreasing their already strained supply of fish

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: A sawmill was built on Little Mahanoy Creek in 1814. In 1875, the borough of Ashland purchased a tract of land on the creek in Butler Township, two miles downstream of the creek's headwaters. In 1882, some people attempted to pump water from Little Mahanoy Creek to create a reservoir and pipe the water to those who needed it. Little Mahanoy Creek was polluted in 1915. Around that time, it was a source of water for the borough of Ashland.

text: A

text: sawmill

text: was built on Little Mahanoy Creek in 1814. In 1875, the borough of Ashland purchased a tract of land on the creek in

entity_name: Butler Township, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania

text: Butler Township

text: , two miles downstream of the creek's headwaters. In 1882, some people attempted to pump water from Little Mahanoy Creek to create a

text: reservoir

text: and pipe the water to those who needed it. Little Mahanoy Creek was

text: polluted

text: in 1915. Around that time, it was a source of water for the borough of

text: Ashland

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answers: Little Mahanoy Creek

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Little Mahanoy Creek was polluted in 1915

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: sawmill

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: a source of water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: pipe the water to those who needed it

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: Theoretical concerns surround the role of the LAA in thirst regulation and water retention because it is an important source of atrial natriuretic factor.Preserving the right atrial appendage might attenuate this effect.

text: Theoretical concerns surround the role of the LAA in

text: thirst

text: regulation and water retention because it is an important source of

text: atrial natriuretic factor

text: .Preserving the right atrial appendage might attenuate this effect.

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answers: Theoretical concerns surround the role of the LAA

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Theoretical concerns surround the role of the LAA

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: LAA

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answers: LAA

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answers: might attenuate this effect

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 20%

text: Reducing the amount of pollution emitted from both point and non-point represents a direct method to address the source of water quality challenges. Pollution reduction represents a more direct and low-cost method to improve water quality, compared to costly and extensive wastewater treatment improvements.

text: Reducing the amount of pollution emitted from both point and non-point represents a direct method to address the source of water quality challenges. Pollution reduction represents a more direct and low-cost method to improve water quality, compared to costly and extensive wastewater treatment improvements.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Reducing the amount of pollution

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: non-point

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answers: wastewater treatment

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: low-cost

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: wastewater treatment

text: The following water sources serve the municipality:

text: The following water sources serve the municipality:

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answers: The water sources serve the municipality

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answers: The water sources serve the municipality

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answers: The water sources

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answers: Earth's water

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answers: The clean water act

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answers: reuses the water

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answers: 100

text: Utilizing wastewater from one processes to be used another in another process where lower-quality water is acceptable is one way to reduce the amount of wastewater pollution and simultaneously increase water supplies. Recycling and reuse techniques can include the reuse and treatment of wastewater water from industrial plant wastewater or treated service water (from mining) for use in lower quality uses. Similarly, wastewater re-use in commercial buildings (e.g. in toilets) and use of treated municipal wastewater (e.g. for industrial cooling).

text: Utilizing wastewater from one processes to be used another in another process where lower-quality water is acceptable is one way to reduce the amount of wastewater pollution and simultaneously increase water supplies. Recycling and reuse techniques can include the reuse and treatment of wastewater water from industrial plant wastewater or treated service water (from mining) for use in lower quality uses. Similarly, wastewater re-use in commercial buildings (e.g. in toilets) and use of treated municipal wastewater (e.g. for industrial cooling).

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answers: increase water supplies

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answers: Lower-quality water

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answers: Use of treated municipal wastewater

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answers: industrial plant

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answers: supplies

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answers: Reduce the amount of wastewater pollution

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answers: reduce the amount of wastewater pollution

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answers: lower quality water

text: Industrial wastewater treatment plants are required where municipal sewage treatment plants are unavailable or cannot adequately treat specific industrial wastewaters. Industrial wastewater plants may reduce raw water costs by converting selected wastewaters to reclaimed water used for different purposes. Industrial wastewater treatment plants may reduce wastewater treatment charges collected by municipal sewage treatment plants by pre-treating wastewaters to reduce concentrations of pollutants measured to determine user fees.

text: Industrial wastewater treatment plants are required where municipal sewage treatment plants are unavailable or cannot adequately treat specific industrial wastewaters. Industrial wastewater plants may reduce raw water costs by converting selected wastewaters to reclaimed water used for different purposes. Industrial wastewater treatment plants may reduce wastewater treatment charges collected by municipal sewage treatment plants by pre-treating wastewaters to reduce concentrations of pollutants measured to determine user fees.

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answers: Municipal sewage treatment plants

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answers: Industrial wastewater treatment plants are required where municipal sewage treatment plants are unavailable

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answers: industrial

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answers: municipal

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answers: industrial wastewater treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reduce raw water costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: municipal sewage treatment plants

text: Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in Egypt using about 85% of available water.Drainage water from the agricultural fields contains pollutants such as pesticide residues, toxic organic and inorganic pollutants, salts and treated and untreated domestic wastewater.  In the East - Delta drains - Faraskour, Serw and Hadous, samples of the water contained high levels of hookworms and other intestinal helminth eggs.In villages where the only available water is from irrigation canals, women use the water for domestic purposes and also dump the used water back into the drainages.In some areas, low water levels do not reach the waterways, so farmers build illegal waterwheels to get the water up the canals to irrigate their land.  Lack of drainage canals and the enforcement by officials to address these problems contribute to pollution of land and water. Villagers drinking polluted water have been affected with kidney and liver diseases.Animal manure, dredged sediments from drains and sludge for fertilizer are leached and the contaminants are a major source of pollution.  Agricultural drainage water reuse is used by farmers legally and illegally.  Improper irrigation and lack of education on effective irrigation methods and crop production contributes to crop failure and polluting of canals.  In areas where there is no formal operational structure for pumping water of individual diesel pumps, the tail-end users usually are not getting enough water to maintain crops.

text: Agriculture

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answers: In some areas, low water levels do not reach the waterways

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answers: In some areas, low water levels do not reach the waterways

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answers: Agriculture

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answers: Agricultural drainage water reuse

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answers: crop failure and polluting of canals

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answers: 85%

text: This would soon change. Benjamin Franklin already had noted in his will the high elevation and quality of Wissahickon water, proposing that in some future day the stream be dammed to supply a safe and pure water source for Philadelphia’s water supply, and even allocating funds for this purpose. This did not happen, but the quest for pure water affected the Wissahickon’s subsequent history. Seeking to prevent the stream’s industrial discharges from affecting the purity of the water of the Schuylkill River, the Fairmount Park Commission took title of much of the land along the Wissahickon in 1869-1870, and continued to expand its holdings in subsequent decades. The mills were razed; the last active mill was demolished in 1884. Several decades later the Schuylkill River itself became seriously polluted by sources in the coal fields far upstream beyond Philadelphia’s control, but the waters of the Wissahickon had been restored and the beauty of the Wissahickon Valley had been preserved. Most of America became more industrialized, but the Wissahickon valley quietly returned to its original wilderness character.

text: This would soon change.

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: already had noted in his will the high elevation and quality of Wissahickon water, proposing that in some future day the stream be dammed to supply a safe and pure water source for Philadelphia’s water supply, and even allocating funds for this purpose. This did not happen, but the quest for pure water affected the Wissahickon’s subsequent history. Seeking to prevent the stream’s industrial discharges from affecting the purity of the water of the Schuylkill River, the

text: Fairmount Park

text: Commission took title of much of the land along the Wissahickon in 1869-1870, and continued to expand its holdings in subsequent decades. The mills were razed; the last active mill was demolished in 1884. Several decades later the Schuylkill River itself became seriously polluted by sources in the coal fields far upstream beyond Philadelphia’s control, but the waters of the Wissahickon had been restored and the beauty of the Wissahickon Valley had been preserved. Most of America became more industrialized, but the Wissahickon valley quietly returned to its original wilderness character.

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answers: The Schuylkill River

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text: Phosphates enter the water ways through both non-point sources and point sources. Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to water pollution from diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location. The non-point sources of phosphates include: natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; whereas: point sources may include: waste water treatment plants and permitted industrial discharges. In general, the non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution. Therefore, the key to sound management is to limit the input from both point and non-point sources of phosphate. High concentration of phosphate in water bodies is an indication of pollution and largely responsible for eutrophication.

text: Phosphates enter the water ways through both non-point sources and point sources. Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to water pollution from diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location. The non-point sources of phosphates include: natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; whereas: point sources may include: waste water treatment plants and permitted industrial discharges. In general, the non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution. Therefore, the key to sound management is to limit the input from both point and non-point sources of phosphate. High concentration of phosphate in water bodies is an indication of pollution and largely responsible for

text: eutrophication

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answers: Non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: point sources

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answers: diffuse sources

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answers: Non-point source (NPS) pollution

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answers: largely responsible for eutrophication

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answers: point sources

text: Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage. Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, in jurisdictions where these are permitted. Further, ground water can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking. Produced water, the water that returns to the surface after fracking, is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment, and reuse in future wells. There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air, though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation.

text: Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage.

text: Surface water

text: may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, in jurisdictions where these are permitted. Further,

text: ground water

text: can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking. Produced water, the water that returns to the surface after fracking, is managed by

text: underground injection

text: municipal

text: and

text: commercial

text: wastewater treatment

text: , and reuse in future wells. There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air, though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation.

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answers: Water usage by hydraulic fracturing

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answers: reuse in future wells

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text: Sarpa Kavus even help in soil and water conservation besides preserving its rich biological wealth. The ponds and streams adjoining the groves are perennial water sources. These are the last resorts to many of the animals and birds for their water requirements, especially during summer. Sacred groves also enrich the soil through its rich litter composition. The nutrients generated thus are not only recycled within the sacred grove ecosystem but also find their way into the adjoining agroeco systems.

text: Sarpa Kavus even help in soil and water conservation besides preserving its rich biological wealth. The ponds and streams adjoining the groves are perennial water sources. These are the last resorts to many of the animals and birds for their water requirements, especially during summer. Sacred groves also enrich the soil through its rich litter composition. The nutrients generated thus are not only recycled within the sacred grove ecosystem but also find their way into the adjoining agroeco systems.

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text: The presence of water is essential for the survival of all plant life. In a grapevine, water acts as a universal solvent for many of the nutrients and minerals needed to carry out important physiological functions, and the vine receives these by absorbing the nutrient-containing water from the soil. In the absence of sufficient water in the soil, the root system of the vine may have difficulties absorbing these nutrients. Within the structure of the plant itself, water acts as a transport within the xylem to bring these nutrients to all ends of the plant. During the process of photosynthesis, water molecules combine with carbon derived from carbon dioxide to form glucose, which is the primary energy source of the vine, as well as oxygen as a by-product.

text: The presence of water is essential for the survival of all plant life. In a grapevine, water acts as a universal solvent for many of the

text: nutrients

text: and

text: mineral

text: s needed to carry out important physiological functions, and the vine receives these by absorbing the nutrient-containing water from the soil. In the absence of sufficient water in the soil, the

text: root

text: system of the vine may have difficulties absorbing these nutrients. Within the structure of the plant itself, water acts as a transport within the

text: xylem

text: to bring these nutrients to all ends of the plant. During the process of photosynthesis, water molecules combine with

text: carbon

text: derived from

text: carbon dioxide

text: to form

text: glucose

text: , which is the primary energy source of the vine, as well as

text: oxygen

text: as a by-product.

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answers: 100

text: Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreatedsewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface water in India are polluted.

text: Water pollution

text: is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated

text: sewage

text: . Other sources of pollution include

text: agricultural runoff

text: and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface water in India are polluted.

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text: Paris in its early history had only the Seine and Bièvre rivers for water. From 1809, the Canal de l'Ourcq provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital. From 1857, the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand, under Napoleon III, oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation. From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris's streets. This system is still a major part of Paris's modern water-supply network. Today Paris has more than  of underground passageways dedicated to the evacuation of Paris's liquid wastes.

text: Paris in its early history had only the Seine and

text: Bièvre

text: rivers for water. From 1809, the

text: Canal de l'Ourcq

text: provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital. From 1857, the civil engineer

text: Eugène Belgrand

text: , under

text: Napoleon III

text: , oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation. From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris's streets. This system is still a major part of Paris's modern water-supply network. Today Paris has more than  of underground passageways dedicated to the evacuation of Paris's liquid wastes.

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answers: The new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water

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answers: 100

text: The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) has three main responsibilities. The first is to treat the raw water drawn from the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers so that it is safe for drinking, and deliver it to customers. The second is to collect and treat wastewater (i.e., sewage) that flows into the sewer system. Philadelphia Water must treat this used water coming from homes, businesses and factories, as well as rainwater, so that it is clean enough to return to the Delaware River. The department is also responsible for collecting, storing and managing stormwater in order to keep excess stormwater from overflowing into the wastewater treatment system.The third is to collect and recycle biosolids into clean, beneficial soil-like compost. Biosolids are the solid materials left over from the wastewater treatment process, including plant material, human waste, food put down the garbage disposal and detergents. The Biosolids Recycling Center cleans, treats and transforms these materials into a nutrient-rich compost.

text: The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) has three main responsibilities. The first is to treat the

text: raw water

text: drawn from the

text: Schuylkill

text: and

text: Delaware River

text: s so that it is safe for drinking, and deliver it to customers. The second is to collect and treat

text: wastewater

text: (i.e.,

text: sewage

text: ) that flows into the

text: sewer system

text: . Philadelphia Water must treat this used water coming from homes, businesses and factories, as well as

text: rainwater

text: , so that it is clean enough to return to the Delaware River. The department is also responsible for collecting, storing and managing

text: stormwater

text: in order to keep excess stormwater from overflowing into the

text: wastewater treatment system

text: .The third is to collect and recycle

text: biosolids

text: into clean, beneficial soil-like

text: compost

text: . Biosolids are the solid materials left over from the wastewater treatment process, including plant material, human waste, food put down the garbage disposal and detergents. The Biosolids Recycling Center cleans, treats and transforms these materials into a nutrient-rich compost.

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answers: raw water drawn from the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers

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answers: The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) has three main responsibilities

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: homes, businesses and factories

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: rainwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: compost

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answers: 100

text: A vermifilter (also called vermicomposting filter, vermicomposting digester, biological filter with earthworms) is an aerobic treatment system comprising a passive aerobic biological reactor that treats wastewater by removing organic matter, pathogens and oxygen demand under a bio-oxidative process. The vermifilter offers primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of influent blackwater and greywater for on-site treatment of domestic organic waste, urban/municipal wastewater and agro-industrial wastewater.

text: A vermifilter (also called vermicomposting filter, vermicomposting digester, biological filter with earthworms) is an

text: aerobic treatment system

text: comprising a passive aerobic biological reactor that treats wastewater by removing organic matter, pathogens and oxygen demand under a bio-oxidative process. The vermifilter offers primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of influent

text: blackwater

text: and

text: greywater

text: for on-site treatment of domestic organic waste, urban/municipal wastewater and agro-industrial wastewater.

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answers: Vermifilter offers primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of influent blackwater and greywater

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answers: on-site treatment

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answers: greywater

text: Surface and groundwater in the Barada basin is polluted by industrial and domestic wastewater, as well as by agricultural non-point sources such as fertilizers and pesticides. Much of the wastewater generated from industrial activities in Greater Damascus is discharged into the environment, mainly to the Barada River, without prior treatment. The uncontrolled disposal of toxic, chemical products, primarily from lead industries and battery manufactories, has also resulted in severe soil pollution. There is no pre-treatment of industrial wastewater discharged into the sewer network. As a result, the largest wastewater treatment plant of Damascus in Adra frequently malfunctions. Measured concentrations of biological oxygen demand (BOD), a measure of organic water pollution, exceeded the allowed limits in most of the branches of the Barada River. According to the Syrian National Environmental Action Plan of 2003, concentrations of BOD and ammonia in the Barada River exceeded Syrian Standards for 86% of collected samples between 1995 and 2000. Well and spring water in the basin is bacteriologically contaminated because of sewage discharge. The concentrations of nitrates in some wells in the Ghouta exceeded the limits set by the drinking water standards. Because of discharges by tanneries concentrations of Chromium III reach 10 mg/liter in Al Daiyani River and exceed the allowable limits tenfold in the wells of Al Zablatini area, all located in the Barada basin. Surface water pollution reduces real estate values next to the river and its branches, as well as the recreational value of the river. It also damages fishery, aquaculture and biodiversity, in addition to its health impacts.

text: Surface and groundwater in the Barada basin is polluted by industrial and domestic wastewater, as well as by agricultural non-point sources such as fertilizers and pesticides. Much of the wastewater generated from industrial activities in Greater Damascus is discharged into the environment, mainly to the Barada River, without prior treatment. The uncontrolled disposal of toxic, chemical products, primarily from lead industries and battery manufactories, has also resulted in severe soil pollution. There is no pre-treatment of industrial wastewater discharged into the sewer network. As a result, the largest wastewater treatment plant of Damascus in Adra frequently malfunctions. Measured concentrations of

text: biological oxygen demand

text: (BOD), a measure of organic water pollution, exceeded the allowed limits in most of the branches of the Barada River. According to the Syrian National Environmental Action Plan of 2003, concentrations of BOD and

text: ammonia

text: in the Barada River exceeded Syrian Standards for 86% of collected samples between 1995 and 2000. Well and spring water in the basin is bacteriologically contaminated because of sewage discharge. The concentrations of nitrates in some wells in the Ghouta exceeded the limits set by the drinking water standards. Because of discharges by tanneries concentrations of

text: Chromium III

text: reach 10 mg/liter in Al Daiyani River and exceed the allowable limits tenfold in the wells of Al Zablatini area, all located in the Barada basin. Surface water pollution reduces real estate values next to the river and its branches, as well as the recreational value of the river. It also damages fishery, aquaculture and biodiversity, in addition to its health impacts.

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: It also damages fishery, aquaculture and biodiversity, in addition to its health impacts

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial activities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Syrian National Environmental Action Plan

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answers: Surface water pollution reduces real estate values next to the river

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 86%

text: Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources. When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants, chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources form contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.

text: Another strategy in water conservation is protecting

text: groundwater

text: resources. When

text: precipitation

text: occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this saturation zone is called groundwater.

text: Contamination of groundwater

text: causes the groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage tanks,

text: septic

text: systems, uncontrolled

text: hazardous waste

text: landfill

text: s,

text: atmospheric contaminants

text: , chemicals, and

text: road salt

text: s. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources form contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.

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answers: Contamination

text: The Weesener Bach, also called the Lutterbach, is a tributary of the river Örtze in northern Germany. It rises in the Südheide Nature Park, south of the village of Lutterloh near Unterlüß, then flows through the Hermannsburg village of Weesen and enters the Örtze north of Hermannsburg after about 10.5 km. The source of the stream lies at 84 m above sea level, its mouth is 54 m above sea level, giving a height difference of 30 metres. Originally the Weesener Bach emerged from a bog region. Most of this was converted into ponds. The ponds have become overgrown in many areas with Water Horsetail. The entire course of the stream together with the banks either side, a total of , was declared a nature reserve in 1999. As a result, an almost natural, totally healthy stream has been preserved, whose water quality, apart from its upper course near the source ponds, is of the highest category, I-II, and only slightly polluted. Due to its high water quality, the stream is home to a multitude of rare animals. Amongst the fish that thrive here are Brown Trout, Bullhead and Brook Lamprey. In 1987, 176 species of animals were recorded here, of which 36 were on the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species. Along the banks and water meadows there are 60 more endangered species, such as vascular plants, mosses, amphibians and reptiles. Even the Kingfisher lives here.

text: The Weesener Bach, also called the Lutterbach, is a tributary of the river

text: Örtze

text: in northern Germany. It rises in the

text: Südheide Nature Park

text: , south of the village of

text: Lutterloh

text: near

text: Unterlüß

text: , then flows through the Hermannsburg village of

text: Weesen

text: and enters the Örtze north of

text: Hermannsburg

text: after about 10.5 km. The source of the stream lies at 84 m above

text: sea level

text: , its mouth is 54 m above

text: sea level

text: , giving a height difference of 30 metres. Originally the Weesener Bach emerged from a bog region. Most of this was converted into ponds. The ponds have become overgrown in many areas with

text: Water Horsetail

text: . The entire course of the stream together with the banks either side, a total of , was declared a

text: nature reserve

text: in 1999. As a result, an almost natural, totally healthy stream has been preserved, whose water quality, apart from its upper course near the source ponds, is of the highest category, I-II, and only slightly polluted. Due to its high water quality, the stream is home to a multitude of rare animals. Amongst the fish that thrive here are

text: Brown Trout

text: Bullhead

text: and

text: Brook Lamprey

text: . In 1987, 176 species of animals were recorded here, of which 36 were on the IUCN's

text: Red List of Threatened Species

text: . Along the banks and water meadows there are 60 more endangered species, such as

text: vascular plant

text: s,

text: moss

text: es,

text: amphibian

text: s and

text: reptile

text: s. Even the

text: Kingfisher

text: lives here.

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text: The main economic value of the River Rye lies in its use as a water source for agriculture, domestic supply, fisheries and leisure pursuits. It is also used to drain the water discharged by wastewater treatment works.

text: The main economic value of the River Rye lies in its use as a water source for agriculture, domestic supply, fisheries and leisure pursuits. It is also used to drain the water discharged by wastewater treatment works.

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text: In order for an army to be in good fighting condition, it must maintain the health of its soldiers.  One way of doing this is knowing the proper location to set up camp.  Military camps were not to be set up in any sort of marshy region.  Marsh lands tend to have standing water, which can draw in mosquitos.  Mosquitos in turn can carry deadly disease, such as malaria.  As the camp and troops were needed to be moved, the troops would be wearing heavy soled shoes in order to prevent wear on soldiers’ feet.  Waterborne illness has also remained an issue throughout the centuries.  When soldiers would look for water they would be searching for some sort of natural spring, or other form of flowing water.  When water sources were found, any type of rotting wood, or plant material, would be removed before the water was used for drinking.  If these features could not be removed, then water would be drawn from a different part of the source.  By doing this the soldiers were more likely to be drinking from a safe source of water.  Thus, water borne bacteria had a less chance of making soldiers ill.  One process used to check for dirty water, was to moisten a fine white linen cloth with the water and leave it out to dry.  If the cloth had any type of stain, it would be considered to be diseased.  If the cloth was clean, the water was healthy and drinkable.  Fresh water also assists with sewage disposal, as well as wound care.  Thus, a source of fresh water was a preemptive measure taken to defeat disease and keep men healthy once they were wounded.

text: In order for an army to be in good fighting condition, it must maintain the health of its soldiers.  One way of doing this is knowing the proper location to set up

text: camp

text: .  Military camps were not to be set up in any sort of

text: marsh

text: y region.

text: Marsh

text: lands tend to have standing water, which can draw in

text: mosquito

text: s.  Mosquitos in turn can carry deadly disease, such as

text: malaria

text: .  As the camp and troops were needed to be moved, the troops would be wearing heavy soled shoes in order to prevent wear on soldiers’ feet.  Waterborne illness has also remained an issue throughout the centuries.  When soldiers would look for water they would be searching for some sort of natural spring, or other form of flowing water.  When water sources were found, any type of rotting wood, or plant material, would be removed before the water was used for drinking.  If these features could not be removed, then water would be drawn from a different part of the source.  By doing this the soldiers were more likely to be drinking from a safe source of water.  Thus,

text: water borne bacteria

text: had a less chance of making soldiers ill.  One process used to check for dirty water, was to moisten a fine white linen cloth with the water and leave it out to dry.  If the cloth had any type of stain, it would be considered to be diseased.  If the cloth was clean, the water was healthy and drinkable.  Fresh water also assists with

text: sewage

text: disposal, as well as wound care.  Thus, a source of fresh water was a preemptive measure taken to defeat disease and keep men healthy once they were wounded.

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answers: Waterborne illness has also remained an issue throughout the centuries

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Marsh lands tend to have standing water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: sewage disposal

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: marshy

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water borne bacteria had a less chance of making soldiers ill

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Primary treatment of sewage is removal of floating and settleable solids through sedimentation. Primary clarifiers reduce the content of suspended solids and pollutants embedded in those suspended solids. Because of the large amount of reagent necessary to treat domestic wastewater, preliminary chemical coagulation and flocculation are generally not used, remaining suspended solids being reduced by following stages of the system. However, coagulation and flocculation can be used for building a compact treatment plant (also called a "package treatment plant"), or for further polishing of the treated water.

text: Primary treatment

text: of

text: sewage

text: is removal of floating and settleable solids through sedimentation. Primary clarifiers reduce the content of suspended solids and pollutants embedded in those suspended solids. Because of the large amount of

text: reagent

text: necessary to treat domestic wastewater, preliminary chemical coagulation and flocculation are generally not used, remaining suspended solids being reduced by following stages of the system. However, coagulation and flocculation can be used for building a compact treatment plant (also called a "package treatment plant"), or for further polishing of the treated water.

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answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Because of the large amount of reagent necessary to treat domestic wastewater

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: domestic

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: treated water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: compact treatment plant (also called a "package treatment plant"), or for further polishing of the treated water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: domestic wastewater

text: States have primary responsibility for implementing NPS water pollution regulations. Both the CZMA and the CWA direct the states to draft and implement NPS plans, and the federal government plays a limited role. As noted in the previous section on federal regulations, the CWA and CZMA provide financing for states to implement NPS programs, and those NPS programs have taken a variety of forms.  The majority of state plans rely on education and technical assistance, including the development of best management practices, to reduce NPS water pollution. Local governments also have an important role to play in NPS regulation. Local municipality, water conservation districts and other entities with land management responsibility provide planning, zoning, and technical and informational assistance to control NPS pollution. While the approaches states and local governments have taken to regulating NPS water pollution are perhaps too numerous to count, a survey of a few state approaches can provide insight on common NPS implementation plans.

text: States have primary responsibility for implementing NPS water pollution regulations. Both the CZMA and the CWA direct the states to draft and implement NPS plans, and the federal government plays a limited role. As noted in the previous section on federal regulations, the CWA and CZMA provide financing for states to implement NPS programs, and those NPS programs have taken a variety of forms.  The majority of state plans rely on education and technical assistance, including the development of best management practices, to reduce NPS water pollution. Local governments also have an important role to play in NPS regulation. Local municipality, water conservation districts and other entities with land management responsibility provide planning, zoning, and technical and informational assistance to control NPS pollution. While the approaches states and local governments have taken to regulating NPS water pollution are perhaps too numerous to count, a survey of a few state approaches can provide insight on common NPS implementation plans.

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answers: The majority of state plans rely on education and technical assistance

answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: NPS water pollution

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: States

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answers: CWA

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answers: reduce NPS water pollution

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The concept of a unified authority with responsibility for all of the water-related functions within a river basin or series of river basins dates from the late nineteenth century. A river conservancy bill was introduced into Parliament in 1878 by the Duke of Richmond, and the Council of the Society of Arts offered medals to those who could devise suitable watershed districts to aid such conservancy. A silver medal was awarded to Frederick Toplis for his plan to create 12 watershed districts, which covered similar areas to the Water Authorities created under the Water Act 1973. Each District would be run by commissioners, with powers to acquire all of the waterworks within their area, and to manage both them and the rivers for water supply and the prevention of flooding and pollution. He wrote that "every drop of water falling on their district should be more or less under their control from the time it falls on the land until it reaches the sea."

text: The concept of a unified authority with responsibility for all of the water-related functions within a

text: river basin

text: or series of river basins dates from the late nineteenth century. A river conservancy

text: bill

text: was introduced into Parliament in 1878 by the Duke of Richmond, and the Council of the

text: Society of Arts

text: offered medals to those who could devise suitable watershed districts to aid such conservancy. A silver medal was awarded to Frederick Toplis for his plan to create 12 watershed districts, which covered similar areas to the Water Authorities created under the

text: Water Act 1973

text: . Each District would be run by commissioners, with powers to acquire all of the waterworks within their area, and to manage both them and the rivers for water supply and the prevention of flooding and pollution. He wrote that "every drop of water falling on their district should be more or less under their control from the time it falls on the land until it reaches the sea."

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answers: "every drop of water falling on their district should be more or less under their control

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Water Authorities created under the Water Act 1973

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: waterworks

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: every drop of water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Water Act 1973

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: every drop of water falling on their district should be more or less under their control

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: every drop

text: Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

text: Environmental engineers

text: conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of

text: acid rain

text: , global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

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text: Safe water one of the eight Millennium Development Goals: Target 7.C; "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation",focused on increasing access to an ‘improved water source’ and to ‘improved sanitation’. Yet even having access to an ‘improved water source’ does not guarantee the water's quality, as it could lack proper treatment, become contaminated during transport or even home storage. A study found that estimates of safe water, if accounting for water quality, could be dramatically reduce the proportion of a population with access to safe water, especially if the water sources were poorly maintained.

text: Safe water one of the eight

text: Millennium Development Goals

entity_section: Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

text: Target 7.C

text: ; "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation",focused on increasing access to an ‘

text: improved water source

text: ’ and to ‘

text: improved sanitation

text: ’. Yet even having access to an ‘improved water source’ does not guarantee the water's quality, as it could lack proper treatment, become contaminated during transport or even home storage. A study found that estimates of safe water, if accounting for water quality, could be dramatically reduce the proportion of a population with access to safe water, especially if the water sources were poorly maintained.

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text: When Rajaat emerged from the Pristine Tower he offered to tutor anyone in magic who showed promise. Psionics were an important source of power during this period but they were tightly controlled by the nobles. Rajaat, knowning what it was like to be rejected by society, agreed to teach anyone including societies and outsiders. He taught preserving magic to anyone capable of learning and observed which races seemed to have the most potential for magic. Schools and colleges for magic sprang up a lead by Rajaat's trusted disciples. Outwardly, Rajaat preached a rhetoric of peace and sodality encouraging mages to work together rather than feud; conflict was forbidden. Secretly, however, Rajaat segregated the students he considered of questionable morality or character and taught them defiling magic. As magic proliferated it became an important source of temporal power helping people to transform their position in society and to shape the world at large, and eventually surpassing psionics in importance. Mages took on a new found political importance which allowed Rajaat to set the stage for his true intentions. Rajaat had decided that humans had the greatest capacity for defilement and that they would be the vessels for his ultimate purpose. Rajaat called to him his loyal followers and his best students and lied to them by arguing that the now ruling preserver mages were corrupt and were going to use their powers to dominate or destroy. His followers vowed to help him end the growing tyranny of the preservers which began the Preserver Jihad. The Jihad was wildly successful essentially driving preserver magic so far underground that it virtually ceased to exist leaving defilers as the dominant spellcasters on Athas and cleared the way for the next stage of his plans.

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text: At Rudra Prayag  the Alaknanda meets the Mandakini River. The confluence is named after god Shiva, who is also known as Rudra. According to a widely narrated legend, Shiva performed the Tandava here, Tandava is a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation, preservation and dissolution. Shiva also played his favourite musical instrument the Rudra veena here. By playing the Veena, he enticed god Vishnu to his presence and converted him to water.

text: At Rudra Prayag  the Alaknanda meets the

text: Mandakini River

text: . The confluence is named after god Shiva, who is also known as

text: Rudra

text: . According to a widely narrated legend, Shiva performed the

text: Tandava

text: here, Tandava is a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation, preservation and dissolution. Shiva also played his favourite musical instrument the

text: Rudra veena

text: here. By playing the Veena, he enticed god Vishnu to his presence and converted him to water.

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answers: River

text: Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical regions: north, northeast, central, south, and east. Thailand has a total of 25 river basins in the country and Thailand's annual rainfall is around 1,700 mm. Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." Non-potable water was a result of increasing untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. Like air pollution, water pollution is most serious in the populous central region, with high levels of industrial and domestic waste water.

text: Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical

text: regions

text: north

text: northeast

text: central

text: south

text: , and

text: east

text: . Thailand has a total of 25 river basins in the country and Thailand's annual rainfall is around 1,700 mm. Despite the annual southwest

text: monsoon

text: Thailand

text: is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." Non-potable water was a result of increasing untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. Like air pollution, water pollution is most serious in the populous central region, with high levels of industrial and domestic waste water.

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answers: Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought

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text: Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of Legionella, including species that cause legionellosis or Legionnaires' disease, most notably L. pneumophila, or Mycobacterium avium. The various Legionella species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to aerosols—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of Legionella include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.

text: Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of

text: Legionella

text: , including species that cause

text: legionellosis

text: or Legionnaires' disease, most notably L. pneumophila, or

text: Mycobacterium avium

text: . The various Legionella species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to

text: aerosol

text: s—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of Legionella include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.

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text: Waste treatment ponds are very efficient even though their design has not changed in years. The plants work well in nearly all environments and can treat most forms of wastewater produced. Treatment ponds are used for smaller purposes in the United States but are used for major cities and factories in the rest of the world, as it is a simple and effective method to treat water. Many improvements have been made to improve their effectiveness and efficiency at turning harmful chemicals and sewage into less harmful forms of the previous. With ponds there is a variety of key elements to take care of in order to be properly maintained for the wastewater to be properly treated. Factors such as oxygen levels and flow through the ponds are just a few of the critical factors to properly maintaining the ponds. These factors are constantly monitored to maintain the pond and gain information on what factors are working the best in order to speed up the breakdown of harmful chemicals at the most efficient rate. Treatment ponds that are aerobic, anaerobic or facultative flow through basins are used in order to begin the water treatment process. Anaerobic ponds are used to treat water with industrial waste whereas aerobic ponds are used to treat water contaminated from other plant processes. Facultative ponds are good to treat raw wastewater and water that was not treated properly in the other ponds because it is both aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic ponds are saturated with dissolved oxygen throughout the entire pond and are shallow enough for light to penetrate the entire depth of the pond. Anaerobic ponds allow the solid waste to settle down at the bottom as a waste sludge while dissolving organic material.

text: Waste treatment ponds are very efficient even though their design has not changed in years. The plants work well in nearly all environments and can treat most forms of

text: wastewater

text: produced. Treatment ponds are used for smaller purposes in the United States but are used for major cities and factories in the rest of the world, as it is a simple and effective method to treat water. Many improvements have been made to improve their effectiveness and efficiency at turning harmful chemicals and sewage into less harmful forms of the previous. With ponds there is a variety of key elements to take care of in order to be properly maintained for the wastewater to be properly treated. Factors such as oxygen levels and flow through the ponds are just a few of the critical factors to properly maintaining the ponds. These factors are constantly monitored to maintain the pond and gain information on what factors are working the best in order to speed up the breakdown of harmful chemicals at the most efficient rate. Treatment ponds that are

text: aerobic

text: anaerobic

text: or

text: facultative

text: flow through basins are used in order to begin the water treatment process. Anaerobic ponds are used to treat water with industrial waste whereas aerobic ponds are used to treat water contaminated from other plant processes. Facultative ponds are good to treat raw wastewater and water that was not treated properly in the other ponds because it is both aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic ponds are saturated with dissolved oxygen throughout the entire pond and are shallow enough for light to penetrate the entire depth of the pond. Anaerobic ponds allow the solid waste to settle down at the bottom as a waste sludge while dissolving organic material.

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answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: Treatment ponds are used for smaller purposes in the United States but are used for major cities and factories in the rest of the world

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answers: major cities and factories

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answers: The plants work well in nearly all environments and can treat most forms of wastewater produced

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answers: The plants work well in nearly all environments and can treat most forms of wastewater produced

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text: The environmental benefits of WQT programs are also numerous. First, habitats and ecosystems are protected and/or improved. Second, water quality objectives are able to be achieved in a timely manner. Third, there is incentive for innovation and creation of pollution prevention technologies. Finally, nonpoint sources are included in solving water quality problems. Social benefits include dialog among watershed stakeholders and incentives for all dischargers to reduce their pollution.

text: The environmental benefits of WQT programs are also numerous. First, habitats and ecosystems are protected and/or improved. Second, water quality objectives are able to be achieved in a timely manner. Third, there is incentive for innovation and creation of pollution prevention technologies. Finally, nonpoint sources are included in solving water quality problems. Social benefits include dialog among watershed stakeholders and incentives for all dischargers to reduce their pollution.

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text: There are a variety of water quality parameters that may be affected by point source water pollution. They include: dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), temperature, pH, turbidity, phosphorus, nitrates, total suspended solids, conductivity, alkalinity, and fecal coliform. Given that much of the point source water pollution in the United States comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants, BOD is perhaps the most widely used metric to assess water quality.

text: There are a variety of

text: water quality

text: parameters that may be affected by point source water pollution. They include:

text: dissolved oxygen

text: and

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: (BOD), temperature,

text: pH

text: turbidity

text: phosphorus

text: nitrate

text: s,

text: total suspended solids

text: conductivity

text: alkalinity

text: , and

text: fecal coliform

text: . Given that much of the point source water pollution in the United States comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants, BOD is perhaps the most widely used metric to assess water quality.

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text: In 1992, the government passed several pieces of legislation to prevent water pollution. The laws primarily limit industrial water contamination:

text: In 1992, the government passed several pieces of legislation to prevent water pollution. The laws primarily limit industrial water contamination:

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text: The treatment of wastewater belongs to the overarching field of Public Works - Environmental, with the management of human waste, solid waste, sewage treatment, stormwater (drainage) management, and water treatment. By-products from wastewater treatment plants, such as screenings, grit and sewage sludge may also be treated in a wastewater treatment plant. If the wastewater is predominantly from municipal sources (households and small industries) it is called sewage and its treatment is called sewage treatment.

text: The treatment of wastewater belongs to the overarching field of Public Works - Environmental, with the management of

text: human waste

text: solid waste

text: sewage treatment

text: stormwater

text: (drainage) management, and

text: water treatment

text: . By-products from wastewater treatment plants, such as screenings, grit and

text: sewage sludge

text: may also be treated in a wastewater treatment plant. If the wastewater is predominantly from municipal sources (households and small industries) it is called

text: sewage

text: and its treatment is called

text: sewage treatment

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text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or Clean Water Act (CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the nation’s streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. The act’s primary mechanism for controlling pollutant discharges is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program, authorized in Section 402. In accordance with the NPDES program, pollutant discharges from point sources — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. While sewage is defined as a pollutant under the act, sewage from vessels is exempt from this statutory definition and is therefore exempt from the requirement to obtain an NPDES permit. Further, EPA regulations implementing the NPDES permit program provide that “discharges incidental to the normal operation of vessels” are excluded from regulation and thus from permit requirements. However, a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that would remove the current permitting exemption (see discussion of "Ballast water").

text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the nation’s

text: stream

text: s,

text: lake

text: s,

text: estuaries

text: , and

text: coastal waters

text: . The act’s primary mechanism for controlling pollutant discharges is the

entity_section: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES) program, authorized in Section 402. In accordance with the NPDES program, pollutant discharges from

text: point sources

text: — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. While

text: sewage

text: is defined as a pollutant under the act, sewage from vessels is exempt from this statutory definition and is therefore exempt from the requirement to obtain an NPDES permit. Further, EPA regulations implementing the NPDES permit program provide that “discharges incidental to the normal operation of vessels” are excluded from regulation and thus from permit requirements. However, a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that would remove the current permitting exemption (see discussion of "

entity_name: Regulation of ship pollution in the United States

text: Ballast water

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answers: a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that would remove the current permitting exemption

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or Clean Water Act (CWA)

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: vessels

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Federal Water Pollution Control Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: sewage from vessels is exempt from this statutory definition

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 402

text: There are many examples of these relatively closed lagoon systems around the world. Most have significant ecological value, so preserving the balance between fresh and salt water is important. Examples include the Coorong, Australia, 260 km, Laguna de Araruama (Brazil, 10,360 km), Lake St. Lucia (South Africa, 312 km) and Lake Songkhla (Thailand, 1,040 km). If the sediment sources for these barriers was to be removed their barriers would be eroded away and bays would form in the lagoons place with inundation.

text: There are many examples of these relatively closed lagoon systems around the world. Most have significant ecological value, so preserving the balance between fresh and salt water is important. Examples include the

text: Coorong

text: , Australia, 260 km, Laguna de Araruama (Brazil, 10,360 km),

text: Lake St. Lucia

text: (South Africa, 312 km) and

text: Lake Songkhla

text: (Thailand, 1,040 km). If the sediment sources for these barriers was to be removed their barriers would be eroded away and bays would form in the lagoons place with inundation.

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answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: Coorong

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: fresh water

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answers: NDQ_011878

answers: ecological value

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: salt water

text: Pilot project for potable reuse. The Federal District constructed two pilot treatment plants in 1983 to study the potential for the advanced wastewater treatment of secondary effluent for potable reuse, and to examine the potential for treating contaminated ground water. Based upon results of the experimental treatment plants, a new treatment facility was constructed, with a capacity of 0.3 m/s, and designed for both ground water treatment and direct potable reuse. The established goal of the reuse project was to blend the reclaimed wastewater with treated ground water and add it directly into the distribution system Currently, the reclaimed wastewater is being used for non-potable purposes.

text: Pilot project for potable reuse. The Federal District constructed two pilot treatment plants in 1983 to study the potential for the advanced wastewater treatment of secondary effluent for potable reuse, and to examine the potential for treating contaminated ground water. Based upon results of the experimental treatment plants, a new treatment facility was constructed, with a capacity of 0.3 m/s, and designed for both ground water treatment and direct potable reuse. The established goal of the reuse project was to blend the reclaimed wastewater with treated ground water and add it directly into the distribution system Currently, the reclaimed wastewater is being used for non-potable purposes.

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answers: Potable reuse

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answers: secondary effluent

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: ground water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Federal District

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: potable reuse

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: There is increasing evidence that habitats created by humans, such as canals, ditches, and farm ponds can support freshwater biodiversity and, therefore, have potential to provide refuges. They can prevent larger organisms, like fish, from becoming stranded as water levels decrease. While the preservation of refuges is crucial to provide recolonization sources, it is not sufficient if colonists cannot get from the refuge to habitat patches suitable for colonization.

text: There is increasing evidence that habitats created by humans, such as canals, ditches, and farm ponds can support freshwater biodiversity and, therefore, have potential to provide refuges. They can prevent larger organisms, like fish, from becoming stranded as water levels decrease. While the preservation of refuges is crucial to provide recolonization sources, it is not sufficient if colonists cannot get from the refuge to habitat patches suitable for colonization.

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is crucial to provide recolonization sources

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: provide recolonization sources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: freshwater

text: Where buildings stand on top of probable or known archaeology the effect that their foundations and floors have on ground water levels may also be important in the degree of preservation that can be expected.

text: Where buildings stand on top of probable or known archaeology the effect that their foundations and floors have on ground water levels may also be important in the degree of preservation that can be expected.

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answers: Ground water levels

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: buildings

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: ground water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preservation

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: ground water

text: It is estimated that between 50% and 60% of the population of Southern Sudan has access to an improved water source, such as a hand pump, a protected well or – for a small minority - piped water supply. Even those with access to an improved water source often do not receive safe water. Also, they do not receive water throughout the year, because piped water supply is intermittent or wells run dry. Those without access to an improved water source fetch water from rivers, ponds or open wells. This is often done by children and women. Some also buy water from vendors who use donkeys, bicycles or trucks to get water to their customers.

text: It is estimated that between 50% and 60% of the population of Southern Sudan has access to an

text: improved water source

text: , such as a hand pump, a protected well or – for a small minority - piped water supply. Even those with access to an improved water source often do not receive safe water. Also, they do not receive water throughout the year, because piped water supply is intermittent or wells run dry. Those without access to an improved water source fetch water from rivers, ponds or open wells. This is often done by children and women. Some also buy water from vendors who use donkeys, bicycles or trucks to get water to their customers.

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: they do not receive water throughout the year

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 60%

text: An aerated lagoon or aerated basin is a holding and/or treatment pond provided with artificial aeration to promote the biological oxidation of wastewaters. There are many other biological processes for treatment of wastewaters, for example activated sludge, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors and biofilters. They all have in common the use of oxygen (or air) and microbial action to biotreat the pollutants in wastewaters.

text: An aerated lagoon or aerated basin is a holding and/or treatment

text: pond

text: provided with artificial

text: aeration

text: to promote the biological oxidation of

text: wastewater

text: s. There are many other biological processes for treatment of wastewaters, for example

text: activated sludge

text: trickling filter

text: s,

text: rotating biological contactor

text: s and

text: biofilter

text: s. They all have in common the use of

text: oxygen

text: (or

text: air

text: ) and

text: microbial

text: action to biotreat the pollutants in wastewaters.

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answers: wastewaters

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answers: biotreat the pollutants

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answers: 9

text: The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector). The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations.

text: The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector). The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations.

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answers: The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator

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answers: freshwater

text: Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. It is clear that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity, water purification technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage.

text: Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human

text: sewage

text: and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006,

text: waterborne diseases

text: were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. It is clear that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity,

text: water purification

text: technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage.

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answers: 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: human

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answers: human faecal pathogens and parasites

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answers: faecal pathogens and parasites

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 1.1

text: In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use). The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency. EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state. The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.

text: In the United States,

text: Water Quality Standards

text: are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use). The

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a

text: state environmental agency

text: . EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state. The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing

text: Total Maximum Daily Load

text: s (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.

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answers: The Clean Water Act (CWA)

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: recreational use

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: United States

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act (CWA)

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: drinking water supply

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Today the river is an important migratory fish run for alewife and salter brook trout, home to herring and eels, and is Waquoit Bay's largest source of fresh water. Additional portions of its watershed were purchased through the years by various entities.  The area is now a wildlife management and conservation preserve managed by the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve.

text: Today the river is an important migratory fish run for

text: alewife

text: and salter brook trout, home to

text: herring

text: and

text: eel

text: s, and is Waquoit Bay's largest source of fresh water. Additional portions of its watershed were purchased through the years by various entities.  The area is now a wildlife management and conservation preserve managed by the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve.

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answers: Waquoit Bay

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Waquoit Bay

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: various entities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: fresh water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: is Waquoit Bay's largest source of fresh water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: fresh water

text: Called Ain referring to the old water source in it.

text: Called Ain referring to the old water source in it.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Drinkable water shortages

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: the old water source

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reused water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Seechewal says: "We are facing water scarcity these days, as the ground water level has gone down. But, this can be changed. The flow of polluted water in free-flowing natural rivers has blocked the recharging process. If the flow of polluted water can be stopped to the streams, the water level will automatically improve. In India, when rains come we have floods, but when rains stop we face severe droughts. This is happening because the water is not recharging the earth. If the water is used to recharge properly, we will never face scarcity of water. And, water can be preserved for the coming generations."

text: Seechewal says: "We are facing water scarcity these days, as the ground water level has gone down. But, this can be changed. The flow of polluted water in free-flowing natural rivers has blocked the recharging process. If the flow of polluted water can be stopped to the streams, the water level will automatically improve. In India, when rains come we have floods, but when rains stop we face severe droughts. This is happening because the water is not recharging the earth. If the water is used to recharge properly, we will never face scarcity of water. And, water can be preserved for the coming generations."

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answers: ground water level has gone down

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answers: water can be preserved for the coming generations

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: A sustainable landscape is designed to be both attractive and in balance with the local climate and environment and it should require minimal resource inputs. Thus, the design must be “functional, cost-efficient, visually pleasing, environmentally friendly and maintainable"  As part of the concept called sustainable development it pays close attention to the preservation of limited and costly resources, reducing waste and preventing air, water and soil pollution. Landscape Maintenance practices greatly influence the waste produced and the cost of the maintenance itself; such as using electric or gas hedge trimmers which degrade plant material rather than using hand shears which create plant longevity, reduce the amount of waste over time, and prevent the misshaping of plant material and eliminates the "Balls and Boxes that unskilled gardeners create.(James Deagan, Prof Cal Poly Pomona Lecture 1980),  In addition, compost, fertilization, grass cycling, pest control measures that avoid or minimize the use of chemicals, integrated pest management, using the right plant in the right place, appropriate use of turf, irrigation efficiency and xeriscaping or water-wise gardening are all components of sustainable landscaping.

text: A sustainable landscape is designed to be both attractive and in balance with the local climate and environment and it should require minimal resource inputs. Thus, the design must be “functional, cost-efficient, visually pleasing, environmentally friendly and maintainable"  As part of the concept called

text: sustainable development

text: it pays close attention to the preservation of limited and costly resources, reducing waste and preventing air, water and soil pollution. Landscape Maintenance practices greatly influence the waste produced and the cost of the maintenance itself; such as using electric or gas

text: hedge trimmer

text: s which degrade plant material rather than using hand shears which create plant longevity, reduce the amount of waste over time, and prevent the misshaping of plant material and eliminates the "Balls and Boxes that unskilled gardeners create.(James Deagan, Prof Cal Poly Pomona Lecture 1980),  In addition, compost, fertilization,

text: grass cycling

text: , pest control measures that avoid or minimize the use of chemicals,

text: integrated pest management

text: , using the right plant in the right place, appropriate use of turf, irrigation efficiency and

text: xeriscaping

text: or water-wise gardening are all components of sustainable landscaping.

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answers: electric or gas hedge trimmers

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answers: water

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answers: reduce the amount of waste over time

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answers: water-wise

text: The major fresh-water source for BJWSA is the Savannah River, approximately eight miles north of downtown Hardeeville. An eighteen-mile canal carries freshwater from the river to the BJWSA facility for treatment purposes.  The authority operates two water treatment plants, three wastewater treatment plants and hundreds of pump stations.

text: The major fresh-water source for BJWSA is the

text: Savannah River

text: , approximately eight miles north of downtown

text: Hardeeville

text: . An eighteen-mile canal carries freshwater from the river to the BJWSA facility for treatment purposes.  The authority operates two water treatment plants, three wastewater treatment plants and hundreds of pump stations.

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answers: The authority operates two water treatment plants

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answers: three wastewater treatment plants

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: In 1892, the New York Times reported the flooding of the cellar of Solomon Sayles, a merchant whose store was located at 126 Sixth Avenue, between Tenth and Eleventh Streets. This incident provided the Timess reporter an opportunity to speak with Egbert Ludovicus Viele, who had designed the Topographical & Sanitary Map of Manhattan published in 1865. Viele had first investigated the creek in 1860, using a British survey made at the time of the Revolutionary War. Viele explained that the creek was a source of water prior to construction of the Croton Distributing Reservoir. Once the reservoir had been completed in 1842, the creek was no longer needed as a water source, and it became a dumping ground. When Viele once gave a talk on the creek, an elderly physician in the audience recalled cases of intermittent fever due to the creek. Viele was quoted as saying "I have no doubt that the water in Mr. Sayles's cellar comes from the sources of Minetta Creek." He went on to describe the source of Minetta Creek as a perennial spring. Such springs are as natural as the island's rock formations and cannot be dammed, Viele concluded. The 1892 article recommended better drainage for Manhattan's subterranean water sources.

text: In 1892, the New York Times reported the flooding of the cellar of Solomon Sayles, a merchant whose store was located at 126 Sixth Avenue, between Tenth and Eleventh Streets. This incident provided the Timess reporter an opportunity to speak with

text: Egbert Ludovicus Viele

text: , who had designed the Topographical & Sanitary Map of Manhattan published in 1865. Viele had first investigated the creek in 1860, using a British survey made at the time of the Revolutionary War. Viele explained that the creek was a source of water prior to construction of the

text: Croton Distributing Reservoir

text: . Once the reservoir had been completed in 1842, the creek was no longer needed as a water source, and it became a dumping ground. When Viele once gave a talk on the creek, an elderly physician in the audience recalled cases of intermittent fever due to the creek. Viele was quoted as saying "I have no doubt that the water in Mr. Sayles's cellar comes from the sources of Minetta Creek." He went on to describe the source of Minetta Creek as a

text: perennial spring

text: . Such springs are as natural as the island's rock formations and cannot be dammed, Viele concluded. The 1892 article recommended better drainage for Manhattan's subterranean water sources.

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answers: springs are as natural as the island's rock formations and cannot be dammed

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Such springs are as natural as the island's rock formations

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: the Croton Distributing Reservoir

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answers: subterranean

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 1892 article recommended better drainage for Manhattan's subterranean water sources

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: such springs are as natural as the island's rock formations

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: Pursuant to Act 472 of 1949, as amended, ADEQ has the power to issue permits “to prevent, control or abate pollution.” Therefore, any waste-disposal system that does not discharge directly into the waters of the State must be operated under the terms and conditions of a no-discharge water permit. An example of a no-discharge permit is a UIC well permit. Other no-discharge permits are required for land application, land farming, and subsurface disposal of water-treatment-plant residuals, and industrial and animal wastes.

text: Pursuant to Act 472 of 1949, as amended, ADEQ has the power to issue permits “to prevent, control or abate pollution.” Therefore, any waste-disposal system that does not discharge directly into the waters of the State must be operated under the terms and conditions of a no-discharge water permit. An example of a no-discharge permit is a UIC well permit. Other no-discharge permits are required for land application, land farming, and subsurface disposal of water-treatment-plant residuals, and industrial and animal wastes.

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text: Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semi-centralized biogas plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create carbon sinks that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also more costly in energy than this process.

text: Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semi-centralized

text: biogas

text: plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create

text: carbon sink

text: s that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting

text: greenhouse gas

text: emission. Producing artificial

text: fertilizer

text: is also more costly in energy than this process.

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text: Food drying is a way to preserve fruit, vegetables, and animal proteins after harvest, that has been practiced since antiquity, and a food dehydrator refers to a device that removes moisture from food to aid in its preservation. A food dehydrator uses a heat source and air flow to reduce the water content of foods. The water content of food is usually very high, typically 80% to 95% for various fruits and vegetables and 50% to 75% for various meats. Removing moisture from food restrains various bacteria from growing and spoiling food. Further, removing moisture from food dramatically reduces the weight of the food. Thus, food dehydrators are used to preserve and extend the shelf life of various foods.

text: Food drying

text: is a way to preserve fruit, vegetables, and animal proteins after harvest, that has been practiced since antiquity, and a food dehydrator refers to a device that removes moisture from food to aid in its preservation. A food dehydrator uses a heat source and air flow to

text: reduce the water content

text: of foods. The water content of food is usually very high, typically 80% to 95% for various fruits and vegetables and 50% to 75% for various meats. Removing moisture from food restrains various

text: bacteria

text: from growing and spoiling food. Further, removing moisture from food dramatically reduces the weight of the food. Thus, food dehydrators are used to preserve and extend the shelf life of various foods.

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answers: Removing moisture from food restrains various bacteria from growing and spoiling food

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 75%

text: Secondary treatment is a treatment process for wastewater (or sewage) to achieve a certain degree of effluent quality by using a sewage treatment plant with physical phase separation to remove settleable solids and a biological process to remove dissolved and suspended organic compounds. After this kind of treatment, the wastewater may be called as secondary-treated wastewater.

text: Secondary treatment is a treatment process for

text: wastewater

text: (or

text: sewage

text: ) to achieve a certain degree of effluent quality by using a

text: sewage treatment plant

text: with physical phase separation to remove

text: settleable solids

text: and a biological process to remove dissolved and suspended organic compounds. After this kind of treatment, the wastewater may be called as secondary-treated wastewater.

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text: With the establishment of the water authorities in April 1974, England and Wales had, for the first time, organisations which were responsible for all aspects of the management of water within a geographical region, defined by a river basin or a series of river basins. As well as the management of water resources, which they inherited from the river authorities, they were also responsible for water supply and the disposal of effluent. Most uses of water are interconnected, since the removal of water from a river for spray irrigation reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply, and the pollution of a river by sewage prevents such a use. Most drinking water supplies had been managed by local authorities, but the Central Advisory Water Committee, which reported in 1971, had found that this system was inflexible, and the new water authorities took over 157 water supply undertakings from local authorities and joint water boards. Some thirty independent water supply companies remained, but operated under agency agreements with the new bodies.

text: With the establishment of the water authorities in April 1974, England and Wales had, for the first time, organisations which were responsible for all aspects of the management of water within a geographical region, defined by a river basin or a series of river basins. As well as the management of water resources, which they inherited from the river authorities, they were also responsible for water supply and the disposal of effluent. Most uses of water are interconnected, since the removal of water from a river for spray irrigation reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply, and the pollution of a river by sewage prevents such a use. Most drinking water supplies had been managed by local authorities, but the

text: Central Advisory Water Committee

text: , which reported in 1971, had found that this system was inflexible, and the new water authorities took over 157 water supply undertakings from local authorities and joint water boards. Some thirty independent water supply companies remained, but operated under agency agreements with the new bodies.

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answers: removal of water from a river for spray irrigation reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Most uses of water are interconnected

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: spray irrigation

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is interconnected

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 1974

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Most drinking water supplies

text: The definition of NPS water pollution is open to interpretation. However, federal regulation under the CWA provides a specific legal definition for the term. A "nonpoint source" is defined as any source of water pollution that is not a "point source" as defined in section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act.  That definition states: "The term 'point source' means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture."

text: The definition of NPS water pollution is open to interpretation. However, federal regulation under the CWA provides a specific legal definition for the term. A "nonpoint source" is defined as any source of water pollution that is not a "point source" as defined in section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act.  That definition states: "The term 'point source' means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture."

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

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answers: A "nonpoint source" is defined as any source of water pollution that is not a "point source"

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural storm water

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answers: Nonpoint Source

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: section 502(14)

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answers: nonpoint source

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answers: point source

text: Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as flowing water.  The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants may be considered a line source discharging into a river or stream.  The chemical composition of this surface runoff may be characterized by a surface runoff model such as the USGS runoff precipitation algorithm, while the instream transport may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such as DSSAM.

text: Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as flowing water.  The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants may be considered a line source discharging into a river or stream.  The chemical composition of this surface runoff may be characterized by a surface runoff model such as the USGS runoff precipitation algorithm, while the instream transport may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such as

text: DSSAM

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answers: river or stream

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answers: The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants

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answers: a line source

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answers: flowing water

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answers: DSSAM

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answers: instream transport may be analyzed

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: In the modern Pacific and Southern Ocean, intermediate and deep waters are characterized by a higher content in DSi, compared to the Atlantic Ocean. This interbasin difference in DSi has the effect of increasing the preservation potential of opal in the Pacific and Southern Ocean compared to their Atlantic counterparts. Atlantic DSi depleted waters tends to produce relatively less silicified organisms, which has a strong influence on the preservation of their frustules. This mechanism in best illustrated when comparing the Peru and northwest Africa upwelling systems. The dissolution/production ratio is much higher in the Atlantic upwelling than in the Pacific upwelling. This is due to the fact that coastal upwelling source waters are much richer in DSi off Peru, than off NW Africa.

text: In the modern Pacific and Southern Ocean, intermediate and deep waters are characterized by a higher content in DSi, compared to the Atlantic Ocean. This interbasin difference in DSi has the effect of increasing the preservation potential of opal in the Pacific and Southern Ocean compared to their Atlantic counterparts. Atlantic DSi depleted waters tends to produce relatively less

text: silicified

text: organisms, which has a strong influence on the preservation of their

text: frustules

text: . This mechanism in best illustrated when comparing the Peru and northwest Africa upwelling systems. The

text: dissolution

text: /production ratio is much higher in the Atlantic upwelling than in the Pacific upwelling. This is due to the fact that coastal upwelling source waters are much richer in DSi off Peru, than off NW Africa.

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answers: Atlantic DSi

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Atlantic DSi depleted waters tends to produce relatively less silicified organisms

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Pacific and Southern Ocean

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Atlantic Ocean

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answers: DSi depleted waters

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preservation of opal

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 1%

text: Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume.

text: Interactions between

text: groundwater

text: and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface

text: water pollution

text: . By its very nature, groundwater

text: aquifer

text: s are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or

text: radionuclide

text: contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic

text: plume

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answers: groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination

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answers: point or non-point source

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answers: Groundwater Pollution

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text: Congressman Rush hosted a town hall meeting at the Oak Forest Hospital on Saturday, May 9, 2009 where he questioned the USEPA, IEPA & CDC on the Crestwood Water contamination situation. About 400 people turned out for a public forum where federal officials continued to answer the public's questions about the village of Crestwood's secret use of a polluted well. "Crestwood residents rally for justice, determine next steps" was the title on Congressman Rush's press release promoting the meeting. The official press release stated "On Saturday, May 9, U.S. Rep. Bobby L. Rush (IL-01) will host an urgent town hall meeting from 12 noon. to 2 p.m. where he will question the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on why the Village of Crestwood continued to give its residents contaminated tap water despite being warned the source of the water was polluted with a cancer-causing toxin." The press release continued to detail Congressman Rush's concerns "participants include USPEA representatives Tinka Hyde, director of the water division in Region 5, and Thomas Poy, chief groundwater and drinking water branch of the agency: IEPA Director Douglas P. Scott, Chief Toxicologist Dr. Tom Hornshaw and Deputy Manager, Division of Public Water Rick Cobb; CDC Senior Environmental health Scientist Mark Johnson of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Citizens will also have the opportunity to question government officials."

text: Congressman Rush hosted a town hall meeting at the Oak Forest Hospital on Saturday, May 9, 2009 where he questioned the USEPA, IEPA & CDC on the Crestwood Water contamination situation. About 400 people turned out for a public forum where federal officials continued to answer the public's questions about the village of Crestwood's secret use of a polluted well. "Crestwood residents rally for justice, determine next steps" was the title on Congressman Rush's press release promoting the meeting. The official press release stated "On Saturday, May 9, U.S. Rep. Bobby L. Rush (IL-01) will host an urgent town hall meeting from 12 noon. to 2 p.m. where he will question the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on why the Village of Crestwood continued to give its residents contaminated tap water despite being warned the source of the water was polluted with a cancer-causing toxin." The press release continued to detail Congressman Rush's concerns "participants include USPEA representatives Tinka Hyde, director of the water division in Region 5, and Thomas Poy, chief groundwater and drinking water branch of the agency: IEPA Director Douglas P. Scott, Chief Toxicologist Dr. Tom Hornshaw and Deputy Manager, Division of Public Water Rick Cobb; CDC Senior Environmental health Scientist Mark Johnson of the

entity_name: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

text: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

text: . Citizens will also have the opportunity to question government officials."

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answers: Crestwood Water contamination situation

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answers: Citizens will also have the opportunity to question government officials

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answers: 100

text: The New York City Department of Environmental Protection Police, also known as DEP Police, and formerly known as the Bureau of Water Supply Police and the Aqueduct Police, is a law enforcement agency in New York City whose duties are to protect and preserve the New York City water supply system, the nation's largest single source water supply. The department has protected and preserved the water supply system for over 100 years.

text: The New York City Department of Environmental Protection Police, also known as DEP Police, and formerly known as the Bureau of Water Supply Police and the Aqueduct Police, is a

text: law enforcement agency

text: in

text: New York City

text: whose duties are to protect and preserve the

text: New York City water supply system

text: , the nation's largest single source water supply. The department has protected and preserved the water supply system for over 100 years.

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text: One type of aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes (UASB, EGSB) are also widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. Constructed wetlands are also being used.

text: One type of aerobic treatment system is the

text: activated sludge

text: process, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms able to absorb and

text: adsorb

text: the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes (

entity_name: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion

text: UASB

text: EGSB

text: ) are also widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as

text: reclaimed water

text: Constructed wetland

text: s are also being used.

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answers: Constructed wetlands

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answers: Constructed wetlands are also being used

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answers: industrial

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: On October 21, 1959, Chisso was ordered by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry to switch back its wastewater drainage from the Minamata River to Hyakken Harbour and to speed up the installation of wastewater treatment systems at the factory. Chisso installed a Cyclator purification system on December 19, 1959, and opened it with a special ceremony. Chisso's president Kiichi Yoshioka drank a glass of water supposedly treated through the Cyclator to demonstrate that it was safe. In fact, the wastewater from the acetaldehyde plant, which the company knew still contained mercury and led to Minamata disease when fed to cats, was not treated through the Cyclator at the time. Testimony at a later Niigata Minamata disease trial proved that Chisso knew the Cyclator to be completely ineffective: "The purification tank was installed as a social solution and did nothing to remove organic mercury."

text: On October 21, 1959, Chisso was ordered by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry to switch back its wastewater drainage from the Minamata River to Hyakken Harbour and to speed up the installation of wastewater treatment systems at the factory. Chisso installed a

text: Cyclator

text: purification system on December 19, 1959, and opened it with a special ceremony. Chisso's president

text: Kiichi Yoshioka

text: drank a glass of water supposedly treated through the Cyclator to demonstrate that it was safe. In fact, the wastewater from the acetaldehyde plant, which the company knew still contained mercury and led to Minamata disease when fed to cats, was not treated through the Cyclator at the time. Testimony at a later

text: Niigata Minamata disease

text: trial proved that Chisso knew the Cyclator to be completely ineffective: "The purification tank was installed as a social solution and did nothing to remove organic mercury."

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answers: Minamata River

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answers: It was installed as a social solution

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answers: Chisso was ordered by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: social solution

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: Since 1960, Tunisia has engaged in studies of the re-use of wastewater. Currently, , planted primarily with orchards and for livestock feed, use treated water for irrigation consistent with national law. The number of waste water treatment plants has gradually risen in the last decade and it is expected to reach 83 in 2006. Currently, 61 wastewater treatment plants are in operation with  of wastewater network collecting 178 hm (million cubic metres) wastewater. The largest wastewater treatment plant is situated in Choutrana with a daily performance of 120,000 m.

text: Since 1960, Tunisia has engaged in studies of the

text: re-use of wastewater

text: . Currently, , planted primarily with

text: orchards

text: and for

text: livestock

text: feed, use treated water for

text: irrigation

text: consistent with national law. The number of waste water treatment plants has gradually risen in the last decade and it is expected to reach 83 in 2006. Currently, 61

text: wastewater

text: treatment plants are in operation with  of wastewater network collecting 178 hm (million

text: cubic metre

text: s) wastewater. The largest wastewater treatment plant is situated in Choutrana with a daily performance of 120,000 m.

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answers: It is expected to reach 83 in 2006

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answers: It is expected to reach 83 in 2006

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answers: NDQ_011878

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 178

text: Wastewater collection and treatment in Beijing is mostly through an extensive sewer system and 15 large, centralized municipal  wastewater treatment plants. New housing developments, hotels and public buildings are equipped with 300 to 400 smaller, decentralized wastewater reclamation systems with a combined treatment capacity of about 55,000 m/day, or about 50 times less than the combined capacity of the large plants. The decentralized systems allow the reuse of reclaimed water near to where the water is used and treated. Reclaimed water from the municipal treatment plants is sold at only 1 Yuan per cubic meter in order to provide an incentive to use reclaimed water instead of fresh water. This tariff is only about one quarter of the freshwater tariff and is insufficient to recover the costs of the distribution of the reclaimed water.

text: Wastewater collection and treatment in Beijing is mostly through an extensive sewer system and 15 large, centralized municipal  wastewater treatment plants. New housing developments, hotels and public buildings are equipped with 300 to 400 smaller, decentralized wastewater reclamation systems with a combined treatment capacity of about 55,000 m/day, or about 50 times less than the combined capacity of the large plants. The decentralized systems allow the reuse of reclaimed water near to where the water is used and treated. Reclaimed water from the municipal treatment plants is sold at only 1 Yuan per cubic meter in order to provide an incentive to use reclaimed water instead of fresh water. This tariff is only about one quarter of the freshwater tariff and is insufficient to recover the costs of the distribution of the reclaimed water.

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answers: This tariff is only about one quarter of the freshwater tariff

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The decentralized systems allow the reuse of reclaimed water near to where the water is used and treated

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: decentralized wastewater reclamation systems

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answers: freshwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Reclaimed water from the municipal treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Reclaimed water from the municipal treatment plants is sold at only 1 Yuan per cubic meter

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: one quarter

text: There are dozens of different transport models that can be generally grouped by pollutants addressed, complexity of pollutant sources, whether the model is steady state or dynamic, and time period modeled. Another important designation is whether the model is distributed (i.e. capable of predicting multiple points within a river) or lumped. In a basic model, for example, only one pollutant might be addressed from a simple point discharge into the receiving waters. In the most complex of models, various line source inputs from surface runoff might be added to multiple point sources, treating a variety of chemicals plus sediment in a dynamic environment including vertical river stratification and interactions of pollutants with in-stream biota. In addition watershed groundwater may also be included. The model is termed "physically based" if its parameters can be measured in the field.

text: There are dozens of different transport models that can be generally grouped by

text: pollutants

text: addressed, complexity of pollutant sources, whether the model is steady state or dynamic, and time period modeled. Another important designation is whether the model is distributed (i.e. capable of predicting multiple points within a river) or lumped. In a basic model, for example, only one pollutant might be addressed from a simple point discharge into the

text: receiving water

text: s. In the most complex of models, various

text: line source

text: inputs from

text: surface runoff

text: might be added to multiple

text: point source

text: s, treating a variety of

text: chemical

text: s plus

text: sediment

text: in a dynamic environment including vertical river stratification and interactions of pollutants with in-stream

text: biota

text: . In addition

text: watershed

text: groundwater

text: may also be included. The model is termed "physically based" if its parameters can be measured in the field.

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answers: In addition watershed groundwater may also be included

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answers: 100

text: Even though creosote is pressurized into the wood, the release of the chemical can be seen from many different events. During the lifetime of the marine piling, weathering occurs from tides and water flow which slowly opens the oily outer coating and exposes the smaller internal pores to more water flow. Frequent weathering occurs daily, but more severe weather, such as hurricanes, can cause damage or losening of the wooden pilings. Many pilings are either broken into pieces from debris, or are completely washed away during these storms. When the pilings are washed away, they come to settle on the bottom of the body of water where they reside, and then they secrete chemicals into the water slowly over a long period of time. This long term secretion is not normally noticed because the piling is submerged beneath the surface hidden from sight. The creosote is mostly insoluble in water, but the lower molecular weight compounds will become soluble the longer the broken wood is exposed to the water. In this case, some of the chemicals now become water soluble and further leach into the aquatic sediment while the rest of the insoluble chemicals remain together in a tar-like substance. Another source of damage comes from insects such as Shipworms and Limnoria. Though creosote is used as a pesticide preservative, studies have shown that Limnoria is resistant to wood preservative pesticides and can cause small holes in the wood which creosote can then be secreted from.

text: Even though creosote is pressurized into the wood, the release of the chemical can be seen from many different events. During the lifetime of the marine piling, weathering occurs from tides and water flow which slowly opens the oily outer coating and exposes the smaller internal pores to more water flow. Frequent weathering occurs daily, but more severe weather, such as hurricanes, can cause damage or losening of the wooden pilings. Many pilings are either broken into pieces from debris, or are completely washed away during these storms. When the pilings are washed away, they come to settle on the bottom of the body of water where they reside, and then they secrete chemicals into the water slowly over a long period of time. This long term secretion is not normally noticed because the piling is submerged beneath the surface hidden from sight. The creosote is mostly insoluble in water, but the lower molecular weight compounds will become soluble the longer the broken wood is exposed to the water. In this case, some of the chemicals now become water soluble and further leach into the aquatic sediment while the rest of the insoluble chemicals remain together in a tar-like substance. Another source of damage comes from insects such as

text: Shipworms

text: and

text: Limnoria

text: . Though creosote is used as a pesticide preservative, studies have shown that Limnoria is resistant to wood preservative pesticides and can cause small holes in the wood which creosote can then be secreted from.

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answers: Creosote is mostly insoluble in water

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answers: mostly insoluble in water

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answers: long term secretion is not normally noticed

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answers: 100

text: In the western part of the country, water ownership is controlled by the appropriative system. This system states that the owner of a piece of land does not automatically own the rights to water found on that land. Rights to water belong to the first user who puts the water to beneficial use. The first people to become appropriators of the water source have the right to continue using the water in the same quantity as always as long as they continue putting the water to good use. This holds true no matter how many other people wish to use the water. The latest water appropriator loses all of their water rights before any water rights are taken from the next latest appropriator. The Fort Belknap Reservation in Montana, which had been created by the government in 1888, experienced issues with the appropriative water system when water flow to their reservation was being diverted to settlements of non American Indians.

text: In the western part of the country, water ownership is controlled by the

text: appropriative system

text: . This system states that the owner of a piece of land does not automatically own the rights to water found on that land. Rights to water belong to the first user who puts the water to beneficial use. The first people to become appropriators of the

text: water source

text: have the right to continue using the water in the same quantity as always as long as they continue putting the water to good use. This holds true no matter how many other people wish to use the water. The latest water appropriator loses all of their water rights before any water rights are taken from the next latest appropriator. The Fort Belknap Reservation in Montana, which had been created by the government in 1888, experienced issues with the appropriative water system when water flow to their reservation was being diverted to settlements of non

text: American Indian

text: s.

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answers: This holds true no matter how many other people wish to use the water

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answers: Rights to water belong to the first user who puts the water to beneficial use

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answers: non American Indians

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answers: Rights to water belong to the first user who puts the water to beneficial use

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answers: rights to water belong to the first user who puts the water to beneficial use

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text: Wastewater management consists of collection, wastewater treatment (be it municipal or industrial wastewater), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. The latter is also referred to as water reclamation.

text: Wastewater management consists of collection,

text: wastewater treatment

text: (be it municipal or

text: industrial wastewater

text: ), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. The latter is also referred to as

text: water reclamation

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text: A spring creek is a type of free flowing river whose name derives from its origin: an underground spring or set of springs which produces sufficient water to consistently feed a unique river. The water flowing in a spring creek may be additionally be fed by snow pack or rain run-off, as in most traditional free-flowing rivers, but often the entire water source for a spring creek is an aquifer or other underground water source. For this reason, spring creeks are often filled with very pure, clean water and also demonstrate water flows that are smooth, consistent, and unwavering throughout the seasons of the year - unlike rivers filled with run-off or spring and summer melt-off from snow pack, whose water flows, water clarity, and water conditions often vary highly over the course of the year. In addition, water temperatures in spring creeks tend to vary less throughout the seasons of the year than traditional creeks and rivers because they are fed by underground water sources. Because of the depths of these water sources, spring creeks often emerge from their source or headwaters very cold and stay that way over the length of their runs. In addition, due to the consistent water flows and the fact that spring creek water is "pushed" by the force of pressure from the source rather than "pulled" by the force of gravity downhill, spring creeks can flow through very flat sections of land with minimal depths over grades that might not sustain run-off creeks and rivers. In these low-grade or flat sections of spring creeks, water flows can appear almost laminar with the surface of the creek appearing to be nearly flat and without the prominent riffles and surface disturbances caused by more rough or uneven surface bottoms found below free-stone run-off creeks and rivers surfaces.

text: A spring creek is a type of free flowing

text: river

text: whose name derives from its origin: an underground spring or set of springs which produces sufficient

text: water

text: to consistently feed a unique river. The water flowing in a spring creek may be additionally be fed by snow pack or rain run-off, as in most traditional free-flowing rivers, but often the entire water source for a spring creek is an

text: aquifer

text: or other underground water source. For this reason, spring creeks are often filled with very pure, clean water and also demonstrate water flows that are smooth, consistent, and unwavering throughout the seasons of the year - unlike rivers filled with run-off or spring and summer melt-off from snow pack, whose water flows, water clarity, and water conditions often vary highly over the course of the year. In addition, water temperatures in spring creeks tend to vary less throughout the seasons of the year than traditional creeks and rivers because they are fed by underground water sources. Because of the depths of these water sources, spring creeks often emerge from their source or headwaters very cold and stay that way over the length of their runs. In addition, due to the consistent water flows and the fact that spring creek water is "pushed" by the force of pressure from the source rather than "pulled" by the force of

text: gravity

text: downhill, spring creeks can flow through very flat sections of land with minimal depths over grades that might not sustain run-off creeks and rivers. In these low-grade or flat sections of spring creeks, water flows can appear almost

text: laminar

text: with the surface of the creek appearing to be nearly flat and without the prominent riffles and surface disturbances caused by more rough or uneven surface bottoms found below free-stone run-off creeks and rivers surfaces.

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answers: spring creeks are often filled with very pure, clean water

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text: A unique characteristic of the lake is the -long Thanneermukkom salt water barrier constructed as a part of the Kuttanad Development Scheme to prevent tidal action and intrusion of salt water into the Kuttanad low-lands. It is the largest mud regulator in India and essentially divides the lake into two parts - one with perennial brackish water and the other with fresh water from rivers draining into the lake. This barrier has helped farmers in Kuttanad by freeing the area of salinity and allowing them an additional crop in the dry season. The Thanneermukkom barrier is located at one of the narrower parts of the Vembanad Lake. Only two-thirds of the original number of gates are opened in July to release flood flow. These gates remain closed until mid-November. The main drawback of the structure has been the loss of opportunity for fish and prawns to migrate upstream, and also an increase in weed growth in the upstream, severely restricting the natural flushing of pollutants. The Thanneermukkom bund has also created ecological problems, primarily, the rampant propagation of the Water Hyacinth in fresh water.

text: A unique characteristic of the lake is the -long

text: Thanneermukkom salt water barrier

text: constructed as a part of the Kuttanad Development Scheme to prevent tidal action and intrusion of salt water into the Kuttanad low-lands. It is the largest mud regulator in India and essentially divides the lake into two parts - one with perennial brackish water and the other with fresh water from rivers draining into the lake. This barrier has helped farmers in Kuttanad by freeing the area of salinity and allowing them an additional crop in the dry season. The Thanneermukkom barrier is located at one of the narrower parts of the Vembanad Lake. Only two-thirds of the original number of gates are opened in July to release flood flow. These gates remain closed until mid-November. The main drawback of the structure has been the loss of opportunity for fish and prawns to migrate upstream, and also an increase in weed growth in the upstream, severely restricting the natural flushing of pollutants. The Thanneermukkom bund has also created ecological problems, primarily, the rampant propagation of the

text: Water Hyacinth

text: in fresh water.

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answers: The main drawback of the structure has been the loss of opportunity for fish and prawns to migrate upstream

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answers: It is the largest mud regulator in India

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text: The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates.

text: The Israelites usually drank water drawn from

text: wells

text: cistern

text: s or rivers. They also drank

text: milk

text: (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of

text: sour milk

text: , thin

text: yogurt

text: or

text: whey

text: , when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates.

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text: The command-and-control permitting structure of the Clean Water Act (CWA) provides the basis for nearly all regulation of CAFOs in the United States. Generally speaking, the CWA prohibits the discharge of pollution to the "waters of the United States" from any "point source," unless the discharge is authorized by a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued by the EPA (or a state delegated by the EPA). CAFOs are explicitly listed as a "point source" in the CWA. Unauthorized discharges made from CAFOs (and other point sources) violate the CWA, even if the discharges are "unplanned or accidental." CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits "operate at their own risk because any discharge from an unpermitted CAFO (other than agricultural stormwater) is a violation of the CWA subject to enforcement action, including third party citizen suits."

text: The command-and-control permitting structure of the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) provides the basis for nearly all regulation of CAFOs in the United States. Generally speaking, the CWA prohibits the discharge of pollution to the "waters of the United States" from any "point source," unless the discharge is authorized by a

text: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES) permit issued by the EPA (or a state delegated by the EPA). CAFOs are explicitly listed as a "point source" in the CWA. Unauthorized discharges made from CAFOs (and other point sources) violate the CWA, even if the discharges are "unplanned or accidental." CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits "operate at their own risk because any discharge from an unpermitted CAFO (other than agricultural

text: stormwater

text: ) is a violation of the CWA subject to enforcement action, including third party citizen suits."

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answers: CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits

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answers: CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: CAFOs

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: waters of the United States

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: CWA

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: any discharge from an unpermitted CAFO

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: In 2008 there were 15,250 water treatment plants and 17,300 wastewater treatment plants in France. The wastewater treatment plants produced about one million tons of sludge, half of which is being used in agriculture. The water and sewer network is about 800,000 km long.

text: In 2008 there were 15,250 water treatment plants and 17,300 wastewater treatment plants in France. The wastewater treatment plants produced about one million tons of sludge, half of which is being used in agriculture. The water and sewer network is about 800,000 km long.

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answers: water and sewer network is about 800,000 km long

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: In 2008 there were 15,250 water treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: 17,300 wastewater treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is being used in agriculture

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: being used in agriculture

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: half

text: Other sources of water include man-made tunnels and natural springs (3.20% of total supply); water culture programs, reusable water from wastewater treatment plants and rehabilitation of groundwater wells that now provide access to aquifers.

text: Other sources of water include man-made tunnels and natural springs (3.20% of total supply); water culture programs, reusable water from wastewater treatment plants and rehabilitation of groundwater wells that now provide access to aquifers.

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answers: 3.20% of total supply

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: 3.20% of total supply

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: 3.20%

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: provide access to aquifers

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 3.20%

text: While WSS improvements were exceptional, the traditional water management approach did not account for domestic and industrial wastewater treatment and non-point sources pollution control resulting in the environmental degradation of water bodies. These systems were viewed as separate and the management strategy did not account for treatment facilities, local streams, and overall water quality within them. The philosophy is evolving however, and water resources management practice is becoming more of an integrated approach taking into account a multi-sectoral approach looking at water supply, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), drainage and irrigation as one entity. According to pollution control work presented by a team of researchers at the British Hydrological Society symposium in 2008, there is a need to consider the sewer system, the WWTP, and the river as one system. These developments in the Bogotá water management system offer multiple opportunities to incorporate integrated methodologies both now and in the future.

text: While WSS improvements were exceptional, the traditional water management approach did not account for domestic and industrial wastewater treatment and non-point sources pollution control resulting in the environmental degradation of water bodies. These systems were viewed as separate and the management strategy did not account for treatment facilities, local streams, and overall water quality within them. The philosophy is evolving however, and water resources management practice is becoming more of an integrated approach taking into account a multi-sectoral approach looking at water supply, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), drainage and irrigation as one entity. According to pollution control work presented by a team of researchers at the British Hydrological Society symposium in 2008, there is a need to consider the sewer system, the WWTP, and the river as one system. These developments in the Bogotá water management system offer multiple opportunities to incorporate integrated methodologies both now and in the future.

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answers: These systems were viewed as separate and the management strategy did not account for treatment facilities, local streams, and overall water quality within them

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: environmental degradation of water bodies

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: bodies

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: non-point sources pollution control

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: multiple opportunities to incorporate integrated methodologies both now and in the future

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 50

text: In many fire fighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. The water contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from combustion processes and materials generated through quenching. Fire water can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as pesticides, organic and inorganic chemical reagents, fertilizers, etc. Certain types of premises including farms and the chemical industry pose special risks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of plastics can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted to the fire water. Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water source subsequently used to supply  drinking water may render the untreated water supply unsuitable for drinking or food preparation.

text: In many fire fighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. The water contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from

text: combustion

text: processes and materials generated through quenching. Fire water can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as

text: pesticide

text: s,

text: organic

text: and

text: inorganic chemical

text: reagents,

text: fertilizer

text: s, etc. Certain types of premises including

text: farm

text: s and the

text: chemical industry

text: pose special risks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of

text: plastic

text: s can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted to the fire water. Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water source subsequently used to supply

text: drinking water

text: may render the untreated water supply unsuitable for drinking or food preparation.

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answers: River or other water source

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answers: Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water source

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answers: farms

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answers: large quantities of water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Releasing contaminated fire water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: subsequently used to supply drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: untreated

text: In 1968 - 1969 a study conducted by Metcalf and Eddy, under the auspices of the State Water Control Board, determined that water quality deterioration in the reservoir was caused by substandard wastewater discharges from 11 secondary wastewater treatment plants and non-point sources of pollution.  Following the commissioning of UOSA, the water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir has greatly improved.

text: In 1968 - 1969 a study conducted by Metcalf and Eddy, under the auspices of the State Water Control Board, determined that water quality deterioration in the reservoir was caused by substandard wastewater discharges from 11 secondary wastewater treatment plants and non-point sources of pollution.  Following the commissioning of UOSA, the water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir has greatly improved.

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text: According to the Clean Water Act of 2004, the DENR (through the LLDA) shall implement a wastewater charge system in all management areas including the Laguna Lake region and Regional Industrial Centers through the collection of wastewater charges/fees. The system shall be established on the basis of payment to the government for discharging wastewater into the water bodies. Wastewater charges shall be established taking into consideration the following: a) to provide strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the amount of water pollutants generated; b) to cover the cost of administering water quality management or improvement programs, including the cost of administering the discharge permitting and water pollution charge system; c) reflect damages caused by water pollution on the surrounding environment, including the cost of rehabilitation; d) type of pollutant; e) classification of the receiving water body; and f) other special attributes of the water body.

text: According to the Clean Water Act of 2004, the DENR (through the LLDA) shall implement a wastewater charge system in all management areas including the Laguna Lake region and Regional Industrial Centers through the collection of wastewater charges/fees. The system shall be established on the basis of payment to the government for discharging wastewater into the water bodies. Wastewater charges shall be established taking into consideration the following: a) to provide strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the amount of water pollutants generated; b) to cover the cost of administering water quality management or improvement programs, including the cost of administering the discharge permitting and water pollution charge system; c) reflect damages caused by water pollution on the surrounding environment, including the cost of rehabilitation; d) type of pollutant; e) classification of the receiving water body; and f) other special attributes of the water body.

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text: The quantity of wastewater and the unpreparedness of sewage plants to treat wastewater, is an issue in Pennsylvania. The Associated Press has reported that starting in 2011, the DEP strongly resisted providing the AP and other news organizations with information about complaints related to drilling. When waste brine is discharged to surface waters through conventional wastewater treatment plants, the bromide in the brine usually is not captured. Although not a health hazard by itself, in western Pennsylvania some downstream drinking water treatment plants using the surface water experienced increases in brominated trihalomethanes in 2009 and 2010. Trihalomethanes, undesirable byproducts of the chlorination process, form when the chlorine combines with dissolved organic matter in the source water, to form the trihalomethane chloroform. Bromine can substitute for some chlorine, forming brominated trihalomethanes. Because bromine has a higher atomic weight than chlorine, the partial conversion to brominated trihalomethanes increases the concentration by weight of total trihalomethanes.

text: The quantity of wastewater and the unpreparedness of sewage plants to treat wastewater, is an issue in Pennsylvania. The

text: Associated Press

text: has reported that starting in 2011, the DEP strongly resisted providing the AP and other news organizations with information about complaints related to drilling. When waste brine is discharged to surface waters through conventional wastewater treatment plants, the bromide in the brine usually is not captured. Although not a health hazard by itself, in western Pennsylvania some downstream drinking water treatment plants using the surface water experienced increases in brominated

text: trihalomethane

text: s in 2009 and 2010. Trihalomethanes, undesirable byproducts of the chlorination process, form when the chlorine combines with dissolved organic matter in the source water, to form the trihalomethane chloroform. Bromine can substitute for some chlorine, forming brominated trihalomethanes. Because bromine has a higher atomic weight than chlorine, the partial conversion to brominated trihalomethanes increases the concentration by weight of total trihalomethanes.

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answers: Because bromine has a higher atomic weight than chlorine

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answers: It is an issue in Pennsylvania

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text: The Fremen  are a group of people in the fictional Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. First appearing in the 1965 novel Dune, the Fremen inhabit the desert planet Arrakis (also known as Dune), which is the sole known source of the all-important spice melange in the universe. Long overlooked by the rest of the Imperium and considered backward savages, in reality they are an extremely hardy people and exist in large numbers. The Fremen had come to the planet thousands of years before the events of the novel as the Zensunni Wanderers, a religious sect in retreat. As humans in extremis, over time they adapt their culture and way of life to survive and thrive in the incredibly harsh conditions of Arrakis. The Fremen are distinguished by their fierce fighting abilities and adeptness at survival in these conditions. With water such a rare commodity on the planet, their culture revolves around its preservation and conservation. Herbert based their culture, in part, on the desert-dwelling Bedouin and Tuaregs.

text: The Fremen  are a group of people in the fictional

text: Dune universe

text: created by

text: Frank Herbert

text: . First appearing in the 1965 novel

text: Dune

text: , the Fremen inhabit the

text: desert planet

text: Arrakis

text: (also known as Dune), which is the sole known source of the all-important spice

text: melange

text: in the universe. Long overlooked by the rest of the Imperium and considered backward savages, in reality they are an extremely hardy people and exist in large numbers. The Fremen had come to the planet thousands of years before the events of the novel as the

text: Zensunni

text: Wanderers, a religious sect in retreat. As humans in extremis, over time they adapt their culture and way of life to survive and thrive in the incredibly harsh conditions of Arrakis. The Fremen are distinguished by their fierce fighting abilities and adeptness at survival in these conditions. With water such a rare commodity on the planet, their culture revolves around its preservation and conservation. Herbert based their culture, in part, on the desert-dwelling

text: Bedouin

text: and

text: Tuaregs

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text: The extensive preserved material at the site also provide valuable information about diet, animal husbandry, and material culture. In particular, the large numbers of well-preserved animal remains are an important source of information on the nature and size of domesticated animals during the periods when they were sacrificed, including the spread of house cats from areas of Roman settlement into non-Roman Germanic areas. In part because of excavation problems, it is also one of the few inland Central European sites where remains of fish have been recovered: pike and some tench. In addition there are fragments of a fish trap and of hand nets and well-preserved harpoons and fish hooks consisting of a sharpened stick which was turned with a tug on the line after being swallowed in the bait. The site also yielded one of the earliest known Germanic bows and a five-hole weaving tablet.

text: The extensive preserved material at the site also provide valuable information about diet, animal husbandry, and material culture. In particular, the large numbers of well-preserved animal remains are an important source of information on the nature and size of domesticated animals during the periods when they were sacrificed, including the spread of house cats from areas of Roman settlement into non-Roman Germanic areas. In part because of excavation problems, it is also one of the few inland Central European sites where remains of fish have been recovered: pike and some

text: tench

text: . In addition there are fragments of a fish trap and of hand nets and well-preserved harpoons and fish hooks consisting of a sharpened stick which was turned with a tug on the line after being swallowed in the bait. The site also yielded one of the earliest known Germanic

text: bows

text: and a five-hole

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answers: It is also one of the few inland Central European sites where remains of fish have been recovered

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text: Biodegradable organic material of plant or animal origin is usually possible to treat using extended conventional sewage treatment processes such as activated sludge or trickling filter. Problems can arise if the wastewater is excessively diluted with washing water or is highly  concentrated such as undiluted blood or milk. The presence of cleaning agents, disinfectants, pesticides, or antibiotics can have detrimental impacts on treatment processes.

text: Biodegradable organic material of plant or animal origin is usually possible to treat using extended conventional

text: sewage treatment

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text: activated sludge

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text: . Problems can arise if the wastewater is excessively diluted with washing water or is highly  concentrated such as undiluted blood or milk. The presence of cleaning agents, disinfectants, pesticides, or antibiotics can have detrimental impacts on treatment processes.

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text: The basis for Mikrohaus is a 8,80 × 3,44 × 3,25 m cube that allows as kind of modular assembly system to combine several of them and hence to generate a flexibility in the size. The cube(s) don’t have any fundament (only screws of 1,40 m length) which allows some kind of mobile living. No cement and therefore time for drying is requisite. Additional floats allow also an installation on water. The building offers a high isolation up to passive house including e.g. photovoltaic (PV) energy supply.The cubical form allows a good ratio from volume to surface.The concept includes waste water treatment for greywater via wastewater treatment plant with an ultraviolet light (UV) treatment unit for sanitary water.Additional planted walls (www.gruenwand.at) are used outside (for cooling/summer, isolation/winter, noise prevention) and inside (for climate and humidity aspects) which also are used as water-filters as kind of biological purification plant.

text: The basis for Mikrohaus is a 8,80 × 3,44 × 3,25 m cube that allows as kind of modular assembly system to combine several of them and hence to generate a flexibility in the size. The cube(s) don’t have any fundament (only screws of 1,40 m length) which allows some kind of mobile living. No cement and therefore time for drying is requisite. Additional floats allow also an installation on water. The building offers a high isolation up to passive house including e.g. photovoltaic (PV) energy supply.The cubical form allows a good ratio from volume to surface.The concept includes waste water treatment for greywater via wastewater treatment plant with an ultraviolet light (UV) treatment unit for sanitary water.Additional planted walls (www.gruenwand.at) are used outside (for cooling/summer, isolation/winter, noise prevention) and inside (for climate and humidity aspects) which also are used as water-filters as kind of biological purification plant.

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text: Under the EU's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991, local authorities are obliged to construct secondary and tertiary water treatment plants by 2008. New wastewater treatment plants were built in Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Galway between 2000 and 2011, generating additional capacity equivalent to the needs of a population of 3.96 million. Over the same period, drinking water treatment capacity has been increased by an amount sufficient to meet the needs of a population equivalent of 1.4 million people. The compliance level under the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive increased from 25% to 93%. Under the government's 'Infrastructure and Capital Investment 2012–2016' blueprint, €1.58 billion in capital investment is to be allocated for water services between 2012–2016, with €326 million now earmarked for 2013. The majority of the funding will be channelled through the 2010–2013 Water Services Investment Programme, which is targeting reduction in leakage levels; improvements in drinking water standards; capacity and security of supply (including planning a new long-term source for the Greater Dublin Area) and wastewater discharges. Infrastructure under the Greater Dublin Strategic Drainage Strategy is also promised.

text: Under the EU's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991, local authorities are obliged to construct secondary and tertiary water treatment plants by 2008. New wastewater treatment plants were built in Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Galway between 2000 and 2011, generating additional capacity equivalent to the needs of a population of 3.96 million. Over the same period, drinking water treatment capacity has been increased by an amount sufficient to meet the needs of a

text: population equivalent

text: of 1.4 million people. The compliance level under the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive increased from 25% to 93%. Under the government's 'Infrastructure and Capital Investment 2012–2016' blueprint, €1.58 billion in capital investment is to be allocated for water services between 2012–2016, with €326 million now earmarked for 2013. The majority of the funding will be channelled through the 2010–2013 Water Services Investment Programme, which is targeting reduction in leakage levels; improvements in drinking water standards; capacity and security of supply (including planning a new long-term source for the Greater Dublin Area) and wastewater discharges. Infrastructure under the Greater Dublin Strategic Drainage Strategy is also promised.

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answers: planning a new long-term source for the Greater Dublin Area

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answers: drinking water treatment capacity has been increased by an amount sufficient to meet the needs of a population equivalent of 1.4 million people

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answers: Water Services Investment Programme

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answers: Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991

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answers: generating additional capacity equivalent to the needs of a population

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answers: 93%

text: Approaches to managing these fluids, commonly known as produced water, include underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self‐contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells.  The vacuum multi-effect membrane distillation system as a more effective treatment system has been proposed for treatment of flowback.  However, the quantity of waste water needing treatment and the improper configuration of sewage plants have become an issue in some regions of the United States. Part of the wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations is processed there by public sewage treatment plants, which are not equipped to remove radioactive material and are not required to test for it.

text: Approaches to managing these fluids, commonly known as

text: produced water

text: , include

text: underground injection

text: municipal

text: and

text: commercial

text: wastewater treatment

text: and discharge, self‐contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells.  The

entity_section: Vacuum multi-effect membrane distillation

text: vacuum multi-effect membrane distillation system

text: as a more effective treatment system has been proposed for treatment of flowback.  However, the quantity of waste water needing treatment and the improper configuration of sewage plants have become an issue in some regions of the United States. Part of the wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations is processed there by public sewage treatment plants, which are not equipped to remove radioactive material and are not required to test for it.

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text: The upper and lower Esopus have different conservation and management issues as a result of the reservoir's intervention. Management of the upper stream is more hands-on due to its major role in New York City's water supply system, its importance as a recreational resource and its location amid the Forest Preserve. Below the reservoir it is not a source of drinking water, and its surrounding land is more heavily farmed. Conservation efforts on that stretch primarily focus on its aesthetic and ecological role.

text: The upper and lower Esopus have different conservation and management issues as a result of the reservoir's intervention. Management of the upper stream is more hands-on due to its major role in New York City's water supply system, its importance as a recreational resource and its location amid the

text: Forest Preserve

text: . Below the reservoir it is not a source of drinking water, and its surrounding land is more heavily farmed. Conservation efforts on that stretch primarily focus on its aesthetic and ecological role.

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answers: 100

text: In addition, agricultural soil scientists develop methods to preserve the agricultural productivity of soil and to decrease the effects on productivity of erosion by wind and water. For example, a technique called contour plowing may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve rainfall. Researchers in agricultural soil science also seek ways to use the soil more effectively in addressing associated challenges. Such challenges include the beneficial reuse of human and animal wastes using agricultural crops; agricultural soil management aspects of preventing water pollution and the build-up in agricultural soil of chemical pesticides.

text: In addition, agricultural soil scientists develop methods to preserve the agricultural productivity of soil and to decrease the effects on productivity of

text: erosion

text: by wind and water. For example, a technique called

text: contour plowing

text: may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve rainfall. Researchers in agricultural soil science also seek ways to use the soil more effectively in addressing associated challenges. Such challenges include the beneficial reuse of human and animal wastes using agricultural crops; agricultural

text: soil management

text: aspects of preventing

text: water pollution

text: and the build-up in agricultural soil of chemical

text: pesticide

text: s.

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answers: water

text: New York City turned to the Catskills for water in the early 20th century after discovering that a group of speculators calling itself the Ramapo Water Company had bought up riparian rights to many water sources further south in Rockland, Orange and Ulster counties. The Catskills were more desirable, as state-owned Forest Preserve land in the region could not, under the state constitution, be sold to any other party. A recent amendment to that section of the state constitution also allowed up to 3% of the total Forest Preserve land to be flooded for reservoirs.

text: New York City turned to the Catskills for water in the early 20th century after discovering that a group of

text: speculator

text: s calling itself the Ramapo Water Company had bought up

text: riparian right

text: s to many water sources further south in

text: Rockland

text: Orange

text: and

text: Ulster

text: counties. The Catskills were more desirable, as state-owned

text: Forest Preserve

text: land in the region could not, under the state constitution, be sold to any other party. A recent amendment to that section of the state constitution also allowed up to 3% of the total Forest Preserve land to be flooded for reservoirs.

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answers: up to 3% of the total Forest Preserve land to be flooded for reservoirs

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: New York City

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answers: NDQ_011876

answers: 3%

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: amendment to that section of the state constitution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: up to 3% of the total Forest Preserve land

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 3%

text: Another important source of chloride ions is sea water. Sea water contains by weight approximately 3.5 wt.% salts. These salts include sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, and bicarbonates. In water these salts dissociate in free ions (Na, Mg, Cl, SO, HCO) and migrate with the water into the capillaries of the concrete. Chloride ions, which make up about 50% of these ions, are particularly aggressive as a cause of corrosion of carbon steel reinforcement bars.

text: Another important source of chloride ions is

text: sea water

text: . Sea water contains by weight approximately 3.5 wt.%

text: salts

text: . These salts include

text: sodium chloride

text: magnesium sulfate

text: calcium sulfate

text: , and

text: bicarbonate

text: s. In water these salts dissociate in free ions (Na, Mg, Cl, SO, HCO) and migrate with the water into the

text: capillaries

text: of the concrete. Chloride ions, which make up about 50% of these ions, are particularly aggressive as a cause of corrosion of carbon steel reinforcement bars.

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answers: Sea water contains by weight approximately 3.5 wt

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answers: sea water

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answers: chloride ions

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answers: chloride ions

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answers: 50%

text: Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea through desalination. The water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs, which can be elevated such as water towers or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of drinking water distribution see non-revenue water). Once water is used, wastewater is typically discharged in a sewer system and treated in a sewage treatment plant before being discharged into a river, lake or the sea or reused for landscaping, irrigation or industrial use (see also sanitation).

text: Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (

text: aquifer

text: s), surface water (

text: lake

text: s and

text: river

text: s), and the sea through

text: desalination

text: . The

text: water treatment

text: steps include, in most cases,

text: purification

text: , disinfection through

text: chlorination

text: and sometimes

text: fluoridation

text: . Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to

text: reservoirs

text: , which can be elevated such as

text: water tower

text: s or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of drinking water distribution see

text: non-revenue water

text: ). Once water is used,

text: wastewater

text: is typically discharged in a

text: sewer

text: system and treated in a

text: sewage treatment plant

text: before being discharged into a river, lake or the sea or reused for

text: landscaping

text: irrigation

text: or industrial use (see also

text: sanitation

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answers: Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: groundwater (aquifers)

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: sewer system

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Water supply systems get water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: landscaping, irrigation or industrial use

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: non-revenue water

text: Although since the 1950s the city receives drinking water from the larger two larger reservoirs, Lake Lemon and (later) Lake Monroe, elsewhere in  Monroe County,  Griffy Lake is still considered as the potential "emergency" water supply source for the city. The water pumping station near the dam of Griffy Lake, decommissioned in 1995, still exists, and the authorities ensure that all activities permitted within the Griffy Lake Nature Preserve are consistent with the potential use of the lake as a drinking water source.

text: Although since the 1950s the city receives drinking water from the larger two larger reservoirs, Lake Lemon and (later) Lake Monroe, elsewhere in

text: Monroe County

text: ,  Griffy Lake is still considered as the potential "emergency" water supply source for the city. The water pumping station near the dam of Griffy Lake, decommissioned in 1995, still exists, and the authorities ensure that all activities permitted within the Griffy Lake Nature Preserve are consistent with the potential use of the lake as a drinking water source.

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answers: Lake Lemon and (later) Lake Monroe

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Lake Lemon and (later) Lake Monroe

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: activities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Lake Monroe

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire helped spur an avalanche of water pollution control activities, resulting in the Clean Water Act, Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, and the creation of the federal Environmental Protection Agency and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA). As a result, large point sources of pollution on the Cuyahoga have received significant attention from the OEPA in recent decades. These events are referred to in Randy Newman's 1972 song "Burn On," R.E.M.'s 1986 song "Cuyahoga," and Adam Again's 1992 song "River on Fire." Great Lakes Brewing Company of Cleveland named its Burning River Pale Ale after the event.

text: The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire helped spur an avalanche of water pollution control activities, resulting in the

text: Clean Water Act

text: Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement

text: , and the creation of the federal

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: and the

text: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency

text: (OEPA). As a result, large

text: point sources of pollution

text: on the Cuyahoga have received significant attention from the OEPA in recent decades. These events are referred to in

text: Randy Newman

text: 's 1972 song "

text: Burn On

text: R.E.M.

text: 's 1986 song "

text: Cuyahoga

text: ," and

text: Adam Again

text: 's 1992 song "River on Fire."

text: Great Lakes Brewing Company

text: of Cleveland named its Burning River Pale Ale after the event.

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answers: Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: large point sources of pollution on the Cuyahoga have received significant attention

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, whale skin, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved.

text: Vitamin

text: s and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins

text: A

text: and

text: D

text: are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals.

text: Vitamin C

text: is obtained through sources such as caribou liver,

text: kelp

text: whale skin

text: , and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved.

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water

text: Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act, with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act, specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. Both Acts were complemented by substantial federal grant funding to improve infrastructure in the form of construction grants.

text: Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: , specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. Both Acts were complemented by substantial federal grant funding to improve infrastructure in the form of construction grants.

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answers: 24.6

text: L. minor has been shown to remove heavy metals like Pb, Cu, Zn and As very efficiently from waters with non-lethal concentrations. One particular study found, that more than 70% of arsenic was removed after 15 days at initial concentration of 0.5 mg/l. Another one says, that viable L. minor biomass removed 85-90% of Pb(NO) with an initial concentration of 5 mg/l. Higher lead concentrations though lead to a decrease in relative growth rate of L. minor. Because L. minor is temperature tolerant, shows rapid growth and is easy to harvest, it bears high potential for the cost-efficient use in wastewater treatments. The Devils Lake wastewater treatment, located in North Dakota, USA, utilizes these beneficial properties of L. minor and other aquatic plants in the treatment of municipial and industrial wastewater. After a certain growing period, the plants are harvested and used as soil amendment, compost material or protein source for livestock. In industrial affected regions, where heavy metals accumulate in waters, soils and sediments due to anthropogenic activities like mining and burning of fossil fuels, the harvested L. minor should not be reused, but disposed accordingly. Because heavy metals have carcinogenic effects in humans, persist long in nature and accumulate in living organisms, their removal from the environment is important.

text: L. minor has been shown to remove heavy metals like

text: Pb

text: Cu

text: Zn

text: and

text: As

text: very efficiently from waters with non-lethal concentrations. One particular study found, that more than 70% of arsenic was removed after 15 days at initial concentration of 0.5 mg/l. Another one says, that viable L. minor biomass removed 85-90% of

text: Pb(NO)

text: with an initial concentration of 5 mg/l. Higher lead concentrations though lead to a decrease in relative growth rate of L. minor. Because L. minor is temperature tolerant, shows rapid growth and is easy to harvest, it bears high potential for the cost-efficient use in wastewater treatments. The

text: Devils Lake

text: wastewater treatment, located in North Dakota, USA, utilizes these beneficial properties of L. minor and other aquatic plants in the treatment of municipial and industrial wastewater. After a certain growing period, the plants are harvested and used as soil amendment, compost material or protein source for

text: livestock

text: . In industrial affected regions, where heavy metals accumulate in waters, soils and sediments due to anthropogenic activities like mining and burning of fossil fuels, the harvested L. minor should not be reused, but disposed accordingly. Because heavy metals have

text: carcinogenic

text: effects in humans, persist long in nature and accumulate in living organisms, their removal from the environment is important.

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answers: Because heavy metals have carcinogenic effects in humans

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answers: In industrial affected regions

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answers: cost-efficient

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answers: 90%

text: An effluent limitation is a United States Clean Water Act standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the best available technology or related standards for various sources of water pollution.  These sources include all industries, businesses, municipal sewage treatment plants and storm sewer systems, and other facilities that discharge to surface waters. Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies, through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).

text: An effluent limitation is a

text: United States

text: Clean Water Act

text: standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the

text: best available technology

text: or related standards for various sources of

text: water pollution

text: .  These sources include all industries, businesses, municipal

text: sewage treatment

text: plants and

text: storm sewer

text: systems, and other facilities that discharge to

text: surface water

text: s. Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) and

text: state

text: agencies, through the

text: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES).

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answers: United States

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answers: 99

text: RCBR technology is totally a water biological treatment system, able to make more compact and efficient the biology of any wastewaters treatment plant. For the depuration of urban wastewaters it is placed downline of primary treatments (screening, oil separation, degritting, primary settling) and upline of water physical or chemical disinfection tertiary treatments (ultraviolets, ozone). This system offers the chance to realize into restrained spaces a huge surface of cohesion for the bacteria colonies, which are active for the depuration; this aspect makes it particularly suitable also for the nitrogen removal from wastewaters, in nitro-denitro configuration. Matching a series of more modules, some of them totally submerged by the wastewaters (in anoxic conditions) operate as denitrification stadium. Others, only partially submerged into the wastewaters, in presence of oxygen, operate the carbon removal and, at the same time, the ammonium nitrification. The system simplicity and the efficiency demonstrated in the tearing down also high elevations of suspended solid and organic carbon, make it usable as a pre-treatment, upline of drinkable systems of superficial and underground polluted waters (rivers, drains, stratum, ponds and temporary puddles of rain water).

text: RCBR technology is totally a water biological treatment system, able to make more compact and efficient the biology of any wastewaters treatment plant. For the depuration of urban wastewaters it is placed downline of primary treatments (screening, oil separation, degritting, primary settling) and upline of water physical or chemical disinfection tertiary treatments (ultraviolets, ozone). This system offers the chance to realize into restrained spaces a huge surface of cohesion for the bacteria colonies, which are active for the depuration; this aspect makes it particularly suitable also for the nitrogen removal from wastewaters, in nitro-denitro configuration. Matching a series of more modules, some of them totally submerged by the wastewaters (in anoxic conditions) operate as denitrification stadium. Others, only partially submerged into the wastewaters, in presence of oxygen, operate the carbon removal and, at the same time, the ammonium

text: nitrification

text: . The system simplicity and the efficiency demonstrated in the tearing down also high elevations of suspended solid and organic carbon, make it usable as a pre-treatment, upline of drinkable systems of superficial and underground polluted waters (rivers, drains, stratum, ponds and temporary puddles of rain water).

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answers: RCBR technology is totally a water biological treatment system

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answers: urban wastewaters

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answers: RCBR technology

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answers: this aspect makes it particularly suitable also for the nitrogen removal from wastewaters

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answers: 99

text: The SPMD can be deployed in areas with low rates of flow or even in deep water areas. To ensure the safety and correct deployment of the SPMD within deep areas, it is important to attach the device to an anchor as well as a flotation device. To retrieve SPMDs from the field, a boat or a diver may be required, depending on the depth of the canister. An SPMD can concentrate chemicals from the water as well as the sediments in the water column, therefore it is important to know the composition of the sediment and benthic surface before deployment. To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources, anchoring the SPMD at certain depths (e.g. higher for muddy sediments in aquatic systems) can be very beneficial.

text: The SPMD can be deployed in areas with low rates of flow or even in deep water areas. To ensure the safety and correct deployment of the SPMD within deep areas, it is important to attach the device to an anchor as well as a flotation device. To retrieve SPMDs from the field, a boat or a diver may be required, depending on the depth of the canister. An SPMD can concentrate chemicals from the water as well as the sediments in the water column, therefore it is important to know the composition of the sediment and benthic surface before deployment. To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources, anchoring the SPMD at certain depths (e.g. higher for muddy sediments in aquatic systems) can be very beneficial.

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answers: To retrieve SPMDs from the field, a boat or a diver may be required

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answers: It is important to attach the device to an anchor as well as a flotation device

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: chemicals

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answers: aquatic systems

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answers: To reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources

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answers: reduce interference from chemicals of unwanted sources

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answers: 99

text: The hydrology of the urbanized reach of Little Cottonwood Creek is highly variable and complex because of the canals and diversion structures utilized by different water users. Source water for the urban reach of Little Cottonwood Creek varies spatially and seasonally. Sources include snowmelt, storm water, ground water, irrigation return, and water imported from the Jordan River. The effect that each of these sources has on stream quality varies seasonally and with stream flow. About 85 percent of the runoff at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Creek was from snowmelt.

text: The hydrology of the urbanized reach of Little Cottonwood Creek is highly variable and complex because of the canals and diversion structures utilized by different water users. Source water for the urban reach of Little Cottonwood Creek varies spatially and seasonally. Sources include snowmelt, storm water, ground water, irrigation return, and water imported from the Jordan River. The effect that each of these sources has on stream quality varies seasonally and with stream flow. About 85 percent of the runoff at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Creek was from snowmelt.

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answers: The effect that each of these sources has on stream quality varies seasonally

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answers: About 85 percent of the runoff at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Creek was from snowmelt

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answers: irrigation return

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: effect that each of these sources has on stream quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 85 percent

text: IT, Manufacturing, Pharmaceutical(Bio), Sewage Treatment, Wastewater Treatment, Water Treatment, Water Reuse, Desalination,Ultra-pure Water, Air Pollution Prevention, Waste Treatment

text: IT, Manufacturing, Pharmaceutical(Bio), Sewage Treatment, Wastewater Treatment, Water Treatment, Water Reuse, Desalination,Ultra-pure Water, Air Pollution Prevention, Waste Treatment

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answers: 100

text: Diatoms are identifiable based on each species unique silica cell walls and vary depending on their environment. Because they have determinant properties diatoms create flora profiles for scientists. When these microscopic algae die their frustules (silica cell walls) becomes a part of the water sediment. The presence of the frustules enables scientists to compare the cell walls of the deceased organisms with the living diatoms to determine characteristics of their environment. In early spring and the fall the ratio of living diatoms to dead diatoms is high, whereas, in summer and winter the amount of dead diatoms out populates the living. Based on this known information diatoms can verify the time of year samples were taken. Different types of diatoms can also determine the properties of a samples ecosystem. For example, the higher ratio of periphytic (type of platonic diatom), the higher the vegetation concentration and shallower the water, but the higher the ratio of scaled chrysophytes a sample means the environment of that organism contains more open water. Forensic scientists can create differentiated markers on environments in the area they are collecting data based on the diatoms population growth rate, which is affected by pollutants in their water sources because the simple tissues of diatoms make them sensitive environmental changes.  The reason diatoms are a common tool to match water environments is because of the variability of their populations are predictable and constant, the organisms can be identified by using the light microscope, and their silica cell walls allow for preservation.

text: Diatoms are identifiable based on each species unique silica cell walls and vary depending on their environment. Because they have determinant properties diatoms create

text: flora

text: profiles for scientists. When these microscopic algae die their

text: frustules

text: (silica cell walls) becomes a part of the water sediment. The presence of the frustules enables scientists to compare the cell walls of the deceased organisms with the living diatoms to determine characteristics of their environment. In early spring and the fall the ratio of living diatoms to dead diatoms is high, whereas, in summer and winter the amount of dead diatoms out populates the living. Based on this known information diatoms can verify the time of year samples were taken. Different types of diatoms can also determine the properties of a samples ecosystem. For example, the higher ratio of periphytic (type of platonic diatom), the higher the vegetation concentration and shallower the water, but the higher the ratio of scaled chrysophytes a sample means the environment of that organism contains more open water. Forensic scientists can create differentiated markers on environments in the area they are collecting data based on the diatoms population growth rate, which is affected by pollutants in their water sources because the simple tissues of diatoms make them sensitive environmental changes.  The reason diatoms are a common tool to match water environments is because of the variability of their populations are predictable and constant, the organisms can be identified by using the

text: light microscope

text: , and their silica cell walls allow for preservation.

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answers: Diatoms population growth rate, which is affected by pollutants in their water sources

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answers: Diatoms can verify the time of year samples were taken

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: diatoms

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answers: Diatoms

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Elderflower cordial can be made relatively easily at home, though it is also produced and sold commercially. The flowerheads are best collected fresh and new when the tiny buds have just opened and come to bloom before the fragrance is tainted with bitterness. The cordial is made by steeping the elderflower heads in a concentrated sugar solution so the flavour is infused into the syrup. A source of citric acid and lemon juice is added to help preserve the cordial and add tartness. The mixture is then covered and left to infuse before being strained to release as much juice as possible. For drinking the cordial is typically diluted with either water or sparkling water though tonic, soda or gin are also used.

text: Elderflower cordial can be made relatively easily at home, though it is also produced and sold commercially. The flowerheads are best collected fresh and new when the tiny buds have just opened and come to bloom before the fragrance is tainted with bitterness. The cordial is made by steeping the elderflower heads in a concentrated sugar solution so the flavour is infused into the syrup. A source of citric acid and

text: lemon juice

text: is added to help preserve the cordial and add tartness. The mixture is then covered and left to infuse before being strained to release as much juice as possible. For drinking the cordial is typically diluted with either

text: water

text: or

text: sparkling water

text: though

text: tonic

text: soda

text: or

text: gin

text: are also used.

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answers: Elderflower cordial

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answers: Elderflower cordial can be made relatively easily at home

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: commercially

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answers: water

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answers: Elderflower cordial

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answers: preserve the cordial and add tartness

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water

text: Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes also work as tracers for water budget in terrestrial reservoirs, including lakes, rivers, groundwater and soil water. For a lake, both the amount of water in the lake and the isotopic composition of the water are determined by a balance between inputs (precipitation, stream and ground water inflow) and outputs (evaporation, stream and ground water outflow). The isotopic composition of lake water can often be used to track evaporation, which causes isotope enrichment in the lake water, as well as a δD-δO slope that is shallower than the meteoric water line. The isotopic composition of river water is highly variable and have complicated sources over different timescales, but can generally be treated as a two-endmember mixing problem, a base-flow endmember (mainly ground water recharge) and an overland-flow endmember (mainly storm events). The isotope data suggest that the long-term integrated base-flow endmember is more important in most rivers, even during peak flows in summer. Systematic river isotope data were collected across the world by the Global Network of Isotopes in Rivers (GNIR).The isotopic composition of groundwater can also be used to trace its sources and flow paths. An example is a groundwater isotope mapping study in Sacramento, California, which showed lateral flow of river water with a distinct isotope composition into the groundwater that developed a significant water table depression due to pumping for human use. The same study also showed an isotopic signal of agricultural water being recharged into the giant alluvial aquifer in California's Central Valley. Finally, the isotopic composition of soil water is important for the study of plants. Below the water table, the soil has a relatively constant source of water with a certain isotopic composition. Above the water table, the isotopic composition of soil water is enriched by evaporation until a maximum at the surface. The vertical profile of isotopic composition of soil water is maintained by the diffusion of both liquid and vapor water. A comparison of soil water and plant xylem water δD can be used to infer the depth at which plant roots get water from the soil.

text: Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes also work as tracers for water budget in terrestrial reservoirs, including lakes, rivers, groundwater and soil water. For a lake, both the amount of water in the lake and the isotopic composition of the water are determined by a balance between inputs (precipitation, stream and ground water inflow) and outputs (evaporation, stream and ground water outflow). The isotopic composition of lake water can often be used to track evaporation, which causes isotope enrichment in the lake water, as well as a δD-δO slope that is shallower than the meteoric water line. The isotopic composition of river water is highly variable and have complicated sources over different timescales, but can generally be treated as a two-endmember mixing problem, a base-flow endmember (mainly ground water recharge) and an overland-flow endmember (mainly storm events). The isotope data suggest that the long-term integrated base-flow endmember is more important in most rivers, even during peak flows in summer. Systematic river isotope data were collected across the world by the Global Network of Isotopes in Rivers (GNIR).The isotopic composition of groundwater can also be used to trace its sources and flow paths. An example is a groundwater isotope mapping study in

text: Sacramento

text: , California, which showed lateral flow of river water with a distinct isotope composition into the groundwater that developed a significant water table depression due to pumping for human use. The same study also showed an isotopic signal of agricultural water being recharged into the giant alluvial aquifer in California's Central Valley. Finally, the isotopic composition of soil water is important for the study of plants. Below the water table, the soil has a relatively constant source of water with a certain isotopic composition. Above the water table, the isotopic composition of soil water is enriched by evaporation until a maximum at the surface. The vertical profile of isotopic composition of soil water is maintained by the diffusion of both liquid and vapor water. A comparison of soil water and plant xylem water δD can be used to infer the depth at which plant roots get water from the soil.

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answers: groundwater and soil water

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answers: groundwater recharge

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answers: agricultural water

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answers: terrestrial reservoirs

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answers: Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes also work as tracers for water budget

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answers: work as tracers for water budget in terrestrial reservoirs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: Located between Hurghada and Marsa Alam, El Quseir used to be an important port. Many people traveled from there to the land of Punt to buy ivory, leather and incense. During the Ottoman  and the Islamic periods, Egyptians and Muslims from North Africa traveled from El Quseir as pilgrims to Mecca. It was also the only port importing coffee from Yemen. During the French occupation of Egypt, El Qoseir was the arrival point for Arabs and Muslims from Hegaz coming to fight beside the Mamalic against the French army. The most important sites in El Qoseir are the fort and the water reservoir. The water reservoir was El Qoseir's only source of drinking water 100 years ago.

text: Located between Hurghada and Marsa Alam, El Quseir used to be an important port. Many people traveled from there to the land of Punt to buy

text: ivory

text: leather

text: and

text: incense

text: . During the Ottoman  and the Islamic periods, Egyptians and Muslims from North Africa traveled from El Quseir as pilgrims to Mecca. It was also the only port importing coffee from

text: Yemen

text: . During the French occupation of Egypt, El Qoseir was the arrival point for Arabs and Muslims from Hegaz coming to fight beside the Mamalic against the French army. The most important sites in El Qoseir are the fort and the water reservoir. The water reservoir was El Qoseir's only source of drinking water 100 years ago.

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answers: El Qoseir

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answers: The water reservoir

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answers: El Quseir

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answers: reservoir

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answers: El Quseir

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answers: drinking water

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answers: 100

text: Well users, including municipal water users, in the WRD area pump about  of water per year out of their aquifer. This is an "overdraft" of about  of water over what their underground aquifer can "normally" refill. To replace this "overdraft" of water into the aquifer, they have flotation ponds that catch rain runoff water, and supplement with other water they either buy or recycle, then let the water soak into the ground (spreading water) to help replenish the water in the aquifer(s). In addition they buy Colorado River water that is shipped via the Colorado River Aqueduct, and they accept part of the treated municipal wastewater of the about 4,000,000 people in their district and treat it to additional purity and sanitation levels by using reverse osmosis and advanced filtering. Their largest tertiary water treatment facility is the Leo J. Vander Lans Advanced Water Treatment facility. The water out of this facility is better than the water that comes out of the "average" municipal water treatment facility. To finance their water recycling projects WRD charges $268 per acre-foot of water pumped out, which generates about $65,000,000/year. WRD is now on a project (WIN) to enlarge their water treatment facilities to take larger quantities of treated municipal wastewater and treat enough of it that they will not have to buy Colorado River water. Overall it is estimated that this project provides over 40% of the water used in the Southern California district served by the WRD.

text: Well users, including municipal water users, in the WRD area pump about  of water per year out of their aquifer. This is an "overdraft" of about  of water over what their underground aquifer can "normally" refill. To replace this "overdraft" of water into the aquifer, they have flotation ponds that catch rain runoff water, and supplement with other water they either buy or recycle, then let the water soak into the ground (spreading water) to help replenish the water in the aquifer(s). In addition they buy

text: Colorado River

text: water that is shipped via the

text: Colorado River Aqueduct

text: , and they accept part of the treated municipal wastewater of the about 4,000,000 people in their district and treat it to additional purity and sanitation levels by using

text: reverse osmosis

text: and advanced filtering. Their largest

text: tertiary water treatment

text: facility is the Leo J. Vander Lans Advanced Water Treatment facility. The water out of this facility is better than the water that comes out of the "average" municipal water treatment facility. To finance their water recycling projects WRD charges $268 per acre-foot of water pumped out, which generates about $65,000,000/year. WRD is now on a project (WIN) to enlarge their water treatment facilities to take larger quantities of treated municipal wastewater and treat enough of it that they will not have to buy Colorado River water. Overall it is estimated that this project provides over 40% of the water used in the Southern California district served by the WRD.

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answers: This aquifer can "normally" refill

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The water out of this facility is better than the water that comes out of the "average" municipal water treatment facility

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: municipal water users

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answers: aquifer

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Water Pollution Prevention and Control Act

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answers: this project provides over 40% of the water used in the Southern California district served by the WRD

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 40%

text: The geographical position of Italy made it possible to close the Mediterranean if war came, making the Mediterranean Fleet, based in Egyptian ports, dependent on the Suez Canal. In 1939, Wavell began to plan a base in the Middle East, to support about fifteen divisions (300,000 men), six in Egypt, three in Palestine and the rest further afield. Much of the material was imported from the colonies and the rest obtained locally, by stimulating the production of import substitutes. (The plan for a garrison of nine divisions in Egypt and Palestine was increased to fourteen by June 1941, then to  1942.) In 1940, British military forces had the terminus of the Egyptian state railway, road and the port of Mersa Matruh (Matruh)  west of Alexandria, as a base. A water pipeline was begun along the railway and sources of water surveyed. Wells were dug but most filled with salt water and in 1939, the main sources of fresh water were Roman aqueducts at Mersa Matruh and Maaten Bagush.

text: The geographical position of Italy made it possible to close the Mediterranean if war came, making the

text: Mediterranean Fleet

text: , based in Egyptian ports, dependent on the Suez Canal. In 1939, Wavell began to plan a base in the Middle East, to support about fifteen divisions (300,000 men), six in Egypt, three in Palestine and the rest further afield. Much of the material was imported from the colonies and the rest obtained locally, by stimulating the production of import substitutes. (The plan for a garrison of nine divisions in Egypt and Palestine was increased to fourteen by June 1941, then to  1942.) In 1940, British military forces had the terminus of the Egyptian state railway, road and the port of Mersa Matruh (Matruh)  west of Alexandria, as a base. A water pipeline was begun along the railway and sources of water surveyed. Wells were dug but most filled with salt water and in 1939, the main sources of fresh water were Roman aqueducts at Mersa Matruh and

text: Maaten Bagush

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answers: Mediterranean Fleet, based in Egyptian ports, dependent on the Suez Canal

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answers: Wells were dug but most filled with salt water

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answers: Wells were dug

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answers: Wells were dug but most filled with salt water

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answers: stimulating the production of import substitutes

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: salt water

text: When the plan was introduced in October in 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet.

text: When the plan was introduced in October in 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet.

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answers: To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants

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answers: To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef

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answers: help reduce water pollutants

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answers: 9

text: Nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit water pollution from diffuse or nonpoint effluent sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. In the United States, governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent. Nonpoint water pollution sources include, for example, leakage from underground storage tanks, storm water runoff, atmospheric deposition of contaminants, and golf course, agricultural, and forestry runoff. Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution in the United States, accounting for almost half of all water pollution, and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution.  This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment. Unlike point source pollution, nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources, making identification, monitoring, and regulation more complex.

text: Nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit

text: water pollution

text: from diffuse or nonpoint

text: effluent

text: sources such as polluted

text: runoff

text: from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. In the United States, governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent.

text: Nonpoint water pollution

text: sources include, for example, leakage from underground storage tanks, storm water runoff, atmospheric deposition of contaminants, and golf course, agricultural, and forestry runoff. Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of

text: water pollution in the United States

text: , accounting for almost half of all water pollution, and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution.  This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment. Unlike

text: point source

text: pollution, nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources, making identification, monitoring, and regulation more complex.

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answers: river catchments

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answers: Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution

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answers: Nonpoint sources

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answers: NPS water pollution regulations

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answers: this water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: half

text: Economic instruments, "which include, among others, property rights, water markets, fiscal and financial instruments, charge systems and liability systems, are gradually becoming a substantive component of the management tool set used for pollution control and water allocation decisions." Incentives for those who practice clean, renewable, water management technologies are an effective means of encouraging pollution prevention. By internalizing the costs associated with the negative effects on the environment, governments are able to encourage a cleaner water management.

text: Economic instruments, "which include, among others, property rights, water markets, fiscal and financial instruments, charge systems and liability systems, are gradually becoming a substantive component of the management tool set used for pollution control and water allocation decisions." Incentives for those who practice clean, renewable, water management technologies are an effective means of encouraging pollution prevention. By internalizing the costs associated with the negative effects on the environment, governments are able to encourage a cleaner water management.

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answers: water allocation decisions

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answers: allocation decisions

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answers: internalizing the costs associated with the negative effects on the environment

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answers: 100

text: A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) is a regulatory term in the U.S. Clean Water Act, describing a value of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a body of water can receive while still meeting water quality standards. Alternatively, TMDL is an allocation of that water pollutant deemed acceptable to the subject receiving waters.TMDLs have been used extensively by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies in implementing the Clean Water Act by establishing maximum pollution limits for industrial wastewater dischargers.  EPA published regulations in 1992 establishing TMDL procedures. Application of TMDL has broadened significantly in the last decade to include many watershed-scale efforts.  This process incorporates both point source and nonpoint source pollutants within a watershed.

text: A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) is a regulatory term in the U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: , describing a value of the maximum amount of a

text: pollutant

text: that a

text: body of water

text: can receive while still meeting

text: water quality standards

text: . Alternatively, TMDL is an allocation of that

text: water pollutant

text: deemed acceptable to the subject

text: receiving water

text: s.TMDLs have been used extensively by the

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) and state environmental agencies in implementing the Clean Water Act by establishing maximum pollution limits for

text: industrial wastewater

text: dischargers.  EPA published regulations in 1992 establishing TMDL procedures. Application of TMDL has broadened significantly in the last decade to include many watershed-scale efforts.  This process incorporates both

text: point source

text: and

text: nonpoint source

text: pollutants within a

text: watershed

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answers: This process incorporates both point source and nonpoint source pollutants

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answers: 100

text: Before 1994, the Italian water and sanitation sector was highly fragmented with about 13,000 local water and sanitation service providers, often providing water and sewer services separately in the same locality. Municipalities were both service providers and regulators, creating a conflict of interest. Investments were typically financed through government susbsidies, while recurrent costs of service provision were covered by tariff revenues. Tariffs were accordingly much lower than for example in France or in Germany. Furthermore, Italian utilities often provided and still do provide water at public fountains for free. However, because of high debt levels the government was less and less able to provide the subsidies to maintain the existing infrastructure and to improve service quality. The latter was particularly poor in Southern Italy where water supply was often intermittent. Furthermore, wastewater was often being discharged without treatment or with insufficient treatment. In order to comply with the EU Wastewater Directive of 1991, new expensive investments in wastewater treatment were necessary in addition to investments needed to maintain the ageing infrastructure. These investments were to be financed by the water service providers using their own resources instead of government subsidies. In order to make this possible, on the one hand tariffs were to be increased. On the other hand, service providers were to become more efficient, reducing recurrent costs and non-revenue water so that a higher share of their revenues would become available for investments to maintain and improve service quality. Investments in wastewater treatment and bulk water supply were to be planned in a more rational way within the boundaries of river basins. Furthermore, fragmented service provision by municipalities was to be consolidated in regional utilities that were expected to be more efficient. Each local government on its own would not give up the responsibility for water supply, and mayors were reluctant to increase water tariffs for fear of losing votes. Therefore, the national government prepared a law that would force municipalities to regroup themselves and form regional utilities, as well as to achieve cost recovery from tariff revenues. Under the planned law, regional governments would have an important role in setting the geographic boundaries of the new regional utilities.

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answers: 4: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: Southern Italy where water supply was often intermittent

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answers: Southern Italy where water supply was often intermittent

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text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the

text: ocean

text: s and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: . The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for

text: ecosystem services

text: has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s

text: wetlands

text: have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing

text: urbanization

text: pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

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answers: Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation

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answers: 2.5%

text: The state-owned National Water Company (Mekorot) is responsible for bulk water supply through the National Water Carrier, transferring water from the Sea of Galilee and other sources mainly to the coastal plain. Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in an average year, 70% of Israel's entire  water supply and 80% of its drinking water. It supplies water to about 4,800 intermediary water providers, including municipalities, regional associations, agricultural settlements and industrial consumers. It also operates 31 desalination plants treating nearly a million cubic meters of seawater and brackish water every day. The company's eight wastewater treatment plants, including the Dan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant, treat 40% of all Israel's wastewater. Its nine reclamation plants enable 70% of the treated effluent to be reused for agriculture. In 2007 the structure of Mekorot has been changed. The parent company, "Mekorot Water", continues to produce, transport and supply water. One of its subsidiaries, "Mekorot Ventures and Development", concentrates, among other things, on the desalination of seawater, wastewater treatment, projects for the municipal sector and projects abroad. Another subsidiary focuses on building and maintaining water infrastructures, primarily for the parent company. Mekorot also serves in some cases also as a Regional Water Authority. A Regional Water Authority does not have to be owned or controlled by the Government and may be owned either privately or by municipalities.

text: The state-owned National Water Company (Mekorot) is responsible for bulk water supply through the

text: National Water Carrier

text: , transferring water from the Sea of Galilee and other sources mainly to the coastal plain. Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in an average year, 70% of Israel's entire  water supply and 80% of its drinking water. It supplies water to about 4,800 intermediary water providers, including municipalities, regional associations, agricultural settlements and industrial consumers. It also operates 31 desalination plants treating nearly a million cubic meters of seawater and brackish water every day. The company's eight wastewater treatment plants, including the Dan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant, treat 40% of all Israel's wastewater. Its nine reclamation plants enable 70% of the treated effluent to be reused for agriculture. In 2007 the structure of Mekorot has been changed. The parent company, "Mekorot Water", continues to produce, transport and supply water. One of its subsidiaries, "Mekorot Ventures and Development", concentrates, among other things, on the desalination of seawater, wastewater treatment, projects for the municipal sector and projects abroad. Another subsidiary focuses on building and maintaining water infrastructures, primarily for the parent company. Mekorot also serves in some cases also as a Regional Water Authority. A Regional Water Authority does not have to be owned or controlled by the Government and may be owned either privately or by municipalities.

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answers: 75% of the treated effluent to be reused for agriculture

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answers: Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in an average year

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answers: 70% of Israel's entire water supply

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answers: Mekorot Water

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answers: 70%

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answers: A Regional Water Authority

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answers: reused for agriculture

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answers: 80%

text: Approximately 16 percent of the population of the MRSP is poor. The vast majority of the almost two million residents in the Guarapiranga and Billings river basins are poor. They illegally occupied these areas given their proximity to the city center, notably the industrial and commercial areas along the banks of the Pinheiros River that joins the Tietê river in São Paulo. This expansion of the population to the basins around the reservoirs has occurred for several decades, and various attempts to regulate urban expansion to protect water sources have been unsuccessful. To protect strategic sources for urban water supply, the state headwater protection law, passed in the 1970s, prohibited high-density residential occupation in 53% of the MRSP. The law was not enforced effectively. Industries were prohibited from the protected areas because they were not able to obtain commercial and industrial permits; however, since the informal economy could circumvent the law, and these forms of expansion were the hardest to monitor and regulate, the poor moved into these areas. Uncontrolled and disorderly occupation in the Guarapiranga and Billings reservoirs took place without adequate water and sanitation services in precisely those areas where water source protection was the most important. The informal settlements and slums have become part of the urban landscape and they cause direct pollution of the reservoirs through wastewater and garbage discharge and storm water run-off and silting, thus threatening their future as water bodies for potable supplies and other uses.

text: Approximately 16 percent of the population of the MRSP is poor. The vast majority of the almost two million residents in the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and

text: Billings

text: river basins are poor. They illegally occupied these areas given their proximity to the city center, notably the industrial and commercial areas along the banks of the

text: Pinheiros River

text: that joins the Tietê river in São Paulo. This expansion of the population to the basins around the reservoirs has occurred for several decades, and various attempts to regulate urban expansion to protect water sources have been unsuccessful. To protect strategic sources for urban water supply, the state headwater protection law, passed in the 1970s, prohibited high-density residential occupation in 53% of the MRSP. The law was not enforced effectively. Industries were prohibited from the protected areas because they were not able to obtain commercial and industrial permits; however, since the informal economy could circumvent the law, and these forms of expansion were the hardest to monitor and regulate, the poor moved into these areas. Uncontrolled and disorderly occupation in the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and

text: Billings

text: reservoirs took place without adequate water and sanitation services in precisely those areas where water source protection was the most important. The informal settlements and slums have become part of the urban landscape and they cause direct pollution of the reservoirs through wastewater and garbage discharge and storm water run-off and silting, thus threatening their future as water bodies for potable supplies and other uses.

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answers: threatening their future as water bodies for potable supplies and other uses

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answers: The informal settlements and slums

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answers: slums

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answers: To protect strategic sources for urban water supply

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: potable supplies and other uses

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answers: 16 percent

text: The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to households and industry. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development.

text: The

text: water industry

text: provides drinking water and

text: wastewater

text: services (including

text: sewage treatment

text: ) to

text: household

text: s and

text: industry

text: Water supply

text: facilities include

text: water well

text: s,

text: cistern

text: s for

text: rainwater harvesting

text: water supply network

text: s, and

text: water purification

text: facilities,

text: water tank

text: s,

text: water tower

text: s,

text: water pipe

text: s including old

text: aqueducts

text: Atmospheric water generator

text: s are in development.

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answers: 100

text: Experts convened to discuss the issue were uncertain regarding the significance of the elevated I-131 levels. They identified gaps in the understanding of the phenomena, including the number and geographic distribution of drinking water plants with Iodine-131 in their source water, the levels of Iodine-131 in those areas, and the effectiveness of removal processes in typical water and wastewater treatment plants. They reported that more information is needed regarding the frequency of I-131 treatments in the catchment areas of water treatment plant source waters and the locations where patients may be expected to discharge I-131 to sewers. Their report indicated that more information is also needed regarding the potential contributions of sources such as veterinary treatments, septic systems, Sanitary Sewer Overflows, Combined Sewer Overflows, and hydro-fracturing, and of the impact of I-131 to the ecology of receiving waters. The report noted that at this time there are no "off-the-shelf" large scale drinking water treatment options for I-131 available, little research to provide a basis for developing new water treatment approaches, and that known treatment options are costly.

text: Experts convened to discuss the issue were uncertain regarding the significance of the elevated I-131 levels. They identified gaps in the understanding of the phenomena, including the number and geographic distribution of drinking water plants with Iodine-131 in their source water, the levels of Iodine-131 in those areas, and the effectiveness of removal processes in typical water and wastewater treatment plants. They reported that more information is needed regarding the frequency of I-131 treatments in the catchment areas of water treatment plant source waters and the locations where patients may be expected to discharge I-131 to sewers. Their report indicated that more information is also needed regarding the potential contributions of sources such as veterinary treatments, septic systems, Sanitary Sewer Overflows, Combined Sewer Overflows, and hydro-fracturing, and of the impact of I-131 to the ecology of receiving waters. The report noted that at this time there are no "off-the-shelf" large scale drinking water treatment options for I-131 available, little research to provide a basis for developing new water treatment approaches, and that known treatment options are costly.

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answers: There are no "off-the-shelf" large scale drinking water treatment options

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answers: at this time there are no "off-the-shelf" large scale drinking water treatment options

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answers: septic systems

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answers: 100

text: A new approach that works like a solar still, but on the scale of industrial evaporation ponds is the integrated biotectural system. It can be considered "full desalination" because it converts the entire amount of saltwater intake into distilled water. One of the advantages of this system is the feasibility for inland operation. Standard advantages also include no air pollution and no temperature increase of endangered natural water bodies from power plant cooling-water discharge. Another important advantage is the production of sea salt for industrial and other uses. As of 2015, 50% of the world's sea salt production relies on fossil energy sources.

text: A new approach that works like a solar still, but on the scale of industrial evaporation ponds is the

text: integrated biotectural system

text: . It can be considered "full desalination" because it converts the entire amount of saltwater intake into distilled water. One of the advantages of this system is the feasibility for inland operation. Standard advantages also include no air pollution and no temperature increase of endangered natural water bodies from power plant cooling-water discharge. Another important advantage is the production of sea salt for industrial and other uses. As of 2015, 50% of the world's sea salt production relies on fossil energy sources.

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answers: endangered natural water bodies from power plant cooling-water discharge

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answers: As of 2015, 50% of the world's sea salt production relies on fossil energy

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 50%

text: According to UN estimates that are not based on any household survey access to an improved water source in Lebanon is universal. The UN figures on water access may not give an accurate picture of the real situation: A representative survey carried out by the World Bank in 2008 estimated that the average connection rate to the public water network was 80%, varying from 96% in Beirut to 55% in the North. These figures are similar to those that came out of a 2004 Household Living Conditions Survey carried out by the Lebanese Central Administration of Statistics. Even considering that improved water sources include protected wells and springs in addition to piped water connections, it is unlikely that water access in Lebanon is universal. For example, many urban households that are not connected to the network rely on water bought from tanker trucks.

text: According to UN estimates that are not based on any household survey access to an

text: improved water source

text: in Lebanon is universal. The UN figures on water access may not give an accurate picture of the real situation: A representative survey carried out by the World Bank in 2008 estimated that the average connection rate to the public water network was 80%, varying from 96% in Beirut to 55% in the North. These figures are similar to those that came out of a 2004 Household Living Conditions Survey carried out by the Lebanese Central Administration of Statistics. Even considering that improved water sources include protected wells and springs in addition to piped water connections, it is unlikely that water access in Lebanon is universal. For example, many urban households that are not connected to the network rely on water bought from tanker trucks.

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answers: it is unlikely that water access in Lebanon is universal

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Many urban households that are not connected to the network rely on water bought from tanker trucks

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: tanker trucks

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answers: is universal

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answers: is unlikely that water access in Lebanon is universal

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answers: 55%

text: Boston, New York City, San Francisco, Denver, and Portland, Oregon are among the large cities in the U.S. that do not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection, because their water sources are located in the upper reaches of protected watersheds and thus are naturally very pure. Boston receives most of its water from the Quabbin and Wachusett Reservoirs and the Ware River in central and western Massachusetts. New York City's water supply is fed by a  watershed in the Catskill Mountains. The watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States. San Francisco obtains 85% of its drinking water from high Sierra snowmelt through the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir in Yosemite National Park. However, to supplement the imported water supply, and to help maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake, drought or decline in the snowpack, San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources such as reclaimed water for irrigation, local groundwater and desalination during drought periods, all as part of its Water Supply Diversification Program. The largest source of water supply for Portland, Oregon, is the Bull Run Watershed. Denver receives its water almost entirely from mountain snowmelt in a number of highly protected watersheds in more than 9 counties. Its water is stored in 14 reservoirs, the largest of which is the Dillon Reservoir on the Blue River in the Colorado River. Water is diverted from there through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel under the Continental Divide into the South Platte River Basin.

text: Boston

text: New York City

entity_name: San Francisco Public Utilities Commission

text: San Francisco

text: , Denver, and

text: Portland, Oregon

text: are among the large cities in the U.S. that do not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection, because their water sources are located in the upper reaches of protected watersheds and thus are naturally very pure. Boston receives most of its water from the

text: Quabbin

text: and

text: Wachusett

text: Reservoirs and the

text: Ware River

text: in central and western Massachusetts. New York City's water supply is fed by a

text: watershed

text: in the

text: Catskill Mountains

text: . The watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States.

text: San Francisco

text: obtains 85% of its drinking water from high Sierra snowmelt through the

text: Hetch Hetchy Reservoir

text: in Yosemite National Park. However, to supplement the imported water supply, and to help maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake, drought or decline in the snowpack, San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources such as

text: reclaimed water

text: for irrigation, local groundwater and

text: desalination

text: during drought periods, all as part of its Water Supply Diversification Program. The largest source of water supply for Portland, Oregon, is the

text: Bull Run Watershed

text: Denver

text: receives its water almost entirely from mountain snowmelt in a number of highly protected watersheds in more than 9 counties. Its water is stored in 14 reservoirs, the largest of which is the

text: Dillon Reservoir

text: on the

text: Blue River

text: in the Colorado River. Water is diverted from there through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel under the

text: Continental Divide

text: into the

text: South Platte River

text: Basin.

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answers: San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: drought

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: San Francisco

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: mountain snowmelt

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: does not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 85%

text: A Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) is a United States regulatory term for a periodic water pollution report prepared by industries, municipalities and other facilities discharging to surface waters. The facilities collect wastewater samples, conduct chemical and/or biological tests of the samples, and submit reports to a state agency or the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). All point source dischargers to ”Waters of the U.S.” must obtain a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit from the appropriate agency, and many permittees are required to file DMRs.

text: A Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) is a

text: United States

text: regulatory term for a periodic

text: water pollution

text: report prepared by

text: industries

text: municipalities

text: and other facilities discharging to

text: surface water

text: s. The facilities collect

text: wastewater

text: samples, conduct

text: chemical

text: and/or

text: biological

text: tests of the samples, and submit reports to a

text: state

text: agency or the

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA). All

text: point source

text: dischargers to

text: ”Waters of the U.S.”

text: must obtain a

text: National Pollution Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES) permit from the appropriate agency, and many permittees are required to file DMRs.

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answers: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: The springs are now a part of the Las Vegas Springs Preserve. Las Vegas Springs was once the site of three springs, running into two large pools of water. It is a site historically known for a gathering of pioneers and Native Americans and early settlers in the Las Vegas Valley. In 1905, it provided water source to the budding town and railroad. Once pipe lines were laid and wells were drilled, the surface water receded, making it the way it is today. The site is currently undergoing rehabilitation to protect what remains architecturally and archaeologically.

text: The springs are now a part of the

text: Las Vegas Springs Preserve

text: . Las Vegas Springs was once the site of three springs, running into two large pools of water. It is a site historically known for a gathering of pioneers and Native Americans and early settlers in the Las Vegas Valley. In 1905, it provided water source to the budding town and railroad. Once pipe lines were laid and wells were drilled, the surface water receded, making it the way it is today. The site is currently undergoing rehabilitation to protect what remains architecturally and archaeologically.

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answers: Once pipe lines were laid and wells were drilled

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answers: Las Vegas Springs was once the site of three springs

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answers: wells

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answers: surface water

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answers: Las Vegas Springs Preserve

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answers: protect what remains architecturally and archaeologically

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answers: 100

text: Together the stakeholders have addressed the challenges mentioned above through massive investments in wastewater collection and treatment and slum upgrading. In the future new water sources are being developed from the Iguape river in the Ribeira valley 80 km to the south of MRSP. Furthermore, the efficiency of existing water use is expected to be increased through more reuse of treated wastewater and further reductions in water losses.

text: Together the stakeholders have addressed the challenges mentioned above through massive investments in wastewater collection and treatment and slum upgrading. In the future new water sources are being developed from the

text: Iguape

text: river in the Ribeira valley 80 km to the south of MRSP. Furthermore, the efficiency of existing water use is expected to be increased through more reuse of treated wastewater and further reductions in water losses.

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text: The Rivers Trust and Catchment Sensitive Farming created Pinpoint to reduce water pollution created from farming. Pinpoint supplies training, and support to keep farmers up to date and informed on the methods for sustainability. They have a number of courses on the process of how to diffuse water pollution from our environment and agriculture, and courses on educating farmers on sediment-related problems. The Rivers Trust focuses heavily on why it is important to reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture. Diffuse water pollution is created from many sources making it difficult to track. Run off has many sources like transportation, urban living, remnants of contaminated land; nutrients; pesticides, and sediment created by farmers. To best reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture, farmers must be educated. Small steps can lead to a huge impact like moving their gate entrance to prevent field erosion, or separating clean and dirty water.

text: The Rivers Trust and Catchment Sensitive Farming created Pinpoint to reduce water pollution created from farming. Pinpoint supplies training, and support to keep farmers up to date and informed on the methods for sustainability. They have a number of courses on the process of how to diffuse water pollution from our environment and agriculture, and courses on educating farmers on sediment-related problems. The Rivers Trust focuses heavily on why it is important to reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture. Diffuse water pollution is created from many sources making it difficult to track. Run off has many sources like transportation, urban living, remnants of contaminated land; nutrients; pesticides, and sediment created by farmers. To best reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture, farmers must be educated. Small steps can lead to a huge impact like moving their gate entrance to prevent field erosion, or separating clean and dirty water.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: Diffuse water pollution is created from many sources

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answers: urban living

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answers: Diffuse

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answers: separating clean and dirty water

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answers: sustainable

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: The hype about septic systems being the major culprit for the spread of green algae in the embayments, the killing of eelgrass and the cause of hypoxia in Cape Cod waterways is egregiously overdone.  Nitrogen emanating from Septic Systems is likely a very small fraction unless the leaching fields or devices are plugged or have otherwise failed to deliver orderly flow into the subterranean.  A properly functioning Septic System that has an adequate surface area of biological mat interface will deliver partially treated effluent without overflowing to the surface and short circuiting effluent into surface waters.    There are estimates that 80% of nitrogen in waters surrounding the Cape is from onsite Septic Systems.  This is totally flawed as there are many other sources of nitrogen, both anthropogenic and natural.  There are huge quantities of nitrogen released from vegetation, animals and bacteria that occur in natural systems and from atmospheric deposition.  In addition the Boston Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Facility releases vast amounts of Nitrogen into Massachusetts Bay Waters.  Further, there are many other nutrients and detrimental compounds from sources other than Septic Systems which affect water quality in Cape Cod water bodies.

text: The hype about septic systems being the major culprit for the spread of green algae in the embayments, the killing of eelgrass and the cause of hypoxia in Cape Cod waterways is egregiously overdone.  Nitrogen emanating from Septic Systems is likely a very small fraction unless the leaching fields or devices are plugged or have otherwise failed to deliver orderly flow into the subterranean.  A properly functioning Septic System that has an adequate surface area of biological mat interface will deliver partially treated effluent without overflowing to the surface and short circuiting effluent into surface waters.    There are estimates that 80% of nitrogen in waters surrounding the Cape is from onsite Septic Systems.  This is totally flawed as there are many other sources of nitrogen, both anthropogenic and natural.  There are huge quantities of nitrogen released from vegetation, animals and bacteria that occur in natural systems and from atmospheric deposition.  In addition the Boston Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Facility releases vast amounts of Nitrogen into Massachusetts Bay Waters.  Further, there are many other nutrients and detrimental compounds from sources other than Septic Systems which affect water quality in Cape Cod water bodies.

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answers: Septic Systems

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answers: Massachusetts Bay Waters

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answers: There are estimates that 80% of nitrogen in waters surrounding the Cape is from onsite Septic Systems

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answers: 80

text: While most of the river’s water quality is within acceptable levels, there are several hot spots mostly found in the irrigation canals and drainages.  Sources of pollutants are from agricultural, industrial, and household waste.  There are 36 industries that discharge their pollution sources directly into the Nile, and 41 into irrigation canals.  These types of industries are:  chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, refractory, textile and wood. There are over 90 agricultural drains that discharge into the Nile that also include industrial wastewater. The water exceeds the European Community Standards of fecal contamination and there is a high salinization and saline intrusion in the delta. Salinization happens when there’s a buildup of salts in the soil.  The soil cannot retain water which prevents anything from growing.  Saline intrusion is when the ground is saturated with saltwater.  The northeast Nile Delta region has a high incident rate of pancreatic cancer that is believed to be from high levels of heavy metals and organchlorine pesticides found in the soil and water.  Exposure to cadmium is most commonly known through smoking, though it is believed that in this region, the exposure is from contact through the heavy metals and pesticides found in the soil and water.  Schistosomiasis (a disease caused by parasitic worms) has been found in irrigation canals along with benthic cyanobacteria  forming mats.

text: While most of the river’s water quality is within acceptable levels, there are several hot spots mostly found in the irrigation canals and drainages.  Sources of pollutants are from agricultural, industrial, and household waste.  There are 36 industries that discharge their pollution sources directly into the Nile, and 41 into irrigation canals.  These types of industries are:  chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, refractory, textile and wood. There are over 90 agricultural drains that discharge into the Nile that also include industrial wastewater. The water exceeds the European Community Standards of fecal contamination and there is a high salinization and saline intrusion in the delta.

text: Salinization

text: happens when there’s a buildup of salts in the soil.  The soil cannot retain water which prevents anything from growing.  Saline intrusion is when the ground is saturated with saltwater.  The northeast Nile Delta region has a high incident rate of

text: pancreatic cancer

text: that is believed to be from high levels of heavy metals and organchlorine

text: pesticides

text: found in the soil and water.  Exposure to

text: cadmium

text: is most commonly known through smoking, though it is believed that in this region, the exposure is from contact through the heavy metals and pesticides found in the soil and water.

text: Schistosomiasis

text: (a disease caused by parasitic worms) has been found in irrigation canals along with benthic

text: cyanobacteria

text: forming mats.

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answers: The soil cannot retain water which prevents anything from growing

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text: China Everbright Water Limited is a Bermuda incorporated company that specialized in wastewater treatment in the mainland China. The shares of the company float in Singapore Exchange.

text: China Everbright Water Limited is a

text: Bermuda

text: incorporated company that specialized in

text: wastewater treatment

text: in the

text: mainland China

text: . The shares of the company float in

text: Singapore Exchange

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text: A proposal was signed on 18 November 1990 to turn the area into a conservation unit, in part to protect the important water sources that it contains.The state governor created the Campo Grande Botanical Garden by decree 7.119/93 of 17 March 1993 to preserve the biodiversity of the cerrado and to protect the water sources. SEMA was given 180 days to start administering the area, but this did not happen.

text: A proposal was signed on 18 November 1990 to turn the area into a conservation unit, in part to protect the important water sources that it contains.The state governor created the Campo Grande Botanical Garden by decree 7.119/93 of 17 March 1993 to preserve the biodiversity of the cerrado and to protect the water sources. SEMA was given 180 days to start administering the area, but this did not happen.

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text: Flush toilets usually incorporate an "S", "U", "J", or "P" shaped bend (called a trap, such as P trap or S trap) that causes the water in the toilet bowl to collect and act as a seal against sewer gases (trapping the gases). Since flush toilets are typically not designed to handle waste on site, their drain pipes must be connected to waste conveyance and waste treatment systems. When a toilet is flushed, the wastewater flows into a septic tank or sewage system and from there to a sewage treatment plant.

text: Flush toilets usually incorporate an "S", "U", "J", or "P" shaped bend (called a

text: trap

text: , such as P trap or S trap) that causes the water in the toilet bowl to collect and act as a seal against sewer gases (trapping the gases). Since flush toilets are typically not designed to handle waste on site, their drain pipes must be connected to waste conveyance and

text: waste treatment

text: systems. When a toilet is flushed, the

text: wastewater

text: flows into a

text: septic tank

text: or

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answers: flush toilets

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answers: flush toilets

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answers: 100

text: The direct approach measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents.  The pollutant concentrations are directly monitored on or within the person through point of contact, biological monitoring, or biomarkers.  The point of contact approach indicates the total concentration reaching the host, while biological monitoring and the use of biomarkers infer the dosage of the pollutant through the determination of the body burden.  The respondents often record their daily activities and locations during the measurement of the pollutants to identify the potential sources, microenvironments, or human activities contributing the pollutant exposure.  An advantage of the direct approach is that the exposures through multiple media (air, soil, water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one study technique.  The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs.

text: The direct approach measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents.  The pollutant concentrations are directly monitored on or within the person through point of contact, biological monitoring, or

text: biomarker

text: s.  The point of contact approach indicates the total concentration reaching the host, while biological monitoring and the use of biomarkers infer the dosage of the pollutant through the determination of the body burden.  The respondents often record their daily activities and locations during the measurement of the pollutants to identify the potential sources, microenvironments, or human activities contributing the pollutant exposure.  An advantage of the direct approach is that the exposures through multiple media (air, soil, water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one study technique.  The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs.

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answers: The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs

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answers: is accounted for through one study technique

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs

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answers: 100

text: According to PALYJA in its western half of the concession the service coverage ratio increased substantially from 34% in 1998 to 59% in 2007 and 65% in 2010. According to data by the Jakarta Water Supply Regulatory Body, access in the eastern half of the city served by PTJ increased from about 57% in 1998 to about 67% in 2004, but stagnated after that. However, other sources cite much lower access figures for piped water supply to houses, excluding access provided through public hydrants: One study estimated access as low as 25% in 2005, while another source estimates it to be as low as 18.5% in 2011. Those without access to piped water supply get water mostly from wells that are often salty and polluted with bacteria.

text: According to PALYJA in its western half of the concession the service coverage ratio increased substantially from 34% in 1998 to 59% in 2007 and 65% in 2010. According to data by the Jakarta Water Supply Regulatory Body, access in the eastern half of the city served by PTJ increased from about 57% in 1998 to about 67% in 2004, but stagnated after that. However, other sources cite much lower access figures for piped water supply to houses, excluding access provided through public hydrants: One study estimated access as low as 25% in 2005, while another source estimates it to be as low as 18.5% in 2011. Those without access to piped water supply get water mostly from wells that are often salty and polluted with bacteria.

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answers: One study estimated access as low as 25%

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answers: water supply to houses

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water supply to houses

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 18.5%

text: Egypt is part of the Nile Basin alongside Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The allocation of power over the use of the Nile has been a source of conflict for years. The Nile is a symbol of Egypt's nationalism which has led to strong opposition from neighboring countries. The Nile River provides irrigation, hydroelectricity and industrialization for Egypt.   Egypt claims to support and stress the importance of water and agricultural projects in order to preserve its environment and allow for the Nile to develop an abundance of resources. Egypt has once threatened to go to war over water conflict against Ethiopia and Tanzania in the past.

text: Egypt

text: is part of the

text: Nile Basin

text: alongside

text: Sudan

text: Ethiopia

text: Uganda

text: Kenya

text: Tanzania

text: Burundi

text: Rwanda

text: and the

text: Democratic Republic of Congo

text: . The allocation of power over the use of the

text: Nile

text: has been a source of conflict for years. The Nile is a symbol of Egypt's

text: nationalism

text: which has led to strong opposition from neighboring countries. The Nile River provides

text: irrigation

text: hydroelectricity

text: and

text: industrialization

text: for Egypt.   Egypt claims to support and stress the importance of water and agricultural projects in order to preserve its environment and allow for the Nile to develop an abundance of resources. Egypt has once threatened to go to war over water conflict against

text: Ethiopia

text: and

text: Tanzania

text: in the past.

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answers: Egypt has once threatened to go to war

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answers: NDQ_011875

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answers: The allocation of power over the use of the Nile

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answers: allow for the Nile to develop an abundance of resources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Treatment of domestic sewage and subsequent utilization of treated sewage for irrigation can prevent pollution of water bodies, reduce the demand for fresh water in the irrigation sector and become a resource for irrigation. Since 2005, Indian wastewater treatment plant market has been growing annually at the rate of 10 to 12 percent. The United States is the largest supplier of treatment equipment and supplies to India, with 40 percent market share of new installation. At this rate of expansion, and assuming the government of India continues on its path of reform, major investments in sewage treatment plants and electricity infrastructure development, India will nearly triple its water treatment capacity by 2015, and treatment capacity supply will match India's daily sewage water treatment requirements by about 2020.

text: Treatment of domestic sewage and subsequent utilization of treated sewage for irrigation can prevent pollution of water bodies, reduce the demand for fresh water in the irrigation sector and become a resource for irrigation. Since 2005, Indian wastewater treatment plant market has been growing annually at the rate of 10 to 12 percent. The

text: United States

text: is the largest supplier of treatment equipment and supplies to India, with 40 percent market share of new installation. At this rate of expansion, and assuming the government of India continues on its path of reform, major investments in sewage treatment plants and electricity infrastructure development, India will nearly triple its water treatment capacity by 2015, and treatment capacity supply will match India's daily sewage water treatment requirements by about 2020.

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answers: prevent pollution of water bodies

answers: NDQ_011879

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: India's daily sewage water treatment requirements by about 2020

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: India will nearly triple its water treatment capacity by 2015

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: domestic

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: fresh water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is the largest supplier of treatment equipment and supplies to India

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reduce the demand for fresh water in the irrigation sector

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 12 percent

text: As of 2012, Manila Water operates 36 mostly small wastewater treatment plants with a total capacity of 0.135 million cubic meters per day. Those small "package" treatment plants were designed to keep costs low. Manila Water presents them as an "innovative and unconventional solution". According to Manila Water, sludge from the plants is brought to a composting site in Central Luzon from where it is applied on land in a lahar-laden area in Tarlac province. Manila Water has a license to package biosolids from its wastewater treatment plants as soil conditioners. It plans to invest US$1 billion in sanitation between 2011 and 2018 to bring sewerage coverage to the contractual target. It had three large wastewater treatment plants under construction or bidding as of 2012, aiming to bring the total wastewater treatment capacity in its service area to 0.5 million cubic meters per day.

text: As of 2012, Manila Water operates 36 mostly small wastewater treatment plants with a total capacity of 0.135 million cubic meters per day. Those small "package" treatment plants were designed to keep costs low. Manila Water presents them as an "innovative and unconventional solution". According to Manila Water, sludge from the plants is brought to a composting site in Central Luzon from where it is applied on land in a

text: lahar

text: -laden area in

text: Tarlac

text: province. Manila Water has a license to package biosolids from its wastewater treatment plants as soil conditioners. It plans to invest US$1 billion in sanitation between 2011 and 2018 to bring sewerage coverage to the contractual target. It had three large wastewater treatment plants under construction or bidding as of 2012, aiming to bring the total wastewater treatment capacity in its service area to 0.5 million cubic meters per day.

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answers: lahar

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answers: According to Manila Water, sludge from the plants is brought to a composting site in Central Luzon

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: small wastewater treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: soil conditioners

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0.135

text: According to the Pakistan Social And Living Standards Measurement Survey of 2010-11, the main source of drinking water was as follows: 32% tap water, 28% hand pump, 27% motor pump, 4% dug well and 9% others. Assuming that other sources are identical to unimproved water sources, access to an improved water source was 91%, almost identical to the 2010 figure estimated by the JMP. For sanitation, the survey estimates that 66% had a flush toilet, 15% a non-flush toilet and 18% had no toilet at all. If all toilets were considered to be a form of improved sanitation, access according to this estimate would be 81%, much higher than the JMP estimate of 48%.

text: According to the Pakistan Social And Living Standards Measurement Survey of 2010-11, the main source of drinking water was as follows: 32% tap water, 28% hand pump, 27% motor pump, 4% dug well and 9% others. Assuming that other sources are identical to unimproved water sources, access to an improved water source was 91%, almost identical to the 2010 figure estimated by the JMP. For sanitation, the survey estimates that 66% had a flush toilet, 15% a non-flush toilet and 18% had no toilet at all. If all toilets were considered to be a form of improved sanitation, access according to this estimate would be 81%, much higher than the JMP estimate of 48%.

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answers: 4% dug well and 9% others

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Assuming that other sources are identical to unimproved water sources, access to an improved water source was 91%

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: motor pump

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: tap water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Pakistan Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: access to an improved water source

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 32%

text: Intake fraction is the total mass of a pollutant ingested or inhaled by all exposed individuals over a given time, per total mass of the pollutant emitted. The intake fraction can be divided into components that identify the specific pollutant source, route, media, and subpopulation of exposed individuals.  For example, policy makers may be interested in the total mass of mercury emitted by one specific coal-burning electric generator that is ingested in water by the residents living below the poverty level in one specific town.

text: Intake fraction is the total mass of a pollutant ingested or inhaled by all exposed individuals over a given time, per total mass of the pollutant emitted. The intake fraction can be divided into components that identify the specific pollutant source, route, media, and subpopulation of exposed individuals.  For example, policy makers may be interested in the total mass of mercury emitted by one specific coal-burning

text: electric generator

text: that is ingested in water by the residents living below the

text: poverty level

text: in one specific town.

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answers: water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The intake fraction can be divided into components that identify the specific pollutant source, route, media, and subpopulation of exposed individuals

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: coal-burning

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: policy makers

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The water source was acquired from deep wells about (18 to 20 meters). The two most famous wells (Jub) were Jub Hamza and Jub Jaaber. Without the existence of these two wells, the continuous life in Fayruzah as we know it would have not existed. The structure of Jub Hamza in the middle of the village was preserved as a “monument” for current and future generations. The village now uses city running water and electricity.

text: The water source was acquired from deep wells about (18 to 20 meters). The two most famous wells (Jub) were Jub Hamza and Jub Jaaber. Without the existence of these two wells, the continuous life in Fayruzah as we know it would have not existed. The structure of Jub Hamza in the middle of the village was preserved as a “monument” for current and future generations. The village now uses city running water and electricity.

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text: On 1 October 2012, Xylem, a water technology provider based in the United States, announced that it had been awarded a contract to develop wastewater treatment and recycling systems for the Mumbai Metro. The value of the contract was undisclosed. The system will incorporate a 1.2-million-litre-capacity sewage treatment plant with wastewater recycling capabilities; trials of the plant were expected to be commissioned by late November 2012. The plant will be equipped with Xylem’s Sanitaire wastewater treatment technology, which is expected to help save up to 1.2 million litres of water a day.

text: On 1 October 2012, Xylem, a water technology provider based in the United States, announced that it had been awarded a contract to develop wastewater treatment and recycling systems for the Mumbai Metro. The value of the contract was undisclosed. The system will incorporate a 1.2-million-litre-capacity sewage treatment plant with wastewater recycling capabilities; trials of the plant were expected to be commissioned by late November 2012. The plant will be equipped with Xylem’s Sanitaire wastewater treatment technology, which is expected to help save up to 1.2 million litres of water a day.

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answers: save up to 1.2 million litres of water a day

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answers: 1.2

text: Human impact: Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking and irrigation of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world's groundwater used for agricultural production.

text: Human impact: Groundwater is an important source of water for

text: drinking

text: and

text: irrigation

text: of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world's groundwater used for agricultural production.

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answers: 80%

text: Very few people have traversed the mountains of this region because it is covered by rugged terrain and an impenetrable and cold páramo environment, both of which are natural guardians which preserve the water sources that provide water for half of Colombia before emptying into the sea.

text: Very few people have traversed the mountains of this region because it is covered by rugged terrain and an impenetrable and cold páramo environment, both of which are natural guardians which preserve the water sources that provide water for half of Colombia before emptying into the sea.

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answers: half

text: Water board finances and wastewater treatment levy. Water boards have the authority to levy taxes and finance their activities mostly with revenues from these taxes. The three main taxes levied by the water boards are a charge for flood protection, a water resources management charge, and a water pollution levy for wastewater treatment. The pollution levy is based on the principle that a polluter must pay for the pollution that he causes. Every household in the Netherlands pays the pollution levy. Companies and organizations pay a rate linked to the quantity and composition of their waste water. The revenues from these taxes provide a budget of €1.9 billion in 2004. The total costs in the same year are estimated at around €2.3 billion, including a share for wastewater treatment. On average around 95% of all annual investment costs and management and maintenance costs by the Water Boards are covered by their revenues.

text: Water board finances and wastewater treatment levy. Water boards have the authority to levy taxes and finance their activities mostly with revenues from these taxes. The three main taxes levied by the water boards are a charge for flood protection, a water resources management charge, and a water pollution levy for wastewater treatment. The pollution levy is based on the principle that a polluter must pay for the pollution that he causes. Every household in the Netherlands pays the pollution levy. Companies and organizations pay a rate linked to the quantity and composition of their waste water. The revenues from these taxes provide a budget of €1.9 billion in 2004. The total costs in the same year are estimated at around €2.3 billion, including a share for wastewater treatment. On average around 95% of all annual investment costs and management and maintenance costs by the Water Boards are covered by their revenues.

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answers: The pollution levy is based on the principle that a polluter must pay for the pollution that he causes

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Water board finances and wastewater treatment levy

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Every household

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Water Boards

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Every household in the Netherlands

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: 95% of all annual investment costs and management and maintenance costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 95%

text: A State Revolving Fund (SRF) is a fund administered by a U.S. state for the purpose of providing low-interest loans for investments in water and sanitation infrastructure (e.g., sewage treatment, stormwater management facilities, drinking water treatment), as well as for the implementation of nonpoint source pollution control and estuary protection projects. A SRF receives its initial capital from federal grants and state contributions. It then emits bonds that are guaranteed by the initial capital. It then "revolves" through the repayment of principal and the payment of interest on outstanding loans. There are currently two SRFs, the Clean Water State Revolving Fund created in 1987 under the Clean Water Act, and the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund created in 1997 under the Safe Drinking Water Act.

text: A State Revolving Fund (SRF) is a fund administered by a

text: U.S. state

text: for the purpose of providing low-interest loans for investments in water and sanitation infrastructure (e.g.,

text: sewage treatment

text: stormwater

text: management facilities,

text: drinking water

text: treatment), as well as for the implementation of

text: nonpoint source

text: pollution control and

text: estuary

text: protection projects. A SRF receives its initial capital from federal grants and state contributions. It then emits

text: bonds

text: that are guaranteed by the initial capital. It then "revolves" through the repayment of principal and the payment of interest on outstanding loans. There are currently two SRFs, the

text: Clean Water State Revolving Fund

text: created in 1987 under the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , and the

text: Drinking Water State Revolving Fund

text: created in 1997 under the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

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answers: Drinking Water State Revolving Fund created in 1997

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: nonpoint source pollution

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: U.S.

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

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answers: low-interest loans

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text: The goals are to extend the useful life of the Bolonha and Água Preta lakes, which supply about 60% of the population of the metropolitan region, and ensure water potability through management of water sources and recovery of degraded areas; to protect the landscape, forests and other types of vegetation, preserve representative samples of biodiversity as a gene bank and protect animals that take refuge in the park due to expansion of the surrounding urban areas; and to preserve a green space to improve the quality of life of the population and support scientific, cultural, educational and recreational activities and tourism.

text: The goals are to extend the useful life of the Bolonha and Água Preta lakes, which supply about 60% of the population of the metropolitan region, and ensure water potability through management of water sources and recovery of degraded areas; to protect the landscape, forests and other types of vegetation, preserve representative samples of biodiversity as a gene bank and protect animals that take refuge in the park due to expansion of the surrounding urban areas; and to preserve a green space to improve the quality of life of the population and support scientific, cultural, educational and recreational activities and tourism.

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answers: is water

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answers: ensure water potability

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answers: ensure water potability

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answers: 60%

text: Because of the range of pollution sources throughout the world and variable social, environmental and economic systems to address and support improved water quality, it is important to note that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to water quality. Various responses to improving water quality have emerged throughout the world and include:

text: Because of the range of pollution sources throughout the world and variable social, environmental and economic systems to address and support improved water quality, it is important to note that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to water quality. Various responses to improving water quality have emerged throughout the world and include:

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answers: no ‘one size fits all’ solution to water quality

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: pollution sources throughout the world

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: pollution sources

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: pollution sources

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: improved water quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with urban wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, urban wastewater passes through a series of treatment steps that encompasses membrane filtration and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+HO, ozone).

text: IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with urban wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, urban wastewater passes through a series of treatment steps that encompasses

text: membrane filtration

text: and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+HO, ozone).

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answers: Drinking water supplies

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answers: urban

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answers: aquifers

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: augmentation of drinking water supplies

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of fish: the vendace, which can be found only in Derwent Water and until 2008 in Bassenthwaite Lake. Vendace have struggled in recent years with naturally occurring algae becoming a threat and the lakes gradually getting warmer.Vendace have been moved to higher lakes on a number of occasions to preserve the species, notably in 2005 and 2011. The Lakes are also home to two other rare species: the schelly, which lives in Brothers Water, Haweswater, Red Tarn and Ullswater, and the Arctic charr, which can be found in Buttermere, Coniston Water, Crummock Water, Ennerdale Water, Haweswater, Loweswater, Thirlmere, Wast Water, and Windermere.

text: The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of fish: the

text: vendace

text: , which can be found only in Derwent Water and until 2008 in

text: Bassenthwaite Lake

text: . Vendace have struggled in recent years with naturally occurring algae becoming a threat and the lakes gradually getting warmer.Vendace have been moved to higher lakes on a number of occasions to preserve the species, notably in 2005 and 2011. The Lakes are also home to two other rare species: the

text: schelly

text: , which lives in Brothers Water, Haweswater, Red Tarn and Ullswater, and the

text: Arctic char

text: r, which can be found in Buttermere, Coniston Water, Crummock Water, Ennerdale Water, Haweswater, Loweswater, Thirlmere, Wast Water, and Windermere.

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answers: Derwent Water

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answers: Lakes

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Derwent Water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Lakes

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Lake District support three rare and endangered species

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: rare and endangered species of fish

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 20%

text: Many fruits are locally available, including marula. Watermelons, believed to have come originally from Botswana, are plentiful in season. Another kind of melon, called lerotse or lekatane, is also grown. There are some kinds of wild melon found in sandy desert areas which are an important food and water source for the people who live in those areas. Many vegetables are seasonal and are often dried or salted for preservation. There are many different ways of cooking dried vegetables.

text: Many

text: fruit

text: s are locally available, including

text: marula

text: Watermelon

text: s, believed to have come originally from Botswana, are plentiful in season. Another kind of melon, called lerotse or lekatane, is also grown. There are some kinds of wild melon found in sandy

text: desert

text: areas which are an important food and water source for the people who live in those areas. Many vegetables are seasonal and are often

text: dried

text: or

text: salted

text: for preservation. There are many different ways of cooking dried vegetables.

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answers: wild melon found in sandy desert areas

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Desert areas are an important food and water source

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: wild melon

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: desert areas

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Wild melon

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water source

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: For the concrete work and the arch, the engineers used boards to build the form. Impressions of the wood grain remain in the concrete 2,000 years later. The aqueduct had an inner width of  and a height of , so a worker could enter the tube when necessary. The outside of the aqueduct was plastered to keep dirty water out. At several locations, a drainage system was set up alongside the aqueduct to keep ground water away. Smaller streams crossed the aqueduct through culverts: one, very near the source, is still well-preserved.

text: For the concrete work and the arch, the engineers used boards to build the form. Impressions of the wood grain remain in the concrete 2,000 years later. The aqueduct had an inner width of  and a height of , so a worker could enter the tube when necessary. The outside of the aqueduct was

text: plaster

text: ed to keep dirty water out. At several locations, a drainage system was set up alongside the aqueduct to keep ground water away. Smaller streams crossed the aqueduct through

text: culvert

text: s: one, very near the source, is still well-preserved.

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answers: The clean water act

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answers: one, very near the source, is still well-preserved

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: dirty water

text: Water quality in Chile has steadily increased after the 'right to live in a pollution-free environment' mentioned above was written into the 1980 Constitution, however, water pollution is still a concern. This is mostly due to point-source discharges of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters.In the early 1990s, domestic and industrial wastewater discharge totaled approximately 43 cubic meters per second (1,520 ft/s) with domestic contamination representing 56% of this total and industrial effluent at 44%.The problem was compounded by a lack of chlorination systems among water service providers. Therefore, 20% of water service providers in 1991 did not comply with bacteriological norms. From its inception in 1990, the Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios (SISS) put greater attention and effort towards increasing the number of adequate chlorination systems. By 2006, improvements were made regarding chlorination systems and only 1% of water service providers were non-compliant. Furthermore, compliance with disinfection norms increased from 89% to more than 99% in 2006 through similar effort.

text: Water quality in Chile has steadily increased after the 'right to live in a pollution-free environment' mentioned above was written into the 1980 Constitution, however, water pollution is still a concern. This is mostly due to point-source discharges of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters.In the early 1990s, domestic and industrial wastewater discharge totaled approximately 43 cubic meters per second (1,520 ft/s) with domestic contamination representing 56% of this total and industrial effluent at 44%.The problem was compounded by a lack of chlorination systems among water service providers. Therefore, 20% of water service providers in 1991 did not comply with bacteriological norms. From its inception in 1990, the Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios (SISS) put greater attention and effort towards increasing the number of adequate chlorination systems. By 2006, improvements were made regarding chlorination systems and only 1% of water service providers were non-compliant. Furthermore, compliance with disinfection norms increased from 89% to more than 99% in 2006 through similar effort.

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answers: water pollution is still a concern

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The problem was compounded by a lack of chlorination systems

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: domestic contamination representing 56%

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: right to live in a pollution-free environment

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: compliance with disinfection norms

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99%

text: The Keweenaw Underwater Preserve is a preservation area in the U.S. state of Michigan.  Located in Lake Superior, it protects waters that lie offshore Keweenaw Peninsula.

text: The Keweenaw Underwater Preserve is a preservation area in the U.S. state of

text: Michigan

text: .  Located in

text: Lake Superior

text: , it protects waters that lie offshore

text: Keweenaw Peninsula

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answers: Lake Superior

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Lake Superior

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Keweenaw

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Lake Superior

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: protects waters

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Lake Superior

text: The topographical features of the region determine categories of water sources. Topographically, the region can be divided into three distinct topographical zones: plateau (Ogo), Mountainous, and Coastal. Starting from northern part of the region along the sea is the coastal zone which is about 500 to 700 above the sea level. Coastal zone comprises sandy plains that extend from 70 to 90 km from sea. This zone is very hot with temperature of about 40 degree Celsius during the summer season (June- August). People and livestock die for thirsty during the summer if they could not have an ease access to reliable water sources. Hand dug shallow wells in dry riversbeds are the source of water during rainy season but dry up as soon as rains stop or evaporate as the sun gets hotter. And, as a result of this, the only reliable water sources in the coastal zones are strategically placed bore wells both for human and livestock consumptions. Of the eight bore wells in the region, 5 are in coastal zone: El-gal, Karure, Kalowle, Husayn, Zeila, and Gerissa. These were strategically dug in the driest parts of the coastal zone. Next to coastal in the south is the Mountainous Zone. The mountainous zone consist a string of mountains that extend east to west along the coastal zone. The zone has many dry river beds and valleys in between the mountains. The river beds provide permanent water in terms of springs and shallow wells dug in the dry river beds. Besides human and livestock consumption the water sources are used for the irrigation of fruit and vegetable farms. Unlike the other zones of the region, Mountainous zone has a reliable water sources in the region.The third topographical zone is the Ogo Zone. This zone is an upland terrain which runs along mountains zone in the south. It is about 1000 –1300 meters above the sea level. The main water sources of this zone are manmade rain water catchment earth dams ( balleyo), cemented catchments (Berkeds), and bore wells besides some natural rain ponds. Most of Berkads and Balleys are privately owned water sources except 5 communal Balleys dug by World Bank project in 1980s in three sites around Borama and not de-silted since excavation. Most of rain water catchments usually dry up during the dry season and both people and livestock resort to bore wells for water or to communal hand dug shallow wells along the fringes of the mountainous zone.According to regional water officer, 4 bore wells operate in the coastal zone. These are El-gal, and Laanta Morohda, which are in Zeila district; and Karure and Kalowle in Lughaya Districts. Kalowle bore well provides water to pastoralists and Lughaya Town which is about 8 km from the bore well site. UNICEF has drilled a pack up strategic bore well at the site in case the old bore well breaks down. Karure bore well has not a back up yet. These bore wells are strategic in the sense that they are drilled in the most dry areas of coastal zone where water sources are not obtainable. However, the bore wells have no pack ups and if a bore well breaksdown, the live of both livestock and the people are at great risk.Zeila town gets its water from bore well near Tokoshi, a village about 8 km west of Zeila town. The bore well does not provide sufficient water and its water turns salty in the dry season. Since Zeila occurs in the coastal zone, it is very hot during the summer season and life is difficult without adequate water supply. Besides, Zeila is the entry point of people and goods coming from Republic Djibouti and, as a result of this, there is customs office where the Ministry of Finance collects import taxes from goods entering the country. Accordingly, provision of sufficient and drinkable water supply is very crucial for lives of town people and for the movementof people between Somaliland and Republic of Djibouti.Management of bore wells is very poor. The bore wells are practically owned by the operators and fix the price of water for livestock and human consumption. Different water prices are charged by the operators on the different bore wells in coastal areas. The operators are not accountable to any government institution or body including the beneficiaries of bore wells.Unlike the strategic bore wells in the coastal zone, mini- water systems exist in the major towns and villages in Mountainous Zone. The main sources of mini water systems are hand dug shallow wells connected to pumps run by diesel pumps or by solar installations.Mini water systems are for human consumption and funded by international organization with collaboration of local communities and local governments. They are managed by committee and charges affordable rate to beneficiaries. Some of the proceeds are paid to operators for salaries and remainder is used for spare parts and for repairs and maintenance services.

text: Republic Djibouti

text: and, as a result of this, there is customs office where the Ministry of Finance collects import taxes from goods entering the country. Accordingly, provision of sufficient and drinkable water supply is very crucial for lives of town people and for the movementof people between Somaliland and Republic of Djibouti.Management of bore wells is very poor. The bore wells are practically owned by the operators and fix the price of water for livestock and human consumption. Different water prices are charged by the operators on the different bore wells in coastal areas. The operators are not accountable to any government institution or body including the beneficiaries of bore wells.Unlike the strategic bore wells in the coastal zone, mini- water systems exist in the major towns and villages in Mountainous Zone. The main sources of mini water systems are hand dug shallow wells connected to pumps run by diesel pumps or by solar installations.Mini water systems are for human consumption and funded by international organization with collaboration of local communities and local governments. They are managed by committee and charges affordable rate to beneficiaries. Some of the proceeds are paid to operators for salaries and remainder is used for spare parts and for repairs and maintenance services.

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answers: Berkads

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: People and livestock die for thirsty during the summer if they could not have an ease access to reliable water sources

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Berkads

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: manmade

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The third topographical zone

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: irrigation of fruit and vegetable farms

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Ogo

text: In 1861, Louisiana was ready for war in only attitude. Both motivation alone was not enough. The focus shifted fanatically to equipment and supplies. In the early days of the war, equipment and supplies were furnished by parish governments, wealthy individuals, or the soldiers themselves. Although Louisiana imported most finished goods, some manufacturing did exist. A New Orleans factory switched from making clothing for plantations to making uniforms. Converted factories made weapons from scrap iron collected by citizens. Ranches in southwest Louisiana and Texas supplied the cattle for a slaughterhouse south of Alexandria. The beef was preserved by salting it. This method left the meat tough and very salty, and the soldiers had to boil the meat for hours before they could eat it. They learned to ignore the bugs floating on the water. The salt for preserving the beef came from several salt deposits around the state. Brine was pumped out of the ground and boiled down in kettles to get the salt. Discovering the extensive salt deposits at Avery Island gave the Confederates a valuable source. The women of Louisiana also helped "The Cause." Ladies' sewing circles made uniforms and cartridge bags. Their new sewing machines became part of assembly lines. But too soon the ladies stopped designing battle flags and began making bandages. Monogrammed linen pillow cases became sandbags at Port Hudson, and treasured carpets became blankets for freezing soldiers.

text: In 1861, Louisiana was ready for war in only attitude. Both motivation alone was not enough. The focus shifted fanatically to equipment and supplies. In the early days of the war, equipment and supplies were furnished by parish governments, wealthy individuals, or the soldiers themselves. Although Louisiana imported most finished goods, some manufacturing did exist. A New Orleans factory switched from making clothing for plantations to making uniforms. Converted factories made weapons from scrap iron collected by citizens. Ranches in southwest Louisiana and Texas supplied the cattle for a slaughterhouse south of Alexandria. The beef was preserved by salting it. This method left the meat tough and very salty, and the soldiers had to boil the meat for hours before they could eat it. They learned to ignore the bugs floating on the water. The salt for preserving the beef came from several salt deposits around the state. Brine was pumped out of the ground and boiled down in kettles to get the salt. Discovering the extensive salt deposits at

text: Avery Island

text: gave the Confederates a valuable source. The women of Louisiana also helped "The Cause." Ladies' sewing circles made uniforms and cartridge bags. Their new sewing machines became part of assembly lines. But too soon the ladies stopped designing battle flags and began making bandages. Monogrammed linen pillow cases became sandbags at

text: Port Hudson

text: , and treasured carpets became blankets for freezing soldiers.

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text: Economic development in the 20th century has caused environmental problems, especially in the south of the valley. These include air and soil pollution from an important refinery and electric power plant near the city of Tula. The most serious problem comes from wastewater which is pumped into the area from the neighboring Valley of Mexico. The wastewater comes from drainage projects that carry water out of the Valley of Mexico and dump it into the Tula River, with most of the water not treated adequately or not treated at all. The wastewater is a mix of residential and industrial water, which includes contaminants such as bacteria (such as cholera) from fecal matter and toxic chemicals. This contamination is severe enough in places to be seen and smelled. Nevertheless, the water is an important source for irrigated farming, especially in the Tula and Alfajayucan areas, with the water "treated" by letting it soak through the soil. The water causes contamination of groundwater, including water that eventually becomes part of the Pánuco River, affecting coastal lagoons on the Gulf of Mexico.

text: Economic development in the 20th century has caused environmental problems, especially in the south of the valley. These include air and soil pollution from an important refinery and electric power plant near the city of Tula. The most serious problem comes from wastewater which is pumped into the area from the neighboring Valley of Mexico. The wastewater comes from drainage projects that carry water out of the Valley of Mexico and dump it into the Tula River, with most of the water not treated adequately or not treated at all. The wastewater is a mix of residential and industrial water, which includes contaminants such as bacteria (such as cholera) from fecal matter and toxic chemicals. This contamination is severe enough in places to be seen and smelled. Nevertheless, the water is an important source for irrigated farming, especially in the Tula and Alfajayucan areas, with the water "treated" by letting it soak through the soil. The water causes contamination of

text: groundwater

text: , including water that eventually becomes part of the

text: Pánuco River

text: , affecting coastal lagoons on the

text: Gulf of Mexico

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text: It shows an extensive range of applications; drinking water, wastewater, water disinfection, color removal, micropollutants, pulp & paper bleaching, process water, ballast water, cooling towers, beverage and water bottling, aquaculture, aquariums (zoos), cyanide regeneration, food/ produce/ poultry, swimming pools, ultrapure water and many more. It is also used for the deodorization of waste air emitted from water plants and for the reduction of sludge from biological wastewater treatment (sewage treatment).

text: It shows an extensive range of applications;

text: drinking water

text: wastewater

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text: , color removal, micropollutants, pulp & paper bleaching, process water,

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text: and many more. It is also used for the deodorization of waste air emitted from water plants and for the reduction of

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text: Water pollution manifestations of an area source include:

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: Earth's water

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answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reducing the amount of pollutants

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water pollution

text: State Archaeologist John Doershuk states that the site was preserved so well because of a quick river flood that sealed the deposits and preserved the items. The site was discovered during construction of a new wastewater treatment facility. Anytime federally permitted or funded construction is occurring, archaeologists are called to perform an evaluation of potential archaeological sites in the area.

text: State

text: Archaeologist

text: John Doershuk states that the site was preserved so well because of a quick river flood that sealed the deposits and preserved the items. The site was discovered during construction of a new wastewater treatment facility. Anytime federally permitted or funded construction is occurring, archaeologists are called to perform an evaluation of potential archaeological sites in the area.

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answers: Anytime federally permitted or funded construction

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text: The State Water Board’s Division of Financial Assistance (DFA) has a number of programs designed to help local agencies and individuals prevent or clean up water pollution.  The DFA provides loans and grants for constructing municipal sewage and water recycling facilities, remediation for underground storage tank releases, watershed protection projects, and for nonpoint source pollution control projects. (Nonpoint source pollution usually involves contaminants flowing into a body of water from diffuse sources such as runoff from storm water, which may contain road dirt or fertilizers and pesticides from lawns, as well as water that collects debris from construction sites and fecal matter from barnyards and flows into nearby rivers, streams and lakes.)

text: The State Water Board’s Division of Financial Assistance (DFA) has a number of programs designed to help local agencies and individuals prevent or clean up water pollution.  The DFA provides loans and grants for constructing municipal sewage and water recycling facilities, remediation for underground storage tank releases, watershed protection projects, and for

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: control projects. (Nonpoint source pollution usually involves contaminants flowing into a body of water from diffuse sources such as runoff from storm water, which may contain road dirt or fertilizers and pesticides from lawns, as well as water that collects debris from construction sites and fecal matter from barnyards and flows into nearby rivers, streams and lakes.)

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answers: prevent or clean up water pollution

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: During the washing process the research in Nicaragua showed a clear decrease in contamination of the wastewater. The COD values drop from an average of 7,200 mg/l to less than 50 mg/l. Despite the fact that wastewater with COD values below 200 mg/l is allowed to be discharged in the natural waterways in Nicaragua it is advisable to redirect all the wastewater to the treatment system. This is because COD levels cannot be determined onsite during the washing process and discharge of the wastewater into surface waters is based on visual inspection. When the water is "clear" it is considered to be clean enough but the COD values measured during the research showed that discharge generally was to soon, resulting in wastewater with higher levels of COD than permitted. Another positive effect of diverting the wastewater to a treatment system is the dilution of the wastewater which enables better treatment by anaerobic bacteria due to more favourable pH values and better post-treatment due to lower concentrations of ammonium.

text: During the washing process the research in Nicaragua showed a clear decrease in contamination of the wastewater. The COD values drop from an average of 7,200 mg/l to less than 50 mg/l. Despite the fact that wastewater with COD values below 200 mg/l is allowed to be discharged in the natural waterways in Nicaragua it is advisable to redirect all the wastewater to the treatment system. This is because COD levels cannot be determined onsite during the washing process and discharge of the wastewater into surface waters is based on visual inspection. When the water is "clear" it is considered to be clean enough but the COD values measured during the research showed that discharge generally was to soon, resulting in wastewater with higher levels of COD than permitted. Another positive effect of diverting the wastewater to a treatment system is the dilution of the wastewater which enables better treatment by anaerobic bacteria due to more favourable pH values and better post-treatment due to lower concentrations of ammonium.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is advisable to redirect all the wastewater

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: washing process

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: surface waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: wastewater with COD values below 200 mg/l

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: dilution of the wastewater

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient water resources at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public water supply network losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface water pollution increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time organic waste pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new sewage treatment plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's groundwater aquifers are top quality, unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and bacteriological water analysis results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public water supply system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public sewerage network, with septic systems in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good, oligotrophic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased eutrophication were identified in the Bay of Bakar, the Bay of Kaštela, the Port of Šibenik and near Ploče; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of marine pollution (including 128 from vessels), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient

text: water resources

text: at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public

text: water supply network

text: losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface

text: water pollution

text: increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time

text: organic waste

text: pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new

text: sewage treatment

text: plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's

text: groundwater

text: aquifer

text: s are top

text: quality

text: , unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: and

text: bacteriological water analysis

text: results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public

text: water supply

text: system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public

text: sewerage

text: network, with

text: septic system

text: s in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good,

text: oligotroph

text: ic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased

text: eutrophication

text: were identified in the

text: Bay of Bakar

text: , the Bay of

text: Kaštela

text: , the Port of

text: Šibenik

text: and near

text: Ploče

text: ; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of

text: marine pollution

text: (including 128

text: from vessels

text: ), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

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answers: public water supply network losses remain high

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: public water supply network losses remain high—estimated at 44%

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: vessels

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: aquifers

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: sewage treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 44%

text: The use of deep bed sand filters as the final carrying step in municipal potable water treatment has increased significantly over the past decade, with its application ranging from clarification and processing of drinking water to wastewater treatment plants where the wastewater is required to be polished before being discharged. The main advantage of depth filtration involves the ability to retain particles throughout the medium channels, rather than purely on its surface. This significantly increases the filtration ability of the medium in comparison to other types of filtration processes and allows particles of different sizes to be filtered in the matrix.

text: The use of deep bed sand filters as the final carrying step in municipal potable water treatment has increased significantly over the past decade, with its application ranging from clarification and processing of drinking water to wastewater treatment plants where the wastewater is required to be polished before being discharged. The main advantage of depth filtration involves the ability to retain particles throughout the medium channels, rather than purely on its surface. This significantly increases the filtration ability of the medium in comparison to other types of filtration processes and allows particles of different sizes to be filtered in the matrix.

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answers: potable water treatment

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answers: It significantly increases the filtration ability of the medium

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: municipal potable water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: potable water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: allows particles of different sizes to be filtered in the matrix

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: potable

text: Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) compounds include natural organic surfactants which reduce the surface tension of water and permit the formation of foam bubbles. DOCs derived from decomposing algae and other plants in water courses are one important source, however DOCs derived from bogs and wetlands are very important. Brown-water streams with brown water contain high levels of DOC and much of the foam forms after snowmelt, after prolonged heavy rains and in autumn. The foam decreases quickly when water flow reduces.

text: Dissolved organic carbon

text: (DOC) compounds include natural organic surfactants which reduce the surface tension of water and permit the formation of foam bubbles. DOCs derived from decomposing algae and other plants in water courses are one important source, however DOCs derived from bogs and wetlands are very important. Brown-water streams with brown water contain high levels of DOC and much of the foam forms after snowmelt, after prolonged heavy rains and in autumn. The foam decreases quickly when water flow reduces.

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answers: bogs and wetlands

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: bogs and wetlands

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: bogs and wetlands

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wetlands

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Brown-water streams with brown water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: permit the formation of foam bubbles

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0.1

text: The woodland area, which covers the peaks and foothills of the mountains around the outer rim of Mount Aso, was developed and is being maintained by monitoring and working to prevent increasing pollution levels. The river has become an important source of water for the 21 municipalities below, who have created an association to regulate the water.

text: The woodland area, which covers the peaks and foothills of the mountains around the outer rim of Mount Aso, was developed and is being maintained by monitoring and working to prevent increasing pollution levels. The river has become an important source of water for the 21 municipalities below, who have created an association to regulate the water.

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answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: water shortages

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: 21 municipalities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: regulate the water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: important source of water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 21

text: Sources of drinking water are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-causing contaminants. Contamination of drinking water supplies can occur in the source water as well as in the distribution system after water treatment has already occurred. There are many sources of water contamination, including naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (for example, arsenic, radon, uranium), local land use practices (application of fertilizers and pesticides; concentrated animal feeding operations), manufacturing processes, and sewer overflows or wastewater releases.

text: Sources of drinking water are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-causing contaminants. Contamination of drinking water supplies can occur in the source water as well as in the distribution system after water treatment has already occurred. There are many sources of water contamination, including naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (for example,

text: arsenic

text: radon

text: uranium

text: ), local land use practices (application of

text: fertilizer

text: s and

text: pesticide

text: s;

text: concentrated animal feeding operation

text: s), manufacturing processes, and

text: sewer overflow

text: s or

text: wastewater

text: releases.

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text: There were 138 municipal wastewater treatment plants in Turkey as of 2004. According to the Ministry of Environment, 41% of waste water discharged from a sewage system was treated in 2004 (1,68 billion m3 of 2,77 billion m3). Mechanical treatment was applied to 28% of the wastewater treated, biological treatment to 58% and advanced treatment to 13%. 53% of the wastewater, treated or not, was discharged into fresh surface water bodies, 39% to the sea, 1% to fields and 6% to another receiving environment. In Istanbul the share of wastewater treated increased from 9% in 1993 to 95% in 2004.

text: There were 138 municipal wastewater treatment plants in Turkey as of 2004. According to the Ministry of Environment, 41% of waste water discharged from a sewage system was treated in 2004 (1,68 billion m3 of 2,77 billion m3). Mechanical treatment was applied to 28% of the wastewater treated, biological treatment to 58% and advanced treatment to 13%. 53% of the wastewater, treated or not, was discharged into fresh surface water bodies, 39% to the sea, 1% to fields and 6% to another receiving environment. In Istanbul the share of wastewater treated increased from 9% in 1993 to 95% in 2004.

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answers: 39%

text: Preserve Our Islands (POI) is a volunteer, non-profit organization committed to preserving all aspects of life and the environment on Vashon Island and Maury Island, and is opposed to Glacier Northwest's proposal to expand its gravel mine.  According to Glacier Northwest's website, it is the largest supplier of aggregate in the Pacific Northwest, creating a need for it to continuously extract aggregate so that it can remain the largest supplier.  POI claims that if Glacier Northwest continues to expand, nearly ten percent of Maury Island will be affected.  They also argue that the near shore location of the gravel pit will endanger the eelgrass habitat, which is vital for salmon to spawn.  POI also argues that toxins will contaminate the island's only source of drinking water and will affect the residents as well. It hopes that its grassroots efforts will stop Glacier Northwest's expansion.

text: Preserve Our Islands

text: (POI) is a volunteer, non-profit organization committed to preserving all aspects of life and the environment on

text: Vashon Island

text: and Maury Island, and is opposed to Glacier Northwest's proposal to expand its gravel mine.  According to Glacier Northwest's website, it is the largest supplier of

text: aggregate

text: in the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: , creating a need for it to continuously extract aggregate so that it can remain the largest supplier.  POI claims that if Glacier Northwest continues to expand, nearly ten percent of Maury Island will be affected.  They also argue that the near shore location of the gravel pit will endanger the

text: eelgrass

text: habitat, which is vital for salmon to

text: spawn

text: .  POI also argues that toxins will contaminate the island's only source of drinking water and will affect the residents as well. It hopes that its grassroots efforts will stop Glacier Northwest's expansion.

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answers: POI also argues that toxins will contaminate the island's only source of drinking water

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answers: gravel mine

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text: The largest wastewater treatment plants can be defined in several ways.

text: The largest wastewater treatment plants can be defined in several ways.

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text: Human health is most directly affected when polluted water is ingested into the body.  Nonpoint source pollution can often have toxic contaminants and chemicals present in the water.  Additionally, there can be both bacteria and viruses (aka pathogens) found in the water.

text: Human health is most directly affected when polluted water is ingested into the body.  Nonpoint source pollution can often have

text: toxic

text: contaminants and chemicals present in the water.  Additionally, there can be both bacteria and viruses (aka pathogens) found in the water.

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answers: Nonpoint source pollution can often have toxic contaminants and chemicals present in the water

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answers: 99

text: Because of the very select processes that cause preservation, not all organisms have the same chance of being preserved. Any factor that affects the likelihood that an organism is preserved as a fossil is a potential source of bias. It is thus arguably the most important goal of taphonomy to identify the scope of such biases such that they can be quantified to allow correct interpretations of the relative abundances of organisms that make up a fossil biota. Some of the most common sources of bias are listed below.

text: Because of the very select processes that cause preservation, not all organisms have the same chance of being preserved. Any factor that affects the likelihood that an organism is preserved as a fossil is a potential source of bias. It is thus arguably the most important goal of taphonomy to identify the scope of such biases such that they can be quantified to allow correct interpretations of the relative abundances of organisms that make up a fossil biota. Some of the most common sources of bias are listed below.

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answers: Because of the very select processes that cause preservation

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answers: biota

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answers: Clean Water Act

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answers: correct interpretations of the relative abundances of organisms

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answers: select processes

text: The main water source for agriculture and drinking water in the region comes from groundwater. The three primary aquifers in the Pajaro Watershed are the Alluvial, the Aromas, and the Purisma aquifers. All three suffer from seawater intrusion due to groundwater overdraft, the worst affected being the Aromas aquifer.The Alluvial aquifer is heavily polluted by agricultural runoff.

text: The main water source for agriculture and drinking water in the region comes from groundwater. The three primary aquifers in the Pajaro Watershed are the Alluvial, the Aromas, and the Purisma aquifers. All three suffer from seawater intrusion due to groundwater overdraft, the worst affected being the Aromas aquifer.The Alluvial aquifer is heavily polluted by agricultural runoff.

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answers: All three suffer from groundwater overdraft

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answers: All three suffer from seawater intrusion due to groundwater overdraft

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answers: 100

text: The Udalls Cove Preservation Committee, Inc. was established to serve a number of purposes: 1) To preserve intact and forever unspoiled, unpolluted, and in their natural state the marshlands and wetlands of Udalls Cove, Little Neck Bay and adjacent and nearby water that they may continue to be a source of marine life and place of refuge, and sanctuary for migratory and resident fowl; 2) To seek, by legislative and administrative action, to have the Udalls Cove marsh set aside as a permanent preserve for wildlife and as a natural field laboratory for ecological life; 3) To promote, cultivate, and foster public understanding of the dangers inherent in the pollution of air, land and water and the destruction and erosion of our natural resources, including wetlands; 4) To accumulate and disseminate information designed to combat such pollution conditions; 5) To plan, initiate, and take steps to oppose projects which, through their effect on air, land or water, would directly or ultimately affect the health and welfare of humans, animals, and bird life; 6) To acquire by purchase, gift, devise or otherwise, the title to, or the custody and control of marshlands, wildlife refuges, bird sanctuaries and other real property for use consistent with the purposes hereof; 7) To solicit contribution for the advancement of the purposes herein set forth; 8) To support all efforts for the conservation and purification of all natural resources in the city, state and nation; 9) To participate in, work for, manage, aid, assist, further and to do any other manner of thing with reference to property in the area of Long Island Sound, its adjacent waterways and any surrounding or nearby area, with reference to conservation, wildlife preservation, ecology, and any other plan or design for the betterment of the locality, city, county, state and nation; 10) To do anything in furtherance of the purposes herein stated including purchase and sale or Mortgage activities reasonably associated therewith not inconsistent with law; and 11) Nothing herein shall authorize this corporation, directly or indirectly, to engage in or include among its purposes any of the activities mentioned in Membership Corporations Law, Section 11, or Social Services Law, Section 25. Along with Aurora Gareiss, the two other directors included Ralph Kamhi and Charles J. Stressler.

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answers: Wetlands

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answers: To support all efforts for the conservation and purification

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answers: Udalls Cove

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answers: wetlands

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answers: Membership Corporations Law, Section 11

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answers: source of marine life and place of refuge, and sanctuary for migratory and resident fowl

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: purchase and sale

text: Access to an improved water source and improved sanitation has increased significantly in China over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF that are based on household survey data. Access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality due to fecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur.

text: Access to an

text: improved water source

text: and

text: improved sanitation

text: has increased significantly in

text: China

text: over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the

entity_name: Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: of the

text: WHO

text: and

text: UNICEF

text: that are based on household survey data. Access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality due to fecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: seasonal water shortages occur

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: seasonal water shortages occur

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial and agricultural

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: seasonal water shortages

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is not the same as having access to safe water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: seasonal water shortages occur

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 89%

text: The bell is Maria, mentioned above, held to be Germany’s oldest bell that has its maker’s name on it. The ears of rye symbolize the municipality’s former agricultural character. The well, believed to have come into being in the late 18th century and still preserved now, was once an important source of water for the villagers.

text: The bell is Maria, mentioned above, held to be Germany’s oldest bell that has its maker’s name on it. The ears of rye symbolize the municipality’s former

text: agricultural

text: character. The well, believed to have come into being in the late 18th century and still preserved now, was once an important source of water for the villagers.

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answers: The well

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It was once an important source of water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural character

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answers: The bell is Maria

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The bell is Maria

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: was once an important source of water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances. Point sources of water pollution are described by the CWA as "any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance from which pollutants are or may be discharged." These include pipes or man-made ditches from stationary locations such as sewage treatment plants, factories, industrial wastewater treatment facilities, septic systems, ships, and other sources that are clearly discharging pollutants into water sources.

text: Water pollution

text: is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances. Point sources of water pollution are described by the CWA as "any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance from which pollutants are or may be discharged." These include pipes or man-made ditches from stationary locations such as

text: sewage treatment

text: plants, factories,

text: industrial wastewater treatment

text: facilities,

text: septic systems

text: ships

text: , and other sources that are clearly discharging pollutants into water sources.

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answers: Point sources of water pollution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: disinfection

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: In the environment business, Ranhill has been granted an exclusive license by the Minister of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysia to provide source-to-tap water supply services to end-customers in the entire State of Johor, the second most populous state in Malaysia, with a population of approximately 3.5 million people. Outside Malaysia, it operates water concession assets on a BOT, BTO and TOT basis in China which consist of 8 wastewater treatment plants with capacities ranging from 5.0 MLD to 80.0 MLD and a 30.0 MLD reclamation plant. In Thailand, Ranhill has 4 potable water treatment plants with capacities ranging from 10.5 MLD to 15.0 MLD, 4 wastewater treatment plants with capacities ranging from 1.5 MLD to 24.0 MLD and a 10.0 MLD reclamation plants.  In addition, through its joint venture, Yichun Pinang, Ranhill also operates a potable water treatment plant in Yichun City, China with a treatment capacity of 50.0 MLD.

text: In the

text: environment

text: business, Ranhill has been granted an exclusive license by the Minister of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysia to provide source-to-tap water supply services to end-customers in the entire

text: State of Johor,

text: the second most populous state in Malaysia, with a population of approximately 3.5 million people. Outside Malaysia, it operates water concession assets on a BOT, BTO and TOT basis in China which consist of 8 wastewater treatment plants with capacities ranging from 5.0 MLD to 80.0 MLD and a 30.0 MLD reclamation plant. In Thailand, Ranhill has 4 potable water treatment plants with capacities ranging from 10.5 MLD to 15.0 MLD, 4 wastewater treatment plants with capacities ranging from 1.5 MLD to 24.0 MLD and a 10.0 MLD reclamation plants.  In addition, through its joint venture, Yichun Pinang, Ranhill also operates a potable water treatment plant in

text: Yichun City

text: , China with a treatment capacity of 50.0 MLD.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: potable water treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: potable water supply services

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: 4 wastewater treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Yichun City

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Yichun Pinang

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: source-to-tap water supply services

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 80.0 MLD

text: With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality of Philippine waters is reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities. According to data from the DENR and PEM, domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater, and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution. These are also known as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into "non-point sources" or certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater, the major source of pollution in rural areas, contain pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities. Different industries also contribute largely to the water pollution. Industrial activities such as manufacturing of food, textile, paper, and slaughterhouses emit large amounts of organic waste.

text: With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality of Philippine waters is reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities. According to data from the DENR and PEM, domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater, and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution. These are also known as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into "non-point sources" or certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater, the major source of pollution in rural areas, contain pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities. Different industries also contribute largely to the water pollution. Industrial activities such as manufacturing of food, textile, paper, and slaughterhouses emit large amounts of organic waste.

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answers: With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization

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answers: With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization

answers: NDQ_011875

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text: Ale, along with bread, was an important source of nutrition in the medieval world, particularly small beer, also known as table beer or mild beer, which was highly nutritious, contained just enough alcohol to act as a preservative, and provided hydration without intoxicating effects. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, with higher-alcohol ales served for recreational purposes. The lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer led to the selling of beer labeled "strong beer" that had actually been diluted with small beer.  In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water (the  germ theory of disease was unheard of, and the sterilizing properties of boiling unknown); however, there is no period evidence that people were aware of this nor that they chose to drink ale for this reason. The alcohol, hops, and some ingredients in gruit used to preserve some ales may have contributed to their lower load of pathogens, when compared to water. However, ale was largely safer due to the hours of boiling required in production, not the alcoholic content of the finished beverage.

text: Ale, along with bread, was an important source of nutrition in the

text: medieval

text: world, particularly

text: small beer

text: , also known as table beer or mild beer, which was highly nutritious, contained just enough alcohol to act as a preservative, and provided hydration without intoxicating effects. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, with higher-alcohol ales served for recreational purposes. The lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer led to the selling of beer labeled "strong beer" that had actually been diluted with small beer.  In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water (the

text: germ theory of disease

text: was unheard of, and the sterilizing properties of boiling unknown); however, there is no period evidence that people were aware of this nor that they chose to drink ale for this reason. The alcohol, hops, and some ingredients in

text: gruit

text: used to preserve some ales may have contributed to their lower load of pathogens, when compared to water. However, ale was largely safer due to the hours of boiling required in production, not the alcoholic content of the finished beverage.

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answers: In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water

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answers: In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water

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answers: In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water

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text: In the past, the fountains were installed in squares or central places in the villages chiefly to furnish a supply of water for the population. Upon the establishment of a source for this basic need, the water source became a location of public gathering for social exchange. Thereafter, these places increasingly gained importance and ornamentation, eventually turning into the monuments that they are today.[2]

text: In the past, the fountains were installed in squares or central places in the villages chiefly to furnish a supply of water for the population. Upon the establishment of a source for this basic need, the water source became a location of public gathering for social exchange. Thereafter, these places increasingly gained importance and ornamentation, eventually turning into the monuments that they are today.[2]

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text: Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved (rendang, for example) where the slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available.

text: Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved (

text: rendang

text: , for example) where the slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available.

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text: Achievements Until the early 1980s, there was not a single municipal wastewater treatment plant in China. In that year, the country’s first municipal wastewater treatment plant was built in the city of Nanjing. Subsequently, China engaged in what is possibly the largest wastewater treatment investment program in history. It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. According to the State Environmental Protection Agency the rate of urban wastewater treatment reached 57% in that year. The government's goal to achieve a level of 60% for treatment of municipal wastewater by 2010 was surpassed.  By 2010, 77.5% of domestic waste water was treated. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of cities that charge wastewater tariffs has increased from 300 to 475 out of 661 cities. According to the Notice on the Construction Plan for the Nation's Urban Waste Water Treatment and Recycling Facilities presented in the 12th Five-Year Plan by the General Office of the State Council, which was promulgated on May 4, 2012, the waste water treatment rate in the PRC will further improve by 2015. By the end of 2015, the waste water treatment rate should increase to 100% for municipalities, provincial capital cities and cities specifically designated in the state plan, 85% for other cities, 70% for counties, and 30% for towns.

text: Achievements Until the early 1980s, there was not a single municipal wastewater treatment plant in China. In that year, the country’s first municipal wastewater treatment plant was built in the city of

text: Nanjing

text: . Subsequently, China engaged in what is possibly the largest wastewater treatment investment program in history. It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. According to the State Environmental Protection Agency the rate of urban wastewater treatment reached 57% in that year. The government's goal to achieve a level of 60% for treatment of municipal wastewater by 2010 was surpassed.  By 2010, 77.5% of domestic waste water was treated. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of cities that charge wastewater tariffs has increased from 300 to 475 out of 661 cities. According to the Notice on the Construction Plan for the Nation's Urban Waste Water Treatment and Recycling Facilities presented in the 12th Five-Year Plan by the General Office of the State Council, which was promulgated on May 4, 2012, the waste water treatment rate in the PRC will further improve by 2015. By the end of 2015, the waste water treatment rate should increase to 100% for municipalities, provincial capital cities and cities specifically designated in the state plan, 85% for other cities, 70% for counties, and 30% for towns.

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answers: It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater

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answers: municipal residential

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answers: the waste water treatment rate will further improve by 2015

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 30%

text: Drinking water is supplied to the City of Scotts Valley by the Scotts Valley Water District and the San Lorenzo Valley Water District.  Domestic water supplies are obtained solely from groundwater sources extracted by wells.  Wastewater in Scotts Valley is treated at the Scotts Valley Wastewater Treatment Plant at Scotts Valley and Mount Hermon Roads.  Treated wastewater effluent is pumped via the city of Santa Cruz into the Pacific Ocean.

text: Drinking water

text: is supplied to the City of Scotts Valley by the

text: Scotts Valley Water District

text: and the

text: San Lorenzo Valley Water District

text: .  Domestic water supplies are obtained solely from

text: groundwater

text: sources extracted by wells.

text: Wastewater

text: in Scotts Valley is treated at the Scotts Valley Wastewater Treatment Plant at Scotts Valley and Mount Hermon Roads.  Treated wastewater

text: effluent

text: is pumped via the city of Santa Cruz into the

text: Pacific Ocean

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text: The main objectives of ecological sanitation are to reduce the health risks related to sanitation, contaminated water and waste; to prevent groundwater pollution and surface water pollution; and to reuse nutrients or energy contained within wastes.

text: The main objectives of ecological sanitation are to reduce the health risks related to sanitation,

text: contaminated water

text: and waste; to prevent

text: groundwater pollution

text: and

text: surface water

text: pollution; and to reuse nutrients or energy contained within wastes.

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text: The river sanitation program included a set of projects, the ﬁrst of which was estimated to cost US$232 million. An Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) loan provided US$130 million, while local funds provided the remaining US$102 million. The overall goal for the ﬁrst stage, which began in 1993 and concluded in 2000, was to clean up the Medellín River and its tributaries. The program included six more objectives as well: i) partial decontamination of the river and its tributaries; ii) partial treatment of 23% of the wastewater to be collected from the ﬁrst of four wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) included within the master plan for the sewer system; iii) extension of the potable water networks and sewer system to all areas lacking these services to reach 100 percent coverage; iv) optimization of the water distribution system, management of consumption and reduction of unaccounted-for water losses from 38 percent in 1993 to 30 percent in 1999; v) preparation of phase two of the sanitation program; and vi) institutional strengthening of EPM’s management system for aqueducts and the sewer system.

text: The river sanitation program included a set of projects, the ﬁrst of which was estimated to cost US$232 million. An

text: Inter-American Development Bank

text: (IDB) loan provided US$130 million, while local funds provided the remaining US$102 million. The overall goal for the ﬁrst stage, which began in 1993 and concluded in 2000, was to clean up the Medellín River and its tributaries. The program included six more objectives as well: i) partial decontamination of the river and its tributaries; ii) partial treatment of 23% of the wastewater to be collected from the ﬁrst of four wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) included within the master plan for the sewer system; iii) extension of the potable water networks and sewer system to all areas lacking these services to reach 100 percent coverage; iv) optimization of the water distribution system, management of consumption and reduction of unaccounted-for water losses from 38 percent in 1993 to 30 percent in 1999; v) preparation of phase two of the sanitation program; and vi) institutional strengthening of EPM’s management system for aqueducts and the sewer system.

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answers: the Medell n River and its tributaries

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answers: potable water networks and sewer system to all areas lacking these services to reach 100 percent coverage

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answers: 23%

text: Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the natural treatment processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural water body or the ground. If not overloaded, bacteria in the environment will consume organic contaminants, although this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the overall ecology of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation or exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, in cases where the receiving environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of wastewater treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated that very low levels of specific contaminants in wastewater, including hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human hormonal contraception methods) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable adverse impact on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is re-used for drinking water. In the US and EU, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met, as clean drinking water is essential. (For requirements in the US, see Clean Water Act.) A significant threat in the coming decades will be the increasing uncontrolled discharges of wastewater within rapidly developing countries.

text: Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the natural treatment processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural water body or the ground. If not overloaded, bacteria in the environment will consume organic contaminants, although this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the overall

text: ecology

text: of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation or exposure to

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation. Consequently, in cases where the receiving environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of wastewater treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated that very low levels of specific contaminants in wastewater, including

text: hormone

text: s (from

text: animal husbandry

text: and residue from human

text: hormonal contraception

text: methods) and synthetic materials such as

text: phthalate

text: s that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable adverse impact on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is re-used for drinking water. In the US and

text: EU

text: , uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met, as clean drinking water is essential. (For requirements in the US, see

text: Clean Water Act

text: .) A significant threat in the coming decades will be the increasing uncontrolled discharges of wastewater within rapidly developing countries.

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answers: 100

text: Water pollution is another type of widespread contaminant which has ethical implications in mitigating the source and balancing conflicting priorities. The two types of water contaminants are anthropogenic compounds (generally referred to as pollutants, such as disinfection products, metals, municipal and agricultural waste, and petroleum and coal hydrocarbons) and natural contaminants (such as microorganisms or chemicals like arsenic and nitrogen, which are naturally present in the soil). the common misconception is that chemicals leaking into the soil will be diluted over time and rendered harmless. This theory does not take into account Persistent Organic Pollutants, which do not break down easily, and sometimes break down into more harmful constituents. Most industrialized nations have legislation in place to protect the public from impure drinking water. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 established maximum levels of pollutants in public drinking water, however its power to regulate private sources of bottled water or wells is severely limited. An additional issue regarding water pollution is the relative scarcity of clean fresh water on the earth, an issue which acutely presents itself in areas prone to drought. Agriculture uses a great deal of water, so much so that shortages in drought-prone areas can significantly affect crop yield. The main ethical issues with water pollution is whether growth should be restricted in order to preserve public health. An additional issue is the regulation of private corporations, whose activities may put populations of citizens at risk for groundwater contamination.

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answers: The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974

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text: Many civil rights statutes rely on private attorneys general for their enforcement. In Newman v. Piggie Park Enterprises, one of the earliest cases construing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that "A public accommodations suit is thus private in form only. When a plaintiff brings an action . . . he cannot recover damages. If he obtains an injunction, he does so not for himself alone but also as a 'private attorney general,' vindicating a policy that Congress considered of the highest priority."  The United States Congress has also passed laws with "private attorney general" provisions that provide for the enforcement of laws prohibiting employment discrimination, police brutality, and water pollution.  Under the Clean Water Act, for example, "any citizen" may bring suit against an individual or a company that is a source of water pollution.

text: Many

text: civil right

text: s statutes rely on private attorneys general for their enforcement. In

text: Newman v. Piggie Park Enterprises

text: , one of the earliest cases construing the

text: Civil Rights Act of 1964

text: , the

text: United States Supreme Court

text: ruled that "A public accommodations suit is thus private in form only. When a plaintiff brings an action . . . he cannot recover

text: damages

text: . If he obtains an

text: injunction

text: , he does so not for himself alone but also as a 'private attorney general,' vindicating a policy that Congress considered of the highest priority."  The

text: United States Congress

text: has also passed laws with "private attorney general" provisions that provide for the enforcement of laws prohibiting

text: employment discrimination

text: police brutality

text: , and

text: water pollution

text: .  Under the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , for example, "any citizen" may bring suit against an individual or a company that is a source of

text: water pollution

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answers: 100

text: Chemical use and handling. Following enactment of the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, and later the Water Quality Act of 1987, states and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of underground storage tanks, registration of hazardous materials usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is required, to minimize escape of pollutants into sanitary or stormwater sewers.

text: Chemical

text: use and handling. Following enactment of the U.S.

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: (RCRA) in 1976, and later the

text: Water Quality Act of 1987

text: , states and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of

text: underground storage tank

text: s, registration of

text: hazardous materials

text: usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is required, to minimize escape of pollutants into

text: sanitary

text: or

text: stormwater sewers

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answers: Water Quality Act of 1987

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answers: NDQ_011876

answers: stormwater

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answers: Water Quality Act of 1987

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answers: NDQ_011879

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text: Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has been applied since the dawn of human history, and is being contemporarily practiced in many parts of the world, which suffer from drought conditions. Reuse of untreated municipal wastewater has been practiced for many centuries with the objective of diverting human waste outside of urban settlements. Likewise, land application of domestic wastewater is an old and common practice, which has gone through different stages of development. This has led to better understanding of process and treatment technology and the eventual development of water quality standards.  Domestic wastewater was used for irrigation by prehistoric civilizations (e.g. Mesopotamian, Indus valley, and Minoan) since the Bronze Age (ca. 3200-1100 BC). Thereafter, wastewater was used for disposal, irrigation, and fertilization purposes by Hellenic civilizations and later by Romans in areas surrounding cities (e.g. Athens and Rome). Moreover, in China, use of human excreta for fertilizing agricultural crops has been practiced since ancient time.In the more recent history, the “sewage farms” (i.e. wastewater application to the land for disposal and agricultural use) were operated in Bunzlau (Silesia) in 1531, in Edinburgh (Scotland) in 1650, in Paris (France) in 1868, in Berlin (Germany) in 1876 and in different parts of the USA since 1871, where wastewater was used for beneficial crop production. In the following centuries (16th and 18th centuries) in many rapidly growing countries/cities of Europe (e.g. Germany, France) and the United States, “sewage farms” were increasingly seen as a solution for the disposal of large volumes of the wastewater, some of which are still in operation today. Irrigation with sewage and other wastewater effluents has a long history also in China and India; while also a large “sewage farm” was established in Melbourne, Australia in 1897.The use of the land treatment systems continued into the nineteenth/twentieth century in central Europe, USA, and other locations all over the world, but not without causing serious public health concerns and negative environmental impacts. During 1840s and 1850s, this practice resulted in disastrous spread of waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid. However, when the water supply links with these diseases became clear, engineering solutions were implemented that include the development of alternative water sources using reservoirs and aqueduct systems, relocation of water intakes, and water and wastewater treatment systems.

text: Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has been applied since the dawn of human history, and is being contemporarily practiced in many parts of the world, which suffer from

text: drought

text: conditions. Reuse of untreated

text: municipal wastewater

text: has been practiced for many centuries with the objective of diverting

text: human waste

text: outside of urban settlements. Likewise, land application of domestic wastewater is an old and common practice, which has gone through different stages of development. This has led to better understanding of process and treatment technology and the eventual development of

text: water quality

text: standards.  Domestic wastewater was used for irrigation by prehistoric civilizations (e.g.

text: Mesopotamia

text: n,

text: Indus valley

text: , and

text: Minoan

text: ) since the Bronze Age (ca. 3200-1100 BC). Thereafter, wastewater was used for

text: disposal

text: irrigation

text: , and

text: fertilization

text: purposes by Hellenic civilizations and later by Romans in areas surrounding cities (e.g. Athens and Rome). Moreover, in China, use of

text: human excreta

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answers: drought conditions

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answers: water quality standards

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: diverting human waste outside

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: treatment technology

text: Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters;  this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India, Nepal and Iran.Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water.  Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea. In addition to sewage, nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industries and governments.

text: Water pollution

text: is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw

text: sewage

text: into natural waters;  this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India, Nepal and

text: Iran

text: .Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water.  Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea. In addition to sewage,

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: such as

text: agricultural

text: runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban

text: stormwater

text: runoff and

text: chemical waste

text: s dumped by industries and governments.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Many pollutants threaten water supplies

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Many pollutants threaten water supplies

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural runoff

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: natural waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is one of the main concerns

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Treated sewage forms sludge

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day while actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and day. A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed that total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from sources other than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers, rainwater harvesting and springs. In rural areas, 28% of households surveyed harvested rainwater and stored it in cisterns for drinking, since they considered it to be of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households bought water in large bottles and 30% bought water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1–2 m. According to the 2009 Population and Family Health Survey, 31% of households use bottled water, 7% use rainwater, 2% tanker water and 60% tap water as their primary source of drinking water. According to the same survey, 22% of households filter tap water and the majority does not apply any type of treatment. A 2007–08 survey by the German-Jordanian water programme in the middle governorates Zarqa, Balqa and Madaba showed that 79% of households use tap water as their main source of drinking water and that 37% of households treat water before drinking it. Treated water bought in 5-gallon canisters and private water vendors that supply water in trucks are the main source of drinking water for 15% of households.

text: Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day while actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and day. A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed that total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from sources other than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers,

text: rainwater harvesting

text: and springs. In rural areas, 28% of households surveyed harvested rainwater and stored it in cisterns for drinking, since they considered it to be of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households bought water in large bottles and 30% bought water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1–2 m. According to the 2009 Population and Family Health Survey, 31% of households use bottled water, 7% use rainwater, 2% tanker water and 60% tap water as their primary source of drinking water. According to the same survey, 22% of households filter tap water and the majority does not apply any type of treatment. A 2007–08 survey by the German-Jordanian water programme in the middle governorates Zarqa, Balqa and Madaba showed that 79% of households use tap water as their main source of drinking water and that 37% of households treat water before drinking it. Treated water bought in 5-gallon canisters and private water vendors that supply water in trucks are the main source of drinking water for 15% of households.

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answers: water scarcity

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answers: water scarcity in Jordan

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answers: tankers

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answers: water scarcity in Jordan

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answers: Jordan

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: better quality than piped water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 60%

text: Water quality at the numerous beaches has been very good with a few exceptions. Municipal wastewater treatment facilities, industrial dischargers, and power generating stations are point source dischargers along the coast of the Oxnard plain. Two power generating stations were built in the 1960s to take advantage of the ocean for cooling. The Oxnard City council tried to prevent a third plant from being built in 2012. After years of legal tussles, the  McGrath Peaker Plant was built by Edison next to the existing power plant at Mandalay.

text: Water quality at the numerous beaches has been very good with a few exceptions. Municipal wastewater treatment facilities, industrial dischargers, and power generating stations are point source dischargers along the coast of the Oxnard plain. Two power generating stations were built in the 1960s to take advantage of the ocean for cooling. The Oxnard City council tried to prevent a third plant from being built in 2012. After years of legal tussles, the  McGrath

text: Peaker Plant

text: was built by

text: Edison

text: next to the existing power plant at Mandalay.

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answers: The Oxnard City council tried to prevent a third plant from being built

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Water quality at the numerous beaches

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answers: industrial dischargers

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answers: ocean

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answers: Municipal wastewater treatment facilities, industrial dischargers

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: power generating stations

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: Initially wine was distilled as a preservation method and as a way to make it easier for merchants to transport. It is also thought that wine was originally distilled to lessen the tax which was assessed by volume. The intent was to add the water removed by distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption. It was discovered that after having been stored in wooden casks, the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit. In addition to removing water, the distillation process led to the formation and decomposition of numerous aromatic compounds, fundamentally altering the composition of the distillate from its source. Non-volatile substances such as pigments, sugars, and salts remained behind in the still. As a result, the taste of the distillate was often quite unlike that of the original source.

text: Initially wine was distilled as a

text: preservation

text: method and as a way to make it easier for merchants to transport. It is also thought that wine was originally distilled to lessen the tax which was assessed by volume. The intent was to add the water removed by distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption. It was discovered that after having been stored in

text: wooden casks

text: , the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit. In addition to removing water, the distillation process led to the formation and decomposition of numerous aromatic compounds, fundamentally altering the composition of the distillate from its source. Non-volatile substances such as pigments, sugars, and salts remained behind in the still. As a result, the taste of the distillate was often quite unlike that of the original source.

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answers: distillation process

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answers: Water was removed by distillation

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answers: distillation

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answers: was originally distilled

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answers: the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit

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answers: 0.1

text: From April 2011 to April 2012, the PWD, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) and the US EPA conducted an intensive surveillance program to characterize I-131 in source water and determine its origins. Weekly monitoring produced 151 treated drinking water and 445 source water samples. Most readings from the Queen Lane and Belmont facilities were low (< 1pCi/L), but samples with measurable (> 1pCi/L) I-131 were found. Spikes were detected in the Schuylkill, downstream of Reading, Norristown and Pottstown. Spikes of 684 and 285 pCi/L were measured downstream of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and one spike from an upstream WWTP effluent contained 1080 pCi/L. The federal drinking water standard for Iodine-131 is 3.00 pCi/L. The Philadelphia Water Department, the EPA, and Water Research Foundation suggested that wastewater effluent was one possible source. PWD said that the water was safe to drink and posed no immediate risk of harm. PWD has not updated its measurements of Beta Emitters like Iodine-131 for their Water Quality Reports since 2011.

text: From April 2011 to April 2012, the PWD, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) and the US EPA conducted an intensive surveillance program to characterize I-131 in source water and determine its origins. Weekly monitoring produced 151 treated drinking water and 445 source water samples. Most readings from the Queen Lane and Belmont facilities were low (< 1pCi/L), but samples with measurable (> 1pCi/L) I-131 were found. Spikes were detected in the Schuylkill, downstream of

text: Reading

text: Norristown

text: and

text: Pottstown

text: . Spikes of 684 and 285 pCi/L were measured downstream of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and one spike from an upstream WWTP effluent contained 1080 pCi/L. The federal drinking water standard for Iodine-131 is 3.00 pCi/L. The Philadelphia Water Department, the

text: EPA

text: , and

text: Water Research Foundation

text: suggested that wastewater effluent was one possible source. PWD said that the water was safe to drink and posed no immediate risk of harm. PWD has not updated its measurements of Beta Emitters like Iodine-131 for their Water Quality Reports since 2011.

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answers: Spikes were detected in the Schuylkill

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The federal drinking water standard for Iodine-131 is 3.00 pCi/L

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Queen Lane and Belmont facilities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Most readings from the Queen Lane

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The federal drinking water standard for Iodine-131

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: safe to drink

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 3.00

text: Domestic wastewater includes black water, or wastewater from toilets, and gray water, which is wastewater from all sources except toilets. Black water and gray water have different characteristics, but both contain pollutants and disease-causing agents that require monitoring.  Nondomestic wastewater is generated by offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms, manufacturers, and other commercial, industrial, and institutional entities. Storm water is a nonresidential source and carries trash and other pollutants from streets, as well as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields.<ref>

text: Domestic wastewater includes black water, or wastewater from toilets, and gray water, which is wastewater from all sources except toilets. Black water and gray water have different characteristics, but both contain pollutants and disease-causing agents that require monitoring.  Nondomestic wastewater is generated by offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms, manufacturers, and other commercial, industrial, and institutional entities. Storm water is a nonresidential source and carries trash and other pollutants from streets, as well as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields.<ref>

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms

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answers: Clean Water Act

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answers: pollutants and disease-causing agents

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answers: Domestic wastewater

text: Water and water rights are among the state's divisive political issues. Due to the lack of reliable dry season rainfall, water is limited in the most populous U.S. state. An ongoing debate is whether the state should increase the redistribution of water to its large agricultural and urban sectors, or increase conservation and preserve the natural ecosystems of the water sources.

text: Water and

text: water right

text: s are among the state's divisive political issues. Due to the lack of reliable dry season rainfall, water is limited in the most populous U.S. state. An ongoing debate is whether the state should increase the redistribution of water to its large agricultural and urban sectors, or increase conservation and preserve the natural ecosystems of the water sources.

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answers: The lack of reliable dry season rainfall

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text: The commune includes Lake Banzena () which serves as an important source of water for the Gourma elephants at the end of the dry season (April to June). The intense competition between elephants and cattle at the lake led to the death of 21 elephants in 2010. As a result, the World Bank is coordinating efforts to provide alternative sources of water for the cattle so that the elephants can have exclusive access to the lake.

text: The commune includes Lake Banzena () which serves as an important source of water for the Gourma elephants at the end of the dry season (April to June). The intense competition between elephants and cattle at the lake led to the death of 21 elephants in 2010. As a result, the World Bank is coordinating efforts to provide alternative sources of water for the cattle so that the elephants can have exclusive access to the lake.

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text: Indiana uses a common approach to address NPS pollution known as the watershed approach. A watershed includes "the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) to a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body."  The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically in the context of their watershed while also considering all the potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: Indiana uses a common approach to address NPS pollution known as the

text: watershed

text: approach. A watershed includes "the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) to a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body."  The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically in the context of their watershed while also considering all the potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

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answers: The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically

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text: The water infrastructure in Greater Mexico City consists of infrastructure for bulk water supply and water distribution (water supply), wastewater collection, storm water collection and wastewater treatment (sanitation), and for irrigation using mainly wastewater.

text: The water infrastructure in Greater Mexico City consists of infrastructure for bulk water supply and water distribution (water supply), wastewater collection, storm water collection and wastewater treatment (sanitation), and for irrigation using mainly wastewater.

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answers: irrigation using mainly wastewater

answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: irrigation

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: irrigation

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: wastewater treatment

text: A constructed wetland is an engineered sequence of water bodies designed to filter and treat waterborne pollutants found in sewage, industrial effluent or storm water runoff. Constructed wetlands are used for wastewater treatment or for greywater treatment, and can be incorporated into an ecological sanitation approach. They can be used after a septic tank for primary treatment, in order to separate the solids from the liquid effluent. Some CW designs however do not use upfront primary treatment.

text: A constructed wetland is an engineered sequence of water bodies designed to filter and treat

text: waterborne pollutants

text: found in

text: sewage

text: , industrial effluent or

text: storm water runoff

text: . Constructed wetlands are used for

text: wastewater treatment

text: or for

text: greywater

text: treatment, and can be incorporated into an

text: ecological sanitation

text: approach. They can be used after a

text: septic tank

text: for primary treatment, in order to separate the solids from the liquid effluent. Some CW designs however do not use upfront primary treatment.

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answers: Greywater treatment

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: constructed wetland

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial effluent

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: greywater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: constructed wetland

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: ecological sanitation approach

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: greywater

text: The Coachella Valley Water District relies on three sources of water to provide service to its customers: groundwater, recycled water and imported water either through the State Water Project or from the Colorado River via the Coachella Canal, a branch of the All-American Canal.

text: The Coachella Valley Water District relies on three sources of water to provide service to its customers:

text: groundwater

text: recycled water

text: and imported water either through the

text: State Water Project

text: or from the

text: Colorado River

text: via the

text: Coachella Canal

text: , a branch of the

text: All-American Canal

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answers: Colorado River

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: All-American Canal

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: provide service to its customers

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: The Urban Waste Water Directive marked a shift from legislation aimed at end-use standards to stricter legislation aimed at regulating water quality at the source. The directive applied both to domestic waste water and to waste water from industrial sectors, both of which account for much of the pollution. The Directive is an example of the detailed nature of European Union legislation and resulted in "significant costs in many member states".

text: The Urban Waste Water Directive marked a shift from legislation aimed at end-use standards to stricter legislation aimed at regulating water quality at the source. The directive applied both to domestic waste water and to waste water from industrial sectors, both of which account for much of the pollution. The Directive is an example of the detailed nature of European Union legislation and resulted in "significant costs in many member states".

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answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: significant costs in many member states

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial sectors

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: domestic waste water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Urban Waste Water Directive

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: significant costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: domestic waste water

text: The construction of passable roads in the 18th century to La Raillère helped the development of the valley. La Raillere became a water source of fashion thanks to editions of books on the water sources of Cauterets. At the end of the 18th century, the Bruzaud Spa was built.

text: The construction of passable roads in the 18th century to La Raillère helped the development of the valley. La Raillere became a water source of fashion thanks to editions of books on the water sources of Cauterets. At the end of the 18th century, the Bruzaud Spa was built.

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text: This Group deals with prevention of the accidental pollution of transboundary waters.

text: This Group deals with prevention of the accidental pollution of transboundary waters.

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text: Given the distance to the nearest source of drinking water, the location of Las Haldas would seem to have been undesirable as a location for a settlement. Some anthropologists have argued that water wells must have existed near Las Haldas.  The Pozorski's, a husband and wife team, argued to the contrary. Many early fishing settlements, they said, were located distant from sources of water because fish and shellfish resources are more abundant away from the fresh water near the mouths of coastal rivers. They also argued that the requirements for drinking water would be small given the mild temperatures and the water content of seafood and that much cooking could have been done with sea water. It was feasible, they claimed, for the inhabitants of Las Haldas to have hauled drinking water from the Casma Valley.

text: Given the distance to the nearest source of drinking water, the location of Las Haldas would seem to have been undesirable as a location for a settlement. Some anthropologists have argued that water wells must have existed near Las Haldas.  The Pozorski's, a husband and wife team, argued to the contrary. Many early fishing settlements, they said, were located distant from sources of water because fish and shellfish resources are more abundant away from the fresh water near the mouths of coastal rivers. They also argued that the requirements for drinking water would be small given the mild temperatures and the water content of seafood and that much cooking could have been done with sea water. It was feasible, they claimed, for the inhabitants of Las Haldas to have hauled drinking water from the Casma Valley.

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text: Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

text: Water pollution

text: poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

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text: The Gardena Willows Wetland Preserve occupies  of land owned by the City of Gardena, in Los Angeles County, California. The preserve is the last intact remnant of the former Dominguez Slough, an important vernal marsh that once covered as much as  of this area, known as the South Bay region of Los Angeles County. The preserve has  of wetland and  of upland. The wetlands have a natural depression where water remains for such a significant time that plants and animals not adapted to water and saturated soils cannot survive. The upland, which remains dry outside of the rainy season, supports plants which thrive with these drier conditions.   The slough is a part of the Dominguez Watershed, 96% of which is now covered with concrete and man-made structures. It is believed that the Tongva, the native people of this region, were able to commute by canoe around much of the area. Tongva villages were located throughout much of what is now Los Angeles and Orange Counties as well as islands just off the coast.

text: The Gardena Willows Wetland Preserve occupies  of land owned by the

text: City of Gardena

text: , in

text: Los Angeles County, California

text: . The preserve is the last intact remnant of the former Dominguez Slough, an important

text: vernal marsh

text: that once covered as much as  of this area, known as the

text: South Bay region

text: of Los Angeles County. The preserve has  of wetland and  of upland. The wetlands have a natural depression where water remains for such a significant time that plants and animals not adapted to water and saturated soils cannot survive. The upland, which remains dry outside of the rainy season, supports plants which thrive with these drier conditions.   The slough is a part of the Dominguez Watershed, 96% of which is now covered with concrete and man-made structures. It is believed that the

text: Tongva

text: , the native people of this region, were able to commute by canoe around much of the area. Tongva villages were located throughout much of what is now Los Angeles and

text: Orange Counties

text: as well as

text: islands just off the coast

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answers: The preserve is the last intact remnant of the former Dominguez Slough

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answers: concrete and man-made structures

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answers: The slough is a part of the Dominguez Watershed

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answers: The slough is a part of the Dominguez Watershed

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answers: plants and animals not adapted to water and saturated soils cannot survive

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: HMM provides engineering services to major water providers, including American Water (company), Aqua America, the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (DC Water), New York City Department of Environmental Protection, and Philadelphia Water Department. HMM engineers have promoted an integrated approach to wastewater management, writing in Water Canada that "the integration and optimization of stormwater, wastewater, and other source pollution will maximize long-term water quality planning benefits for each dollar spent.”

text: HMM provides engineering services to major water providers, including

text: American Water (company)

text: Aqua America

text: , the

entity_name: District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority

text: District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority

text: (DC Water),

entity_name: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

text: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

text: , and

text: Philadelphia Water Department

text: . HMM engineers have promoted an integrated approach to wastewater management, writing in Water Canada that "the integration and optimization of stormwater, wastewater, and other source pollution will maximize long-term water quality planning benefits for each dollar spent.”

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: During this period, there was a considerable public discussion about whether the site should be developed or made into a park. Park advocates led by Myrtle Edwards prevailed. In 1970, Richard Haag Associates (RHA) were retained by the Seattle Park Board to do a site analysis and master plan for a new park at the gas plant site. RHA opened an on-site office to research and analyze the plant site. Richard Haag realized that the site contained the last gas works and a unique opportunity for preservation. Haag recommended preservation of portions of the plant for its “historic, esthetic and utilitarian value”. (Master Plan, April 1971) After an intense public appeal to convince the public of the value of the plant, RHA’s 1971 master plan for an industrial preservation park was unanimously approved by the Park Board. The proposal centered on recycling the buildings, production structures, machinery, and even the grounds themselves. Through bio-phyto-remediation techniques, the soil and water would be “cleaned and greened”. Through preservation and adaptive reuse of key structures, the rich history of the site and thus of an important aspect of Seattle would be preserved and revealed.

text: During this period, there was a considerable public discussion about whether the site should be developed or made into a park. Park advocates led by

text: Myrtle Edwards

text: prevailed. In 1970, Richard Haag Associates (RHA) were retained by the Seattle Park Board to do a

text: site analysis

text: and master plan for a new park at the gas plant site. RHA opened an on-site office to research and analyze the plant site. Richard Haag realized that the site contained the last gas works and a unique opportunity for preservation. Haag recommended preservation of portions of the plant for its “historic, esthetic and utilitarian value”. (Master Plan, April 1971) After an intense public appeal to convince the public of the value of the plant, RHA’s 1971 master plan for an industrial preservation park was unanimously approved by the Park Board. The proposal centered on recycling the buildings, production structures, machinery, and even the grounds themselves. Through bio-phyto-remediation techniques, the soil and water would be “cleaned and greened”. Through preservation and

text: adaptive reuse

text: of key structures, the rich history of the site and thus of an important aspect of Seattle would be preserved and revealed.

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answers: Through bio-phyto-remediation techniques

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Through bio-phyto-remediation techniques

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: gas plant

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: soil

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Through bio-phyto-remediation techniques

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: the soil and water would be “cleaned and greened”

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: It is very common in the construction of a qanat for the water source to be found below ground at the foot of a range of foothills of mountains, where the water table is closest to the surface. From this point, the slope of the qanat is maintained closer to level than the surface above, until the water finally flows out of the qanat above ground,i.e., the qanat is an underground tunnel, beginning from an underground water source, with a gentle slope made in such a way that water is pulled by gravity to the surface (which is at a lower level than that of the underground water source). To reach an aquifer, qanats must often extend for long distances.

text: It is very common in the construction of a qanat for the water source to be found below ground at the foot of a range of foothills of mountains, where the

text: water table

text: is closest to the surface. From this point, the slope of the qanat is maintained closer to level than the surface above, until the water finally flows out of the qanat above ground,i.e., the qanat is an underground tunnel, beginning from an underground water source, with a gentle slope made in such a way that water is pulled by gravity to the surface (which is at a lower level than that of the underground water source). To reach an aquifer, qanats must often extend for long distances.

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answers: To reach an aquifer

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: To reach an aquifer

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: qanats

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: aquifer

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water is pulled by gravity

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: Morris Wells are a series of natural springs in eastern Aberdeenshire, Scotland. This water source has historically been a water supply for the town of Peterhead.

text: Morris Wells are a series of natural springs in eastern

text: Aberdeenshire

text: Scotland

text: . This water source has historically been a

text: water supply

text: for the town of

text: Peterhead

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answers: The supply could run out.

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text: Hrid Lake today is a clear example of a well-preserved glacial relief. In the Pleistocene period (1.8-0.01 million years ago) this was a collection area for ice that fell down over steps of rock from surrounding peaks, dragging with it heterogeneous material. Precipitation washed away smaller rocks, but larger ones remain on the southwestern and western lake shore. The lake is 295 meters long, 110 meters wide and about 5 meters deep on average. In addition to precipitation, it receives water from sources near its shores.

text: Hrid Lake today is a clear example of a well-preserved glacial relief. In the

text: Pleistocene

text: period (1.8-0.01 million years ago) this was a collection area for ice that fell down over steps of rock from surrounding peaks, dragging with it heterogeneous material. Precipitation washed away smaller rocks, but larger ones remain on the southwestern and western lake shore. The lake is 295 meters long, 110 meters wide and about 5 meters deep on average. In addition to precipitation, it receives water from sources near its shores.

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text: Under the 1970 Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, the Canadian government established a document to prevent pollution of Canadian Arctic waters. However, in recent years Arctic waters have become increasingly polluted. It was recently found that due to pollution some waters have levels of lead that are higher than the Canadian guidelines.

text: Under the 1970

text: Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act

text: , the Canadian government established a document to prevent pollution of Canadian Arctic waters. However, in recent years Arctic waters have become increasingly polluted. It was recently found that due to pollution some waters have levels of lead that are higher than the Canadian guidelines.

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answers: 99

text: "Protecting Our Environment" is a companion campaign for the wastewater industry. This campaign is designed to publicize  the credentials of the wastewater personnel and the role they play in Environmental Protection, especially the prevention of water pollution. Rural water has made environmental protection, especially source water protection, a priority for the industry.

text: "Protecting Our Environment" is a companion campaign for the wastewater industry. This campaign is designed to publicize  the credentials of the wastewater personnel and the role they play in Environmental Protection, especially the prevention of water pollution. Rural water has made environmental protection, especially source water protection, a priority for the industry.

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text: Overview Urban water supply in China is the responsibility of "cities" under complex arrangements that differ substantially from one city to the other. The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China. It is used here to refer to the main urban area of a municipality, prefecture, or county. Cities are governed by a "leading group" under the leadership of a mayor, who is assisted by various "bureaus", or departments. Services are usually provided by municipally owned water bureaus  and wastewater bureaus (sometimes referred to as utilities despite the relatively limited autonomy that these companies enjoy). Water and wastewater bureaus are typically separate from each other. In larger cities, services are further unbundled: There may be a separate raw water bureau that transports water from far-away sources and sells it to the municipal water bureau for distribution. Likewise on the wastewater side, larger cities may have several district drainage bureaus in charge of parts of the city, a wastewater bureau in charge of the main collectors, and a third bureau in charge of wastewater treatment.

text: Overview Urban water supply in China is the responsibility of "cities" under complex arrangements that differ substantially from one city to the other. The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China. It is used here to refer to the main urban area of a municipality, prefecture, or county. Cities are governed by a "leading group" under the leadership of a mayor, who is assisted by various "bureaus", or departments. Services are usually provided by municipally owned water bureaus  and wastewater bureaus (sometimes referred to as

text: utilities

text: despite the relatively limited autonomy that these companies enjoy). Water and wastewater bureaus are typically separate from each other. In larger cities, services are further unbundled: There may be a separate raw water bureau that transports water from far-away sources and sells it to the municipal water bureau for distribution. Likewise on the wastewater side, larger cities may have several district drainage bureaus in charge of parts of the city, a wastewater bureau in charge of the main collectors, and a third bureau in charge of wastewater treatment.

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answers: There may be a separate raw water bureau that transports water from far-away sources and sells it to the municipal water bureau

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: larger cities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Cities

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Urban water supply in China

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: This piece of water was the first in a series of such in the immediate vicinity to be so presented to the community, and the (younger) neighbouring Gadden Lochs have become a wildfowl preserve, complete with an observation hut for birdwatchers. Birnie Loch is also a preserve, but public access to the banks is not fenced off as it is for most of the neighbouring waters for the benefit of breeding birds.

text: This piece of water was the first in a series of such in the immediate vicinity to be so presented to the community, and the (younger) neighbouring

text: Gadden Loch

text: s have become a wildfowl preserve, complete with an observation hut for birdwatchers. Birnie Loch is also a preserve, but public access to the banks is not fenced off as it is for most of the neighbouring waters for the benefit of breeding birds.

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answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is for the benefit of breeding birds

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Birnie Loch

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: neighbouring waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is for the benefit of breeding birds

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: wildfowl preserve

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: most

text: As an example, the United States employs water quality standards as part of its regulation of surface water quality under the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act Water Quality Standards (WQS) Program begins with U.S. states designating intended uses (e.g., recreation, drinking water, natural habitat) for surface water, after which they develop science-based water quality criteria - including numeric pollutant concentration limits, narrative goals (e.g., free from algae blooms), and narrative biological criteria (i.e., the aquatic life that should be able to live in the waterbody). If the water body fails the existing WQS criteria, the state must develop a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for pollutants of concern. Human activity impacting water quality will then be controlled via other regulatory means in order to achieve the TMDL targets.

text: As an example, the United States employs water quality standards as part of its regulation of surface water quality under the

text: Clean Water Act

text: . The

text: Clean Water Act Water Quality Standards (WQS) Program

text: begins with U.S. states designating intended uses (e.g., recreation, drinking water, natural habitat) for surface water, after which they develop science-based water quality criteria - including numeric pollutant concentration limits, narrative goals (e.g., free from algae blooms), and narrative biological criteria (i.e., the aquatic life that should be able to live in the waterbody). If the water body fails the existing WQS criteria, the state must develop a

text: Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)

text: for pollutants of concern. Human activity impacting water quality will then be controlled via other regulatory means in order to achieve the TMDL targets.

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Water Quality Standards

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: recreation, drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: drinking water

text: With their conversion to sources of drinking water for the capital, these structures received regular inspection and repair thereafter. This was neglected only with the decline of Rome in the latter period of the Roman empire. Of the original three dams, two continued to be preserved into the middle ages, but the last dam burst after a flood in 1305.

text: With their conversion to sources of drinking water for the capital, these structures received regular inspection and repair thereafter. This was neglected only with the decline of Rome in the latter period of the Roman empire. Of the original three dams, two continued to be preserved into the

text: middle ages

text: , but the last dam burst after a flood in 1305.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: the last dam burst

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Dams are sources of drinking water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: dams

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Long Island contains a series of sand and gravel aquifers, geologic formations which can hold, transmit, and yield water in usable quantities. All of Long Island's water supply comes from underground water reserves held in aquifers. Stacked one on top of the other like layers in a cake, three major and one minor aquifer make up the Long Island aquifer system. In sequence from shallowest to the deepest, the Long Island aquifers are: the Upper Glacial, the Magothy and the Lloyd Aquifers. All Long Island aquifers receive their fresh water from precipitation which takes from 25 to 1,000 years to migrate through the layers to the aquifers, which hold roughly 70 trillion US gallons (260 km)—enough to flood the entire surface of Long Island with more than 300 feet (90 m) of water—and can withstand long droughts that could dry up surface-water reservoirs like the ones that supply New York City. Almost four million gallons each day are taken from beneath Nassau and Suffolk Counties, providing the primary source of water for the resident population. While most homes are on a municipal water system, there are still many areas where homes have their own wells to provide water. Both Nassau and Suffolk counties have long recognized their dependence on the aquifers and have stipulated that recharge basins (known locally as sumps) be built to collect ground water. Recharge basins are required and sized based upon the scale of any new development on Long Island. Due to contamination associated with development, concern to preserve the quality of Long Island's groundwater has become the single most important factor limiting the region's growth.

text: Long Island contains a series of sand and gravel

text: aquifers

text: , geologic formations which can hold, transmit, and yield water in usable quantities. All of Long Island's water supply comes from underground water reserves held in aquifers. Stacked one on top of the other like layers in a cake, three major and one minor aquifer make up the Long Island aquifer system. In sequence from shallowest to the deepest, the Long Island aquifers are: the Upper Glacial, the Magothy and the Lloyd Aquifers. All Long Island aquifers receive their fresh water from precipitation which takes from 25 to 1,000 years to migrate through the layers to the aquifers, which hold roughly 70 trillion US

text: gallons

text: (260 km)—enough to flood the entire surface of Long Island with more than 300 feet (90 m) of water—and can withstand long droughts that could dry up surface-water

text: reservoirs

text: like the ones that supply New York City. Almost four million gallons each day are taken from beneath Nassau and Suffolk Counties, providing the primary source of water for the resident population. While most homes are on a municipal water system, there are still many areas where homes have their own wells to provide water. Both Nassau and Suffolk counties have long recognized their dependence on the aquifers and have stipulated that

text: recharge basins

text: (known locally as

text: sump

text: s) be built to collect ground water. Recharge basins are required and sized based upon the scale of any new development on Long Island. Due to

text: contamination

text: associated with development, concern to preserve the quality of Long Island's

text: groundwater

text: has become the single most important factor limiting the region's growth.

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answers: 70 trillion US gallons

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answers: preserve the quality of Long Island's groundwater

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answers: 70 trillion

text: Greywater (also spelled graywater, or grey water/gray water) or sullage is all wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e.g. sinks, showers, baths, clothes washing machines or dish washers. As greywater contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses. However, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. The application of greywater reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both the water supply subsystem by reducing the demand for fresh clean water as well as the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated.

text: Greywater (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also spelled

text: graywater, or grey water/gray water) or sullage is all

text: wastewater

text: generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e.g.

text: sinks

text: shower

text: s,

text: baths

text: , clothes

text: washing machines

text: or dish washers. As greywater contains fewer

text: pathogens

text: than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for

text: toilet flushing

text: , landscape or crop

text: irrigation

text: , and other non-potable uses. However, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. The application of greywater reuse in

text: urban water system

text: s provides substantial benefits for both the

text: water supply

text: subsystem by reducing the demand for fresh

text: clean water

text: as well as the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated.

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answers: As greywater contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater

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answers: toilets

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answers: fresh clean water

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answers: greywater

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answers: reducing the demand for fresh clean water

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answers: greywater

text: A wastewater treatment system discharges treated effluent to a water body from an outfall. An ocean outfall may be conveyed several miles offshore, to discharge by nozzles at the end of a spreader or T-shaped structure. Outfalls may also be constructed as an outfall tunnel or subsea tunnel and discharge effluent to the ocean via one or more marine risers with nozzles.

text: A

text: wastewater

text: treatment system discharges treated effluent to a water body from an outfall. An

text: ocean outfall

text: may be conveyed several miles offshore, to discharge by

text: nozzle

text: s at the end of a spreader or T-shaped structure. Outfalls may also be constructed as an outfall tunnel or subsea tunnel and discharge effluent to the ocean via one or more marine risers with nozzles.

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answers: An ocean outfall

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treated effluent

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Wastewater treatment is a process used to convert wastewater - which is water no longer needed or suitable for its most recent use - into an effluent that can be either returned to the water cycle with minimal environmental issues or reused. The latter is called water reclamation and implies avoidance of disposal by use of treated wastewater effluent for various purposes. Treatment means removing impurities from water being treated; and some methods of treatment are applicable to both water and wastewater. The physical infrastructure used for wastewater treatment is called a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).

text: Wastewater treatment is a process used to convert

text: wastewater

text: - which is water no longer needed or suitable for its most recent use - into an effluent that can be either returned to the

text: water cycle

text: with minimal

text: environmental issue

text: s or reused. The latter is called

text: water reclamation

text: and implies avoidance of disposal by use of treated wastewater

text: effluent

text: for various purposes. Treatment means removing impurities from water being treated; and some methods of treatment are applicable to both water and wastewater. The physical infrastructure used for wastewater treatment is called a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).

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answers: water cycle

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answers: Wastewater treatment

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answers: water no longer needed

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answers: water cycle

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answers: Wastewater treatment

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: wastewater

text: Adsorption/bio-oxidation process is a part of innovative wastewater treatment concept WaterSchoon, realized in the Netherlands. 250 apartments in the new district Noorderhoek (Sneek, the Netherlands) are equipped with separate collection systems for toilet wastewater and the rest of the household wastewater (or so-called grey water). Both streams are treated separately in order to maximize recovery of resources from wastewater. Adsorption/bio-oxidation process is used for grey water treatment to increase sludge production. Sludge, produced in both stages of the process, is digested together with toilet wastewater in the UASB reactor to maximize energy recovery.

text: Adsorption/bio-oxidation process is a part of innovative wastewater treatment concept WaterSchoon, realized in the Netherlands. 250 apartments in the new district Noorderhoek (

text: Sneek

text: , the Netherlands) are equipped with separate collection systems for toilet wastewater and the rest of the household wastewater (or so-called grey water). Both streams are treated separately in order to maximize recovery of resources from wastewater. Adsorption/bio-oxidation process is used for grey water treatment to increase sludge production. Sludge, produced in both stages of the process, is digested together with toilet wastewater in the

text: UASB

text: reactor to maximize energy recovery.

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answers: toilet

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answers: household wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

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answers: energy recovery

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text: A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of air, water, thermal, noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics, and chemistry point sources and include:

text: A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of

text: air

text: water

text: thermal

text: noise

text: or

text: light

text: pollution

text: . A

text: point source

text: has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical

text: point

text: to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other

text: physics

text: engineering

text: optics

text: , and

text: chemistry

text: point sources and include:

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis

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text: Samples can be collected on artificial or natural substrata, either in situ or in the laboratory. There must be a series of samples exposed to different concentrations of contaminant and a control sample. In situ sampling involves setting up a sampling device in an aquatic ecosystem and allowing it to colonize for some time (e.g. a couple of weeks). One example is the diatometer, a device that is deployed in the water that becomes colonized by diatoms, and then is removed for analysis. In situ sampling devices are set up at increasing distances from the pollution source in the case of point source pollution. The samples thus represent a gradient in contaminant concentration, assuming that the contaminant becomes more dilute with increasing distance from the point source. An example of laboratory sampling was used in a study by Schmitt-Jansen and Altenburger (2005). For 14 days communities were allowed to establish on discs set up in laboratory aquariums which were continuously mixed and inoculated with algae from a pond. The aquariums were dosed with different concentrations of herbicide to get a gradient of long-term (14-day) contaminant exposures. Once a week the aquarium water was completely replaced and re-dosed with herbicide.

text: Samples can be collected on artificial or natural substrata, either

text: in situ

text: or in the laboratory. There must be a series of samples exposed to different concentrations of contaminant and a

text: control

text: sample. In situ sampling involves setting up a sampling device in an aquatic ecosystem and allowing it to colonize for some time (e.g. a couple of weeks). One example is the diatometer, a device that is deployed in the water that becomes colonized by

text: diatoms

text: , and then is removed for analysis. In situ sampling devices are set up at increasing distances from the pollution source in the case of

entity_name: United States regulation of point source water pollution

text: point source pollution

text: . The samples thus represent a gradient in contaminant concentration, assuming that the contaminant becomes more dilute with increasing distance from the point source. An example of laboratory sampling was used in a study by Schmitt-Jansen and Altenburger (2005). For 14 days communities were allowed to establish on discs set up in laboratory aquariums which were continuously mixed and inoculated with

text: algae

text: from a pond. The aquariums were dosed with different concentrations of

text: herbicide

text: to get a gradient of long-term (14-day) contaminant exposures. Once a week the aquarium water was completely replaced and re-dosed with herbicide.

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answers: pond

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: In situ sampling involves setting up a sampling device in an aquatic ecosystem

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: point source

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: aquatic

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: In situ sampling

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: The samples thus represent a gradient in contaminant concentration

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Cold Water Spring State Preserve is a  parcel state preserve protecting a spring that issues from Cold Water Cave, an extensive cave system in Winneshiek County, Iowa and Fillmore County, Minnesota. The spring is a tributary of the Upper Iowa River.

text: Cold Water Spring State Preserve is a  parcel state preserve protecting a spring that issues from Cold Water Cave, an extensive

text: cave

text: system in

text: Winneshiek County, Iowa

text: and

text: Fillmore County, Minnesota

text: . The spring is a tributary of the

text: Upper Iowa River

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text: Water supply. Slightly more than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an improved water source, with stark differences between urban areas (about 79% in 2010) and rural areas (about 44% in 2010). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data. However, it seems that access increased during the 1990s, particularly in rural areas, but stagnated during the 2000s. According to data from the Household Budget Surveys 2000/2001 and 2007 access to an improved water source in mainland Tanzania even decreased from 55% in 2000 to 52% in 2007. Using a narrow definition, in 2007 around 34% of households had access to piped water, as opposed to 40% in 2000. However, using a broader definition of access that also includes standpipes and protected springs, there has been a slight increase in the proportion of households reporting a drinking water source within one kilometre. Estimates from the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) show a different trend. They show a slight decline in access from 55% in 1990 to 53% in 2010. According to these figures, access in rural areas stagnated, while in urban areas it decreased from 94% to 79% over the same period. The JMP estimates rely on extrapolations using, among others, data from the Household Budget Survey 2000/2001 and 2007, the Census of 2002 and the Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999, 2005 and 2010.

text: Water supply. Slightly more than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an

text: improved water source

text: , with stark differences between urban areas (about 79% in 2010) and rural areas (about 44% in 2010). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data. However, it seems that access increased during the 1990s, particularly in rural areas, but stagnated during the 2000s. According to data from the Household Budget Surveys 2000/2001 and 2007 access to an

text: improved water source

text: in mainland Tanzania even decreased from 55% in 2000 to 52% in 2007. Using a narrow definition, in 2007 around 34% of households had access to piped water, as opposed to 40% in 2000. However, using a broader definition of access that also includes standpipes and protected springs, there has been a slight increase in the proportion of households reporting a drinking water source within one kilometre. Estimates from the

text: Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: (JMP) show a different trend. They show a slight decline in access from 55% in 1990 to 53% in 2010. According to these figures, access in rural areas stagnated, while in urban areas it decreased from 94% to 79% over the same period. The JMP estimates rely on extrapolations using, among others, data from the Household Budget Survey 2000/2001 and 2007, the Census of 2002 and the Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999, 2005 and 2010.

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text: Access to an improved water source in Afghanistan is among the lowest in the world. According to a National Risk and Vulnerability Survey, only 42% of rural dwellers had access to an improved water source as of 2010. About three quarters of Afghans live in rural areas. In urban areas, an estimated 78% had access to an improved water source. Access to an improved water source does not mean that the water is safe to drink. For example, protected shallow wells in urban areas are often contaminated with bacteria. Piped water supply can also be contaminated. Households without access to an improved source take water from streams and rivers, open wells and unprotected springs, all of which are also often polluted. In rural areas women and girls walk long distances to fetch water.

text: Access to an

text: improved water source

text: in

text: Afghanistan

text: is among the lowest in the world. According to a National Risk and Vulnerability Survey, only 42% of rural dwellers had access to an improved water source as of 2010. About three quarters of Afghans live in rural areas. In urban areas, an estimated 78% had access to an improved water source. Access to an improved water source does not mean that the water is safe to drink. For example, protected shallow wells in urban areas are often contaminated with bacteria. Piped water supply can also be contaminated. Households without access to an improved source take water from streams and rivers, open wells and unprotected springs, all of which are also often polluted. In rural areas women and girls walk long distances to fetch water.

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answers: 78%

text: Moore graduated from the University of Michigan in 1947 and earned both a Master's and a Ph.D at Princeton University in 1957, where he studied under Professor Jean Labatut. He remained for an additional year as a post-doctoral fellow, serving as a teaching assistant for Louis Kahn, the Philadelphia architect who taught a design studio.  It was also at Princeton that Moore developed relationships with hisfellow students Donlyn Lyndon, William Turnbull, Jr., Richard Peters, and Hugh Hardy, remained lifelong friends and collaborators.  During the Princeton years, Moore designed and built a house for his mother in Pebble Beach, California, and worked during the summers for architect Wallave Holm of neighboring Monterey.  Moore's Master's Thesis explored ways to preserve and integrate Monterey's historic adobe dwellings into the fabric of the city.  His Doctoral dissertation, "Water and Architecture", was a study of the importance of water in shaping the experience of place. The dissertation is significant for being the first work of architectural scholarship to draw from the work of Gaston Bachelard, and an early source for the architectural phenomenology movement. Many decades later, the dissertation became the basis of a book with the same title.

text: Moore graduated from the

text: University of Michigan

text: in 1947 and earned both a

text: Master's

text: and a

text: Ph.D

text: at

text: Princeton University

text: in 1957, where he studied under Professor

text: Jean Labatut

text: . He remained for an additional year as a

text: post-doctoral

text: fellow, serving as a teaching assistant for

text: Louis Kahn

text: , the Philadelphia architect who taught a design studio.  It was also at Princeton that Moore developed relationships with hisfellow students

text: Donlyn Lyndon

text: William Turnbull, Jr.

text: Richard Peters

text: , and Hugh Hardy, remained lifelong friends and collaborators.  During the Princeton years, Moore designed and built a house for his mother in

text: Pebble Beach, California

text: , and worked during the summers for architect Wallave Holm of neighboring

text: Monterey

text: .  Moore's Master's Thesis explored ways to preserve and integrate Monterey's historic adobe dwellings into the fabric of the city.  His Doctoral dissertation, "Water and Architecture", was a study of the importance of water in shaping the experience of place. The dissertation is significant for being the first work of architectural scholarship to draw from the work of

text: Gaston Bachelard

text: , and an early source for the

text: architectural phenomenology

text: movement. Many decades later, the dissertation became the basis of a book with the same title.

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answers: "Water and Architecture", was a study of the importance of water in shaping the experience of place

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answers: the University of Michigan

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Water and Architecture

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: shaping the experience of place

answers: NDQ_011879

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text: In 1999, Greece had identified under the mechanism provided by the Directive 34 lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal water bodies as sensitive areas due to eutrophication. These include some tributaries of the Aliakmonas river (Grevenitis), the Axios river and Vozvozis river. The European Commission said that 16 additional water bodies should have been identified as sensitive. Among those were the lower part of the Saronic Gulf and the Gulf of Thessaloniki. In 2002 the Greek authorities designated the Thessaloniki Gulf and the lower part of the Saronic Gulf as sensitive. The latter receives Athens' wastewater. According to the Greek authorities 17 agglomerations discharge into these sensitive areas. According to the European Commission, in 2002 (no more recent information from the EC is available) the towns of Elefsina Aspropyrgos, Grevena, Kilkis and Theva discharged their wastewater in sensitive areas without any treatment. Other towns such as Arta and Serres had wastewater treatment plants without phosphorus removal. The latter is required to prevent eutrophication of sensitive water bodies. Furthermore, some existing wastewater treatment plants do not function properly. In 2002 only 2 of the wastewater treatment plants discharging in sensitive areas achieved the treatment efficiency required by the EU Directive. Concerning cities discharging into areas that were not declared as sensitive, as of 2002, Greece achieved a low compliance rate: It provided secondary treatment for less than 50% of the concerned waste water load.

text: In 1999, Greece had identified under the mechanism provided by the Directive 34 lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal water bodies as sensitive areas due to eutrophication. These include some tributaries of the

text: Aliakmonas

text: river (Grevenitis), the

text: Axios

text: river and Vozvozis river. The European Commission said that 16 additional water bodies should have been identified as sensitive. Among those were the lower part of the

text: Saronic Gulf

text: and the Gulf of Thessaloniki. In 2002 the Greek authorities designated the Thessaloniki Gulf and the lower part of the Saronic Gulf as sensitive. The latter receives Athens' wastewater. According to the Greek authorities 17 agglomerations discharge into these sensitive areas. According to the European Commission, in 2002 (no more recent information from the EC is available) the towns of Elefsina

text: Aspropyrgos

text: Grevena

text: Kilkis

text: and Theva discharged their wastewater in sensitive areas without any treatment. Other towns such as

text: Arta

text: and

text: Serres

text: had wastewater treatment plants without phosphorus removal. The latter is required to prevent

text: eutrophication

text: of sensitive water bodies. Furthermore, some existing wastewater treatment plants do not function properly. In 2002 only 2 of the wastewater treatment plants discharging in sensitive areas achieved the treatment efficiency required by the EU Directive. Concerning cities discharging into areas that were not declared as sensitive, as of 2002, Greece achieved a low compliance rate: It provided secondary treatment for less than 50% of the concerned waste water load.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: In 2002 only 2 of the wastewater treatment plants discharging in sensitive areas achieved the treatment efficiency required by the EU Directive

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: According to the European Commission, in 2002 (no more recent information from the EC is available) the towns of Elefsina Aspropyrgos, Grevena, Kilkis and Theva discharged their wastewater in sensitive areas without any treatment

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: 17 agglomerations

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: coastal water bodies

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: EU Directive

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment efficiency

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 50%

text: Arizona follows the prior appropriation doctrine for determining water rights. There are three categories of tradable rights in Arizona: surface water rights under Common Law Rights, surface water rights under Statutory Rights, and groundwater rights created by Arizona’s 1980 Groundwater Code.  The former two surface water rights pertain to any surface water in Arizona excluding flows in the Colorado River (Colorado River water rights are governed extraneously, by the Colorado River Compact). Specifically, appropriated surface water can be: "Waters of all sources, flowing in streams, canyons, ravines or other natural channels, or in definite underground channels, whether perennial or intermittent, floodwaters, wastewater, or surplus water, and of lakes, ponds and springs on the surface" (A.R.S. §45-101). Common Law Rights apply to surface water diversions appropriated prior to the creation of Arizona’s 1919 Public Water Code and are senior rights. Statutory Rights apply to any appropriation claimed after 1919, in which case the claimant must apply for and receive a permit from the Arizona Department of Water Resource (ADWR) before diverting claimed surface water. Rights holders must apply appropriated water to beneficial use (recognized as domestic, municipal, irrigation, stockwatering, power, mining, recreation, wildlife and fish, or groundwater recharge) or risk forfeiture of rights (which occurs if water is not applied to beneficial use for 5 or more consecutive years). Arizona permits transfer of surface water rights, however there are maximum limits to the amount of water transferred and temporal duration of the transfer (A.R.S. §45-1002), and transfers are subject to review and approval by the ADWR. In the case of transfers to instream flows to benefit fish, wildlife, or recreation, rights holders may follow a "sever and transfer" process, by which the holder permanently transfers the water right to the State of Arizona or a political subdivision (as trustees of instream flows), pending approval of the ADWR. This type of transfer will preserve the priority status of the water right, so that if the right transferred is a senior right, the benefiting instream flow will receive its water allocation before junior rights holders in the case of a water shortage. This transfer process is boon to ecosystem health and recreational value because wildlife and fish were not recognized as beneficial uses until 1941 and 1962, respectively. Groundwater rights transfers are more restricted relative to surface water. The 1980 Arizona Groundwater Code created jurisdictions called "Active Management Areas" (AMA) in parts of the state with high water demand, such as Phoenix, Tucson, and Prescott. Groundwater rights owners living in places outside of AMAs are entitled to a "reasonable" quantity of pumped groundwater that can be applied to beneficial use without waste. Groundwater rights holders outside of AMAs may transfer rights under certain conditions and are rarely permitted to transfer groundwater outside the hydrologic basin. Groundwater transfers within AMAs are also permissible, but are even more restricted, and groundwater regulation in AMAs is different and much stricter than regulation outside of AMAs. Legal rules governing water exchanges in Arizona are codified in Title 45, Chapter 4, of the Arizona Revised Statutes. Water transfers within Arizona are most common in the Phoenix AMA.

text: Arizona follows the prior appropriation doctrine for determining water rights. There are three categories of tradable rights in Arizona: surface water rights under Common Law Rights, surface water rights under Statutory Rights, and groundwater rights created by Arizona’s 1980 Groundwater Code.  The former two surface water rights pertain to any surface water in Arizona excluding flows in the Colorado River (Colorado River water rights are governed extraneously, by the

text: Colorado River Compact

text: ). Specifically, appropriated surface water can be: "Waters of all sources, flowing in streams, canyons, ravines or other natural channels, or in definite underground channels, whether perennial or intermittent, floodwaters, wastewater, or surplus water, and of lakes, ponds and springs on the surface" (A.R.S. §45-101). Common Law Rights apply to surface water diversions appropriated prior to the creation of Arizona’s 1919 Public Water Code and are senior rights. Statutory Rights apply to any appropriation claimed after 1919, in which case the claimant must apply for and receive a permit from the Arizona Department of Water Resource (ADWR) before diverting claimed surface water. Rights holders must apply appropriated water to beneficial use (recognized as domestic, municipal, irrigation, stockwatering, power, mining, recreation, wildlife and fish, or

text: groundwater recharge

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Arizona Department of Water Resource

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preserve the priority status of the water right

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: Most conventional wastewater treatment plants try to clean water mechanically and chemically then release it into waterways. Such systems are expensive, produce limited economic benefits, and can themselves pollute. By contrast, integrated biosystems treat water by recycling it for agricultural use, producing numerous economic, health and environmental benefits.

text: Most conventional

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: s try to clean water mechanically and chemically then release it into waterways. Such systems are expensive, produce limited economic benefits, and can themselves pollute. By contrast, integrated biosystems treat water by recycling it for agricultural use, producing numerous economic, health and environmental benefits.

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: However, gaps in wastewater treatment (the amount of wastewater to be treated is greater than the amount that is actually treated) represent the most significant contribution to water pollution and water quality deterioration. In the majority of the developing world, most of the collected wastewater is returned to surface waters directly without treatment, reducing the water's quality. In China, only 38% of China's urban wastewater is treated and although 91% of China's industrial waste water is treated, it still releases extensive toxins into the water supply.

text: However, gaps in wastewater treatment (the amount of wastewater to be treated is greater than the amount that is actually treated) represent the most significant contribution to water pollution and water quality deterioration. In the majority of the developing world, most of the collected wastewater is returned to surface waters directly without treatment, reducing the water's quality. In China, only 38% of China's urban wastewater is treated and although 91% of China's industrial waste water is treated, it still releases extensive toxins into the water supply.

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answers: In China, only 38% of China's urban wastewater is treated

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answers: In the majority of the developing world

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answers: industrial waste

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answers: surface waters

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answers: is the most significant contribution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 38%

text: For many years it was thought that the observed remains of floods were caused by the release of water from a global water table, but research published in 2015 reveals regional deposits of sediment and ice emplaced 450 million years earlier to be the source. "Deposition of sediment from rivers and glacial melt filled giant canyons beneath primordial ocean contained within the planet's northern lowlands. It was the water preserved in these canyon sediments that was later released as great floods, the effects of which can be seen today."

text: For many years it was thought that the observed remains of floods were caused by the release of water from a global water table, but research published in 2015 reveals regional deposits of sediment and ice emplaced 450 million years earlier to be the source. "Deposition of sediment from rivers and glacial melt filled giant canyons beneath primordial ocean contained within the planet's northern lowlands. It was the water preserved in these canyon sediments that was later released as great floods, the effects of which can be seen today."

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answers: 100

text: The Southwest Michigan Underwater Preserve is a preservation area in the U.S. state of Michigan.  Located in Lake Michigan, it protects a five-mile-wide strip of water offshore from Michigan's Allegan, Berrien, and Van Buren Counties.  These waters include the waters offshore the port towns of Benton Harbor, Holland, St. Joseph, and South Haven, all in Michigan.  Many wrecks litter these waters.

text: The Southwest Michigan Underwater Preserve is a preservation area in the U.S. state of

text: Michigan

text: .  Located in

text: Lake Michigan

text: , it protects a five-mile-wide strip of water offshore from Michigan's

text: Allegan

text: Berrien

text: , and

text: Van Buren

text: Counties.  These waters include the waters offshore the port towns of

text: Benton Harbor

text: Holland

text: St. Joseph

text: , and

text: South Haven

text: , all in Michigan.  Many

text: wrecks

text: litter these waters.

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text: In 2005 the length of the drinking water network was 101,026 km with 4 million connections. In 2001 Belgium had 511 wastewater treatment plants serving 6.6 m inhabitants. 90% of the population was connected to sewers and 47% of the population had its wastewater treated in a public wastewater treatment plant. In 2003 the number of wastewater treatment plants had increased to 541.

text: In 2005 the length of the drinking water network was 101,026 km with 4 million connections. In 2001 Belgium had 511 wastewater treatment plants serving 6.6 m inhabitants. 90% of the population was connected to sewers and 47% of the population had its wastewater treated in a public wastewater treatment plant. In 2003 the number of wastewater treatment plants had increased to 541.

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answers: Belgium had 511 wastewater treatment plants serving 6.6 m inhabitants

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answers: Drinking water network was 101,026 km with 4 million connections

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answers: 6.6 m inhabitants

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answers: drinking water

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: the length of the drinking water network

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 47%

text: Source Water Protection is protecting source water (including water from lakes, rivers and underground aquifers) from overuse and contamination.

text: Source Water Protection is protecting source water (including water from lakes, rivers and underground aquifers) from overuse and contamination.

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answers: underground aquifers

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answers: Drinkable water shortages

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: lakes, rivers

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answers: underground aquifers

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: protect source water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: protect source water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: overuse

text: Korea Coast Guard has always been in the forefront for surveillance of marine pollution and prevention of hazardous spills in order to keep waters clean and to preserve abundant marine resources.

text: Korea Coast Guard has always been in the forefront for surveillance of marine pollution and prevention of hazardous spills in order to keep waters clean and to preserve abundant marine resources.

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answers: abundant marine resources

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answers: abundant marine resources

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answers: hazardous spills

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: to preserve abundant marine resources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 20

text: In rural areas those without access to an improved water source got their drinking water primarily from unprotected wells (5%), unprotected springs (37%) and rivers (8%). In urban areas those without access to an improved source got their drinking water primarily from "bottled water" (20%), from carts with drums (4%) and unprotected wells (3%). Water in bottles or in small plastic bags is treated, bottled and sold by local private companies, often using reverse osmosis for treatment. Bottled water is also imported, especially in the aftermath of disasters such as the 2010 earthquake.

text: In rural areas those without access to an

text: improved water source

text: got their drinking water primarily from unprotected wells (5%), unprotected springs (37%) and rivers (8%). In urban areas those without access to an improved source got their drinking water primarily from "bottled water" (20%), from carts with drums (4%) and unprotected wells (3%). Water in bottles or in small plastic bags is treated, bottled and sold by local private companies, often using

text: reverse osmosis

text: for treatment. Bottled water is also imported, especially in the aftermath of disasters such as the 2010 earthquake.

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answers: rivers (8%)

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Bottled water is also imported

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: carts with drums

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: unprotected springs

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 2010 earthquake

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: sold by local private companies

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 37%

text: The Billings Reservoir was constructed to provide power supply to the new emerging industrial São Paulo in the 1930s. It is one of the biggest metropolitan water reservoirs in the world, but due to inadequate urban planning and the lack of wastewater treatment in the MRSP, it became heavily polluted during the 1980s. In the 1990s, environmental control over the reservoir became more restrictive and the water quality improved. As of 2009, the Billings Reservoir supplies water to over two and a half million people. Its main source of pollution is the Pinheiros River, whose water has been pumped into the Billings basin for over sixty years in order to provide water for the hydropower generation. The Billings Reservoir also plays an important role in flood control for the MRSP. Urban settlements in the area with no basic sanitation and extensive land use have also jeopardized water quality in the basin. Since 2000, part of the Billings water supply has been sent to the Guarapiranga reservoir in order to complement its water production capacity. Hydropower production, potable water supply and flood control are conflicting uses for the Billings Reservoir.

text: The

text: Billings Reservoir

text: was constructed to provide power supply to the new emerging industrial São Paulo in the 1930s. It is one of the biggest metropolitan water reservoirs in the world, but due to inadequate urban planning and the lack of wastewater treatment in the MRSP, it became heavily polluted during the 1980s. In the 1990s, environmental control over the reservoir became more restrictive and the water quality improved. As of 2009, the Billings Reservoir supplies water to over two and a half million people. Its main source of pollution is the Pinheiros River, whose water has been pumped into the Billings basin for over sixty years in order to provide water for the hydropower generation. The Billings Reservoir also plays an important role in flood control for the MRSP. Urban settlements in the area with no basic sanitation and extensive land use have also jeopardized water quality in the basin. Since 2000, part of the Billings water supply has been sent to the Guarapiranga reservoir in order to complement its water production capacity. Hydropower production, potable water supply and flood control are conflicting uses for the Billings Reservoir.

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answers: Urban settlements in the area with no basic sanitation and extensive land use

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is one of the biggest metropolitan water reservoirs in the world

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: the Pinheiros River

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: The Billings Reservoir

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: environmental control over the reservoir became more restrictive and the water quality improved

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Hydropower production, potable water supply and flood control

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The property of swelling on contact with water makes sodium bentonite useful as a sealant, since it provides a self-sealing, low-permeability barrier.  It is used to line the base of landfills to prevent migration of leachate, for quarantining metal pollutants of groundwater, and for the sealing of subsurface disposal systems for spent nuclear fuel. Similar uses include making slurry walls, waterproofing of below-grade walls, and forming other impermeable barriers, e.g., to seal off the annulus of a water well, to plug old wells.

text: The property of swelling on contact with water makes sodium bentonite useful as a sealant, since it provides a self-sealing, low-permeability barrier.  It is used to line the base of

text: landfills

text: to prevent migration of

text: leachate

text: , for quarantining metal pollutants of groundwater, and for the sealing of subsurface disposal systems for spent nuclear fuel. Similar uses include making

text: slurry wall

text: s, waterproofing of below-grade walls, and forming other impermeable barriers, e.g., to seal off the

text: annulus

text: of a

text: water well

text: , to plug old wells.

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text: Waste- Waste (law)- Waste management- Waste vegetable oil- Wastewater- Water conservation- Water contamination- Water dispute- Water Fluoridation controversy- Water pollution- Water privatization- Water purification- Water quality- Water resources- Waterborne disease- Waterway restoration- Water-wise gardening- Wave power- Websites- Weed control- Weedy species- Wetlands- Wetlands conservation- Wetlands International- Whaling- WILD Foundation- Wilderness- Wilderness area- Wildlife corridor- Wildlife garden- Wildlife refuge- Wildlife trade- Wind energy- Wind farm- Wind power- Wind turbine- Wise use- World Climate Change Conference- World Climate Conference- World Climate Programme- World Climate Report- World Day for Water- World population- World solar challenge- World Summit on Sustainable Development- World3- World's Most Livable Cities

text: Waste

text: Waste (law)

text: Waste management

text: Waste vegetable oil

text: Wastewater

text: Water conservation

text: Water contamination

text: Water dispute

text: Water Fluoridation controversy

text: Water pollution

text: Water privatization

text: Water purification

text: Water quality

text: Water resources

text: Waterborne disease

text: Waterway restoration

text: Water-wise gardening

text: Wave power

text: Websites

text: Weed control

text: Weedy species

text: Wetlands

text: Wetlands conservation

text: Wetlands International

text: Whaling

text: WILD Foundation

text: Wilderness

text: Wilderness area

text: Wildlife corridor

text: Wildlife garden

text: Wildlife refuge

text: Wildlife trade

text: Wind energy

text: Wind farm

text: Wind power

text: Wind turbine

text: Wise use

text: World Climate Change Conference

text: World Climate Conference

text: World Climate Programme

text: World Climate Report

text: World Day for Water

text: World population

text: World solar challenge

text: World Summit on Sustainable Development

text: World's Most Livable Cities

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text: Standards are set for sewage sludge generated or treated by publicly owned and privately owned treatment works that treat domestic sewage and municipal wastewater. Materials flushed in household drains through sinks, toilets and tubs are referred to as domestic wastewater and include components of soaps, shampoos, human excrement, tissues, food particles, pesticides, hazardous waste, oil and grease. These domestic wastewaters are treated at the source in septic tanks, cesspools, portable toilets, or in publicly/privately owned wastewater treatment works. Alternately, municipal wastewater treatments consist of more levels of treatment that provide greater wastewater cleanup with larger amounts of sewage sludge. Primary municipal treatment remove solids that settle at the bottom, generating more than 3,000 liters of sludge per million liters of wastewater that is treated. Primary sludge water content is easily reduced by thickening or removing water and contains up to 7% solids. Secondary municipal treatment process produces sewage sludge that is generated by biological treatment processes that include activated sludge systems, trickling filters, and other attached growth systems. Microbes are used to break down and convert organic substances in wastewater to microbial residue in biological treatment processes. This process removes up to 90% of organic matter and produces sludge that contains up to 2% solids and has increased generated volumes of sludge. Methods of use and disposal of sewage sludge include the following: Application of sludge to agricultural and non-agricultural lands; sale or give-away of sludge for use in home gardens; disposal of sludge in municipal landfills, sludge-only landfills, surface disposal sites and incineration of sludge. Managing quality of sewage sludge not only involves wastewater reduction and separation of contaminated waste from non-contaminants but also pretreatment of non-domestic wastewater. Pretreatment does not thoroughly reduce pollutants level and therefore communities have to dispose rather than use sludge.

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answers: 90%

text: The Eno is notable for its beauty and water quality, which has been preserved through aggressive citizen efforts. Though barely more than forty miles from its source to its convergence at the Neuse, the Eno features significant stretches of natural preservation. Through the combined efforts of the North Carolina State Parks System, local government, and private non-profit preservation groups, over  of land have been protected in the Eno Basin, including Occoneechee Mountain State Natural Area, Eno River State Park, West Point on the Eno (a Durham City Park), and Penny's Bend State Nature Preserve (managed by the North Carolina Botanical Garden).

text: The Eno is notable for its beauty and

text: water quality

text: , which has been preserved through aggressive citizen efforts. Though barely more than forty miles from its source to its convergence at the Neuse, the Eno features significant stretches of natural preservation. Through the combined efforts of the North Carolina State Parks System, local government, and private non-profit preservation groups, over  of land have been protected in the Eno Basin, including

text: Occoneechee Mountain State Natural Area

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text: West Point on the Eno

text: (a

text: Durham

text: City Park), and Penny's Bend State Nature Preserve (managed by the

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answers: It is notable for its beauty and water quality

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text: The Water Corporation operates 109 wastewater treatment plants across Western Australia. Approximately 80% of the wastewater collected and treated throughout the state occurs in the Perth metropolitan area at the corporation's three largest wastewater treatment plants at Woodman Point, Beenyup and Subiaco. Two other large capacity wastewater treatment plants are being developed to support Perth's expanding population:

text: The Water Corporation operates 109 wastewater treatment plants across Western Australia. Approximately 80% of the wastewater collected and treated throughout the state occurs in the Perth metropolitan area at the corporation's three largest wastewater treatment plants at Woodman Point, Beenyup and Subiaco. Two other large capacity wastewater treatment plants are being developed to support Perth's expanding population:

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: collect and treated throughout the state

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 80%

text: Stabilization ponds (also called lagoons or waste stabilization ponds) use a natural process for wastewater treatment that employs a combination of macrophytic plants, substrates and microorganisms in a more or less artificial pond to treat wastewater. The technique is frequently used to treat municipal wastewater, industrial effluent, municipal run-off or stormwater. After treatment, the effluent may be returned to surface water or reused as irrigation water (or reclaimed water) if the effluent quality is high enough.

text: Stabilization ponds (also called lagoons or waste stabilization ponds) use a natural process for

text: wastewater treatment

text: that employs a combination of macrophytic plants, substrates and microorganisms in a more or less artificial pond to treat wastewater. The technique is frequently used to treat municipal

text: wastewater

text: industrial effluent

text: , municipal run-off or

text: stormwater

text: . After treatment, the effluent may be returned to surface water or reused as

text: irrigation

text: water (or

text: reclaimed water

text: ) if the effluent quality is high enough.

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answers: Municipal wastewater, industrial effluent, municipal run-off or stormwater

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answers: industrial effluent

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answers: surface water

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answers: Stabilization ponds

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answers: irrigation water

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answers: municipal wastewater

text: Pristina City has limited quantities of surface and groundwater, which are mainly distributed in the peripheral areas. A small fraction of the available water is found as underground water, such as that in "Pajtimi" field that amounts to 50 liters / sec and "Germia" source that amounts to     15 liters /sec.  Watercourses are scarce. There are small rivers in the urban area, such as Pristina and Vellusha Rivers that collect the water flows of faux pas coming from Lagjia e Spitalit, Mati, Kodra e Trimave, and Shkabaj.Vellusha and Pristina Rivers serve to collect rainwater from all urban areas of Pristina. The main drinking water sources remain Batllava and Badovc Lakes. Batllava Lake – it has a capacity of 38 million m³ of water and supplies the town of Pristina with 65% of drinking water. Batllava represents the main source of drinking water for the municipality of Pristina. It was built in 1960-1963; initially it worked only for technical water supply to the energy complex in Obilic. From 1982 it turned into water resource for drinking water for the Pristina region. Recently, the water treatment plant in Shajkovc was built, which has a maximum capacity of 900 liters/sec. Badovci Lake- has a volume of 27 million m³ and supplies the town of Pristina with 35% of drinking water. It was initially built in 1960 for the supply of drinking water, irrigation, and technical water for Kishnica mine. From1980 this lake is mainly used for drinking water purposes for Pristina region. The water treatment plant has been built in Badovc, which has a maximum capacity 400l/sec.Those two lakes are the main source of water in Pristine. They both supply around 90% of population in Pristina region with drinking water. However, the distribution power has many problems. Most of the pipes used are older than 50 years, which lose around 50% of available water; 35% are technical losses, while 15% are commercial losses.  As a result there are reductions on available water to citizens, with 8-10 hours/day water cuts to each household. Another problem is the water contamination. There is no urban water monitoring in Kosovo. There are only some small regional, water companies that do not have large competencies on water monitoring. Wastewater discharges remain the main pollutants of water in Pristina. Those wastes are dangerous because they contain substances such as soluble compounds of phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, pathogenic bacteria and viruses, nitrogen (eutrophication), and other matters that affect the water quality.   Main carrier of underground waters pollution is Prishtevka River, which at the same time is the main carrier of sewage and rainwater.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: Watercourses are scarce

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The main drinking water sources remain Batllava and Badovc Lakes

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Batllava Lake

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: surface and groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: water treatment plant

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: supply around 90% of population in Pristina region with drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 65%

text: Circuit riders are usually categorized as either drinking water or wastewater specialists. Drinking water circuit riders specialize in the supply, treatment and distribution of clean drinking water through a water utility. Wastewater circuit riders specialize in the processes required for the safe collection, treatment and disposal of wastewater and sewage. Circuit riders in both fields have extensive knowledge and experience with the state and federal regulations governing drinking water and wastewater.

text: Circuit riders are usually categorized as either

text: drinking water

text: or

text: wastewater

text: specialists. Drinking water circuit riders specialize in the supply, treatment and distribution of clean drinking water through a water utility. Wastewater circuit riders specialize in the processes required for the safe collection, treatment and disposal of wastewater and

text: sewage

text: . Circuit riders in both fields have extensive knowledge and experience with the state and federal regulations governing drinking water and wastewater.

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answers: Clean drinking water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Drinking water circuit riders

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Drinking water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: extensive knowledge and experience with the state and federal regulations

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: drinking water

text: The heat of summer dries all water sources on the surface of the ground. There is no rain during summer and that is why people preserve water in Beka (برکه), however conservation of water there attracts many types of bacteria. Temperatures in summer can reach 56 °C which is not sustainable with many families, thus prompting them to relocate to more mild areas.

text: The heat of summer dries all water sources on the surface of the ground. There is no rain during summer and that is why people preserve water in Beka (برکه), however conservation of water there attracts many types of bacteria. Temperatures in summer can reach 56 °C which is not sustainable with many families, thus prompting them to relocate to more mild areas.

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answers: NDQ_011878

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answers: NDQ_011879

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Temperatures in summer can reach 56 °C

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The heat of summer dries all water sources

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: the heat of summer

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: sources on the surface of the ground

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: conserve of water there attracts many types of bacteria

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of supply and demand. In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high transaction costs, poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of

text: supply and demand

text: . In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high

text: transaction costs

text: , poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: lack of supply and demand

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: nonpoint sources

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: nonpoint sources

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: WQT markets

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: pollution credits

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: widespread adoption

text: Wastewater treatment makes use of plants, particularly aquatic, to process the wastewater. It has been shown that the more waste is treated by the aquatic plants (or, more specifically, their root systems), the larger the aquatic plants grow.

text: Wastewater treatment makes use of plants, particularly aquatic, to process the wastewater. It has been shown that the more waste is treated by the

text: aquatic plant

text: s (or, more specifically, their

text: root system

text: s), the larger the aquatic plants grow.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: theoretically the supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Wastewater treatment makes use of plants

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: aquatic

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: larger the aquatic plants grow

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Wastewater

text: The Salitre WWTP has been in operation for ten years, however, the city of Bogotá has not seen an improvement in water quality because 80% of the city's wastewater continues to flow untreated into the river. In December 2004, the Department of Planning (Departamento Nacional de Planeación, DNP) issued a strategic planning document for the Bogotá River calling for an upgrade and expansion of the Salitre WWTP to a capacity of 8 m/s to address a portion of the remaining 80% of untreated wastewater. The plan also calls for the construction of a larger primary plant with a 14 m/s treatment capacity to be located downstream of Bogotá. This larger WWTP called Canoas will treat wastewater from the Fucha, Tunjuelo and Soacha basins.

text: The Salitre WWTP has been in operation for ten years, however, the city of Bogotá has not seen an improvement in water quality because 80% of the city's wastewater continues to flow untreated into the river. In December 2004, the Department of Planning (Departamento Nacional de Planeación, DNP) issued a strategic planning document for the Bogotá River calling for an upgrade and expansion of the Salitre WWTP to a capacity of 8 m/s to address a portion of the remaining 80% of untreated wastewater. The plan also calls for the construction of a larger primary plant with a 14 m/s treatment capacity to be located downstream of Bogotá. This larger WWTP called Canoas will treat wastewater from the Fucha, Tunjuelo and Soacha basins.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Canoas

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Salitre WWTP has been in operation for ten years

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: the city of Bogotá

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: untreated wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: a strategic planning document for the Bogotá River

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text: The water is not murky and is clean enough from its source to its confluence with the Great Ouse to support fish. The fishing rights on the west bank are leased annually to the Cambridge Fish Preservation and Angling Society.

text: The water is not murky and is clean enough from its source to its confluence with the Great Ouse to support fish. The fishing rights on the west bank are leased annually to the Cambridge Fish Preservation and Angling Society.

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answers: 100

text: Split flow weirs are also used in drinking water and wastewater treatment plants (sewage treatment or industrial wastewater treatment) to proportion flows to different outlets in a junction box.

text: Split flow weirs are also used in

text: drinking water

text: and

text: wastewater

text: treatment plants (

text: sewage treatment

text: or

text: industrial wastewater treatment

text: ) to proportion flows to different outlets in a junction box.

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: The Pines Barrens host an underground reservoir of pure, untapped water. Loose, high-absorption soil makes the woods an ideal aquifer, while self-contained rivers prevent pollution from foreign water sources.  Nevertheless, the aquifer's water table is notably shallow and therefore extremely easy to contaminate.

text: The Pines Barrens host an underground reservoir of pure, untapped water. Loose, high-absorption soil makes the woods an ideal aquifer, while self-contained rivers prevent pollution from foreign water sources.  Nevertheless, the aquifer's water table is notably shallow and therefore extremely easy to contaminate.

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answers: extremely easy to contaminate

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answers: prevent pollution from foreign water sources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: contaminate

text: The process of the EDCs entering the water source all begins with a source. Whether it comes from an industrial plant, pharmaceutical, or human source, it eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has documented the amount of pharmaceuticals released into the environment from manufacturing plants, however, this documentation is not as prevalent on a household level. There are some on-going efforts to attempt to minimize this pollution. For example, 80 percent of pharmacies in Clark County, Washington have contributed to efforts emphasizing the safe disposal of noncontrolled drugs. Attempts to control water pollution are gaining support as pollution gradually becomes more visible. However, these efforts are still in the process of being implemented on a large scale. The polluted water is then sent to a number of places.

text: The process of the EDCs entering the water source all begins with a source. Whether it comes from an

text: industrial plant

text: , pharmaceutical, or human source, it eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product. The

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: has documented the amount of pharmaceuticals released into the environment from manufacturing plants, however, this documentation is not as prevalent on a household level. There are some on-going efforts to attempt to minimize this pollution. For example, 80 percent of

text: pharmacies

text: in

text: Clark County, Washington

text: have contributed to efforts emphasizing the safe disposal of noncontrolled drugs. Attempts to control water pollution are gaining support as pollution gradually becomes more visible. However, these efforts are still in the process of being implemented on a large scale. The polluted water is then sent to a number of places.

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answers: Polluted water is then sent to a number of places

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial plant

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: polluted water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 80 percent of pharmacies in Clark County, Washington

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: minimize this pollution

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: The Vltava river is  long and drains an area about  in size, over half of Bohemia and about a third of the Czech Republic's entire territory. As it runs through Prague, the river is crossed by 18 bridges (including the famous Charles Bridge, shown below) and covers  within the city. The water from the river was used for drinking until 1912, when the Vinohrady Water Tower ceased pumping operations. It is, however, the source of drinking water in case of failures/repairs to the water supply from the Želivka and Kárané sources. The Podolí water processing plant is on standby for such cases with the long section of the river upstream of the Podolí plant under the stricter, second degree of pollution prevention regulations.

text: The Vltava river is  long and drains an area about  in size, over half of Bohemia and about a third of the Czech Republic's entire territory. As it runs through Prague, the river is crossed by 18

text: bridge

text: s (including the famous

text: Charles Bridge

text: , shown below) and covers  within the city. The water from the river was used for drinking until 1912, when the

text: Vinohrady Water Tower

text: ceased pumping operations. It is, however, the source of drinking water in case of failures/repairs to the water supply from the Želivka and Kárané sources. The Podolí water processing plant is on standby for such cases with the long section of the river upstream of the Podolí plant under the stricter, second degree of pollution prevention regulations.

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answers: failures/repairs to the water supply from the  elivka and Kárané sources

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answers: The water from the river was used for drinking until 1912, when the Vinohrady Water Tower ceased pumping operations

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answers: Vinohrady Water Tower

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answers: The Vltava river

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answers: pollution prevention

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answers: a third

text: This envisages a clean state by taking up various waste management programmes. It is also planned to implement sanitation schemes, projects for preserving water sources, agriculture development and promotion of organic farming.

text: This envisages a clean state by taking up various waste management programmes. It is also planned to implement sanitation schemes, projects for preserving water sources, agriculture development and promotion of organic farming.

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text: Ponds outside of gardens are fed by four main water sources: rain, inflows (springs and streams, and surface runoff), and groundwater. The wildlife value of ponds is greatly affected by the extent to which these water sources are unpolluted. Garden ponds are generally not fed by inflows or groundwater, except in the larger and rural gardens. Usually the pond will be filled by a combination of tap water, rainwater, and surface runoff - and lost to evaporation. Garden ponds are often filled with tap water, which can have high levels of nutrients which can pollute the pond on filling. Chemical pond treatments to maintain the 'ecological balance' in ponds are not always tested to assess their effects, although some may have beneficial effects (for example, adding chalk to a pond polluted by phosphorus could precipitate the nutrient from the water and prevent it from being taken up by algae).

text: Ponds outside of gardens are fed by four main water sources: rain, inflows (springs and streams, and surface runoff), and groundwater. The wildlife value of ponds is greatly affected by the extent to which these water sources are unpolluted. Garden ponds are generally not fed by inflows or groundwater, except in the larger and rural gardens. Usually the pond will be filled by a combination of tap water,

text: rain

text: water, and

text: surface runoff

text: - and lost to

text: evaporation

text: . Garden ponds are often filled with tap water, which can have high levels of nutrients which can pollute the pond on filling. Chemical pond treatments to maintain the 'ecological balance' in ponds are not always tested to assess their effects, although some may have beneficial effects (for example, adding chalk to a pond polluted by phosphorus could precipitate the nutrient from the water and prevent it from being taken up by algae).

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text: In some cases, the term current source refers to a boundary where charge flows from locations where it is not measured to  locations where it is measured. In a similar fashion, a current sink may refer to the boundary where charge flows from locations where it is measured to locations where it is not measured.  By analogy to the flow of water, a current source would be like a mountain spring - water flows from its source (a hidden location underground) to the surface where it is easily observed. Using the same analogy, a current sink would be like water flowing down a drain - water travels from where it is observed to where it is not observed.

text: In some cases, the term current source refers to a boundary where charge flows from locations where it is not measured to  locations where it is measured. In a similar fashion, a current sink may refer to the boundary where charge flows from locations where it is measured to locations where it is not measured.  By analogy to the flow of water, a current source would be like a mountain

text: spring

text: - water flows from its source (a hidden location underground) to the surface where it is easily observed. Using the same analogy, a current sink would be like water flowing down a drain - water travels from where it is observed to where it is not observed.

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answers: By analogy to the flow of water

answers: NDQ_011875

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answers: sink

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: a mountain spring

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: sink

text: The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries, including pottery, shells, and turquoise, but by the late 12th century, as the system collapsed, the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined, and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region. For approximately six hundred years, most Mesa Verdean farmers had lived in small, mesa-top homesteads of one or two families. They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water. This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century, but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields.

text: The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries, including pottery, shells, and turquoise, but by the late 12th century, as the system collapsed, the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined, and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region. For approximately six hundred years, most Mesa Verdean farmers had lived in small, mesa-top homesteads of one or two families. They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water. This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century, but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields.

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answers: 100

text: The genus Elymus is a part of the Poaceae family, which is considered to be the most economically important plant family in modern cultures. Evolving 55 million years ago, the Poaceae family is used to produce wheat, rice, and barley cereal grains. Elymus elymoides (also known as squireltail) is a specific type of wild rye that experiences competitive forces when introduced to invasive species, such as Bromus tectorum. Elymus elymoides experiences a decrease in fitness when growing concurrently with Bromus tectorum, leading to natural selection act negatively on Elymus elymoides. This is seen in the Great Basin Desert, as the dry environment makes water a limiting resource, resulting in competition over it. Bromus tectorum’s advantages may be due to their ability to re-engineer that particular ecosystems scarce water supply. Bromus tectorum  affects Elymus multisetus similarly, indicating that the trait causing their decreased fitness is shared among the genus.Competition also occurs between Elymus elymoides and the invasive crested wheatgrass. When introduced, crested wheatgrass negatively affects Elymus elymoides when mature, despite being able to effectively compete at the seedling stage. If crested wheatgrass is used in rehabilitation or restoration of a site, then co-planting a native bunch grass, such as Elymus elymoides, would be helpful in preventing a crested wheatgrass mono culture. Because Elymus elymoides populations decline when introduced to certain populations, squirreltail may benefit more from a monoculture setting  This characteristic is supported by another species Elymus nutas. However, although it is successful as a monoculture food source, it results in a reduction of carbon transfer and decreased soil health when grown alone. To preserve a prosperous "Elymus elymoides" food source, one must take into consideration its effects to the soil when grown alone, and its responses to competitive forces if grown with other plants.

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answers: Bromus tectorum

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text: Bolca is a village in the Veneto, on the southern margin of the Italian Alps. It is a frazione of the comune of Vestenanova, in the province of Verona. The area is famous for the marine fossils from the lagerstätte of Monte Bolca. It was one of the first fossil sites with high quality preservation known to Europeans, and is still an important source of fossils from the Eocene.

text: Bolca is a village in the

text: Veneto

text: , on the southern margin of the

text: Italian

text: Alps

text: . It is a

text: frazione

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text: comune

text: of

text: Vestenanova

text: , in the

text: province of Verona

text: . The area is famous for the marine fossils from the

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text: Monte Bolca

text: . It was one of the first fossil sites with high quality preservation known to Europeans, and is still an important source of fossils from the

text: Eocene

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text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and migration of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and

text: migration

text: of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: point sources

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answers: ocean

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answers: protects the environment

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answers: sex-related health problems

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answers: 100

text: The pollution often comes from non point sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algae growth.

text: The pollution often comes from

text: non point source

text: s such as agricultural

text: runoff

text: , wind-blown debris and dust.

text: Nutrient pollution

text: , a form of

text: water pollution

text: , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of

text: eutrophication

text: of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually

text: nitrogen

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: , stimulate algae growth.

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answers: surface waters

text: Because groundwater and surface water are closely linked, water pollution from CAFOs can affect both sources if one or the other is contaminated. Surface water may be polluted by CAFO waste through the runoff of nutrients, organics, and pathogens from fields and storage. Waste can be transmitted to groundwater through the leaching of pollutants. Some facility designs, such as lagoons, can reduce the risk of groundwater contamination, but the microbial pathogens from animal waste may still pollute surface and groundwater, causing adverse effects on wildlife and human health.

text: Because

text: groundwater

text: and surface water are closely linked, water pollution from CAFOs can affect both sources if one or the other is contaminated. Surface water may be polluted by CAFO waste through the runoff of nutrients, organics, and pathogens from fields and storage. Waste can be transmitted to groundwater through the

text: leaching

text: of pollutants. Some facility designs, such as lagoons, can reduce the risk of groundwater contamination, but the microbial pathogens from animal waste may still pollute surface and groundwater, causing adverse effects on wildlife and human health.

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: In areas adjacent to water bodies with fish or shellfish intended for human consumption, improperly maintained and failing septic systems contribute to pollution levels that can force harvest restrictions and/or commercial or recreational harvest closures. In Washington State, for example, a "shellfish protection district" or "clean water district" is a geographic service area designated by a county to protect water quality and tideland resources. The district provides a mechanism to generate local funds for water quality services to control non-point sources of pollution, such as septic system maintenance. The district also serves as an educational resource, calling attention to the pollution sources that threaten shellfish growing waters.

text: In areas adjacent to water bodies with fish or

text: shellfish

text: intended for human consumption, improperly maintained and failing septic systems contribute to pollution levels that can force harvest restrictions and/or commercial or recreational harvest closures. In

text: Washington State

text: , for example, a "shellfish protection district" or "clean water district" is a geographic service area designated by a county to protect water quality and tideland resources. The district provides a mechanism to generate local funds for water quality services to control non-point sources of pollution, such as septic system maintenance. The district also serves as an educational resource, calling attention to the pollution sources that threaten shellfish growing waters.

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answers: septic system

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answers: water bodies

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answers: shellfish protection district

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answers: The district also serves as an educational resource

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text: The input of pollutants into a water body may impact the water's ability to deliver ecological, recreational, educational, and economic services. While the impacts of water pollution vary considerably based on a variety of site-specific factors, they may be either direct or indirect. Pollutants that are directly toxic pose a threat to organisms that may come into contact with contaminated water. These include persistent organic pollutants used as pesticides and toxic byproducts of industrial activity (such as cyanide). Other pollutants may indirectly impact ecosystem services by causing a change in water conditions that allows for a harmful activity to take place. This includes sediment (loose soil) inputs that decrease the amount of light that can penetrate through the water, reducing plant growth and diminishing oxygen availability for other aquatic organisms.

text: The input of pollutants into a water body may impact the water's ability to deliver ecological, recreational, educational, and economic services. While the impacts of water pollution vary considerably based on a variety of site-specific factors, they may be either direct or indirect. Pollutants that are directly

text: toxic

text: pose a threat to organisms that may come into contact with contaminated water. These include persistent organic pollutants used as

text: pesticide

text: s and toxic byproducts of industrial activity (such as

text: cyanide

text: ). Other pollutants may indirectly impact ecosystem services by causing a change in water conditions that allows for a harmful activity to take place. This includes sediment (loose

text: soil

text: ) inputs that decrease the amount of light that can penetrate through the water, reducing plant growth and diminishing oxygen availability for other aquatic organisms.

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answers: diminishing oxygen availability for other aquatic organisms

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answers: The input of pollutants into a water body may impact the water's ability to deliver ecological, recreational, educational, and economic services

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answers: industrial activity

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text: The variations in oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios have applications in hydrology since most samples will lie between two extremes, ocean water and Arctic/Antarctic snow. Given a sample of water from an aquifer, and a sufficiently sensitive tool to measure the variation in the isotopic ratio of hydrogen in the sample, it is possible to infer the source, be it ocean water seeping into the aquifer or precipitation seeping into the aquifer, and even to estimate the proportions from each source. Stable isotopes of water are also used in partitioning water sources for plant transpiration and groundwater recharge.

text: The variations in oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios have applications in

text: hydrology

text: since most samples will lie between two extremes, ocean water and Arctic/Antarctic snow. Given a sample of water from an

text: aquifer

text: , and a sufficiently sensitive tool to measure the variation in the isotopic ratio of hydrogen in the sample, it is possible to infer the source, be it ocean water seeping into the aquifer or precipitation seeping into the aquifer, and even to estimate the proportions from each source. Stable isotopes of water are also used in partitioning water sources for plant transpiration and groundwater recharge.

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answers: most samples will lie between two extremes

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answers: Stable isotopes of water

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answers: ocean water

text: Through the restoration and sustentation of the biological diversity that once encompassed the lands, their fundamental objective, to preserve the naturally occurring lands and waters in that region, is being made a reality. Through these activities, Chicago Wilderness plays a major role in protecting and replenishing the naturally occurring ecosystems in the Chicago area as well as motivating people to become more aware and involved in the preservation of these lands and waters. Chicago Wilderness has continued to blossom through the funding and donations of many sources including private contributions, the member organizations, and state and federal grants.

text: Through the restoration and sustentation of the

text: biological diversity

text: that once encompassed the lands, their fundamental objective, to preserve the naturally occurring lands and waters in that region, is being made a reality. Through these activities, Chicago Wilderness plays a major role in protecting and replenishing the naturally occurring

text: ecosystems

text: in the Chicago area as well as motivating people to become more aware and involved in the preservation of these lands and waters. Chicago Wilderness has continued to blossom through the funding and donations of many sources including private contributions, the member organizations, and state and federal

text: grants

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answers: 100

text: Water pollution is a serious issue in Vietnam as a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization without adequate environmental management. As of 2008 only 10 percent of municipal wastewater was treated, and only 45% of industrial zones were expected to have wastewater treatment of some kind in 2010. The pollution of rivers and lakes in Hanoi is "alarming" according to municipal authorities, as up to 98 per cent of 200 rivers and lakes fail to meet the required water quality. Sewer systems consist of combined sewers, channeling both rainwater and municipal sewage. Small enterprises engaged in food processing and textile dyeing in so-called "craft villages", of which there are 700 in the Red River Delta alone, discharge untreated wastewater. An analysis by the University of Technologies and the Ministry of Science and Technology showed that 100% of wastewater samples taken from craft villages exceed allowed levels of pollution. Vietnam also has more than 200 registered industrial zones without sustainable wastewater treatment. Industrial zones discharge 1 million cubic meters of untreated sewage per day, about 70 percent of all industrial wastewater. 8 industrial zones will be equipped with wastewater treatment plants with the help of a US$50 million loan from the World Bank approved in 2012. It is also planned to construct 30 wastewater treatment plants in the Mekong Delta until 2020, including 13 plants for domestic wastewater treatment and 17 for industrial wastewater treatment in Can Tho, An Giang, Kien Giang and Ca Mau provinces. In 2012 Hanoi expected to start the operation of the upgraded Yen So waste water treatment plant with a design capacity of 200,000 cubic meters per day; eight more wastewater treatment plants are planned in Hanoi alone.

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answers: up to 98 per cent of 200 rivers and lakes

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Vietnam also has more than 200 registered industrial zones without sustainable wastewater treatment

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answers: Small enterprises

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answers: untreated sewage per day

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answers: Vietnam has more than 200 registered industrial zones without sustainable wastewater treatment

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answers: wastewater treatment of some kind in 2010

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answers: 98

text: According to this indicator on improved water sources, the MDG was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. Over 2 billion more people used improved drinking water sources in 2010 than did in 1990. However, the job is far from finished. 780 million people are still without improved sources of drinking water, and many more still lack safe drinking water: complete information about drinking water safety is not yet available for global monitoring of safe drinking water. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination and an estimated 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water which suffers from fecal contamination. The quality of these sources vary over time and are typically of worse quality in the wet season. Continued efforts  are needed to reduce urban-rural disparities and inequities associated with poverty; to dramatically increase coverage in countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania; to promote global monitoring of drinking water quality; and to look beyond the MDG target towards universal coverage.

text: According to this indicator on

text: improved water source

text: s, the MDG was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. Over 2 billion more people used improved drinking water sources in 2010 than did in 1990. However, the job is far from finished. 780 million people are still without improved sources of drinking water, and many more still lack safe drinking water: complete information about drinking water safety is not yet available for global monitoring of safe drinking water. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination and an estimated 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water which suffers from fecal contamination. The quality of these sources vary over time and are typically of worse quality in the wet season. Continued efforts  are needed to reduce urban-rural disparities and inequities associated with poverty; to dramatically increase coverage in countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania; to promote global monitoring of drinking water quality; and to look beyond the MDG target towards universal coverage.

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answers: 780 million people are still without improved sources of drinking water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: 780 million people are still without improved sources

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: urban

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: universal coverage

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answers: was met in 2010

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: universal coverage

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 25%

text: The Clean Water Act has made great strides in reducing point source water pollution, but this effect is overshadowed by the fact that nonpoint source pollution, which is not subject to regulation under the Act, has correspondingly increased. One of the solutions to address this imbalance is point/nonpoint source trading of pollutants. In January 2003, the EPA Water Quality Trading Policy was issued. At this time, many waters in the United States did not support their designated uses. Specifically, 40 percent of rivers, 45 percent of streams, and 50 percent of lakes that had been surveyed were unfit. Consequently, when The Water Quality Trading Policy was issued it acknowledged that “the progress made toward restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters under the 1972 Clean Water Act and its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits has been incomplete.”

text: The Clean Water Act has made great strides in reducing point source water pollution, but this effect is overshadowed by the fact that

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: , which is not subject to regulation under the Act, has correspondingly increased. One of the solutions to address this imbalance is point/nonpoint source trading of pollutants. In January 2003, the EPA Water Quality Trading Policy was issued. At this time, many waters in the United States did not support their designated uses. Specifically, 40 percent of rivers, 45 percent of streams, and 50 percent of lakes that had been surveyed were unfit. Consequently, when The Water Quality Trading Policy was issued it acknowledged that “the progress made toward restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters under the 1972 Clean Water Act and its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits has been incomplete.”

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answers: 40 percent of rivers, 45 percent of streams

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: At this time, many waters in the United States did not support their designated uses

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: point source

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: waters in the United States

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 1972

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reducing point source water pollution

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 40 percent

text: The geographical inequity in the distribution of water and precipitation in California makes it such that water reuse is more economical in the southern half which receives less that one third of the precipitation of the state. In the face of groundwater overdraft, declining snowpack, changing climate, increased drought and high temperatures, some Southern California cities have found water reuse to be a cost effective way to augment their water supply. The initial costs of building a wastewater treatment plant can be more expensive than other methods of attaining water like groundwater or imported water, but it's much less costly than desalination. Once the facility is stablished, however, recycled water is less expensive than fresh for some water users like industrial or power generation. Furthermore, as freshwater supplies continue to dwindle, the cost of freshwater will go up, and the price differential will decrease. It is also important to note that the cost of treating water goes up as the level of treatment goes up. This means that it is more economically viable to treat water for irrigation purposes than for potable uses. In fact, in some cases, recycled water can reduce the need for fertilizers, further adding to the viability of water reuse.

text: The geographical inequity in the distribution of water and precipitation in California makes it such that water reuse is more economical in the southern half which receives less that one third of the precipitation of the state. In the face of groundwater overdraft, declining snowpack, changing climate, increased drought and high temperatures, some Southern California cities have found water reuse to be a cost effective way to augment their water supply. The initial costs of building a wastewater treatment plant can be more expensive than other methods of attaining water like groundwater or imported water, but it's much less costly than desalination. Once the facility is stablished, however, recycled water is less expensive than fresh for some water users like industrial or power generation. Furthermore, as freshwater supplies continue to dwindle, the cost of freshwater will go up, and the price differential will decrease. It is also important to note that the cost of treating water goes up as the level of treatment goes up. This means that it is more economically viable to treat water for irrigation purposes than for potable uses. In fact, in some cases, recycled water can reduce the need for fertilizers, further adding to the viability of water reuse.

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answers: groundwater overdraft, declining snowpack, changing climate, increased drought and high temperatures

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: groundwater overdraft, declining snowpack, changing climate, increased drought and high temperatures

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Southern California cities

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: one third

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: recycled water can reduce the need for fertilizers

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: one third

text: In the Balkans, dominant practice is to fill the džezva with only cold water, and heat it until it boils. As the water boils coffee is added, stirred, and removed from the fire before the foam boils over. After the foam settles the pot is placed back onto the heat source so the water would boil again, releasing more caffeine and flavour. Sometimes the last step is skipped, to preserve the foam. This type of preparation is known as Bosnian coffee or Serbian coffee.

text: In the Balkans, dominant practice is to fill the džezva with only cold water, and heat it until it boils. As the water boils coffee is added, stirred, and removed from the fire before the foam boils over. After the foam settles the pot is placed back onto the heat source so the water would boil again, releasing more caffeine and flavour. Sometimes the last step is skipped, to preserve the foam. This type of preparation is known as

text: Bosnian coffee

text: or Serbian coffee.

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answers: cold water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Balkans

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answers: d ezva

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water

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answers: unanswerable

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answers: more caffeine and flavour

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: cold water

text: Domestic consumption accounts for 7% of water withdrawals in Peru. The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made significant advances in the last two decades, including an increase in access to an improved water source from 75% to 82% between 1990 and 2008 and an increase in access to improved sanitation from 54% to 68% during the same period. Progress has also been achieved in the disinfection of drinking water and in wastewater treatment. Despite these advances, water supply and sanitation services in Peru are characterized by low coverage in rural areas (61% for water 36% for sanitation in 2008) and poor quality of service, as well as the precarious financial situation of utilities.

text: Domestic consumption accounts for 7% of water withdrawals in Peru. The water and

text: sanitation

text: sector in Peru has made significant advances in the last two decades, including an increase in access to an

text: improved water source

text: from 75% to 82% between 1990 and 2008 and an increase in access to

text: improved sanitation

text: from 54% to 68% during the same period. Progress has also been achieved in the disinfection of

text: drinking water

text: and in

text: wastewater treatment

text: . Despite these advances, water supply and sanitation services in Peru are characterized by low coverage in rural areas (61% for water 36% for sanitation in 2008) and poor quality of service, as well as the precarious financial situation of utilities.

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answers: Domestic consumption

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Domestic consumption accounts for 7%

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: sanitation

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 75%

text: Many industries have a need to treat water to obtain very high quality water for demanding purposes such as environmental discharge compliance. Water treatment produces organic and mineral sludges from filtration and sedimentation. Ion exchange using natural or synthetic resins removes calcium, magnesium and carbonate ions from water, typically replacing them with sodium, chloride, hydroxyl and/or other ions. Regeneration of ion exchange columns with strong acids and alkalis produces a wastewater rich in hardness ions which are readily precipitated out, especially when in admixture with other wastewater constituents.

text: Many industries have a need to treat water to obtain very high quality water for demanding purposes such as environmental discharge compliance. Water treatment produces organic and mineral sludges from

text: filtration

text: and

text: sedimentation

text: Ion exchange

text: using natural or synthetic resins removes

text: calcium

text: magnesium

text: and

text: carbonate

text: ions from water, typically replacing them with

text: sodium

text: chloride

text: hydroxyl

text: and/or other ions. Regeneration of ion exchange columns with strong acids and alkalis produces a wastewater rich in hardness ions which are readily precipitated out, especially when in admixture with other wastewater constituents.

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answers: many industries have a need to treat water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: many places of the planet

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industries

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is water

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answers: environmental discharge compliance

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: hardness ions which are readily precipitated out

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: The source is been an important water supply. There is a large pumping station at Friar Waddon, drawing from the source of the Wey, which is the main water supply for the Isle of Portland. Wessex Water is licensed to pump 14 million megalitres of water a day.

text: The source is been an important water supply. There is a large pumping station at

text: Friar Waddon

text: , drawing from the source of the Wey, which is the main water supply for the

text: Isle of Portland

text: Wessex Water

text: is licensed to pump 14 million megalitres of water a day.

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answers: The source is been an important water supply

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The source is been an important water supply

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Friar Waddon

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: megalitres

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: main water supply for the Isle of Portland

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Qanats have been preserved in Armenia in the community of Shvanidzor, in the southern province of Syunik, bordering with Iran. Qanats are named kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed in XII-XIVc, even before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through I, II and V kahrezs. Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.

text: Qanats have been preserved in

text: Armenia

text: in the community of

text: Shvanidzor

text: , in the southern province of

text: Syunik

text: , bordering with

text: Iran

text: . Qanats are named kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed in XII-XIVc, even before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through I, II and V kahrezs. Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Kahrezes

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Potable water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Potable water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Potable water

text: The Alpe is a left tributary of the Aller. Its source lies between the villages of Dudensen and Nöpke, both within the town of Neustadt am Rübenberge. It initially crosses the Dudensen Moor and flows along the edge of the Lichtenmoor and past Rethem Moor.  In the 1970s it lost its natural character, it was straightened and, in places, canalised. The Steimbker Dorfgraben, a drainage ditch joining it form the left is very heavily polluted (water quality class III–IV). The Alpe itself has a good overall water quality (class II = moderately polluted).Before the town of Rethem the Weiße Graben ("White Ditch") joins the Alpe along with the Wölpe. In Rethem the Alpe then discharges into the Aller.

text: The Alpe is a left

text: tributary

text: of the

text: Aller

text: . Its source lies between the villages of

text: Dudensen

text: and

text: Nöpke

text: , both within the town of

text: Neustadt am Rübenberge

text: . It initially crosses the Dudensen Moor and flows along the edge of the

text: Lichtenmoor

text: and past Rethem Moor.  In the 1970s it lost its natural character, it was straightened and, in places, canalised. The Steimbker Dorfgraben, a drainage ditch joining it form the left is very heavily polluted (water quality class III–IV). The Alpe itself has a good overall water quality (class II = moderately polluted).Before the town of Rethem the Weiße Graben ("White Ditch") joins the Alpe along with the

text: Wölpe

text: . In Rethem the Alpe then discharges into the Aller.

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answers: The Alpe itself has a good overall water quality (class II = moderately polluted)

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Steimbker Dorfgraben

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Steimbker Dorfgraben

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Aller

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Steimbker Dorfgraben

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: good overall water quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: class II

text: Cattle breeding is the second major source of water pollution and directly affects sources of drinking water. Due to a serious lack of water purification stations on cattle farms, non-purified waste waters pour into the various water basins. The same holds for the underground waters, as nitrates, phosphates, and other macroelements used in farming are dissolved and washed away by rains, to appear subsequently in water basins and mineral springs. The Kamchia reservoir, which is the primary source of drinking water for Bourgas and a secondary source for Varna, is an example. Water and sewage experts have stated that the "Komounari" hydro project should not divert waters from the highly polluted Gorna Kamchia River into the Kamchia reservoir. This reservoir, as well as other sources of drinking water for Varna, have old and low-capacity purification stations. During droughts, drinking water is drawn from the reservoir that does not meet sanitary standards.

text: Cattle breeding is the second major source of water pollution and directly affects sources of drinking water. Due to a serious lack of water purification stations on cattle farms, non-purified waste waters pour into the various water basins. The same holds for the underground waters, as nitrates, phosphates, and other macroelements used in farming are dissolved and washed away by rains, to appear subsequently in water basins and mineral springs. The Kamchia reservoir, which is the primary source of drinking water for Bourgas and a secondary source for Varna, is an example. Water and sewage experts have stated that the "Komounari" hydro project should not divert waters from the highly polluted Gorna Kamchia River into the Kamchia reservoir. This reservoir, as well as other sources of drinking water for Varna, have old and low-capacity purification stations. During droughts, drinking water is drawn from the reservoir that does not meet sanitary standards.

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answers: droughts

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answers: droughts

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answers: Cattle breeding

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: underground waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: does not meet sanitary standards

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: During droughts, drinking water is drawn from the reservoir that does not meet sanitary standards

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.

text: The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of

text: organic matter

text: and the number of disease-causing

text: microorganism

text: s present in the solids. The most common treatment options include

text: anaerobic digestion

text: aerobic digestion

text: , and

text: composting

text: Incineration

text: is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.

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answers: Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Incineration

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: safe and effective

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Incineration

text: There are several access points along the river. Besides from being known for being one of the most pristine rivers along the Northeast, the Wood River's pure waters also offers a source for several other various activities and family fun in clean waters. The River is a huge traffic place for families during all times of the year in the Northeast. Many visitors come to this part of the Northeast, Rhode Island and Connecticut, to enjoy canoeing, kayaking, fishing, and even hiking along the waters edge. With traffic being so heavy along the river, it is important to preserve the river as much as possible. The cleanliness and fun at the river go hand in hand with one another.

text: There are several access points along the river. Besides from being known for being one of the most pristine rivers along the Northeast, the Wood River's pure waters also offers a source for several other various activities and family fun in clean waters. The River is a huge traffic place for families during all times of the year in the Northeast. Many visitors come to this part of the Northeast, Rhode Island and Connecticut, to enjoy canoeing, kayaking, fishing, and even hiking along the waters edge. With traffic being so heavy along the river, it is important to preserve the river as much as possible. The cleanliness and fun at the river go hand in hand with one another.

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answers: With traffic being so heavy along the river

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answers: preserve the river as much as possible

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text: Currently, the Tippecanoe darter is listed as vulnerable in Kentucky and imperiled in West Virginia and Pennsylvania.  The species is extremely vulnerable to turbidity and siltation.  In parts of the species native range where it is considered threatened, streamside management is an important tool.  Improper forestry practices, mining, and road construction are all threats to the reproductive health of the species.  The Clean Water Act is the most important piece of legislation for this species.  Another bill regulating nonpoint source pollution is pending a vote in Congress and could also help the Tippecanoe darter.Indiana uses a common approach to address nonpoint source pollution known as the watershed approach, which assesses the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) into a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body.  This attempts to quantify all potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: Currently, the Tippecanoe darter is listed as vulnerable in Kentucky and imperiled in West Virginia and Pennsylvania.  The species is extremely vulnerable to turbidity and siltation.  In parts of the species native range where it is considered threatened, streamside management is an important tool.  Improper forestry practices, mining, and road construction are all threats to the reproductive health of the species.  The Clean Water Act is the most important piece of legislation for this species.  Another bill regulating nonpoint source pollution is pending a vote in Congress and could also help the Tippecanoe darter.Indiana uses a common approach to address nonpoint source pollution known as the watershed approach, which assesses the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) into a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body.  This attempts to quantify all potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

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text: Coagulation is one of the most important physio-chemical reactions used in water treatment. Ions (heavy metals) and colloids (organic and inorganic) are mostly held in solution by electrical charges. The addition of ions with opposite charges destabilizes the colloids, allowing them to coagulate. Coagulation can be achieved by a chemical coagulant or by electrical methods. Alum [Al(SO)18HO] is such a chemical substance, which has been widely used for ages for wastewater treatment.

text: Coagulation is one of the most important physio-chemical reactions used in water treatment.

text: Ion

text: s (heavy metals) and

text: colloid

text: s (organic and inorganic) are mostly held in solution by electrical charges. The addition of ions with opposite charges destabilizes the colloids, allowing them to coagulate. Coagulation can be achieved by a chemical coagulant or by electrical methods.

text: Alum

text: HO

text: ] is such a chemical substance, which has been widely used for ages for wastewater treatment.

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text: Since Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes, the primary source of domestic water is rainfall. Demand for fresh water is approximately twice that supplied by rainfall, so Singapore imports much of its fresh water from Malaysia and Indonesia. To lessen its reliance on imports, Singapore has built reservoirs to collect rainwater and recycled water facilities. In addition, Singapore has built a desalination plant on the western coast of Tuas. This plant is expected to at least meet half of Singapore's water demands. Recent plans to produce NEWater-recycled water from treatment by filtration via reverse osmosis have been very successful as the government has opened up three plants around the island to help meet the demand.

text: Since Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes, the primary source of domestic water is rainfall. Demand for fresh water is approximately twice that supplied by rainfall, so Singapore imports much of its fresh water from Malaysia and Indonesia. To lessen its reliance on imports, Singapore has built reservoirs to collect rainwater and recycled water facilities. In addition, Singapore has built a desalination plant on the western coast of Tuas. This plant is expected to at least meet half of Singapore's water demands. Recent plans to produce

text: NEWater

text: -recycled water from treatment by filtration via

text: reverse osmosis

text: have been very successful as the government has opened up three plants around the island to help meet the demand.

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answers: Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes

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answers: Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes

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answers: Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers

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answers: lessen its reliance on imports

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answers: half

text: The preserve, a remnant wetland of a once-great watershed, is now surrounded by urbanity: 2 major freeways, 2 major boulevards and a large strip mall define its southern and eastern boundaries. A large residential area, 2 Senior housing complexes and a city park hug its northern and western boundaries. Today the Dominguez Watershed is a complex system of storm drains and flood control channels. The preserve’s wetlands are now fed by these storm drains, as well as by urban runoff and rain. It is possible that urban runoff, from activities such as excessive landscape irrigation and car washing, now brings water into the preserve in greater quantities and with greater regularity than occurred naturally. These factors may be favoring the growth of the "willow dominated riparian forest" (p I-8) and moving the preserve away from being a vernal marsh. Conversely, with this high density of urban markers, storm drains and urban runoff entering the preserve bring in nutrient-rich water, perfect for aquatic invasive species, such as water primrose (Ludwigia), a management challenge. If allowed to continue to invade the preserve, water primrose will soak up the water in the wetland and ultimately destroy the willows. Storm drains, boulevards and parking lots also bring in trash, which volunteers regularly clear out. In return, the native plants and soil of the preserve clean the storm drained water before sending it on to the Dominguez Channel which feeds to the Los Angeles Harbor and the Pacific Ocean.

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answers: water primrose will soak up the water in the wetland and ultimately destroy the willows

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: urban runoff, from activities such as excessive landscape irrigation and car washing

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: urban runoff

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: once-great watershed

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: protects water quality

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: native plants and soil of the preserve clean the storm drained water before sending it on to the Dominguez Channel

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0

text: One concern regarding wastewater treatment is the byproduct known as wastewater sludge. In 2008, more than 100,000 tons of this waste was either land-filled or disposed of directly into the sea.  In 2002, it was discovered that around half of the treated waste water being used for irrigation did not meet safety standards, posing a danger to human life, water reserves and food crops.

text: One concern regarding wastewater treatment is the byproduct known as

text: wastewater

text: sludge. In 2008, more than 100,000 tons of this waste was either land-filled or disposed of directly into the sea.  In 2002, it was discovered that around half of the treated waste water being used for irrigation did not meet safety standards, posing a danger to human life, water reserves and food crops.

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text: Water pollution typically occurs due to the discharge of effluent into water systems, improper landfill techniques, flooding of urban areas resulting in pollution from urban run-off, and agricultural practices. For example, the cities La Rioja and Catamarca have constraints on expansion of freshwater supplies forcing the residents to use only water they have available even if it is contaminated. The lack of piped water and sewage can exacerbate the water pollution problem through excessive contamination from excrements. For example, communities having 5,000-10,000 residents and urban centers with 200,000-500,000 residents have 90% and 60% of those respective residents that lack connection to sewers.

text: Water pollution typically occurs due to the discharge of effluent into water systems, improper landfill techniques, flooding of urban areas resulting in pollution from urban run-off, and agricultural practices. For example, the cities

text: La Rioja

text: and

text: Catamarca

text: have constraints on expansion of freshwater supplies forcing the residents to use only water they have available even if it is contaminated. The lack of piped water and sewage can exacerbate the water pollution problem through excessive contamination from excrements. For example, communities having 5,000-10,000 residents and urban centers with 200,000-500,000 residents have 90% and 60% of those respective residents that lack connection to sewers.

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answers: constraints on expansion of freshwater supplies forcing the residents to use only water they have available even if it is contaminated

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The lack of piped water and sewage

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural practices

answers: NDQ_011876

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Water pollution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: contamination from excrements

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 90%

text: If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline.  This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland.  In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization.  Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.  Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

text: If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become

text: saline

text: .  This situation can occur naturally under

text: endorheic

text: bodies of water, or artificially under

text: irrigated

text: farmland.  In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause

text: soil salinization

text: .  Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.  Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

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answers: Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost"

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: farmland

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: surface water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: use of a groundwater source

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: Large-scale urban UV wastewater treatment is performed in cities such as Edmonton, Alberta. The use of ultraviolet light has now become standard practice in most municipal wastewater treatment processes. Effluent is now starting to be recognized as a valuable resource, not a problem that needs to be dumped. Many wastewater facilities are being renamed as water reclamation facilities, whether the wastewater is discharged into a river, used to irrigate crops, or injected into an aquifer for later recovery. Ultraviolet light is now being used to ensure water is free from harmful organisms.

text: Large-scale urban UV wastewater treatment is performed in cities such as

text: Edmonton, Alberta

text: . The use of ultraviolet light has now become standard practice in most municipal wastewater treatment processes. Effluent is now starting to be recognized as a valuable resource, not a problem that needs to be dumped. Many wastewater facilities are being renamed as water reclamation facilities, whether the wastewater is discharged into a river, used to irrigate crops, or injected into an aquifer for later recovery. Ultraviolet light is now being used to ensure water is free from harmful organisms.

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answers: aquifer

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answers: Many wastewater facilities are being renamed as water reclamation facilities

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Edmonton, Alberta

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: aquifer

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Effluent is now starting to be recognized as a valuable resource

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: used to irrigate crops

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Before his resignation from the post, Abedin proposed the government to take measures to use the alternative sources of water like rainwater, constructing sufficient water reservoir around the capital and setting up of wastewater and effluent treatment plants.

text: Before his resignation from the post, Abedin proposed the government to take measures to use the alternative sources of water like

text: rainwater

text: , constructing sufficient

text: water reservoir

text: around the capital and setting up of

text: wastewater

text: and effluent treatment plants.

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answers: rainwater

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answers: the Clean Water Act

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answers: 100

text: The Fontana dell'Acqua Paola was inspired by the popularity of the Fontana dell'Acqua Felice, built in 1585-88 by Pope Sixtus V.  Pope Paul V decided to rebuild and extend the ruined Acqua Traiana aqueduct built by the Emperor Trajan in order to create a source of clean drinking water for the residents of the Janiculum Hill, who were forced to take their water from brackish springs or from the polluted Tiber.   He raised funds for his project in part by imposing a tax upon wine, which caused complaints among some residents.  The funding from this tax and other sources allowed him to purchase the rights to the water of a spring near Lake Bracciano, not far from Rome, as the source for the fountain.

text: The Fontana dell'Acqua Paola was inspired by the popularity of the

text: Fontana dell'Acqua Felice

text: , built in 1585-88 by

text: Pope Sixtus V

text: .  Pope Paul V decided to rebuild and extend the ruined Acqua Traiana aqueduct built by the

text: Emperor Trajan

text: in order to create a source of clean drinking water for the residents of the Janiculum Hill, who were forced to take their water from brackish springs or from the polluted Tiber.   He raised funds for his project in part by imposing a tax upon wine, which caused complaints among some residents.  The funding from this tax and other sources allowed him to purchase the rights to the water of a spring near Lake Bracciano, not far from Rome, as the source for the fountain.

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answers: polluted Tiber

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answers: polluted Tiber

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answers: a tax upon wine

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answers: 100

text: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants; sediment and nutrients are deposited here instead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling too far. Still, studies have shown that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primary source.

text: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention.

text: Riparian buffer zones

text: are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants;

text: sediment

text: and nutrients are deposited here instead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling too far. Still, studies have shown that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primary source.

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answers: effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: farms and roads

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: body of water

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answers: prevent nutrients from traveling too far

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answers: prevent nutrients from traveling too far

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answers: 100

text: In developed areas, natural depressions where storm water would pool, are filled in. The surface of the ground is often leveled or paved. Storm water is directed into storm drains which often may cause overflows of combined sewer systems or poisoning, erosion or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. Redirected storm water is often warmer than the groundwater normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO). Storm water runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. These pollutants include volatile organic compounds, pesticides, herbicides, hydrocarbons and trace metals Rain gardens are designed to capture the initial flow of storm water and reduce the accumulation of toxins flowing directly into natural waterways through ground filtration. They also reduce energy consumption. For example, “the cumulative storage capacity of these rain gardens exceeds a conventional stormwater’s system’s by 10 times.” The National Science Foundation, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and a number of research institutions are presently studying the impact of augmenting rain gardens with materials capable of capture or chemical reduction of the pollutants to benign compounds.

text: In developed areas, natural

text: depressions

text: where

text: storm water

text: would pool, are filled in. The surface of the ground is often

text: leveled

text: or paved. Storm water is directed into

text: storm drain

text: s which often may cause overflows of

text: combined sewer

text: systems or poisoning, erosion or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. Redirected storm water is often warmer than the

text: groundwater

text: normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of

text: dissolved oxygen

text: (DO). Storm water runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. These pollutants include

text: volatile organic compounds

text: pesticides

text: herbicides

text: hydrocarbons

text: and

text: trace metals

text: Rain gardens are designed to capture the initial flow of storm water and reduce the accumulation of toxins flowing directly into natural waterways through ground filtration. They also reduce energy consumption. For example, “the cumulative storage capacity of these rain gardens exceeds a conventional stormwater’s system’s by 10 times.” The

text: National Science Foundation

text: , the

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: , and a number of research institutions are presently studying the impact of augmenting rain gardens with materials capable of capture or

text: chemical reduction

text: of the pollutants to benign compounds.

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answers: may cause overflows of combined sewer systems

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answers: Rain gardens are designed to capture the initial flow of storm water and reduce the accumulation of toxins flowing directly into natural waterways through ground filtration

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answers: “the cumulative storage capacity of these rain gardens exceeds a conventional stormwater’s system’s by 10 times

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answers: 100

text: The Trexler Nature Preserve is an 1,108 acre county park owned and maintained by Lehigh County, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.  The preserve is situated in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township.  Most of the Preserve's distinctive topography is a consequence of water erosion by the Jordan Creek (and its tributaries) through the uplands of the Schochary Ridge.

text: The Trexler Nature Preserve is an 1,108 acre county

text: park

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text: Lehigh County

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text: .  The preserve is situated in

text: Lowhill Township

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entity_name: North Whitehall Township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

text: North Whitehall Township

text: .  Most of the Preserve's distinctive topography is a consequence of water erosion by the Jordan Creek (and its tributaries) through the uplands of the Schochary Ridge.

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text: On the right slopes above the waterfall there is a source of drinking water that centuries has been connected with popular legends. Above Bobas, there are still remains of the city walls of the medieval town of Kotor (563 m). Up until the end of the World War II, the ruins of a fortress jails and staircase communication between them were preserved. The diameter of the bell on the tower was 5 meters. It is not preserved and the fort was abandoned today

text: On the right slopes above the waterfall there is a source of drinking water that centuries has been connected with popular legends. Above Bobas, there are still remains of the city walls of the medieval town of Kotor (563 m). Up until the end of the World War II, the ruins of a fortress jails and staircase communication between them were preserved. The diameter of the bell on the tower was 5 meters. It is not preserved and the fort was abandoned today

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text: srcML (source M L) is a document-oriented XML representation of source code. It was created in a collaborative effort between Michael L. Collard and Jonathan I. Maletic. The abbreviation, srcML, is short for Source Markup Language. srcML wraps source code (text) with information from the Abstract Syntax Tree or AST (tags) into a single XML document. All original text is preserved so that the original source code document can be recreated from the srcML markup.  The only exception is the possibility of newline normalization.

text: srcML (source M L) is a document-oriented XML representation of source code. It was created in a collaborative effort between Michael L. Collard and Jonathan I. Maletic. The abbreviation, srcML, is short for Source Markup Language. srcML wraps source code (text) with information from the Abstract Syntax Tree or AST (tags) into a single XML document. All original text is preserved so that the original source code document can be recreated from the srcML markup.  The only exception is the possibility of newline normalization.

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text: Water utilities abstract water from rivers and lakes (60%), springs (25%) and groundwater (15%). For example, the main water source for Jakarta is the Jatiluhur Dam on the Citarum River 70 km southeast of the city. For those who are self-supplied or receive water from community-based organizations, shallow groundwater and springs are by far the main sources of water on most islands. On Sumatra and Irian, however, rainwater harvesting is also an important water source.

text: Water utilities abstract water from rivers and lakes (60%), springs (25%) and groundwater (15%). For example, the main water source for Jakarta is the Jatiluhur Dam on the

text: Citarum River

text: 70 km southeast of the city. For those who are self-supplied or receive water from community-based organizations, shallow groundwater and springs are by far the main sources of water on most islands. On Sumatra and Irian, however, rainwater harvesting is also an important water source.

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answers: Jatiluhur Dam

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answers: groundwater and springs are by far the main sources of water on most islands

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: rivers and lakes

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: rivers and lakes

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is also an important water source

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: rainwater harvesting

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 15%

text: Generally water is mostly hard in urban areas of England where soft water sources are unavailable. A number of cities built water supply sources in the 18th century as the industrial revolution and urban population burgeoned. Manchester was a notable such city in North West England and its wealthy corporation built a number of reservoirs at Thirlmere and Haweswater in the Lake District to the north. There is no exposure to limestone or chalk in their headwaters and consequently the water quality in Manchester is rated as 'very soft'. Similarly, tap water in Birmingham is also soft as it is sourced from the Elan Valley Reservoirs in Wales.

text: Generally water is mostly hard in urban areas of England where soft water sources are unavailable. A number of cities built water supply sources in the 18th century as the

text: industrial revolution

text: and urban population burgeoned.

text: Manchester

text: was a notable such city in North West England and its wealthy corporation built a number of reservoirs at

text: Thirlmere

text: and

text: Haweswater

text: in the

text: Lake District

text: to the north. There is no exposure to

text: limestone

text: or

text: chalk

text: in their

text: headwaters

text: and consequently the water quality in Manchester is rated as 'very soft'. Similarly, tap water in

text: Birmingham

text: is also soft as it is sourced from the

text: Elan Valley Reservoirs

text: in Wales.

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answers: hard water sources are unavailable

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answers: the industrial revolution

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answers: hard

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: soft water sources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: hard

text: Many of these tensions arise with regards to the commerce clause of the constitution. Until recently, the commerce clause has given the federal government considerable authority in regulating states' decisions about water use. In 2000, the United States Supreme Court ruled on Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. US Army Corps of Engineers. This ruling struck down the Corps' ability to prevent the construction of a disposal site for non-hazardous waste in Illinois based on power derived from the commerce clause. The Corps cited the Migratory Bird Rule when they initially denied the section 404 permit under the Clean Water Act. The migratory bird rule was meant to protect habitats used by migratory birds, which included the abandoned mining site that SWANCC had proposed to construct the waste disposal site. Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote: "Congress passes the CWA for the state purpose of 'restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters.' In doing so,, Congress chose to recognize, preserve, and protect the primary responsibilities and rights of States to prevent, reduce, and eliminate pollution, to plan the development and use... of land and water resources...". In reversing the Corps' decision to issue a permit, the court reversed a trend and placed a check on federal power over state land use and water rights. Tensions between federal and state agencies concerning interstate commerce and point source water pollution continue, and are a reality of the Clean Water Act.

text: Many of these tensions arise with regards to the

text: commerce clause

text: of the constitution. Until recently, the commerce clause has given the federal government considerable authority in regulating states' decisions about water use. In 2000, the

text: United States Supreme Court

text: ruled on

entity_name: Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. Army Corps of Engineers

text: Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. US Army Corps of Engineers

text: . This ruling struck down the Corps' ability to prevent the construction of a disposal site for non-hazardous waste in Illinois based on power derived from the commerce clause. The Corps cited the

text: Migratory Bird Rule

text: when they initially denied the section 404 permit under the Clean Water Act. The migratory bird rule was meant to protect habitats used by migratory birds, which included the abandoned mining site that SWANCC had proposed to construct the waste disposal site.

text: Chief Justice Rehnquist

text: wrote: "Congress passes the CWA for the state purpose of 'restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters.' In doing so,, Congress chose to recognize, preserve, and protect the primary responsibilities and rights of States to prevent, reduce, and eliminate pollution, to plan the development and use... of land and water resources...". In reversing the Corps' decision to issue a permit, the court reversed a trend and placed a check on federal power over state land use and water rights. Tensions between federal and state agencies concerning interstate commerce and point source water pollution continue, and are a reality of the Clean Water Act.

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answers: Point source water pollution continue, and are a reality of the Clean Water Act

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answers: Tensions between federal and state agencies concerning interstate commerce and point source water pollution

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: abandoned mining site

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answers: Nation's waters

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answers: is a reality

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: As of 2008, there were 153 large and 817 small drinking water treatment plants, as well as 239 wastewater treatment plants. The length of the water distribution networks was 107,000 km and the length of the wastewater collection network was 29,000 km.

text: As of 2008, there were 153 large and 817 small drinking water treatment plants, as well as 239 wastewater treatment plants. The length of the water distribution networks was 107,000 km and the length of the wastewater collection network was 29,000 km.

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answers: There were 153 large and 817 small drinking water treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The length of the water distribution networks

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: large

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: clean water act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment plants

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 817

text: Sewage treatment is the process of removing the contaminants from sewage to produce liquid and solid (sludge) suitable for discharge to the environment or for reuse.  It is a form of waste management.  A septic tank or other on-site wastewater treatment system such as biofilters or constructed wetlands can be used to treat sewage close to where it is created.

text: Sewage treatment

text: is the process of removing the contaminants from sewage to produce liquid and solid (

text: sludge

text: ) suitable for discharge to the environment or for reuse.  It is a form of

text: waste management

text: .  A septic tank or other

text: on-site wastewater treatment

text: system such as

text: biofilters

text: or

text: constructed wetland

text: s can be used to treat sewage close to where it is created.

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text: Following a European Court of Justice judgment made against Ireland in 2009 that deemed the country non-compliant with the Waste Framework Directive in relation to domestic wastewaters disposed of in the countryside, the Water Services (Amendment) Act 2012 was passed in order to regulate wastewater discharges from domestic sources that are not connected to the public sewer network and to provide arrangements for registration and inspection of existing individual domestic wastewater treatment systems.

text: Following a

text: European Court of Justice

text: judgment made against

text: Ireland

text: in 2009 that deemed the country non-compliant with the

text: Waste Framework Directive

text: in relation to domestic wastewaters disposed of in the countryside, the Water Services (Amendment) Act 2012 was passed in order to regulate wastewater discharges from domestic sources that are not connected to the public sewer network and to provide arrangements for registration and inspection of existing individual domestic wastewater treatment systems.

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text: Atmospheric inputs of pollution into the air can come from multiple sources. Typically, industrial facilities, like factories, emit air pollution via a smokestack. Although this is a point source, due to the distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources of the pollution, it is considered a nonpoint source. Additionally, atmospheric pollution can become water pollution, by being washed out of the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow.

text: Atmospheric inputs of pollution into the air can come from multiple sources. Typically, industrial facilities, like

text: factories

text: , emit air pollution via a

text: smokestack

text: . Although this is a point source, due to the distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources of the pollution, it is considered a nonpoint source. Additionally, atmospheric pollution can become water pollution, by being washed out of the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

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answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial facilities

answers: NDQ_011876

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: long-range transport

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answers: 100

text: The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snow's identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the germ theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. He first publicized his theory in an essay, On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, in 1849, followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in the Soho epidemic of 1854.

text: The science of

text: epidemiology

text: was founded by

text: John Snow

text: 's identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854

text: cholera

text: outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the

text: germ theory

text: of disease as opposed to the prevailing

text: miasma theory

text: . He first publicized his theory in an essay, On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, in 1849, followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in the

text: Soho

text: epidemic of 1854.

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answers: Soho epidemic

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answers: Polluted

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answers: cholera outbreak

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: polluted

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answers: the Clean Water Act

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text: Acequia Park is located in the Bexar County city of San Antonio in the U.S. state of Texas.  There are picnic tables and restrooms, but alcohol is not allowed in the park.  The origins of the park date back to Spanish missionaries, who worked with mission Indians to create a water system sourced by the San Antonio River. The San Antonio Conservation Society (SACS) purchased much of this acreage in 1957 to preserve the area's environment. Because the San Antonio River Authority planned to reconfigure the river channel, SACS joined local land owners in filing a successful water rights and water flow lawsuit against the Authority. In 1975, SACS deeded the property to the City of San Antonio with the stipulation that it be used as a public park.

text: Acequia Park is located in the

text: Bexar County

text: city of

text: San Antonio

text: in the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Texas

text: .  There are picnic tables and restrooms, but alcohol is not allowed in the park.  The origins of the park date back to Spanish missionaries, who worked with mission Indians to create a water system sourced by the

text: San Antonio River

text: . The

text: San Antonio Conservation Society

text: (SACS) purchased much of this acreage in 1957 to preserve the area's environment. Because the San Antonio River Authority planned to reconfigure the river channel, SACS joined local land owners in filing a successful water rights and water flow lawsuit against the Authority. In 1975, SACS deeded the property to the City of San Antonio with the stipulation that it be used as a public park.

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answers: San Antonio River Authority planned to reconfigure the river channel

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answers: The origins of the park date back to Spanish missionaries

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answers: San Antonio River

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answers: San Antonio River Authority planned to reconfigure the river channel

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text: The brewery also operates an environmental outreach program to encourage recycling, energy conservation, and habitat preservation, as well as to prevent littering and water pollution. For past 18 years Anheuser-Busch employees have participated in "Green Week", which focuses on environmental conservation education for employees and their families.

text: The brewery also operates an environmental outreach program to encourage recycling, energy conservation, and habitat preservation, as well as to prevent littering and water pollution. For past 18 years Anheuser-Busch employees have participated in "Green Week", which focuses on environmental conservation education for employees and their families.

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text: In addition to the section 404 program, questions arise about impacts of the SWANCC ruling on other parts of the CWA, especially its principal permit program, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program under section 402. It requires permits for pollutant discharges from point sources (industrial facilities and municipal sewage plants) into the nation's waters. Another provision, section 311, concerns liability for oil discharges into the nation's waters. Neither of these was at issue in this case but might be challenged through extension of the ruling. The January 19 joint Corps-EPA memorandum states that federal implementation of any other CWA provision that involves "waters of the United States" will be governed by the same interpretation that applies to section 404. As a result, federal jurisdiction to require NPDES permits or assess oil spill liability in some isolated waters could be limited. These impacts will become clearer in time.

text: In addition to the section 404 program, questions arise about impacts of the SWANCC ruling on other parts of the CWA, especially its principal permit program, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program under section 402. It requires permits for pollutant discharges from point sources (industrial facilities and municipal sewage plants) into the nation's waters. Another provision, section 311, concerns liability for oil discharges into the nation's waters. Neither of these was at issue in this case but might be challenged through extension of the ruling. The January 19 joint Corps-EPA memorandum states that federal implementation of any other CWA provision that involves "waters of the United States" will be governed by the same interpretation that applies to section 404. As a result, federal jurisdiction to require NPDES permits or assess oil spill liability in some isolated waters could be limited. These impacts will become clearer in time.

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answers: isolated waters could be limited

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answers: These impacts will become clearer in time

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answers: industrial facilities

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answers: waters of the United States

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answers: These impacts will become clearer in time

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answers: 404

text: Victor Braunig Lake, formerly known as East Lake, is a reservoir on Calaveras Creek and Chupaderas Creek 17 miles (27 kilometers) south of Downtown San Antonio, Texas, USA.  The reservoir was formed in 1962 by the construction of a dam to provide a cooling pond for a power plant to supply additional electrical supply to the city of San Antonio.   The dam and lake are managed by CPS Energy of San Antonio.  Together with Calaveras Lake, Braunig Lake was one of the first projects in the nation to use treated wastewater for power plant cooling.  The reservoir is partly filled with wastewater that has undergone both primary and secondary treatment at a San Antonio Water System treatment plant.  Braunig Lake also serves as a venue for recreation, including fishing and boating.

text: Victor Braunig Lake, formerly known as East Lake, is a

text: reservoir

text: on

text: Calaveras Creek

text: and

text: Chupaderas Creek

text: 17 miles (27 kilometers) south of

text: Downtown

text: San Antonio

text: Texas

text: USA

text: .  The reservoir was formed in 1962 by the construction of a dam to provide a cooling pond for a

text: power plant

text: to supply additional

text: electrical

text: supply to the city of San Antonio.   The dam and lake are managed by

text: CPS Energy

text: of San Antonio.  Together with

text: Calaveras Lake

text: , Braunig Lake was one of the first projects in the nation to use treated wastewater for power plant cooling.  The reservoir is partly filled with wastewater that has undergone both primary and secondary treatment at a

text: San Antonio Water System

text: treatment plant.  Braunig Lake also serves as a venue for recreation, including fishing and boating.

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answers: The reservoir is partly filled with wastewater

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answers: San Antonio Water System treatment plant

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answers: Calaveras Creek

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answers: Water System treatment plant

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answers: One of the first projects in the nation to use treated wastewater for power plant cooling

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: uses treated wastewater for power plant cooling

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban runoff. As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to irrigate their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s wastewater treatment is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with rainwater runoff. This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of pathogens. Heavy metals may also be present, along with traces of antibiotics and endocrine disruptors, such as oestrogens.

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres,

text: agriculture

text: must compete with industry and municipal users for safe

text: water supplies

text: , while traditional water sources are becoming

text: polluted

text: with

text: urban runoff

text: . As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to

text: irrigate

text: their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s

text: wastewater treatment

text: is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with

text: rainwater runoff

text: . This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of

text: pathogen

text: s.

text: Heavy metal

text: s may also be present, along with traces of

text: antibiotics

text: and

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s, such as oestrogens.

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answers: agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban runoff

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: kitchens

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: traditional water sources

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: safe water supplies

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 20

text: In many areas of the DRC, land use changes are associated with degradation of drinking water sources. The main threat to drinking water sources poses the unregulated growth of urban and rural areas. The nonexistence of drinking water protection zones results in the exposure of vulnerable source areas to pollution and land degradation. Springs, river intake zones, wellheads, priority lake and reservoir segments as well as aquifer recharge areas comprise the most endangered water source areas, which typically lack any form of identifiable demarcation and protection. Modification of runoff patterns, increased erosion and environmental degradation are the consequences of unregulated expansion of inhabited and agricultural areas. Development of housing, poor road construction, pit latrines, septic tanks, mining operations, and tailings are important contributors to pollution of water sources. In urban areas, industry, fuel stations, garages, abattoirs and storm water runoff are further sources of contamination. Biological contamination from sewage and solid waste disposal and increased suspended sediment loads are the two main sources of pollution.

text: In many areas of the DRC, land use changes are associated with degradation of drinking water sources. The main threat to drinking water sources poses the unregulated growth of urban and rural areas. The nonexistence of drinking water protection zones results in the exposure of vulnerable source areas to

text: pollution

text: and

text: land degradation

text: . Springs, river intake zones,

text: wellhead

text: s, priority lake and reservoir segments as well as

text: aquifer recharge areas

text: comprise the most endangered water source areas, which typically lack any form of identifiable demarcation and protection. Modification of

text: runoff

text: patterns, increased

text: erosion

text: and

text: environmental degradation

text: are the consequences of unregulated expansion of inhabited and agricultural areas. Development of housing, poor

text: road construction

text: pit latrine

text: s,

text: septic tank

text: s,

text: mining

text: operations, and

text: tailings

text: are important contributors to pollution of water sources. In urban areas, industry,

text: fuel stations

text: , garages,

text: abattoirs

text: and storm water runoff are further sources of

text: contamination

text: Biological contamination

text: from

text: sewage

text: and solid waste disposal and increased

text: suspended sediment

text: loads are the two main sources of pollution.

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answers: Springs, river intake zones, wellheads

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: DRC

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answers: pit latrines, septic tanks, mining operations, and tailings

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: drinking water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: drinking water protection zones

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: drinking water sources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Picture a series of water pipes, fitting into a network. Each pipe is of a certain diameter, so it can only maintain a flow of a certain amount of water. Anywhere that pipes meet, the total amount of water coming into that junction must be equal to the amount going out, otherwise we would quickly run out of water, or we would have a buildup of water. We have a water inlet, which is the source, and an outlet, the sink. A flow would then be one possible way for water to get from source to sink so that the total amount of water coming out of the outlet is consistent. Intuitively, the total flow of a network is the rate at which water comes out of the outlet.

text: Picture a series of water pipes, fitting into a network. Each pipe is of a certain diameter, so it can only maintain a flow of a certain amount of water. Anywhere that pipes meet, the total amount of water coming into that junction must be equal to the amount going out, otherwise we would quickly run out of water, or we would have a buildup of water. We have a water inlet, which is the source, and an outlet, the sink. A flow would then be one possible way for water to get from source to sink so that the total amount of water coming out of the outlet is consistent. Intuitively, the total flow of a network is the rate at which water comes out of the outlet.

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answers: We have a water inlet, which is the source, and an outlet, the sink

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: We would quickly run out of water, or we would have a buildup of water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: water inlet

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: is water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: maintain a flow of a certain amount

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The lake created by the dam  serves as an important source of tap water, industrial water and irrigation water in Shizuoka Prefecture.

text: The lake created by the dam  serves as an important source of

text: tap water

text: , industrial water and

text: irrigation

text: water in Shizuoka Prefecture.

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answers: The lake created by the dam

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The lake created by the dam

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: irrigation water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: serves as an important source of tap water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 1

text: Marine cloud brightening activities would be furthered governed by the international law of sea, and particularly by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).  Parties to the UNCLOS are obligated to "protect and preserve the marine environment," including by preventing, reducing, and controlling pollution of the marine environment from any source. The "marine environment" is not defined but is widely interpreted as including the ocean's water, lifeforms, and the air above. "Pollution of the marine environment" is defined in a way that includes global warming and greenhouse gases. The UNCLOS could thus be interpreted as obligating it Parties to use methods such as marine cloud brightening if these were found to be effective and environmentally benign. Whether marine cloud brightening itself could be such pollution of the marine environment is unclear. At the same time, in combating pollution, Parties are "not to transfer, directly or indirectly, damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of pollution into another." If marine cloud brightening were found to cause damage or hazards, the UNCLOS could prohibit it. If marine cloud brightening activities were to be "marine scientific research" -- also an undefined term -- then UNCLOS Parties have a right to conduct the research, subject to some qualifications. Like all other ships, those that would conduct marine cloud brightening must bear the flag of the country that has given them permission to do so and to which the ship has a genuine link, even if the ship is unmanned or automated. The flagged state must exercise its jurisdiction over those ships. The legal implications would depend on, among other things, whether the activity were to occur in territorial waters, an exclusive economic zone (EEZ), or the high seas; and whether the activity was scientific research or not. Coastal states would need to approve any marine cloud brightening activities in their territorial waters. In the EEZ, the ship must comply with the coastal state's laws and regulations. It appears that the state conducting marine cloud brightening activities in another state's EEZ would not need the latter's permission, unless the activity were marine scientific research. In that case, the coastal state should grant permission in normal circumstances. States would be generally free to conduct marine cloud brightening activities on the high seas, provided that this is done with "due regard" for other states' interests. There is some legal unclarity regarding unmanned or automated ships.

text: Marine cloud brightening activities would be furthered governed by the international law of sea, and particularly by the

entity_name: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

text: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

text: territorial waters

text: , an

text: exclusive economic zone

text: (EEZ), or the

text: high seas

text: ; and whether the activity was scientific research or not. Coastal states would need to approve any marine cloud brightening activities in their territorial waters. In the EEZ, the ship must comply with the coastal state's laws and regulations. It appears that the state conducting marine cloud brightening activities in another state's EEZ would not need the latter's permission, unless the activity were marine scientific research. In that case, the coastal state should grant permission in normal circumstances. States would be generally free to conduct marine cloud brightening activities on the high seas, provided that this is done with "due regard" for other states' interests. There is some legal unclarity regarding unmanned or automated ships.

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answers: If marine cloud brightening were found to cause damage or hazards, the UNCLOS could prohibit it

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: marine scientific research

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: marine scientific research

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: ocean's water, lifeforms, and the air above

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: UNCLOS

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: marine scientific research

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010. Point source pollution from mining effluent and nonpoint source agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010.

text: Point source

text: pollution from mining effluent and

text: nonpoint source

text: agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: Lakes, rivers, and aquifers

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: mining effluent

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: untreated water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: live in a pollution-free environment

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 95%

text: The Navajo and Hopi people have long embraced the water underneath and around the Black Mesa area as sacred to their people. The people have long lived around and became dependent on springs and wells of the Black Mesa. These waters are the only source of drinking water, water for livestock, and water for agriculture for the Navajo and Hopi people. In respect for the water, these people carryout religious and ceremonial tributes to the water of the Black Mesa. These waters have organized their people around the Black Mesa and resulted in the reliance of the waters for all aspects of their lives. With the emergence of Peabody Energy came threats to the preservation of their sacred water. Peabody Energy pumps water out from underneath the Black Mesa to transport their mining minerals. In May 2002 the Navajo and Hopi people from northeastern Arizona joined their people in St. Louis Missouri to fight against Peabody Energy and its shareholders. In January 2002 Peabody proposed and was granted the right to use thirty-two percent more Navajo Aquifer (Naquifer) water than they had already been using. The significant increase in water pumped out of the Naquifer, dramatically affected the drinkability of the water from the springs and wells connected to the Naquifer. Before the significant increase of pumping, the water was clean enough to drink without any kind of purification. Another result of the pumping is the noticeable drop in the water levels of the springs and wells. The drop in water levels was almost immediately recognized after Peabody was granted permission to pump out more water. This had caused disruption in the ceremonial and cultural lives of the Navajo and Hopi people as well as disruption to their farming (Lee 2010).

text: The

text: Navajo

text: and

text: Hopi

text: people have long embraced the water underneath and around the

entity_name: Black Mesa (Apache-Navajo Counties, Arizona)

text: Black Mesa

text: area as sacred to their people. The people have long lived around and became dependent on springs and wells of the Black Mesa. These waters are the only source of drinking water, water for livestock, and water for agriculture for the Navajo and Hopi people. In respect for the water, these people carryout religious and ceremonial tributes to the water of the Black Mesa. These waters have organized their people around the Black Mesa and resulted in the reliance of the waters for all aspects of their lives. With the emergence of

text: Peabody Energy

text: came threats to the preservation of their sacred water. Peabody Energy pumps water out from underneath the Black Mesa to transport their mining minerals. In May 2002 the Navajo and Hopi people from northeastern Arizona joined their people in St. Louis Missouri to fight against Peabody Energy and its shareholders. In January 2002 Peabody proposed and was granted the right to use thirty-two percent more

text: Navajo Aquifer

text: (Naquifer) water than they had already been using. The significant increase in water pumped out of the Naquifer, dramatically affected the drinkability of the water from the springs and wells connected to the Naquifer. Before the significant increase of pumping, the water was clean enough to drink without any kind of purification. Another result of the pumping is the noticeable drop in the water levels of the springs and wells. The drop in water levels was almost immediately recognized after Peabody was granted permission to pump out more water. This had caused disruption in the ceremonial and cultural lives of the Navajo and Hopi people as well as disruption to their farming (Lee 2010).

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: Peabody Energy pumps water out from underneath the Black Mesa to transport their mining minerals

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Peabody Energy pumps water out from underneath the Black Mesa to transport their mining minerals

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Peabody Energy

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Navajo Aquifer

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Peabody Energy

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: disruption in the ceremonial and cultural lives

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 302

text: The Krupa River is the Neretva left tributary and the main water current of Hutovo Blato, which leads the waters from Gornje Blato and Svitavsko lake into the Neretva river. The length of Krupa river is 9 km with an average depth of 5 meters. The Krupa river does not have an actual source, but is actually an arm of Deransko lake. Also, the Krupa river is a unique river in Europe, because the river flows both ways. It flows 'normally' from the 'source' to the mouth and from the mouth to the 'source'. This happens when, due to high water level and large quantity of water, river Neretva pushes the Krupa river in opposite direction.

text: The

text: Krupa River

text: is the

text: Neretva

text: left tributary and the main water current of Hutovo Blato, which leads the waters from

text: Gornje Blato

text: and

text: Svitavsko lake

text: into the

text: Neretva

text: river. The length of

text: Krupa river

text: is 9 km with an average depth of 5 meters. The

text: Krupa river

text: does not have an actual source, but is actually an arm of

text: Deransko lake

text: . Also, the

text: Krupa river

text: is a unique river in Europe, because the river flows both ways. It flows 'normally' from the 'source' to the mouth and from the mouth to the 'source'. This happens when, due to high water level and large quantity of water, river Neretva pushes the

text: Krupa river

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answers: Krupa river is a unique river in Europe, because the river flows both ways

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text: Water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based approach, implemented on a watershed-scale, used to improve or maintain water quality. It involves the voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits from sources with low costs of pollution control to those with high costs of pollution control. WQT programs are still subject to the requirements of the Clean Water Act, but they can be used to reduce the overall cost of compliance. Usually, permitted point sources of water pollution, such as wastewater treatment plants, have high discharge treatment costs, whereas nonpoint sources of water pollution, such as agriculture, have low costs of pollution reduction. Therefore, it is generally assumed that most trades would take place between point sources and nonpoint sources. However, point source-point source trades could also occur as well as pretreatment trades and intra-plant trades.

text: Water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based approach, implemented on a watershed-scale, used to improve or maintain

text: water quality

text: . It involves the voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits from sources with low costs of pollution control to those with high costs of pollution control. WQT programs are still subject to the requirements of the Clean Water Act, but they can be used to reduce the overall cost of compliance. Usually, permitted point sources of water pollution, such as wastewater treatment plants, have high discharge treatment costs, whereas nonpoint sources of water pollution, such as agriculture, have low costs of pollution reduction. Therefore, it is generally assumed that most trades would take place between point sources and nonpoint sources. However, point source-point source trades could also occur as well as pretreatment trades and intra-plant trades.

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answers: It involves the voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits

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answers: nonpoint sources

text: Wastewater treatment plants may be distinguished by the type of wastewater to be treated, i.e. whether it is sewage, industrial wastewater, agricultural wastewater or leachate.

text: Wastewater treatment plants may be distinguished by the type of wastewater to be treated, i.e. whether it is sewage, industrial wastewater, agricultural wastewater or leachate.

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text: The Floresta do Jacarandá Environmental Protection Area was created by state decree 8.280 of 23 July 1985 as an Area of Environmental Protection and Permanent Preservation, with its forests, water sources and other forms of vegetation located in the place called Floresta do Jacarandá.The APA was included in the Central Rio de Janeiro Atlantic Forest Mosaic, created in 2006.On 31 October 2013 state law 6.573 extinguished the Paraíso Ecological Station and the Jacarandá State Environmental Protection Area, and modified the Bacia dos Frades Environmental Protection Area and the Três Picos State Park.

text: The Floresta do Jacarandá Environmental Protection Area was created by state decree 8.280 of 23 July 1985 as an Area of Environmental Protection and Permanent Preservation, with its forests, water sources and other forms of vegetation located in the place called Floresta do Jacarandá.The APA was included in the

entity_name: Central Rio de Janeiro Atlantic Forest Mosaic

text: Central Rio de Janeiro Atlantic Forest Mosaic

text: , created in 2006.On 31 October 2013 state law 6.573 extinguished the

text: Paraíso Ecological Station

text: and the Jacarandá State Environmental Protection Area, and modified the

entity_name: Bacia dos Frades Environmental Protection Area

text: Bacia dos Frades Environmental Protection Area

text: and the

text: Três Picos State Park

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Point source water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of water. In the United States, it is largely regulated by the Clean Water Act (CWA). Among other things, the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body. However, point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies, due to some limitations of the Act. Consequently, other regulatory approaches have emerged, such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts.

text: Point source

text: water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of water. In the United States, it is largely regulated by the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA). Among other things, the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body. However, point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies, due to some limitations of the Act. Consequently, other regulatory approaches have emerged, such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts.

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answers: Some limitations of the Act

answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Point source

answers: NDQ_011876

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: (CWA)

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Irrigation is the process of artificially applying water to soil to allow plant growth. This term is preferably used when large amounts of water is applied to dry, arid regions in order to facilitate plant growth. The process of irrigation not only increases the growth rate of the plant bust also increments the yield amount. In temperate and tropical areas rainfall and snowfall are the main suppliers of irrigation water, but in dry places with unfavourable weather conditions, groundwater serves as an essential source. Groundwater collects in basins made up of gravel and aquifers which are water-holding rocks.Dams also act as an essential distributive source of irrigation water. Underground wells also play an important role in storing water for irrigation, specifically in America and Arizona. Water and debris from streams filled by water accumulated during storms, also collects into underground basins. There are two types of irrigation techniques: spray irrigation and drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is regarded more efficient as less water evaporated as in spray irrigation.

text: Irrigation

text: is the process of artificially applying water to soil to allow plant growth. This term is preferably used when large amounts of water is applied to dry, arid regions in order to facilitate plant growth. The process of irrigation not only increases the growth rate of the plant bust also increments the yield amount. In temperate and tropical areas rainfall and snowfall are the main suppliers of irrigation water, but in dry places with unfavourable weather conditions, groundwater serves as an essential source.

text: Groundwater

text: collects in basins made up of gravel and aquifers which are water-holding rocks.Dams also act as an essential distributive source of irrigation water. Underground wells also play an important role in storing water for irrigation, specifically in America and Arizona. Water and debris from streams filled by water accumulated during storms, also collects into underground basins. There are two types of irrigation techniques: spray irrigation and drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is regarded more efficient as less water evaporated as in spray irrigation.

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answers: groundwater serves as an essential source

answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: NDQ_011876

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answers: NDQ_011878

answers: increases the growth rate of the plant bust also increments the yield amount

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: The renewable heat technologies which are eligible under the Non-domestic RHI are solar thermal (hot water) panels, ground source heat pumps, water-source heat pumps, biomass boilers, and biomethane. The list was extended in April 2014 to include air to water heat pumps and deep geothermal. See table of tariffs for the Non-domestic RHI.

text: The

text: renewable heat

text: technologies which are eligible under the Non-domestic RHI are

text: solar thermal

text: (hot water) panels,

text: ground source heat pumps

text: water-source heat pumps

text: biomass boilers

text: , and biomethane. The list was extended in April 2014 to include air to water heat pumps and deep geothermal. See table of tariffs for the Non-domestic RHI.

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answers: water

text: Water is considered a purifying and regenerative element in India, and is an essential element of prayer and ritual. Water is also revered because of its scarcity in western India where dry and monsoon seasons alternate and failure of the monsoon season means famine and death while plentiful water replacing irrigations sources is a time of rejoicing. This resulted in building water storage tanks that combined the practical and sacred.Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in Indian architecture.  As early as 3000 BC, sophisticated systems of drains, wells and tanks were built to conserve and utilise water. Tank building as an art form began with the Hindus and developed under Muslim rule.

text: Water is considered a purifying and regenerative element in India, and is an essential element of prayer and ritual. Water is also revered because of its scarcity in western India where dry and monsoon seasons alternate and failure of the monsoon season means famine and death while plentiful water replacing irrigations sources is a time of rejoicing. This resulted in building water storage tanks that combined the practical and sacred.Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in Indian architecture.  As early as 3000 BC, sophisticated systems of drains, wells and tanks were built to conserve and utilise water. Tank building as an art form began with the Hindus and developed under Muslim rule.

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answers: failure of the monsoon season means famine and death

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Dry and monsoon seasons alternate

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: irrigations sources

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: monsoon

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: water storage tanks

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: conserve and utilise water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Very pure, carefully distilled VSMOW water is important in the manufacture of high-accuracy temperature measurement reference standards. Both the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined by the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C). Due to differences in isotopic composition, water samples from various sources may exhibit slight differences in physical properties, such as density, boiling point, and vapor pressure.  Consequently, snow, river water, and rainwater, all of which are recently evaporated ocean water, tend to be enriched in the lighter isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, causing water to evaporate more quickly.

text: Very pure, carefully distilled VSMOW water is important in the manufacture of high-accuracy

text: temperature

text: measurement reference standards. Both the

text: Kelvin

text: and

text: Celsius

text: scales are defined by the

text: triple point

text: of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C). Due to differences in isotopic composition, water samples from various sources may exhibit slight differences in physical properties, such as density, boiling point, and vapor pressure.  Consequently, snow, river water, and rainwater, all of which are recently evaporated ocean water, tend to be enriched in the lighter isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, causing water to evaporate more quickly.

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answers: NDQ_011875

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answers: NDQ_011876

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answers: NDQ_011877

answers: VSMOW water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: high-accuracy temperature measurement reference standards

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: VSMOW

text: Mining operations are still done in three mines, which are located within 1 km from the reservoir periphery. A panel of experts has advised the authorities concerned to take adequate steps to prevent pollution of lake waters by mining effluents, as the reservoir is a source of drinking water supply.

text: Mining operations are still done in three mines, which are located within 1 km from the reservoir periphery. A panel of experts has advised the authorities concerned to take adequate steps to prevent pollution of lake waters by mining effluents, as the reservoir is a source of drinking water supply.

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answers: Lake waters by mining effluents

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answers: Drinking water supply

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answers: 100

text: A line source, as opposed to a point source, area source, or  volume source,  is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional) geometry.  The most prominent linear sources are roadway air pollution, aircraft air emissions, roadway noise, certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certain dose models in medical physics and electromagnetic antennas. While point sources of pollution were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for highways and airports began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the computer models required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available.

text: A line source, as opposed to a

text: point source

text: area source

text: , or

text: volume source

text: ,  is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional) geometry.  The most prominent linear sources are

text: roadway air pollution

text: aircraft

text: air

text: emissions

text: roadway noise

text: , certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certain dose models in

text: medical physics

text: and electromagnetic

text: antennas

text: . While

text: point sources

text: of

text: pollution

text: were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for

text: highway

text: s and

text: airport

text: s began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the

text: computer model

text: s required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available.

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text: EMWD receives its water supplies from a mix of local and imported sources. It's imported water is purchased through the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, which includes the State Water Project and Colorado River Aqueduct as primary sources. As of 2015, imported water accounts for 51 percent of EMWD's overall water supply portfolio.

text: EMWD receives its water supplies from a mix of local and imported sources. It's imported water is purchased through the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, which includes the State Water Project and Colorado River Aqueduct as primary sources. As of 2015, imported water accounts for 51 percent of EMWD's overall water supply portfolio.

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text: This system makes the Kentucky River navigable throughout its entire 259 mile (437 km) length from its mouth into the Ohio River all the way up to its headwaters at the confluence of the North and South Forks.  However, it is not available for efficient use by many of the modern barge tows due to the relatively small size of the locks and the fact that the channel is maintained to only a six-foot draft rather than the nine-foot draft that is more typical and the standard used on most major river systems in the U.S.  The Authority also works to prevent water pollution as much as is practicable along the Kentucky River Basin, in large measure because the stream is the source of the drinking water for approximately one-sixth of all Kentucky residents.  The Authority's responsibility for water quality was added to its mission in 1988 after a serious and prolonged drought brought issues of water quality and availability to the fore.  In fact, the system is now operated more for the purpose of maintaining a secure supply of drinkable water for Lexington and other communities than it is to maximize navigation.

text: This system makes the Kentucky River navigable throughout its entire 259 mile (437 km) length from its mouth into the

text: Ohio River

text: all the way up to its headwaters at the confluence of the North and South Forks.  However, it is not available for efficient use by many of the modern

text: barge

text: tows due to the relatively small size of the locks and the fact that the channel is maintained to only a six-foot draft rather than the nine-foot draft that is more typical and the standard used on most major river systems in the U.S.  The Authority also works to prevent water

text: pollution

text: as much as is practicable along the Kentucky River Basin, in large measure because the stream is the source of the drinking water for approximately one-sixth of all Kentucky residents.  The Authority's responsibility for water quality was added to its mission in 1988 after a serious and prolonged drought brought issues of water quality and availability to the fore.  In fact, the system is now operated more for the purpose of maintaining a secure supply of drinkable water for

text: Lexington

text: and other communities than it is to maximize

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text: There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in wastewater treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants). Agricultural wastewater may be treated in agricultural wastewater treatment processes, whereas industrial wastewater is treated in industrial wastewater treatment processes.

text: There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in

text: wastewater treatment plants

text: which include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in

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text: s (which may also be referred to as

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: s). Agricultural wastewater may be treated in

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text: The mission of the Border Troops included repulsing armed incursions into Soviet territory; preventing illegal crossings of the border or the transport of weapons, explosives, contraband, or subversive literature across the border; monitoring the observance of established procedures at border crossing points; monitoring the observance by Soviet and foreign ships of navigation procedures in Soviet territorial waters; and assisting state agencies in the preservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment from pollution. Border guards were authorized to examine documents and possessions of persons crossing the borders and to confiscate articles; to conduct inquiries in cases of violations of the state border; and to take such actions as arrest, search, and interrogation of individuals suspected of border violations.

text: The mission of the Border Troops included repulsing armed incursions into Soviet territory; preventing illegal crossings of the border or the transport of weapons, explosives, contraband, or subversive literature across the border; monitoring the observance of established procedures at border crossing points; monitoring the observance by Soviet and foreign ships of navigation procedures in Soviet territorial waters; and assisting state agencies in the preservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment from pollution. Border guards were authorized to examine documents and possessions of persons crossing the borders and to confiscate articles; to conduct inquiries in cases of violations of the state border; and to take such actions as arrest, search, and interrogation of individuals suspected of border violations.

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text: Its main areas of operations under the Tenix brand included infrastructure maintenance and engineering services to the power, gas, water, mining and minerals processing, oil and gas, and petrochemical industries in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific. Examples of recent contracts included the maintenance and construction of electricity networks (for SP AusNet and United energy), the design and construction of major electricity substations (for Ergon Energy in Queensland and ElectraNet in South Australia), the design and construction of wastewater treatment plants (for Water Corporation in Western Australia, for Unitywater and Whitsunday Regional Council in Queensland), the design and construction of water and wastewater network assets (for Logan City Council in Queensland and ACTEW Water in ACT), the operation of wastewater treatment plants, and the construction of mineral processing plants and associated assets (for Newcrest Mining in PNG and the Argyle Diamond Mine in Western Australia).

text: Its main areas of operations under the Tenix brand included infrastructure maintenance and engineering services to the power, gas, water, mining and minerals processing, oil and gas, and petrochemical industries in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific. Examples of recent contracts included the maintenance and construction of electricity networks (for SP AusNet and United energy), the design and construction of major electricity substations (for Ergon Energy in Queensland and ElectraNet in South Australia), the design and construction of wastewater treatment plants (for Water Corporation in Western Australia, for Unitywater and Whitsunday Regional Council in Queensland), the design and construction of water and wastewater network assets (for Logan City Council in Queensland and ACTEW Water in ACT), the operation of wastewater treatment plants, and the construction of mineral processing plants and associated assets (for Newcrest Mining in PNG and the Argyle Diamond Mine in Western Australia).

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text: The earliest known source of the first duel is the Kaijo Monogatari. The entry in the Kaijo Monogatari was written in the 17th century but the exact year is debated. Author Kenji Tokitsu dates the Kaijo to 1666, but author Wayne Muromoto  give the date of 1629. Another source is the Honcho Bugei Shoden (or Honcho Bugei Koden) written in about 1716. The sources agree on the core of the story however; that Gonnosuke faced Musashi and was defeated, after which he retreated and formed his jo-techniques. The notion that Musashi was defeated in a rematch can be argued to have been a later construct by later pro-Gonnosuke historians, as there is no mentioning of a defeat in the sources regarding Musashi. The same could be said, however, for Musashi's followers who might have removed all mentioning of Musashi's defeat as a way to preserve his reputation. Another mentioning of the first duel is found in the Niten-Ki which was compiled by Musashi's followers years after his death. There is only one known source mentioning the rematch. It is a scroll now preserved in Tsukuba Shrine in Ibaraki prefecture, although doubts of its contents has been raised, partially because there are no other known corroborating sources to confirm it.

text: The earliest known source of the first duel is the Kaijo Monogatari. The entry in the Kaijo Monogatari was written in the 17th century but the exact year is debated. Author

text: Kenji Tokitsu

text: dates the Kaijo to 1666, but author Wayne Muromoto  give the date of 1629. Another source is the Honcho Bugei Shoden (or Honcho Bugei Koden) written in about 1716. The sources agree on the core of the story however; that Gonnosuke faced Musashi and was defeated, after which he retreated and formed his jo-techniques. The notion that Musashi was defeated in a rematch can be argued to have been a later construct by later pro-Gonnosuke historians, as there is no mentioning of a defeat in the sources regarding Musashi. The same could be said, however, for Musashi's followers who might have removed all mentioning of Musashi's defeat as a way to preserve his reputation. Another mentioning of the first duel is found in the Niten-Ki which was compiled by Musashi's followers years after his death. There is only one known source mentioning the rematch. It is a scroll now preserved in

text: Tsukuba Shrine

text: in

text: Ibaraki prefecture

text: , although doubts of its contents has been raised, partially because there are no other known corroborating sources to confirm it.

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text: The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

text: The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

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text: PROCIVAC is in charge of water services, trash collection, road maintenance, landscape maintenance, public lighting, signage and general infrastructure; also, PROCIVAC supervises urban projects, offers advise on industrial safety and environment preservation. One of its key areas are: the CCEC (Centro de Control de Emergencias de Civac, Civac Emergency control center), specialized on the prevention, training and control of industrial emergencies; and the ECCACIV, Latin America's most modern wastewater treatment plant.

text: PROCIVAC is in charge of water services, trash collection, road maintenance,

text: landscape maintenance

text: , public lighting, signage and general infrastructure; also, PROCIVAC supervises urban projects, offers advise on industrial safety and environment preservation. One of its key areas are: the CCEC (Centro de Control de Emergencias de Civac, Civac Emergency control center), specialized on the prevention, training and control of industrial emergencies; and the ECCACIV, Latin America's most modern wastewater treatment plant.

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text: Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

text: Polluting water

text: may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as

text: externalities

text: for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution.

text: Pharmaceuticals

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answers: Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Water pollution may be the biggest single misuse of water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Polluting water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: resource

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Other people pay the price of water pollution

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: other people pay the price of water pollution

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answers: 9

text: Water should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed water cycle if possible. Also, industry should prevent polluting water so that it can be returned into the water cycle. Whenever possible, gray wastewater should be used to irrigate trees or lawns. Water drawn from aquifers should be recharged by treating the wastewater and returned to the aquifer.

text: Water should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed

text: water cycle

text: if possible. Also, industry should prevent polluting water so that it can be returned into the water cycle. Whenever possible,

text: gray wastewater

text: should be used to irrigate trees or lawns. Water drawn from aquifers should be recharged by treating the wastewater and returned to the aquifer.

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answers: closed water cycle if possible

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answers: NDQ_011879

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text: Hyphalosaurus appears to have exclusively inhabited deep-water lakes. All specimens are preserved in silt characteristic of the deepest part of the lake environment, and are often preserved alongside deep-water fish and crustaceans. Hyphalosaurus is also conspicuously absent from the aquatic sediments of the Jiufotang Formation, which preserved a more swampy, shallow-water ecosystem.

text: Hyphalosaurus appears to have exclusively inhabited deep-water

text: lake

text: s. All specimens are preserved in silt characteristic of the deepest part of the lake environment, and are often preserved alongside deep-water fish and crustaceans. Hyphalosaurus is also conspicuously absent from the aquatic sediments of the Jiufotang Formation, which preserved a more

text: swamp

text: y, shallow-water ecosystem.

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answers: shallow-water ecosystem

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: swampy

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preserve a more swampy, shallow-water ecosystem

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: shallow

text: One option for separating food waste at source is the in-sink food-waste disposer (FWD).  It was invented in 1928 and is used in 50% of households in the USA, 34% in New Zealand, 20% in Australia and increasingly in some European countries, notably Sweden.  A FWD has no blades or knives, it has a grind chamber, the floor of which is a spinning disc with lugs spin the waste against the perforated wall of the chamber, particles exit when they are small enough. measured particle size distribution and found 98% <2mm.  They also measured settleability and found the ground waste would be carried/resuspended easily in conventionally designed sewers. estimated the Global Warming Potentials (100 year) of options for food waste management were landfill +740 kgCOe/t food waste, incineration +13, centralised composting -14 and that anaerobic digestion was about -170 kgCOe/t food waste whether it was kerbside collected and transported by truck or FWD to sewer to AD at a wastewater treatment works.  In a follow-up paper, analysed data from Surahammar, Sweden comparing the time when there were no FWD with the present when 50% of households have FWD.  This study verified laboratory etc. work published earlier by other workers.  They found there was no increase in wastewater treatment works' cost, nor the volume of wastewater but that there was a 46% increase in biogas.

text: One option for separating food waste at source is the in-sink

text: food-waste disposer

text: (FWD).  It was invented in 1928 and is used in 50% of households in the USA, 34% in New Zealand, 20% in Australia and increasingly in some European countries, notably Sweden.  A FWD has no blades or knives, it has a grind chamber, the floor of which is a spinning disc with lugs spin the waste against the perforated wall of the chamber, particles exit when they are small enough. measured particle size distribution and found 98% <2mm.  They also measured settleability and found the ground waste would be carried/resuspended easily in conventionally designed sewers. estimated the Global Warming Potentials (100 year) of options for food

text: waste management

text: were landfill +740 kgCOe/t food waste, incineration +13, centralised composting -14 and that anaerobic digestion was about -170 kgCOe/t food waste whether it was kerbside collected and transported by truck or FWD to sewer to AD at a wastewater treatment works.  In a follow-up paper, analysed data from Surahammar, Sweden comparing the time when there were no FWD with the present when 50% of households have FWD.  This study verified laboratory etc. work published earlier by other workers.  They found there was no increase in wastewater treatment works' cost, nor the volume of wastewater but that there was a 46% increase in biogas.

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answers: It was invented in 1928

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: incineration

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answers: wastewater treatment works

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: separating food waste at source

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: biogas

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 98%

text: At the end of their visit, Holdridge and Tosi recommended to the Quaker community that the native forests be preserved as much as possible in order to protect their water sources and, given the strong winds that swept though the area, to use the forests as windbreakers to protect their fields and homes.

text: At the end of their visit, Holdridge and Tosi recommended to the Quaker community that the native forests be preserved as much as possible in order to protect their water sources and, given the strong winds that swept though the area, to use the forests as windbreakers to protect their fields and homes.

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answers: water sources

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answers: protect their water sources

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answers: protect their fields and homes

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water sources

text: In 2011 82% of the population of Morocco had access to an improved water source. Specifically, this means that 59% of Moroccans had access to piped water in their house or in the yard of their house. As of 2004, for 11% the main source of water supply was a public stand pipe, for 5.6% it was a protected well. 1.5% of Moroccans, essentially in rural areas, relied on rainwater harvesting as their principal water source. 7% collected water from springs. Half of these springs,  supplying 3.5% of the population, were estimated to be protected. All the above sources are considered as improved water sources by the WHO, thus bringing the total to 82%.

text: In 2011 82% of the population of Morocco had access to an

text: improved water source

text: . Specifically, this means that 59% of Moroccans had access to piped water in their house or in the yard of their house. As of 2004, for 11% the main source of water supply was a public stand pipe, for 5.6% it was a protected well. 1.5% of Moroccans, essentially in rural areas, relied on rainwater harvesting as their principal water source. 7% collected water from springs. Half of these springs,  supplying 3.5% of the population, were estimated to be protected. All the above sources are considered as

text: improved water source

text: s by the

text: WHO

text: , thus bringing the total to 82%.

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answers: rainwater harvesting as their principal water source

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The above sources are considered as improved water sources by the WHO

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: rainwater harvesting

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: a protected well

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: improved water sources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 5.6%

text: Phytoremediation was used at Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park to extract and degrade pollutants. Many willows (genus Salix) of various species and life stages are grown in the park. These deciduous plants are tolerant of toxins and pollutants and are hyperaccumulators, making them well-suited to phytoremediation. Willows can phytoremediate silver, chromium, mercury, lead, selenium, zinc and several other heavy metals and organic contaminants. Toxins and pollutants which exist in high concentrations in the soil pose a threat of leaking into water sources and causing health problems if not remedied. Willows were planted in Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park with the goal of having their roots reach the water table to bioaccumulate (via osmosis) these hydrocarbons and other contaminants. Small contaminant molecules such as 1,4-dioxane are evaporated to the atmosphere where ultraviolet light breaks down the compound into harmless chemical. With good management, phytoremediation is an economical, effective and environmental friendly way to quickly remove contaminants in soil and water.

text: Phytoremediation

text: was used at Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park to extract and degrade pollutants. Many willows (

text: genus

text: Salix) of various

text: species

text: and

text: life stages

text: are grown in the park. These

text: deciduous

text: plants are tolerant of

text: toxin

text: s and pollutants and are

text: hyperaccumulators

text: , making them well-suited to phytoremediation. Willows can phytoremediate

text: silver

text: chromium

text: mercury

text: lead

text: selenium

text: zinc

text: and several other

text: heavy metals

text: and

text: organic

text: contaminants. Toxins and pollutants which

text: exist in high concentrations in the soil

text: pose a threat of leaking into water sources and causing health problems if not remedied. Willows were planted in Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park with the goal of having their

text: root

text: s reach the

text: water table

text: to

text: bioaccumulate

text: (via

text: osmosis

text: ) these

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and other contaminants. Small contaminant

text: molecule

text: s such as

text: are evaporated to the

text: atmosphere

text: where

text: ultraviolet

text: light

text: breaks down the compound into harmless chemical. With good management, phytoremediation is an economical, effective and

text: environmental friendly

text: way to quickly remove contaminants in soil and water.

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answers: Toxins and pollutants which exist in high concentrations in the soil pose a threat

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Toxins and pollutants which exist in high concentrations in the soil pose a threat of leaking into water sources

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Greenwich Peninsula

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: the water table

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Toxins

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: environmental friendly

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: The regulatory mechanism in the United States, a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), prescribes the maximum amount of a pollutant (including nutrients) that a body of water can receive while still meeting U.S. Clean Water Act water quality standards. Specifically, Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires each state to generate a TMDL report for each body of water impaired by pollutants. TMDL reports identify pollutant levels and strategies to accomplish pollutant reduction goals. EPA has described TMDLs as establishing a pollutant budget then allocating portions of the overall budget to the pollutant's sources. For many coastal water bodies, the main pollutant issue is excess nutrients, also termed nutrient over-enrichment.A TMDL can prescribe the minimum level of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) available in a body of water, which is directly related to nutrient levels. (See Aquatic Hypoxia.) In 2010, 18 percent of TMDLs nationwide were related to nutrient levels  including organic enrichment/oxygen depletion, noxious plants, algal growth, and ammonia. In Long Island Sound the TMDL development process enabled the Connecticut Department of Environmental  Protection (CTDEP) and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to incorporate a 58.5 percent nitrogen reduction target into a regulatory and legal framework.

text: The regulatory mechanism in the United States, a

text: Total Maximum Daily Load

text: (TMDL), prescribes the maximum amount of a pollutant (including nutrients) that a body of water can receive while still meeting U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: water quality standards. Specifically, Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires each state to generate a TMDL report for each body of water impaired by pollutants. TMDL reports identify pollutant levels and strategies to accomplish pollutant reduction goals. EPA has described TMDLs as establishing a pollutant budget then allocating portions of the overall budget to the pollutant's sources. For many coastal water bodies, the main pollutant issue is excess nutrients, also termed nutrient over-enrichment.A TMDL can prescribe the minimum level of

text: Dissolved Oxygen

text: (DO) available in a body of water, which is directly related to nutrient levels. (See

text: Aquatic Hypoxia

text: .) In 2010, 18 percent of TMDLs nationwide were related to nutrient levels  including organic enrichment/oxygen depletion, noxious plants, algal growth, and ammonia. In

text: Long Island Sound

text: the TMDL development process enabled the Connecticut Department of Environmental  Protection (CTDEP) and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to incorporate a 58.5 percent nitrogen reduction target into a regulatory and legal framework.

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answers: a 58.5 percent nitrogen reduction target into a regulatory and legal framework

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text: The book includes recipes for 239 food dishes, 52 wines or cordials, 21 medicinal remedies, 25 pickles and 38 preserves. Among the sources mentioned are: Lady Drake, Lady Churchill, Lady Holt, Lady Torrington (whose recipe for "orange water" included "2 leaves of gold"), Lady Terret, Lady Chick(h)eley and Lady Fane. Where only initials have been recorded, the source may be a housekeeper; like the Orlebars’ Hannah French. Three men have contributed recipes: Mr Clark – "To make red strake sider"; Captain Rider – "An orange pudding"; and Dr Culpeper – "Dr Stephens' water (for use in childbirth)". Culpeper's recipe was one of many for "Dr Stephens' water" circulating in seventeenth-century texts.

text: The book includes recipes for 239 food dishes, 52 wines or cordials, 21 medicinal remedies, 25 pickles and 38 preserves. Among the sources mentioned are: Lady Drake, Lady Churchill, Lady Holt, Lady Torrington (whose recipe for "orange water" included "2 leaves of gold"), Lady Terret, Lady Chick(h)eley and Lady Fane. Where only initials have been recorded, the source may be a housekeeper; like the Orlebars’ Hannah French. Three men have contributed recipes: Mr Clark – "To make red strake sider"; Captain Rider – "An orange pudding"; and Dr Culpeper – "Dr Stephens' water (for use in childbirth)". Culpeper's recipe was one of many for "Dr Stephens' water" circulating in seventeenth-century texts.

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answers: 52

text: Few sewage treatment facilities were constructed in the late 19th century to treat combined wastewater because of the associated difficulties. There were only 27 U.S. cities with wastewater treatment works by 1892, most of them "treating" wastewater through land application. Of these 27 cities, 26 had separate sanitary and storm water sewer systems, thus facilitating wastewater treatment, because there was no need for large capacitites to accommodate wet weather flows. Furthermore, there was a belief that the diluted combined wastewater was not harmful to receiving waters, due to the natural dilution and self-purifying capacity of rivers, lakes and the sea. In the early 20th century a debate evolved between those who thought it was in the best interest of public health to construct wastewater treatment facilities and those who believed building them was unnecessary. Nevertheless, many cities began to opt for separate sewer systems, creating favorable conditions for adding wastewater treatment plants in the future.

text: Few

text: sewage treatment

text: facilities were constructed in the late 19th century to treat combined wastewater because of the associated difficulties. There were only 27 U.S. cities with wastewater treatment works by 1892, most of them "treating" wastewater through land application. Of these 27 cities, 26 had separate sanitary and storm water sewer systems, thus facilitating wastewater treatment, because there was no need for large capacitites to accommodate wet weather flows. Furthermore, there was a belief that the diluted combined wastewater was not harmful to receiving waters, due to the natural dilution and self-purifying capacity of rivers, lakes and the sea. In the early 20th century a debate evolved between those who thought it was in the best interest of public health to construct wastewater treatment facilities and those who believed building them was unnecessary. Nevertheless, many cities began to opt for separate sewer systems, creating favorable conditions for adding wastewater treatment plants in the future.

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text: Nikša Ranjina's Miscellany is nowadays chiefly mentioned with regard to Menčetić's and Držić's name, which is in fact misleading. Had not Ragusan noblemen compiled his manuscript, their poems would still be known from younger sources. Ranjina's Miscellany is above all an important source of anonymous texts it has preserved and which do not make appearance in other sources. Without it, an insight into the production of smaller poets from the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, not known by name nowadays and probably not all that important, could not have been gained, and that insight is valuable for establishing the type, dynamics and the development of the contemporary Dubrovnik literary life. The miscellany also bears witness of the popularity of the first generation of Dubrovnik love poets, i.e. it is an important evidence of the early spread - almost dominance, of vernacular love lyrics in Dubrovnik. It was obviously at the beginning of the 16th century a well-established phenomenon having developed a series of completely formal conventions.

text: Nikša Ranjina's Miscellany is nowadays chiefly mentioned with regard to Menčetić's and Držić's name, which is in fact misleading. Had not Ragusan noblemen compiled his manuscript, their poems would still be known from younger sources. Ranjina's Miscellany is above all an important source of anonymous texts it has preserved and which do not make appearance in other sources. Without it, an insight into the production of smaller poets from the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, not known by name nowadays and probably not all that important, could not have been gained, and that insight is valuable for establishing the type, dynamics and the development of the contemporary Dubrovnik literary life. The miscellany also bears witness of the popularity of the first generation of Dubrovnik love poets, i.e. it is an important evidence of the early spread - almost dominance, of vernacular love lyrics in Dubrovnik. It was obviously at the beginning of the 16th century a well-established phenomenon having developed a series of completely formal conventions.

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answers: that insight is valuable for establishing the type, dynamics and the development of the contemporary Dubrovnik literary life

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answers: almost dominance

text: 55% of wastewater treatment plants, especially smaller ones, do not meet effluent standards and some do not even measure effluent quality. In analogy to the blue drop certification system for drinking water, the government has launched a green drop certification for municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, 7 out of 159 water supply authorities were certified with the green drop, and 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants. In 2009, when 449 wastewater treatment plants were assessed, according to official government data 7% were classified as excellently managed, 38% "performed within acceptable standards" and 55% did not perform within acceptable standards.

text: 55% of wastewater treatment plants, especially smaller ones, do not meet effluent standards and some do not even measure effluent quality. In analogy to the blue drop certification system for drinking water, the government has launched a green drop certification for municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, 7 out of 159 water supply authorities were certified with the green drop, and 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants. In 2009, when 449 wastewater treatment plants were assessed, according to official government data 7% were classified as excellently managed, 38% "performed within acceptable standards" and 55% did not perform within acceptable standards.

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answers: As of May 2011, 7 out of 159 water supply authorities

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answers: The government has launched a green drop certification for municipal wastewater treatment

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answers: municipal

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answers: wastewater treatment plants

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answers: In analogy to the blue drop certification system for drinking water

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answers: green drop certification

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answers: 55%

text: In view of the limited availability of water resources, water reuse is seen as an important source. In the West Bank, Israel collects wastewater in two facilities in the Jordan Valley. Not only wastewater from Israelis in Jerusalem and settlements is collected, but also from Palestinians. All recycled water is used for irrigation in settlements in the Jordan Valley and northern Dead Sea area.

text: In view of the limited availability of water resources, water reuse is seen as an important source. In the West Bank, Israel collects wastewater in two facilities in the Jordan Valley. Not only wastewater from Israelis in Jerusalem and settlements is collected, but also from Palestinians. All recycled water is used for irrigation in settlements in the Jordan Valley and northern Dead Sea area.

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text: The Olympic Games can affect water quality in the surrounding region in several ways, including water runoff and the transfer of polluting substances from the air to water sources through rainfall. Harmful particulates come from both natural substances (such as plant matter crushed by higher volumes of pedestrian and vehicle traffic) and man-made substances (such as exhaust from vehicles or industry). Contaminants from these two categories lead to elevated amounts of toxins in street dust. Street dust then reaches water sources through runoff, facilitating the transfer of toxins to environments and communities that rely on these water sources. For example, one method of measuring the runoff contamination of water sources involves magnetism. Magnetism measurement systems allow specialists to measure the differences in mineral magnetic parameters in samples of water, air, and vegetation. Unlike traditional methods of measuring pollutants, magnetism is relatively inexpensive, and can identify smaller particle sizes.Another method used to assess the amount and effects of water pollutants is to measure the amount of PM2.5 in rainfall. Measuring PM2.5 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle≤2.5 μm in a given amount of air) is a common metric for assessing air quality. Comparing PM2.5 levels between air and rainfall samples allows scientists to determine the amount of air pollution being transferred to water sources. Pollutants in rainfall quickly and directly affect pollution in groundwater sources. In 2013, researchers in Beijing found a significant relationship between the amount of PM2.5 concentrations in the air and in rainfall. Studies showed that rainfall had a significant “washing” effect on PM2.5 in the air, transferring a large portion of these pollutants from the air to water sources. In this way, Beijing’s notorious air pollution has a direct and significant impact on rainfall, and therefore, on water resources throughout the region.

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answers: The Olympic Games can affect water quality in the surrounding region

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answers: magnetism is relatively inexpensive, and can identify smaller particle sizes

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answers: 100

text: Wastewater treatment. In 2006, 25% of the wastewater generated in the country underwent some kind of treatment. The remaining 75% is discharged without any treatment, contaminating a significant part of the natural water resources.

text: Wastewater treatment. In 2006, 25% of the wastewater generated in the country underwent some kind of treatment. The remaining 75% is discharged without any treatment, contaminating a significant part of the natural water resources.

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answers: The remaining 75% is discharged without any treatment

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answers: 75% is discharged without any treatment

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answers: 75%

text: In February 2005, RUSB acquired a 70% equity stake in RWT, which enabled the company to expand into wastewater and sewerage technology business, particularly in the areas of potable water treatment, wastewater and sewerage treatment as well as process water systems. At the point of acquisition, RWT had a track record of completing water and wastewater treatment projects throughout Asia, notably Malaysia, Thailand and China. Subsequently in 2008, RUSB formed RWT (Cayman) through a joint-venture arrangement with Robinson, a unit of Aqua Resources Fund Limited, through which various water concessions in China previously held under RUSB Group were subsequently held under RWT (Cayman) pursuant to an internal reorganisation. In order to enhance Ranhill’s position as well as reap higher benefits from its potential ventures in China, in June 2014, Ranhill entered into a conditional sale and purchase agreement with RUSB (in conjunction with the Acquisition of RUSB Companies as described in Section 6.1.4 of this Prospectus) for the post-Offering acquisition of the remaining 47.9% equity interest in RWT (Cayman) that Ranhill does not currently own. This acquisition will allow Ranhill to hold 100% equity interest in RWT (Cayman) after the completion of the Offering.

text: In February 2005, RUSB acquired a 70% equity stake in RWT, which enabled the company to expand into wastewater and sewerage technology business, particularly in the areas of potable water treatment, wastewater and sewerage treatment as well as process water systems. At the point of acquisition, RWT had a track record of completing water and wastewater treatment projects throughout Asia, notably Malaysia, Thailand and China. Subsequently in 2008, RUSB formed RWT (Cayman) through a joint-venture arrangement with Robinson, a unit of Aqua Resources Fund Limited, through which various water concessions in China previously held under RUSB Group were subsequently held under RWT (Cayman) pursuant to an internal reorganisation. In order to enhance Ranhill’s position as well as reap higher benefits from its potential ventures in

text: China

text: , in June 2014, Ranhill entered into a conditional sale and purchase agreement with RUSB (in conjunction with the Acquisition of RUSB Companies as described in Section 6.1.4 of this Prospectus) for the post-Offering acquisition of the remaining 47.9% equity interest in RWT (Cayman) that Ranhill does not currently own. This acquisition will allow Ranhill to hold 100% equity interest in RWT (Cayman) after the completion of the Offering.

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answers: Asia, notably Malaysia, Thailand and China

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answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reap higher benefits from its potential ventures in China

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 47.9%

text: The Château's site, including orchard and farm, has seven sources of water. Like most chateaus and mottes, this was likely the main consideration for the location. Wells and water management were important from earlier times as most drinking sources were contaminated, and sufficient water for animals was critical, even in rain-soaked Normandy. Water pollution was a known source of sickness from antiquity onward, although poorly understood.

text: The Château's site, including

text: orchard

text: and farm, has seven sources of water. Like most chateaus and mottes, this was likely the main consideration for the location. Wells and water management were important from earlier times as most drinking sources were contaminated, and sufficient water for animals was critical, even in rain-soaked Normandy. Water pollution was a known source of sickness from antiquity onward, although poorly understood.

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text: The  "living roof" is the largest in Canada and the largest non-industrial living roof in North America. The roof landscape is designed as a self-sustaining grassy habitat characteristic of coastal British Columbia, including 400,000 native plants and 4 colonies of 60,000 bees each which provide honey for the public plaza restaurant. No public access is allowed to the roof, which made it possible to create a fully functional ecosystem with natural drainage and seed migration patterns using the roof's architectural topography. The landscape functionally connects to nearby Stanley Park via a corridor of waterfront parks. Irrigation to the roof is provided by the building's wastewater treatment plant. In the event that the roof irrigation demands exceed the capacity of the wastewater treatment plant, make-up water can be provided by a reverse osmosis desalinization plant drawing and treating seawater pumped from the harbour as well as municipal water through an air gap connection to the storage tanks, as needed.

text: The  "

text: living roof

text: " is the largest in Canada and the largest non-industrial living roof in North America. The roof landscape is designed as a self-sustaining grassy habitat characteristic of coastal British Columbia, including 400,000 native plants and 4 colonies of 60,000 bees each which provide honey for the public plaza restaurant. No public access is allowed to the roof, which made it possible to create a fully functional ecosystem with natural drainage and seed migration patterns using the roof's architectural topography. The landscape functionally connects to nearby

text: Stanley Park

text: via a corridor of waterfront parks. Irrigation to the roof is provided by the building's wastewater treatment plant. In the event that the roof irrigation demands exceed the capacity of the wastewater treatment plant, make-up water can be provided by a reverse osmosis desalinization plant drawing and treating seawater pumped from the harbour as well as municipal water through an air gap connection to the storage tanks, as needed.

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answers: Irrigation

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text: Microcredit for water supply and sanitation is the application of microcredit to provide loans to small enterprises and households in order to increase access to an improved water source and sanitation in developing countries. While most investments in water supply and sanitation infrastructure are financed by the public sector, current investment levels are insufficient to achieve universal access. Commercial credit to public utilities is limited by low tariffs and insufficient cost recovery. Microcredits are a complementary or alternative approach to allow the poor to gain access to water supply and sanitation  Funding is either provided to small-scale independent water providers who generate an income stream from selling water or to households in order to finance house connections, plumbing installations in their houses, or various forms of on-site sanitation such as latrines. Many microfinance institutions still have only limited experience with financing investments in water supply and sanitation. While there have been many pilot projects in both urban and rural areas, just a small number have been scaled up. Individual credits are repaid in part through cost-savings as a result of having a water connection which can significantly lower a family’s average water expenditures, if it previously had to rely on much more expensive water sold by water vendors. Water credits can also generate additional income by spending time for productive purposes that was previously spent fetching water. Investments in sanitation provide health benefits that can also translate into more time available for productive work.

text: Microcredit for water supply and sanitation is the application of

text: microcredit

text: to provide loans to small enterprises and households in order to increase access to an

text: improved water source

text: and

text: sanitation

text: in

text: developing countries

text: . While most investments in water supply and sanitation infrastructure are financed by the public sector, current investment levels are insufficient to achieve universal access. Commercial credit to public utilities is limited by low tariffs and insufficient cost recovery.

text: Microcredits

text: are a complementary or alternative approach to allow the poor to gain access to water supply and sanitation  Funding is either provided to small-scale independent water providers who generate an income stream from selling water or to households in order to finance house connections, plumbing installations in their houses, or various forms of on-site sanitation such as

text: latrine

text: s. Many microfinance institutions still have only limited experience with financing investments in water supply and sanitation. While there have been many

text: pilot project

text: s in both urban and rural areas, just a small number have been scaled up. Individual credits are repaid in part through cost-savings as a result of having a water connection which can significantly lower a family’s average water expenditures, if it previously had to rely on much more expensive water sold by water vendors. Water credits can also generate additional income by spending time for productive purposes that was previously spent fetching water. Investments in sanitation provide health benefits that can also translate into more time available for productive work.

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answers: NDQ_011871

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answers: NDQ_011875

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text: Nigeria's largest city Lagos is surrounded by water from the sea and a lagoon. Its clean water supply in the city is about 81.32%. But since the raw water in the lagoon is too polluted, the city gets its water from Ogun River and Owo River. The city's oldest water treatment plant, located in Iju on the Ogun River, was built in 1910. It was expanded in stages to 45m gallons per day. Another smaller plant was built at Ishashi on the Owo River in the 1970s. The biggest plant so far was commissioned in 1991 in Adiyan with a capacity of 70m gallons per day. It also draws from the Owo River. There are also seven mini-waterworks drawing from local sources with a combined capacity of 18m gallons per day. The Lagos Water Corporation states that the water produced in the plant meets the highest standards, and that it supplies "safe drinking water in sufficient and regular quantity to over 12.5 million people in Lagos State". However, water is often contaminated in the distribution network and people distrust tap water quality. Electricity supply interruptions prevent treatment plants from operating continuously. However, a dedicated 12.15 MW power plant was under construction in 2012 to supply power to the Adiyan, Iju and Akute water treatment plants.Households also source water from numerous private shallow wells. Or households rely on street vendors, creating a thriving market for “sachet water”, purified water packaged in polyethylene pouches. Water vendors called Mairuwa sell water from tanks and drums on carts, which is sometimes sold to other vendors that carry water in buckets or gerry cans. Access to water provided by the state Water Corporation is 'metropocentric' i.e., centred around the metropolis.

text: Nigeria's largest city Lagos is surrounded by water from the sea and a lagoon. Its clean water supply in the city is about 81.32%. But since the raw water in the lagoon is too polluted, the city gets its water from

text: Ogun River

text: and

text: Owo River

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answers: 0: The answer is not relevant or complete at all.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: Electricity supply interruptions prevent treatment plants from operating continuously

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: water is often contaminated in the distribution network and people distrust tap water quality

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: seven mini-waterworks

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: water from the sea and a lagoon

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Lagos Water Corporation

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: safe drinking water in sufficient and regular quantity

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 81.32%

text: The Julington-Durbin Preserve is a 2,031-acre nature preserve operated by the St. Johns River Water Management District in Duval County, Florida. The preserve shares the name of the two creeks that border the preserve and connect to the St. Johns River.  Julington Creek is on the north side of the preserve, and Durbin Creek is to the south.  The preserve has three designated hiking trails.  Recreational activities include picnicking, horseback riding, bicycling, and hiking.

text: The Julington-Durbin Preserve is a 2,031-acre

text: nature preserve

text: operated by the

entity_name: St. Johns River Water Management District

text: St. Johns River Water Management District

text: in

text: Duval County, Florida

text: . The preserve shares the name of the two creeks that border the preserve and connect to the

text: St. Johns River

text: Julington Creek

text: is on the north side of the preserve, and

text: Durbin Creek

text: is to the south.  The preserve has three designated hiking trails.  Recreational activities include picnicking, horseback riding, bicycling, and hiking.

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answers: St. Johns River Water Management District

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answers: Water Management District

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answers: Recreational activities

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answers: 99

text: Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct studies on hazardous-waste management to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems. They address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

text: Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct studies on hazardous-

text: waste management

text: to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers design

text: municipal water supply

text: and

text: industrial wastewater treatment

text: systems. They address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of

text: acid rain

text: global warming

text: ozone depletion

text: , water pollution and air pollution from

text: automobile exhausts

text: and

entity_name: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

text: industrial sources

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text: There is also a pilot project for small-scale reuse of treated wastewater in rural areas in Outapi in Northern Namibia as part of the CuveWaters research project. The wastewater of 1,500 people is collected in vacuum sewers and treated in such a way that pathogens are removed, but nutrients remain to a large extent in the water. The technology is relatively sophisticated for a rural area in a developing country, using upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion followed by aerobic treatment using a rotating biological contactor, a microsieve and ultraviolet disinfection. The water is then used to irrigate vegetables for the local market. Community members have been trained in how to operate the facilities and a tariff and billing system has been introduced to recover the operating costs of the plant from users.

text: There is also a pilot project for small-scale reuse of treated wastewater in rural areas in

text: Outapi

text: in Northern Namibia as part of the CuveWaters research project. The wastewater of 1,500 people is collected in

text: vacuum sewer

text: s and treated in such a way that pathogens are removed, but nutrients remain to a large extent in the water. The technology is relatively sophisticated for a rural area in a developing country, using

text: upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion

text: followed by aerobic treatment using a

text: rotating biological contactor

text: , a microsieve and

text: ultraviolet disinfection

text: . The water is then used to irrigate vegetables for the local market. Community members have been trained in how to operate the facilities and a tariff and billing system has been introduced to recover the operating costs of the plant from users.

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answers: The water is then used to irrigate vegetables for the local market

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answers: 100

text: In addition, positive feng shui associations with water and the colours red and gold make these fishes popular for aquaria. One belief is that while water is a place where chi gathers, it is naturally a source of yin energy and must contain an "auspicious" fish such as an arowana to have balancing yang energy. Another is that a fish can preserve its owner from death by dying itself.

text: In addition, positive

text: feng shui

text: associations with water and the colours red and gold make these fishes popular for aquaria. One belief is that while water is a place where

text: chi

text: gathers, it is naturally a source of

text: yin

text: energy and must contain an "auspicious" fish such as an arowana to have balancing yang energy. Another is that a fish can preserve its owner from death by dying itself.

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text: Treatment of wastewater and wash water by EC has been practiced for most of the 20th century with increasing popularity. In the last decade, this technology has been increasingly used in the United States, South America and Europe for treatment of industrial wastewater containing metals. It has also been noted that in North America EC has been used primarily to treat wastewater from pulp and paper industries, mining and metal-processing industries. A large one-thousand gallon per minute cooling tower application in El Paso, Texas illustrates electrocoagulations growing recognition and acceptance to the industrial community. In addition, EC has been applied to treat water containing foodstuff waste, oil wastes, dyes, output from public transit and marinas, wash water, ink, suspended particles, chemical and mechanical polishing waste, organic matter from landfill leachates, defluorination of water, synthetic detergent effluents, and solutions containing heavy metals.

text: Treatment of wastewater and wash water by EC has been practiced for most of the 20th century with increasing popularity. In the last decade, this technology has been increasingly used in the United States, South America and Europe for treatment of industrial wastewater containing metals. It has also been noted that in North America EC has been used primarily to treat wastewater from

text: pulp and paper

text: industries,

text: mining

text: and

text: metal-processing

text: industries. A large one-thousand gallon per minute cooling tower application in El Paso, Texas illustrates electrocoagulations growing recognition and acceptance to the industrial community. In addition, EC has been applied to treat water containing

text: foodstuff

text: waste, oil wastes, dyes, output from public transit and marinas, wash water, ink,

text: suspended particles

text: , chemical and mechanical polishing waste, organic matter from

text: landfill

text: leachate

text: s,

text: defluorination

text: of water, synthetic detergent effluents, and solutions containing heavy metals.

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

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text: Yet, Rogers' struggle to preserve the Mill Creek gorge was hardly over. He battled continuous efforts by various interest groups to employ the park for purposes other than those he intended. In one instance, the Rogers brothers successfully rolled back a push by local water works trustees to use Mill Creek as a source of water supply. According to one account, this was achieved "by going through the park and nailing boards on the trees showing where the water level would be if dams were built to provide the water".

text: Yet, Rogers' struggle to preserve the Mill Creek gorge was hardly over. He battled continuous efforts by various interest groups to employ the park for purposes other than those he intended. In one instance, the Rogers brothers successfully rolled back a push by local water works trustees to use Mill Creek as a source of water supply. According to one account, this was achieved "by going through the park and nailing boards on the trees showing where the water level would be if dams were built to provide the water".

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text: Non-point source (NPS) pollution includes both water and air pollution from diffuse sources. Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution. Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location.

text: Non-point source (NPS) pollution includes both

text: water

text: and

text: air pollution

text: from diffuse sources. Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted

text: runoff

text: from

text: agricultural

text: areas draining into a river, or wind-borne

text: debris

text: blowing out to sea. Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as

text: smokestack

text: s or car

text: tailpipe

text: s. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution. Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with

text: point source pollution

text: , where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location.

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answers: agricultural areas

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answers: sea

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answers: Non-point source

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: long-range transport ability

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: point source

text: Regardless of the location of water, and whether or not a water resource is shared, it asserts the right of every individual to equally access water to sustain life without discrimination, even in times of war. It requires states to enable their citizens to participate in decisions affecting water access by providing reasonable information about the water resource and plans impacting it. It also mandates the compensation of those who are displaced in the interests of securing water preservation. It requires that nations be mindful of the environmental factors that affect water resources and preserve them appropriately, such as by preventing water pollution and preserving native ecosystems, even if they are occupying foreign territory during a time of war. It requires appropriate measures to address flooding and drought, both in communicating quickly about these to nations sharing a water resource and in working to eliminate or prevent harm to a water resource and the population dependent on it.

text: Regardless of the location of water, and whether or not a water resource is shared, it asserts the right of every individual to equally access water to sustain life without discrimination, even in times of war. It requires states to enable their citizens to participate in decisions affecting water access by providing reasonable information about the water resource and plans impacting it. It also mandates the compensation of those who are displaced in the interests of securing water preservation. It requires that nations be mindful of the environmental factors that affect water resources and preserve them appropriately, such as by preventing

text: water pollution

text: and preserving native

text: ecosystem

text: s, even if they are occupying foreign territory during a time of war. It requires appropriate measures to address

text: flooding

text: and

text: drought

text: , both in communicating quickly about these to nations sharing a water resource and in working to eliminate or prevent harm to a water resource and the population dependent on it.

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answers: It requires appropriate measures to address flooding and drought

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answers: is shared

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answers: requires states to enable their citizens to participate in decisions affecting water access

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answers: preventing water pollution and preserving native ecosystems

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answers: 100

text: Sustainable water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of  contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of social policies such as water pricing in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the Maori believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water.  On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and ground waters.

text: Sustainable

text: water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of  contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of

text: social policies

text: such as

text: water pricing

text: in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the

text: Maori

text: believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water.  On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and

text: ground water

text: s.

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answers: sustainable water use

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answers: On a national and global scale

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: surface waters

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answers: surface waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Sustainable water use

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: environmental and economic impact

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: clean water

text: The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells. The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to these metals. In open pond systems the use of strains of algae that can deal with high concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these systems. In some instances it has even been shown that strains of algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively short periods of time.

text: The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells. The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to these metals. In open pond systems the use of strains of algae that can deal with high concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these systems. In some instances it has even been shown that strains of algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively short periods of time.

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answers: depletion

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answers: depletion of freshwater resources

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: industrial

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: freshwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: the continuing depletion of freshwater resources

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 90%

text: The river is notorious for being heavily polluted. Reported to be crystal clear in 1875, the industrialization of Silesia caused the river to become so polluted that all the fish died out by 1893. The continued growth of industry and cities throughout the 20th century, combined with little effort towards preserving the environment, continued to degrade the quality of the water in the river. In 1992, the river, leaving Katowice, was claimed to contain only 14% water, and a popular joke among the local citizens was to warn each other 'not to throw a lit match into the river'. Currently the upper part of the river is officially classified as sewage and the plan is to direct the entire river flow through a treatment plant. In the 1990s plans to improve water quality and restore the ecology of the river were begun. So far new sewage treatment plants have been completed, and the plan is supposed to significantly improve the river's quality by 2010.

text: The river is notorious for being heavily polluted. Reported to be crystal clear in 1875, the

text: industrialization

text: of

text: Silesia

text: caused the river to become so polluted that all the fish died out by 1893. The continued growth of industry and cities throughout the 20th century, combined with little effort towards preserving the environment, continued to degrade the quality of the water in the river. In 1992, the river, leaving Katowice, was claimed to contain only 14% water, and a popular joke among the local citizens was to warn each other 'not to throw a lit match into the river'. Currently the upper part of the river is officially classified as sewage and the plan is to direct the entire river flow through a treatment plant. In the 1990s plans to improve water quality and restore the ecology of the river were begun. So far new sewage treatment plants have been completed, and the plan is supposed to significantly improve the river's quality by 2010.

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answers: In 1992, the river, leaving Katowice, was claimed to contain only 14% water

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answers: The continued growth of industry and cities

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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text: Sanitation practices in rural Cambodia are often primitive. The water supply is the main problem; rivers and streams are common sources of drinking water and of water for cooking. These water sources are often the same ones used for bathing, washing clothes, and disposing of waste products. Adequate sewage disposal is nonexistent in most rural and suburban areas.

text: Sanitation practices in rural Cambodia are often primitive. The water supply is the main problem; rivers and streams are common sources of drinking water and of water for cooking. These water sources are often the same ones used for bathing, washing clothes, and disposing of waste products. Adequate sewage disposal is nonexistent in most rural and suburban areas.

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answers: rivers and streams

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answers: 100

text: They are critical natural resources that are preserved and protected, such as water sources and important forest areas.

text: They are critical natural resources that are preserved and protected, such as water sources and important forest areas.

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answers: preserved and protected

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answers: water sources

text: In 1822, Jean-Baptiste Jollois, one of the founding fathers of archaeology in the region, carried out excavations on the so-called "fontaine de l'Étuvée", an ancient water-source which he artificially drained to rediscover if it could still supply the town's public water fountains.  In a former cesspit, he found a roughly square (0.6m by 0.55m) stone tablet with a well-preserved votive inscription, datable by its style to the 2nd century.  It reads:

text: In 1822,

text: Jean-Baptiste Jollois

text: , one of the founding fathers of archaeology in the region, carried out excavations on the so-called "fontaine de l'Étuvée", an ancient water-source which he artificially drained to rediscover if it could still supply the town's public water fountains.  In a former cesspit, he found a roughly square (0.6m by 0.55m) stone tablet with a well-preserved votive inscription, datable by its style to the 2nd century.  It reads:

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answers: artificially drained to rediscover if it could still supply the town's public water fountains

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answers: water shortages in many places of the planet

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answers: cesspit

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answers: water

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answers: Clean Water Act

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answers: supply the town's public water fountains

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answers: 100

text: Bioaccumulation is the process by which an organism takes in chemicals through ingestion, exposure, and inhalation. Bioaccumulation is broken down into bioconcentration (uptake of chemicals from just water) and biomagnification (uptake of chemicals from a food source). Certain species of aquatic organisms are affected differently from the chemicals released from creosote preservatives. One of the more studied organisms is a mollusk. Mollusks attach to the wooden, marine pilings and are in direct contact with the creosote preservatives. Many studies have been conducted using Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: Bioaccumulation

text: is the process by which an organism takes in chemicals through ingestion, exposure, and inhalation. Bioaccumulation is broken down into bioconcentration (uptake of chemicals from just water) and biomagnification (uptake of chemicals from a food source). Certain species of aquatic organisms are affected differently from the chemicals released from creosote preservatives. One of the more studied organisms is a mollusk. Mollusks attach to the wooden, marine pilings and are in direct contact with the creosote preservatives. Many studies have been conducted using

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

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answers: The supply of fresh water could run out

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answers: Bioaccumulation is the process by which an organism takes in chemicals from just water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: creosote

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: aquatic

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Bioaccumulation

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: bioaccumulation (uptake of chemicals from just water)

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Wastewater is applied by drop by drop over an organic filter packing, normally sawdust, shredded food, shredded branches or, in particular cases, vermicompost. Vermifilters should have an organic packing and an inert section – made usually with a layer of quartz sand and a layer of gravel. Construction waste could also be used in substitution of gravel.  Also, recycle plastic sawdust can be a good substitute for quartz sand. A stainless steel mesh or a geotextile fiber (or both) should separate physically these layers from each other.The structure has also an equalizer, where the treated wastewater is collected and recirculated. This structure could be installed within the system or separately, but always be installed on the bottom.A vermifilter can me made or assembled in PVC, PP, HDPE, bricks, cement blocks or even concrete. Typical household vermifilters are made usually by reusing PVC containers even if concrete rings could also be used.Sustainability is a core aspect when sizing vermifiltration reactors. When treating domestic wastewater, it is always to reuse materials rather than use raw materials. Consequently, in filter packing, quartz sand and gravel are usually substituted by recycled plastic sawdust and ceramic waste, respectively. As in wormcomposting – which does not require too much raw materials to make wormeries or vermidigesters, this is one of the advantages of sizing vermifilters. In the context of urban and agroindustrial wastewater treatment, vermifilters are normally made with bricks, cement blocks or concrete.

text: Wastewater is applied by drop by drop over an organic filter packing, normally sawdust, shredded food, shredded branches or, in particular cases, vermicompost. Vermifilters should have an organic packing and an inert section – made usually with a layer of quartz sand and a layer of gravel. Construction waste could also be used in substitution of gravel.  Also, recycle plastic sawdust can be a good substitute for quartz sand. A stainless steel mesh or a geotextile fiber (or both) should separate physically these layers from each other.The structure has also an equalizer, where the treated wastewater is collected and recirculated. This structure could be installed within the system or separately, but always be installed on the bottom.A vermifilter can me made or assembled in

text: PVC

text: PP

text: HDPE

text: , bricks, cement blocks or even concrete. Typical household vermifilters are made usually by reusing

text: PVC

text: containers even if concrete rings could also be used.Sustainability is a core aspect when sizing vermifiltration reactors. When treating

text: domestic wastewater

text: , it is always to reuse materials rather than use raw materials. Consequently, in filter packing, quartz sand and gravel are usually substituted by recycled plastic sawdust and ceramic waste, respectively. As in wormcomposting – which does not require too much raw materials to make wormeries or

text: vermidigester

text: s, this is one of the advantages of sizing vermifilters. In the context of urban and agroindustrial wastewater treatment, vermifilters are normally made with bricks, cement blocks or concrete.

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answers: 5: The answer is highly relevant, complete, and accurate.

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answers: The structure has also an equalizer, where the treated wastewater is collected and recirculated

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Urban and agroindustrial wastewater treatment, vermifilters are normally made with bricks, cement blocks or concrete

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: vermifilters

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Vermifilters

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: does not require too much raw materials

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Watershed Needs Survey provides a comprehensive assessment of the capital costs needs to meat the water quality goals of the clean water act and collects data from:•	All Publicly owned wastewater collection and treatment facilities•	Stormwater and combined sewer overflow facilities •	Some non-point source projects•	Decentralized wastewater management projects

text: Watershed Needs Survey provides a comprehensive assessment of the capital costs needs to meat the water quality goals of the clean water act and collects data from:•	All Publicly owned wastewater collection and treatment facilities•	Stormwater and combined sewer overflow facilities •	Some non-point source projects•	Decentralized wastewater management projects

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracy.

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answers: All Publicly owned wastewater collection and treatment facilities

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The clean water act

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: non-point source projects

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: All Publicly owned

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Watershed Needs Survey

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: capital costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Some

text: The ways to deal with groundwater pollution that has already occurred can be grouped into the following categories: containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further; removing the pollutants from the aquifer; remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ); treating the groundwater at its point of use; or abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.

text: The ways to deal with groundwater pollution that has already occurred can be grouped into the following categories: containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further; removing the pollutants from the aquifer; remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ); treating the groundwater at its point of use; or abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.

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answers: abandoning the use

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: groundwater pollution

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answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: groundwater pollution that has already occurred

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: prevent them from migrating further

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: groundwater

text: They carried enough water for a few weeks and after that they had to rely on rain water, collected in buckets. Clearing the logs of seaweed and slime became one of the essential daily tasks. The rafts were stocked with rice, beans and some preserves, but the main food source was seafood caught on the way - tuna, mahi-mahi and small pilot fish. Fish was abundant in the water surrounding the rafts, once a localised marine food chain had been established, with barnacles attached to the raft at the bottom of the chain. Twice the crew had to kill sharks, as they were scaring food away, while on another occasion one raft was pulled around as an unnoticed hammerhead shark took some bait on a line. The subject of food became a fixation for the crew. In the hot weather each man had to drink a pint of sea water each day to compensate for the lack of salt from dehydration. Each raft had a short range radio for use in emergency and enabled them to contact land every third day.

text: They carried enough water for a few weeks and after that they had to rely on rain water, collected in buckets. Clearing the logs of seaweed and slime became one of the essential daily tasks. The rafts were stocked with rice, beans and some preserves, but the main food source was seafood caught on the way - tuna,

text: mahi-mahi

text: and small pilot fish. Fish was abundant in the water surrounding the rafts, once a localised marine food chain had been established, with barnacles attached to the raft at the bottom of the chain. Twice the crew had to kill sharks, as they were scaring food away, while on another occasion one raft was pulled around as an unnoticed hammerhead shark took some bait on a line. The subject of food became a fixation for the crew. In the hot weather each man had to drink a pint of sea water each day to compensate for the lack of salt from

text: dehydration

text: . Each raft had a short range radio for use in emergency and enabled them to contact land every third day.

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text: The most important river in terms of drinking water supply is the still relatively unpolluted Chaobai River in the East. It is impounded by the Miyun Dam. The Miyun Reservoir provides water to Beijing over a distance of 95 kilometer, initially through an open canal that brings the water to the Huairou Reservoir and then through a ductile iron pipe and three steel pipes to Beijing. The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution. The Miyun Reservoir is the city’s largest single source of water. It also provides water for Beijing’s numerous lakes that used to be fed by springs that now have dried up. The dam used to also provide water for agriculture, but in 1981 the government decided that its water would only be used for domestic water supply. In 1986 the first plant in Beijing to treat surface water, the 9th water treatment plant, was established to treat water from the Miyun reservoir. As of 2009, it was Asia's largest water treatment plant with a capacity of 1.5 million cubic meters per day (0.55 billion cubic meters per year). While the plant was designed as a surface water treatment plant, when surface water is scarce groundwater is also treated in the same plant. Because of the higher salinity of groundwater and the hardness of surface water this leads to problems in the treatment process, causing limescale and the clogging of pipes.

text: The most important river in terms of drinking water supply is the still relatively unpolluted

text: Chaobai River

text: in the East. It is impounded by the Miyun Dam. The Miyun Reservoir provides water to Beijing over a distance of 95 kilometer, initially through an open canal that brings the water to the Huairou Reservoir and then through a ductile iron pipe and three steel pipes to Beijing. The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution. The Miyun Reservoir is the city’s largest single source of water. It also provides water for Beijing’s numerous lakes that used to be fed by springs that now have dried up. The dam used to also provide water for agriculture, but in 1981 the government decided that its water would only be used for domestic water supply. In 1986 the first plant in Beijing to treat surface water, the 9th water treatment plant, was established to treat water from the Miyun reservoir. As of 2009, it was Asia's largest water treatment plant with a capacity of 1.5 million cubic meters per day (0.55 billion cubic meters per year). While the plant was designed as a surface water treatment plant, when surface water is scarce groundwater is also treated in the same plant. Because of the higher salinity of groundwater and the hardness of surface water this leads to problems in the treatment process, causing

text: limescale

text: and the clogging of pipes.

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answers: The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution

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answers: The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution

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answers: surface water

text: The reuse of treated wastewater is still a novel concept in Brazil due to absence of a proper legal framework. Only 2 percent of companies reuse treated wastewater, despite the fact that it costs only 8 percent of the conventional rate (though transport costs can be significantly higher from the wastewater treatment plant to the company). In 1997 the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT) defined instructions and parameters (NBR 13969) for wastewater reuse, including the level of treatment required based on the reuse activities. Federal Resolution 54/2005 of the National Council of Water Resources states that direct non-potable treated wastewater can be used in landscape irrigation, washing public streets, fire fighting, agricultural production, industrial activities and environmental projects. Currently a draft resolution is under consideration by the São Paulo Secretariats of Health, Environment, and Water Supply, Sanitation and Energy on urban wastewater reuse; however, as of 2009 the State had no legal framework on this issue. Only the municipality of São Paulo, within the MRSP, had issued its own regulations mandating the use of reused water for the washing of streets, sidewalks and plazas and irrigating parks, gardens and sports fields. In November 2012 Sabesp and Foz Brazil, a subsidiary of the conglomerate Odebrecht, inaugurated the largest industrial water reuse project in Brazil, Aquapolo Ambiental. It provides 1 cubic meter per second to the petrochemical complex Capuava in Mauá in the eastern part of the metropolitan region through a 17 km pipeline. The cost of the reclaimed water is lower than drinking water, and drinking water that was used at the complex is now made available for municipal use.

text: The reuse of treated wastewater is still a novel concept in Brazil due to absence of a proper legal framework. Only 2 percent of companies reuse treated wastewater, despite the fact that it costs only 8 percent of the conventional rate (though transport costs can be significantly higher from the wastewater treatment plant to the company). In 1997 the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT) defined instructions and parameters (NBR 13969) for wastewater reuse, including the level of treatment required based on the reuse activities. Federal Resolution 54/2005 of the National Council of Water Resources states that direct non-potable treated wastewater can be used in landscape irrigation, washing public streets, fire fighting, agricultural production, industrial activities and environmental projects. Currently a draft resolution is under consideration by the São Paulo Secretariats of Health, Environment, and Water Supply, Sanitation and Energy on urban wastewater reuse; however, as of 2009 the State had no legal framework on this issue. Only the municipality of São Paulo, within the MRSP, had issued its own regulations mandating the use of reused water for the washing of streets, sidewalks and plazas and irrigating parks, gardens and sports fields. In November 2012 Sabesp and Foz Brazil, a subsidiary of the conglomerate

text: Odebrecht

text: , inaugurated the largest industrial water reuse project in Brazil, Aquapolo Ambiental. It provides 1 cubic meter per second to the petrochemical complex Capuava in

text: Mauá

text: in the eastern part of the metropolitan region through a 17 km pipeline. The cost of the reclaimed water is lower than drinking water, and drinking water that was used at the complex is now made available for municipal use.

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text: The objective is to prevent water pollution by managing and monitoring the quality of discharged water, while inducing each business to make efforts for production process improvement by analyzing and managing water pollution levels. A reasonable and objective effluent charge is determined in order to improve policy credibility by identifying the exact pollution level for each period of time. Technical support and consultation for the establishment of control methods for the pollutants discharged by a business are provided, through the continuous assessment and analysis of the pollution level by the remote control of water quality.

text: The objective is to prevent water pollution by managing and monitoring the quality of discharged water, while inducing each business to make efforts for production process improvement by analyzing and managing water pollution levels. A reasonable and objective effluent charge is determined in order to improve policy credibility by identifying the exact pollution level for each period of time. Technical support and consultation for the establishment of control methods for the pollutants discharged by a business are provided, through the continuous assessment and analysis of the pollution level by the remote control of water quality.

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answers: The objective is to prevent water pollution

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answers: water pollution levels

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answers: a business

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answers: pollution levels

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answers: prevent water pollution by managing and monitoring the quality of discharged water

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: policy credibility by identifying the exact pollution level

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Concerning wastewater tariffs, in some countries such as Egypt there is no wastewater tariff at all. In other countries - such as Mexico, Turkey, Belgium, Portugal and Korea - wastewater tariffs are low relative to water tariffs. Finally, in many OECD countries - such as in Australia, Germany, Italy, the UK and the US - wastewater tariffs are now higher than water tariffs, reflecting increasing cost recovery rates and an increase in the prevalence of wastewater treatment.

text: Concerning wastewater tariffs, in some countries such as

text: Egypt

text: there is no wastewater tariff at all. In other countries - such as Mexico, Turkey, Belgium, Portugal and Korea - wastewater tariffs are low relative to water tariffs. Finally, in many OECD countries - such as in Australia, Germany, Italy, the UK and the US - wastewater tariffs are now higher than water tariffs, reflecting increasing cost recovery rates and an increase in the prevalence of wastewater treatment.

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answers: wastewater tariffs are now higher than water tariffs

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answers: wastewater tariffs are now higher than water tariffs

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Egypt

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: cost recovery rates

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text: A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada’s assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission.  In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a  zone.  In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada."  However the agreement did not alter either country’s basic legal position.  Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to.  In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.

text: A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the

text: Northwest Passage

text: (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada’s assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker

text: Polar Sea

text: in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission.  In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a  zone.  In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada."  However the agreement did not alter either country’s basic legal position.  Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to.  In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: The Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic)

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: oil tanker Manhattan

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: international waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: pollution within a zone

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 99

text: Because the source of lead and copper is generally the customer-owned piping (bronze and brass faucets, copper pipe, solder) rather than any part of the water supplier's plumbing, equipment, or even the original source of water, the Lead and Copper Rule is quite unlike any of the other provisions of the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. To some extent, the water supplier is made responsible for the quality of water sampled at pipes and locations completely out of the supplier's control. The most unusual features of the rule follow from this difference.

text: Because the source of lead and copper is generally the customer-owned piping (bronze and brass faucets, copper pipe, solder) rather than any part of the water supplier's plumbing, equipment, or even the original source of water, the Lead and Copper Rule is quite unlike any of the other provisions of the

entity_section: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations

text: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations

text: . To some extent, the water supplier is made responsible for the quality of water sampled at pipes and locations completely out of the supplier's control. The most unusual features of the rule follow from this difference.

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answers: the source of lead and copper is generally the customer-owned piping

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The source of lead and copper is generally the customer-owned piping

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: customer-owned piping

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Primary Drinking Water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: The most unusual features of the rule follow from this difference

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: lead and copper

text: Planned reuse of reclaimed water from Greater Irbid in the Jordan Valley. A major water reuse project is being planned to reuse water from three wastewater treatment plants in the area of Irbid in the North of Jordan through a project supported in the framework of Jordanian-German cooperation. As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater from these plants was being reused. An explanation for this is that farmers in the Jordan Valley are reluctant to use the reclaimed water, which they perceive to be of poor quality, for irrigation. The wastewater thus flows into the Jordan River, unused. In the future, the treated effluent from the three plants will flow through a pipe into the Jordan Valley, generating hydropower from the elevation differential of more than 1,000m. It will then be mixed with freshwater and delivered to the farmers in a quality that is acceptable to them.

text: Planned reuse of reclaimed water from Greater Irbid in the Jordan Valley. A major water reuse project is being planned to reuse water from three wastewater treatment plants in the area of

text: Irbid

text: in the North of Jordan through a project supported in the framework of Jordanian-German cooperation. As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater from these plants was being reused. An explanation for this is that farmers in the Jordan Valley are reluctant to use the reclaimed water, which they perceive to be of poor quality, for irrigation. The wastewater thus flows into the Jordan River, unused. In the future, the treated effluent from the three plants will flow through a pipe into the Jordan Valley, generating hydropower from the elevation differential of more than 1,000m. It will then be mixed with freshwater and delivered to the farmers in a quality that is acceptable to them.

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answers: Jordan River

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater from these plants was being reused

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Irbid

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: freshwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: generating hydropower

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 14%

text: Estimating the number of people with access to safe drinking water in a developing country is a challenging task. Since drinking water quality is typically not tested regularly for a representative sample of households through the entire country, there are no reliable data on the share of drinking water that is safe. National household surveys typically ask questions about the type of water source used. House connections, yard connections, standpipes and handpumps that are located within 1 km are classified as what is called an improved water source. Open wells, unprotected springs, rivers, lakes and ponds are not considered improved water sources.

text: Estimating the number of people with access to safe drinking water in a developing country is a challenging task. Since drinking water quality is typically not tested regularly for a representative sample of households through the entire country, there are no reliable data on the share of drinking water that is safe. National household surveys typically ask questions about the type of water source used. House connections, yard connections, standpipes and handpumps that are located within 1 km are classified as what is called an

text: improved water source

text: . Open wells, unprotected springs, rivers, lakes and ponds are not considered improved water sources.

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: safe

text: The Bitter Springs preservational mode is the preservation of microorganisms in silica, in shallow Precambrian waters.

text: The Bitter Springs preservational mode is the preservation of microorganisms in

text: silica

text: , in shallow

text: Precambrian

text: waters.

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answers: Precambrian waters

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Precambrian waters

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: shallow Precambrian waters

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Precambrian waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preservation of microorganisms in silica

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0.1

text: Biofilms, which are biological growths that become attached to the discs, assimilate the organic materials in the wastewater. Aeration is provided by the rotating action, which exposes the media to the air after contacting them with the wastewater, facilitating the degradation of the pollutants being removed. The degree of wastewater treatment is related to the amount of media surface area and the quality and volume of the inflowing wastewater.

text: Biofilms

text: , which are biological growths that become attached to the discs, assimilate the organic materials in the wastewater.

text: Aeration

text: is provided by the rotating action, which exposes the media to the air after contacting them with the wastewater, facilitating the degradation of the pollutants being removed. The degree of wastewater treatment is related to the amount of media surface area and the quality and volume of the inflowing wastewater.

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answers: Biofilms, which are biological growths that become attached to the discs

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Biofilms, which are biological growths that become attached to the discs, assimilate the organic materials

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Biofilms

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Biofilms, which are biological growths that become attached to the discs

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: facilitating the degradation of the pollutants being removed

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 9

text: A representative example of DPR is the case of Windhoek (Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)) (1969), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 40 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i.e. pre-ozonation, enhanced coagulation/dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent ozone, biological activated carbon/granular activated carbon, ultrafiltration (UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. Since the year 1968 the capital of Namibia, Windhoek, has used reclaimed wastewater as one of their drinking water sources, which nowadays represent about 14% of the city’s drinking water production. In 2001, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) was built by the City of Windhoek and it started to deliver drinking water in 2002 (about 21,000 m of water per day).

text: A representative example of DPR is the case of

text: Windhoek

text: (Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)) (1969), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 40 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i.e. pre-ozonation, enhanced

text: coagulation

text: /dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent

text: ozone

text: , biological activated carbon/granular

text: activated carbon

text: ultrafiltration

text: (UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. Since the year 1968 the capital of Namibia, Windhoek, has used reclaimed wastewater as one of their drinking water sources, which nowadays represent about 14% of the city’s drinking water production. In 2001, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) was built by the City of Windhoek and it started to deliver drinking water in 2002 (about 21,000 m of water per day).

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answers: 21,000 m of water per day

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answers: Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)

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answers: 21,000 m

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: reduce associated risks and improve the water quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 14%

text: About 60 different plant families contain succulents. In some families, such as Cactaceae, Agavoideae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae, most plants are succulents. The habitats of these water preserving plants are often in areas with high temperatures and low rainfall. Succulents have the ability to thrive on limited water sources, such as mist and dew, which makes them equipped to survive in an ecosystem which contains scarce water sources.

text: About 60 different plant families contain succulents. In some families, such as

text: Cactaceae

text: Agavoideae

text: Aizoaceae

text: , and

text: Crassulaceae

text: , most plants are succulents. The habitats of these water preserving plants are often in areas with high temperatures and low rainfall. Succulents have the ability to thrive on limited water sources, such as mist and dew, which makes them equipped to survive in an ecosystem which contains scarce water sources.

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text: Fiji Water bottles water from Fiji and ships it overseas. Fiji Water is sourced from Yaqara, Viti Levu. Viti Levu is the largest island of Fiji.

text: Fiji Water bottles water from Fiji and ships it overseas. Fiji Water is sourced from Yaqara, Viti Levu. Viti Levu is the largest island of

text: Fiji

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text: The World Bank has supported the Lebanese water and sanitation sector since 1993 when it approved an Emergency Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Project. With the help of the project water systems in 97 communities were rehabilitated or built, as were 98 small sewerage systems. After the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, 5 additional water and sewerage systems were rehabilitated benefiting 140 communities. The project also rehabilitated or expanded three large water productions and distribution systems and wastewater treatment plants Baalbek, Metn and Barouk. Because complementary works, to be financed by other sources, had not been completed on time, these facilities were inoperative as of 2006. In particular, the Baalbek wastewater treatment plant (13,000 m3/day capacity), completed in early 2002, was not connected to the sewerage system. The World Bank continued to support water supply and sanitation in Baalbek through a US$43.5m loan approved in 2002. This was followed by a US$15m emergency grant in 2007 to support the rehabilitation and expansion of water supply systems in five villages in the Western Bekaa Valley. In December 2010, the World Bank approved a US$200m loan to support the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project. The World Bank had to cancel a previous loan for submarine treated wastewater outfalls in Kesrouan and Sour approved in 1998 after the government had not ratified the corresponding loan agreements.

text: The

text: World Bank

text: has supported the Lebanese water and sanitation sector since 1993 when it approved an Emergency Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Project. With the help of the project water systems in 97 communities were rehabilitated or built, as were 98 small sewerage systems. After the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, 5 additional water and sewerage systems were rehabilitated benefiting 140 communities. The project also rehabilitated or expanded three large water productions and distribution systems and wastewater treatment plants Baalbek, Metn and Barouk. Because complementary works, to be financed by other sources, had not been completed on time, these facilities were inoperative as of 2006. In particular, the Baalbek wastewater treatment plant (13,000 m3/day capacity), completed in early 2002, was not connected to the sewerage system. The World Bank continued to support water supply and sanitation in

text: Baalbek

text: through a US$43.5m loan approved in 2002. This was followed by a US$15m emergency grant in 2007 to support the rehabilitation and expansion of water supply systems in five villages in the Western Bekaa Valley. In December 2010, the World Bank approved a US$200m loan to support the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project. The World Bank had to cancel a previous loan for submarine treated wastewater outfalls in Kesrouan and Sour approved in 1998 after the government had not ratified the corresponding loan agreements.

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answers: Because complementary works, to be financed by other sources, had not been completed on time

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answers: With the help of the project water systems in 97 communities were rehabilitated or built

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answers: Baalbek

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answers: Lebanese

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answers: The World Bank approved a US$200m loan to support the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project

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answers: treatment plants Baalbek, Metn and Barouk

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text: Lake Hudson also is the water source for the nearby Salina Pumped Storage Project.

text: Lake Hudson also is the water source for the nearby

text: Salina Pumped Storage Project

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answers: Lake Hudson

text: Unlike the majority of the watersheds in West Virginia, the GRWA's webpage is centered around the watershed itself, not the organization. It survives on grants and public support (primarily membership donations), to assist the public with issues such as Nonpoint source pollution, Water Quality, Water Quantity, protection of forests to alleviate pollution, prevention of substandard and/or illegal developments, injection wells, using sinkholes and cave systems for trash disposal, leaking septic tanks, water sampling, straightpipes, and wastewater treatment plant issues. The Clean Water Act of 1972 has enabled the GRWA to help citizens seek legal, effective methods of improving their waters for the benefit of public health.

text: Unlike the majority of the watersheds in West Virginia, the GRWA's webpage is centered around the watershed itself, not the organization. It survives on grants and public support (primarily membership donations), to assist the public with issues such as

text: Nonpoint source pollution

text: , Water Quality, Water Quantity, protection of forests to alleviate pollution, prevention of substandard and/or illegal developments,

text: injection well

text: s, using

text: sinkhole

text: s and cave systems for trash disposal, leaking

text: septic tank

text: s, water sampling, straightpipes, and

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: issues. The

text: Clean Water Act of 1972

text: has enabled the GRWA to help citizens seek legal, effective methods of improving their waters for the benefit of public health.

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answers: Water Quality

text: Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an improved water source and 93% have access to improved sanitation. This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa. However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. The level of water lost through leakage, underregistration and theft in municipal water supply (non-revenue water) is estimated at about 44%. Water tariffs are subsidized. A National Water Strategy, adopted in 2009, emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse. The country receives substantial foreign aid for investments in the water sector, accounting for about 30% of water investment financing.

text: Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an

text: improved water source

text: and 93% have access to

text: improved sanitation

text: . This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa. However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. The level of water lost through leakage, underregistration and theft in municipal water supply (

text: non-revenue water

text: ) is estimated at about 44%. Water tariffs are subsidized. A National Water Strategy, adopted in 2009, emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse. The country receives substantial foreign aid for investments in the water sector, accounting for about 30% of water investment financing.

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answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Jordan's severe water scarcity

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: rooftop tanks

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answers: non-revenue water

answers: NDQ_011877

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answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Water tariffs are subsidized

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 44%

text: Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.

text: Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of

text: water resource policy

text: at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. About 90 percent of the

text: water in the cities of China

text: is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in

text: developing countries

text: developed countries

text: also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on

text: water quality

text: in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed

text: bays

text: and

text: estuarine

text: square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: China's seven main rivers were so poisoned

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: wells

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: polluted

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: water quality in the United States

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: safe drinking water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 90 percent

text: Point source water pollution is largely regulated through the Clean Water Act, which gives the EPA the authority to set limits on the acceptable amount of pollutants that can be discharged into waters of the United States. The Act broadly defines a pollutant as any type of industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water, such as: dredged soil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste. Point source water pollution is discharged into waters through both direct and indirect methods.

text: Point source water pollution is largely regulated through the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , which gives the EPA the authority to set limits on the acceptable amount of pollutants that can be discharged into waters of the United States. The Act broadly defines a pollutant as any type of industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water, such as: dredged soil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste.

text: Point source water pollution

text: is discharged into waters through both direct and indirect methods.

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answers: 5

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: the supply of fresh water could run out

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Point source water pollution

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Point source water pollution

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: United States

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Point source water pollution is largely regulated

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Point source water pollution

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: sewage

text: There are several rules for treatment of wastes in the industries, but disposal of untreated wastewater into drains and, subsequently, into the city's major streams is very common, thus posing a potential health and environmental risk to the people in Blantyre and downstream. Other sources of water pollution in the city such as runoffs from domestic and agricultural activities and vehicle emissions have been identified. Previous studies have indicated substantial heavy metal pollution in the city's water bodies including streams. Major changes in industrial activities have occurred in the city including decrease in volumes of wastewater generated by David Whitehead company which used to be a major contributor of wastewater effluent in Makata industrial area; change of ownership and wastewater management of Cold Storage Company; closure of the Shire Bus Line; doubling of wastewater generation from both Carlsberg and Chibuku Products due to increase in production and installation of some industrial pretreatment plants such as at Chibuku, Plascon and Dulux.

text: There are several rules for treatment of wastes in the industries, but disposal of untreated wastewater into drains and, subsequently, into the city's major streams is very common, thus posing a potential health and environmental risk to the people in Blantyre and downstream. Other sources of water pollution in the city such as runoffs from domestic and agricultural activities and vehicle emissions have been identified. Previous studies have indicated substantial heavy metal pollution in the city's water bodies including streams. Major changes in industrial activities have occurred in the city including decrease in volumes of wastewater generated by David Whitehead company which used to be a major contributor of wastewater effluent in Makata industrial area; change of ownership and wastewater management of Cold Storage Company; closure of the Shire Bus Line; doubling of wastewater generation from both Carlsberg and Chibuku Products due to increase in production and installation of some industrial pretreatment plants such as at Chibuku, Plascon and Dulux.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: downstream

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Blantyre and downstream

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Chibuku Products

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: streams

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: several rules for treatment of wastes

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: health and environmental

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Bouldnor Cliff is a submerged prehistoric settlement site in the Solent. The site dates from the Mesolithic era and is in approximately  of water just offshore of the village of Bouldnor on the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom. The preservation of organic materials from this era that do not normally survive on dry land has made Bouldnor important to the understanding of Mesolithic Britain, and the BBC Radio 4's Making History programme described it "probably Europe's most important Mesolithic site" albeit concealed under water.

text: Bouldnor Cliff is a submerged prehistoric settlement site in the

text: Solent

text: . The site dates from the

text: Mesolithic

text: era and is in approximately  of water just offshore of the village of

text: Bouldnor

text: on the

text: Isle of Wight

text: in the United Kingdom. The preservation of organic materials from this era that do not normally survive on dry land has made Bouldnor important to the understanding of Mesolithic Britain, and the BBC Radio 4's Making History programme described it "probably Europe's most important Mesolithic site" albeit concealed under water.

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answers: Solent

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Solent

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Bouldnor

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Solent

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: preservation of organic materials

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water

text: In Singapore, water management is closely integrated with land management. The latter is tightly controlled in order to prevent any pollution of water resources through sewage, sullage or other sources of pollution. The management of water supply, sanitation and stormwater drainage is managed by a single agency, the Public Utilities Board, in an integrated and coordinated manner.

text: In Singapore, water management is closely integrated with land management. The latter is tightly controlled in order to prevent any pollution of water resources through sewage, sullage or other sources of pollution. The management of water supply, sanitation and stormwater drainage is managed by a single agency, the Public Utilities Board, in an integrated and coordinated manner.

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answers: The management of water supply, sanitation and stormwater drainage

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answers: stormwater drainage

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answers: resources

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answers: prevent any pollution of water resources

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answers: 100

text: Some water rights are based on land ownership or possession. For example, many common law jurisdictions recognize riparian rights, which are protected by property law. Riparian rights state that only the owner of the banks of the water source have a right to the 'undiminished, unaltered flow' of the water.

text: Some water rights are based on land ownership or possession. For example, many common law jurisdictions recognize

text: riparian rights

text: , which are protected by

text: property law

text: . Riparian rights state that only the owner of the banks of the water source have a right to the 'undiminished, unaltered flow' of the water.

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answers: Riparian rights state that only the owner of the banks of the water source have a right

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text: Wastewater treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from wastewater or sewage and produces both a liquid effluent suitable for disposal to the natural environment and a sludge. Biological processes can be employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge or slow sand filters. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure and the process itself must be subject to regulation and controls. Some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of solids from liquids, usually by sedimentation. By progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced.

text: Wastewater treatment is the process that removes the majority of the

text: contaminant

text: s from wastewater or

text: sewage

text: and produces both a liquid effluent suitable for disposal to the

text: natural environment

text: and a

text: sludge

text: . Biological processes can be employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example,

text: aerated lagoon

text: s,

text: activated sludge

text: or

text: slow sand filter

text: s. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate

text: pipes and infrastructure

text: and the process itself must be subject to regulation and controls. Some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of

text: solid

text: s from

text: liquid

text: s, usually by

text: sedimentation

text: . By progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced.

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answers: The process itself must be subject to regulation and controls

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text: The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and later the Arkansas-Red-White Basin Interagency Committee established in 1950, conducted studies on the Ninnescah River basin as part of an investigation of the broader Arkansas River basin. The investigation resulted in a water-use and control plan including the construction of reservoirs and the use of available water as a regulated supply for the city of Wichita, Kansas. Wichita needed an additional water supply to supplement its existing supply wells. The water of the Arkansas River was of poor quality and too polluted to use, leaving the Ninnescah as the next closest potential source. The Bureau of Reclamation issued a report in 1957, and the U.S. Congress authorized the construction of Cheney Dam and Reservoir in 1960.

text: The

text: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

text: , and later the Arkansas-Red-White Basin Interagency Committee established in 1950, conducted studies on the

text: Ninnescah River

text: basin as part of an investigation of the broader

text: Arkansas River

text: basin. The investigation resulted in a water-use and control plan including the construction of reservoirs and the use of available water as a regulated supply for the city of

text: Wichita, Kansas

text: . Wichita needed an additional water supply to supplement its existing supply wells. The water of the Arkansas River was of poor quality and too polluted to use, leaving the Ninnescah as the next closest potential source. The Bureau of Reclamation issued a report in 1957, and the

text: U.S. Congress

text: authorized the construction of Cheney Dam and Reservoir in 1960.

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answers: The water of the Arkansas River was of poor quality

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answers: The water of the Arkansas River was of poor quality and too polluted

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text: The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) is planning a US$50 million loan to support CAR in its Bogotá River cleanup efforts. The IDB also contributed a US$1.5 million grant to CAR's environmental control program. An additional US$643,000 was put up by CAR itself. The projects for the basin's protection are to be carried out in multiple stages, the first of which implements an institutional, managerial, financial and operational framework to carry out the cleanup project. With the loan, CAR plans on building aqueducts and increasing potable water supply, drainage systems and wastewater treatment for all 41 municipalities located in the Bogotá river basin. The money may also finance the design, construction and operation of wastewater treatment plants for municipalities that do have them.

text: The

text: Inter-American Development Bank

text: (IDB) is planning a US$50 million loan to support CAR in its Bogotá River cleanup efforts. The IDB also contributed a US$1.5 million grant to CAR's environmental control program. An additional US$643,000 was put up by CAR itself. The projects for the basin's protection are to be carried out in multiple stages, the first of which implements an institutional, managerial, financial and operational framework to carry out the cleanup project. With the loan, CAR plans on building aqueducts and increasing potable water supply, drainage systems and wastewater treatment for all 41 municipalities located in the Bogotá river basin. The money may also finance the design, construction and operation of wastewater treatment plants for municipalities that do have them.

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answers: With the loan, CAR plans on building aqueducts

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answers: With the loan, CAR plans on building aqueducts

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answers: Bogotá River

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answers: river basin

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answers: Bogotá River cleanup efforts

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answers: potable water supply, drainage systems and wastewater treatment

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: potable

text: The excavation took place from December 2010 to May 2011 south of Vandalia Rd., north of the Des Moines River and on the west edge of the existing wastewater treatment plant. A short documentary of the excavation is available on YouTube. The site is so well-preserved and complete that the 6,000 or more artifacts found provide researchers with exciting insight into the types of tools the people in the village used, the types of animals they kept and ate and the types of seeds they planted.  The site, nicknamed “the Palace” because of its size and preservation, yielded the remains of two humans, a woman and an infant, that are the oldest human bones to be found in the state.

text: The excavation took place from December 2010 to May 2011 south of Vandalia Rd., north of the

text: Des Moines River

text: and on the west edge of the existing

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: . A short documentary of the excavation is available on YouTube. The site is so well-preserved and complete that the 6,000 or more artifacts found provide researchers with exciting insight into the types of tools the people in the village used, the types of animals they kept and ate and the types of seeds they planted.  The site, nicknamed “the Palace” because of its size and preservation, yielded the remains of two humans, a woman and an infant, that are the oldest human bones to be found in the state.

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answers: provides researchers with exciting insight into the types of tools the people in the village used, the types of animals they kept and ate and the types of seeds they planted

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: Des Moines River

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.  Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.  Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the

text: ocean

text: s and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: . The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.  Awareness of the global importance of preserving

text: water

text: for

text: ecosystem services

text: has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s

text: wetlands

text: have been lost along with their valuable environmental services.

text: Biodiversity

text: -rich

text: freshwater

text: ecosystems are currently declining faster than

text: marine

text: or land

text: ecosystem

text: s making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.  Increasing

text: urbanization

text: pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe

text: water

text: . In the industrial world

text: demand management

text: has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry

text: desalination

text: is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

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answers: 71%

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answers: Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: urban areas

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: 97.5%

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 2.5%

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as nitrate from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as

text: nitrate

text: from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

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answers: The Coastal Aquifer

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: agricultural activity

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: groundwater

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: is the only source of water in the Gaza strip

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: drinking water quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 5-10

text: The urbanization of the watershed, and associated with it the pollution of urban runoff and stormwater, has degraded the water quality in Ballona Creek and its Estuary. Ballona Creek is listed by the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board impaired for fecal coliform, heavy metals, and pesticides. Dry weather urban runoff and storm water, both conveyed by storm drains, are the primary sources of pollutions in the Creek.

text: The

text: urbanization

text: of the watershed, and associated with it the pollution of

text: urban runoff

text: and

text: stormwater

text: , has degraded the water quality in Ballona Creek and its Estuary. Ballona Creek is listed by the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board impaired for

text: fecal coliform

text: heavy metals

text: , and

text: pesticides

text: . Dry weather urban runoff and storm water, both conveyed by

text: storm drain

text: s, are the primary sources of

text: pollution

text: s in the Creek.

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answers: Ballona Creek

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answers: Dry weather urban runoff and storm water

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answers: urban runoff and storm water

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: urbanization

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The urbanization of the watershed

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: water quality

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility to be treated and then recirculated. However, experts have found that sewage treatment does not remove these chemicals completely from drinking supplies.In response to this, the water industry has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and biodegradation, and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.

text: One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility to be treated and then recirculated. However, experts have found that sewage treatment does not remove these chemicals completely from drinking supplies.In response to this, the

text: water industry

text: has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. The

text: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

text: states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and

text: biodegradation

text: , and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.

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answers: One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states in its review of water pollution

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: waste management facility

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: wastewater treatment and biodegradation

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Food and Drug Administration

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: 18% of the population did not have access to an improved water source. This share is split up as follows: 1%, both in urban and rural areas, used water from tankers as their main water source. 7% collected water from unprotected public wells and 4% from unprotected private wells inside their home or yard. 2.5% took their water directly from rivers and open reservoirs. Another 3.5% were estimated to use an unprotected spring as their main source of water supply, so that in total 18% of the population lacked access to an improved water source.

text: 18% of the population did not have access to an improved water source. This share is split up as follows: 1%, both in urban and rural areas, used water from tankers as their main water source. 7% collected water from unprotected public wells and 4% from unprotected private wells inside their home or yard. 2.5% took their water directly from rivers and open reservoirs. Another 3.5% were estimated to use an unprotected spring as their main source of water supply, so that in total 18% of the population lacked access to an improved water source.

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answers: rivers and open reservoirs

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The population did not have access to an improved water source

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: tankers

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: rivers and open reservoirs

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: improved water source

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 2.5%

text: North Carolina's Clean Water Management Trust Fund (CWMTF) was created by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1996. The Fund is an independent non-regulatory agency housed in the Division of Land and Water Stewardship in the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. The special revenue fund was created "to clean up pollution in the State's surface waters and to protect and conserve those waters that are not yet polluted.  The intent of the fund is "to focus on the cleanup and prevention of pollution of the State's surface waters, the establishment of a network of riparian buffers and greenways, and the preservation of property for establishing clean water supplies, the General Assembly believes that the results of these efforts will also be beneficial to wildlife and marine fisheries habitats."The CWMTF issues grants to a variety of entities including local governments, state agencies and nonprofit corporations "whose primary purpose is the conservation, preservation, and restoration of our State's environmental and natural resources".

text: North Carolina's Clean Water Management Trust Fund (CWMTF) was created by the

text: North Carolina General Assembly

text: in 1996. The Fund is an independent non-regulatory agency housed in the Division of Land and Water Stewardship in the

entity_name: North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources

text: North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources

text: . The special revenue fund was created "to clean up pollution in the State's surface waters and to protect and conserve those waters that are not yet polluted.  The intent of the fund is "to focus on the cleanup and prevention of pollution of the State's surface waters, the establishment of a network of riparian buffers and greenways, and the preservation of property for establishing clean water supplies, the General Assembly believes that the results of these efforts will also be beneficial to wildlife and marine fisheries habitats."The CWMTF issues grants to a variety of entities including local governments, state agencies and nonprofit corporations "whose primary purpose is the conservation, preservation, and restoration of our State's environmental and natural resources".

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: North Carolina's Clean Water Management Trust Fund

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Clean Water Management Trust Fund

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: local governments

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: surface waters

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: wildlife and marine fisheries habitats

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: clean water supplies

text: There are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. A wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final disinfection process. The aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge).  The secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. The tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall.

text: There are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. A wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an

text: aeration

text: basin followed by

text: flocculation

text: and

text: sedimentation

text: or an

text: activated sludge

text: system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological

text: nitrogen

text: removal system, and a final

text: disinfection

text: process. The aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge).  The secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. The tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and

text: phosphorus

text: and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: ocean outfall

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: tertiary system

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: surface water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: wastewater treatment

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: costs

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: surface water

text: Water carrier (also water seller) is a profession that existed before the advent of centralized water supply systems. A water carrier collected water from a source (a river, a well, water pumps, etc.) and transported or carried containers with water to people's homes. After the construction of pipe networks, the profession of water carrier became unnecessary and disappeared.

text: Water carrier (also water seller) is a

text: profession

text: that existed before the advent of centralized

text: water supply systems

text: . A water carrier collected water from a source (a river, a well, water pumps, etc.) and transported or carried containers with water to people's homes. After the construction of pipe networks, the profession of water carrier became unnecessary and disappeared.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: a river

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: centralized water supply systems

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: a river

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: a river, a well

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: centralized water supply

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: centralized

text: A total of six prototypes and six modifications demonstrated that, with process water approaching  and a chill source about , a full-size device would produce about 600 m³ of water per day. Salt concentration in the wastewater would only be about 10% above the level of the original water, thus, from, say, 35,000 to about 38,000 parts per million, well within the ability of osmoregulators to adjust.

text: A total of six prototypes and six modifications demonstrated that, with process water approaching  and a chill source about , a full-size device would produce about 600 m³ of water per day.

text: Salt

text: concentration in the wastewater would only be about 10% above the level of the original water, thus, from, say, 35,000 to about 38,000

text: parts per million

text: , well within the ability of

text: osmoregulators

text: to adjust.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: a full-size device would produce about 600 m3

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Salt concentration in the wastewater

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: a full-size device

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: 38,000 parts per million

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Salt concentration in the wastewater

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: well within the ability of osmoregulators to adjust

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 10%

text: Parking lots tend to be sources of water pollution because of their extensive impervious surfaces. Virtually all of the rain (minus evaporation) that falls becomes urban runoff. To avoid flooding and unsafe driving conditions, the lots are built to effectively channel and collect runoff. Parking lots, along with roads, are often the principal source of water pollution in urban areas.

text: Parking lots tend to be sources of

text: water pollution

text: because of their extensive

text: impervious surfaces

text: . Virtually all of the

text: rain

text: (minus evaporation) that falls becomes

text: urban runoff

text: . To avoid flooding and unsafe driving conditions, the lots are built to effectively channel and collect runoff. Parking lots, along with roads, are often the principal source of water pollution in urban areas.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: evaporation

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: The parking lots are often the principal source of water pollution in urban areas

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Parking lots

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: urban runoff

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: avoid flooding and unsafe driving conditions

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0

text: 4. Freshwater Preservation- Clean water is a cornerstone of human and environmental health. AIDA implements legal strategies to protect ecosystems that serve as vital freshwater resources for nearby communities and biodiversity. AIDA also works to prevent companies from polluting freshwater supplies with poisonous toxins.

text: Freshwater Preservation

text: - Clean water is a cornerstone of human and environmental health. AIDA implements legal strategies to protect ecosystems that serve as vital freshwater resources for nearby communities and biodiversity. AIDA also works to prevent companies from polluting freshwater supplies with poisonous toxins.

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text: The gray area between accepted practice and fraud is where water is added to the winemaking process as a means of "quality preservation". Water is often used during the winemaking process to help pump grapes through equipment and to "rehydrate" the grapes that have begun to shrivel from the extended hang time. This rehydration is used to help balance the wine and, it is hoped, to prevent "dried fruit" flavors that may be unpalatable to the consumer. In the United States, the California Wine Institute has developed guidelines that allow for the addition of a certain amount of water to compensate for the loss of natural water in the vineyard from dehydration. The addition of water has been argued by its proponents as necessary to prevent stuck fermentations. Despite being allowed limited legal use, the practice of adding water to wine is still shrouded in controversy, and few winemakers willingly admit to it. A "code word" for the practice in the wine industry is adding "Jesus units" in a play on words about the Biblical story of the miracle performed at the Marriage at Cana where Jesus turned water into wine.

text: The gray area between accepted practice and fraud is where water is added to the winemaking process as a means of "quality preservation". Water is often used during the winemaking process to help pump grapes through equipment and to "rehydrate" the grapes that have begun to shrivel from the extended hang time. This rehydration is used to help balance the wine and, it is hoped, to prevent "

text: dried fruit

text: " flavors that may be unpalatable to the consumer. In the

text: United States

text: , the

text: California Wine Institute

text: has developed guidelines that allow for the addition of a certain amount of water to compensate for the loss of natural water in the vineyard from

text: dehydration

text: . The addition of water has been argued by its proponents as necessary to prevent

text: stuck fermentation

text: s. Despite being allowed limited legal use, the practice of adding water to wine is still shrouded in controversy, and few winemakers willingly admit to it. A "

text: code word

text: " for the practice in the wine industry is adding "

text: Jesus

text: units" in a play on words about the

text: Biblical

text: story of the

text: miracle

text: performed at the

text: Marriage at Cana

text: where Jesus turned water into wine.

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answers: The addition of water has been argued by its proponents as necessary to prevent stuck fermentations

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answers: The gray area between accepted practice and fraud is where water is added to the winemaking process as a means of "quality preservation"

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: prevent "dried fruit" flavors

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: water

text: Direct reuse projects. According to one estimate, 1,500 ha were irrigated with reclaimed water in the vicinity of treatment plants as of 2009 in 15 locations, of which the biggest are near As-Samra (510 ha), Aqaba (208 ha), Ramtha (121 ha) and Wadi Musa (107 ha). Crops irrigated are forage crops and tree crops. One of the first pilot projects for direct reuse was implemented in Wadi Musa with support from USAID. Water was first used to irrigate a demonstration farm, and then the fields of nearby farmers. Another pilot project was initiated using wastewater from the small Wadi Hassan treatment plant to irrigate green spaces on the campus of the University of Irbid, and commercial fruit plantations. In most cases of direct reuse, the Water Authority of Jordan, the operator of most municipal wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, has concluded contracts with farmers. The total area irrigated under contracts with WAJ is 760 ha, or about half the total irrigated area. It is thus about 12 times smaller than the area irrigated with indirectly reclaimed water from the As-Samra plant in the Jordan Valley.

text: Direct reuse projects. According to one estimate, 1,500 ha were irrigated with reclaimed water in the vicinity of treatment plants as of 2009 in 15 locations, of which the biggest are near As-Samra (510 ha), Aqaba (208 ha), Ramtha (121 ha) and Wadi Musa (107 ha). Crops irrigated are forage crops and tree crops. One of the first pilot projects for direct reuse was implemented in Wadi Musa with support from USAID. Water was first used to irrigate a demonstration farm, and then the fields of nearby farmers. Another pilot project was initiated using wastewater from the small Wadi Hassan treatment plant to irrigate green spaces on the campus of the University of Irbid, and commercial fruit plantations. In most cases of direct reuse, the Water Authority of Jordan, the operator of most municipal wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, has concluded contracts with farmers. The total area irrigated under contracts with WAJ is 760 ha, or about half the total irrigated area. It is thus about 12 times smaller than the area irrigated with indirectly reclaimed water from the As-Samra plant in the Jordan Valley.

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answers: 1,500 ha were irrigated with reclaimed water

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is thus about 12 times smaller than the area irrigated with indirectly reclaimed water

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answers: Crops irrigated are forage crops and tree crops

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answers: 100

text: NPS water pollution is regulated at the federal, state, and local level. Yet, the pollution persists and remains a significant problem. There are a number of reasons why current regulations have failed to stem the flow of pollution. NPS water pollution comes from numerous and diverse sources, and control measures are expensive to implement. Also, local governments are generally responsible for implementing NPS regulations. Coordination among localities can be difficult, and, furthermore, localities often lack the incentive to rigorously enforce NPS regulations because their NPS pollution is exported downriver, where other towns and cities must deal with the consequences. This section will introduce the laws currently in place at the federal, state, and local level that regulate NPS water pollution. It will also discuss some of the successes and failures of those regulations.

text: NPS water pollution is regulated at the federal, state, and local level. Yet, the pollution persists and remains a significant problem. There are a number of reasons why current regulations have failed to stem the flow of pollution. NPS water pollution comes from numerous and diverse sources, and control measures are expensive to implement. Also, local governments are generally responsible for implementing NPS regulations. Coordination among localities can be difficult, and, furthermore, localities often lack the incentive to rigorously enforce NPS regulations because their NPS pollution is exported downriver, where other towns and cities must deal with the consequences. This section will introduce the laws currently in place at the federal, state, and local level that regulate NPS water pollution. It will also discuss some of the successes and failures of those regulations.

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text: Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.

text: Pollution control is a term used in

text: environmental management

text: . It means the control of

text: emissions

text: and

text: effluents

text: into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the

text: waste

text: products from

text: overconsumption

text: , heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the

text: environment

text: . In the hierarchy of controls,

text: pollution prevention

text: and

text: waste minimization

text: are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of

text: land development

entity_name: Low-impact development (U.S. and Canada)

text: low impact development

text: is a similar technique for the prevention of

text: urban runoff

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text: Most aquatic habitats are occupied by fish or other animals requiring certain minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations to survive.  Dissolved oxygen concentrations may be measured directly in wastewater, but the amount of oxygen potentially required by other chemicals in the wastewater is termed an oxygen demand.  Dissolved or suspended oxidizable organic material in wastewater will be used as a food source.  Finely divided material is readily available to microorganisms whose populations will increase to digest the amount of food available.  Digestion of this food requires oxygen, so the oxygen content of the water will ultimately be decreased by the amount required to digest the dissolved or suspended food.  Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals if the rate of oxygen utilization exceeds replacement by atmospheric oxygen.

text: Most aquatic habitats are occupied by

text: fish

text: or other animals requiring certain minimum dissolved

text: oxygen

text: concentrations to survive.

text: Dissolved oxygen

text: concentrations may be measured directly in wastewater, but the amount of oxygen potentially required by other chemicals in the wastewater is termed an oxygen demand.  Dissolved or suspended

text: oxidizable

text: organic material in wastewater will be used as a food source.  Finely divided material is readily available to microorganisms whose populations will increase to digest the amount of food available.  Digestion of this food requires oxygen, so the oxygen content of the water will ultimately be decreased by the amount required to digest the dissolved or suspended food.  Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals if the rate of oxygen utilization exceeds replacement by atmospheric oxygen.

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answers: Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals

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answers: Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals

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answers: aquatic habitats

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answers: The Clean Water Act

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answers: food source

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answers: wastewater

text: Since the latter 20th century, the valley has become an important agricultural center for the state of Hidalgo, growing corn, beans, wheat, onions, tomatoes, cactus fruit, and peaches; the valley also produces one-quarter of all green chili peppers grown in Mexico. It also produces alfalfa, principally used to feed the area's cattle. A small but important quantity of lettuce, cabbage, cilantro, radishes, carrots, spinach, and parsley is grown. There are also a number of fish farms, especially in Tezontepec de Aldama. About 61% of the population works in agriculture, which has been made possible by the diversion of wastewater from the neighboring Valley of Mexico through the Tula River. Sixty percent of the farmland is irrigated with wastewater. Thirty nine percent of the farmland is dependent on clean water sources such as wells and rain, and only 0.38 percent is irrigated with treated water. The areas most dependent on wastewater are: Actopan, Ajacuba, Alfajayucan, Atitalaquía, Atotonilco de Tula, Francisco I. Madero, Chilcuautla, Mixquihuala, San Salvador, Tasquillo, Tetepango, Tezontepec, Tlahuelilpan, and Tlaxcoapan. The areas that use wastewater are more productive, as the water contains phosphorus and nitrogen, but the products are more likely to have problems with contaminants. These contaminants also pose a risk to farm workers and their families.

text: Since the latter 20th century, the valley has become an important agricultural center for the state of Hidalgo, growing corn, beans, wheat, onions, tomatoes, cactus fruit, and peaches; the valley also produces one-quarter of all green chili peppers grown in Mexico. It also produces

text: alfalfa

text: , principally used to feed the area's cattle. A small but important quantity of lettuce, cabbage,

text: cilantro

text: , radishes, carrots, spinach, and parsley is grown. There are also a number of

text: fish farms

text: , especially in

text: Tezontepec de Aldama

text: . About 61% of the population works in agriculture, which has been made possible by the diversion of wastewater from the neighboring Valley of Mexico through the Tula River. Sixty percent of the farmland is irrigated with wastewater. Thirty nine percent of the farmland is dependent on clean water sources such as wells and rain, and only 0.38 percent is irrigated with treated water. The areas most dependent on wastewater are:

text: Actopan

text: Ajacuba

text: , Alfajayucan,

text: Atitalaquía

text: Atotonilco de Tula

text: Francisco I. Madero

text: Chilcuautla

text: Mixquihuala

text: , San Salvador, Tasquillo,

text: Tetepango

text: , Tezontepec, Tlahuelilpan, and

text: Tlaxcoapan

text: . The areas that use wastewater are more productive, as the water contains

text: phosphorus

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: , but the products are more likely to have problems with contaminants. These contaminants also pose a risk to farm workers and their families.

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answers: wells and rain

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answers: About 61% of the population works in agriculture

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answers: the neighboring Valley of Mexico

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answers: Sixty percent

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answers: is irrigated with treated water

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answers: The areas that use wastewater are more productive

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answers: 0.38 percent

text: Crystal Springs Preserve is 525 acres of natural wilderness surrounding Crystal Springs, a Magnitude 2 spring that discharges 30 million gallons of water daily. There is a non-profit educational facility, Crystal Springs Foundation, operating on site with programs that show diverse ecosystems via trails, boardwalks, a wildlife pavilion, a butterfly garden and a nature center.  The preserve is privately owned by Crystal Springs Preserve, Inc., a closely held private company. The spring is the source for Zephyrhills Natural Spring Water, a commercially bottled water product. The water that is bottled represents less than 1% of the flow of the Spring.

text: Crystal Springs Preserve is 525 acres of natural wilderness surrounding Crystal Springs, a Magnitude 2 spring that discharges 30 million gallons of water daily. There is a non-profit educational facility, Crystal Springs Foundation, operating on site with programs that show diverse ecosystems via trails, boardwalks, a wildlife pavilion, a butterfly garden and a nature center.  The preserve is privately owned by Crystal Springs Preserve, Inc., a closely held private company. The spring is the source for Zephyrhills Natural Spring Water, a commercially bottled water product. The water that is bottled represents less than 1% of the flow of the Spring.

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text: After the lawsuit was filed, the Flambeau Mining Company removed the liner from the water containment area that was a source of the pollution to prevent further discharges to surface waters. This now directs contaminated water to seep into groundwater.

text: After the lawsuit was filed, the Flambeau Mining Company removed the liner from the water containment area that was a source of the pollution to prevent further discharges to surface waters. This now directs contaminated water to seep into groundwater.

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text: Green infrastructure concepts originated in mid-1980s proposals for best management practices that would achieve more holistic stormwater quantity management goals for runoff volume reduction, erosion prevention, and aquifer recharge. In 1987, amendments to the U.S. Clean Water Act introduced new provisions for management of diffuse pollutant sources from urban land uses, establishing the regulatory need for practices that unlike conventional drainage infrastructure managed runoff "at source." Under the Act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published regulations for municipalities in 1990, requiring the development of storm water pollution prevention plans and the implementation of "source control practices". EPA's 1993 handbook, Urban Runoff Pollution Prevention and Control Planning, identified BMPs to consider in such plans, including vegetative controls, filtration practices and infiltration practices (trenches, porous pavement).

text: Green infrastructure concepts originated in mid-1980s proposals for best management practices that would achieve more holistic stormwater quantity management goals for runoff volume reduction, erosion prevention, and aquifer recharge. In 1987, amendments to the U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: introduced new provisions for management of diffuse pollutant sources from urban land uses, establishing the regulatory need for practices that unlike conventional drainage infrastructure managed runoff "at source." Under the Act, the

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) published regulations for municipalities in 1990, requiring the development of storm water pollution prevention plans and the implementation of "source control practices". EPA's 1993 handbook, Urban Runoff Pollution Prevention and Control Planning, identified BMPs to consider in such plans, including vegetative controls, filtration practices and infiltration practices (trenches, porous pavement).

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text: The Source Water Protection Terms of Reference is the workplan for completing the source protection plan under the Clean Water Act, 2006 in Ontario, Canada.  The Terms of Reference is the first of three steps in the process; it lays out who does what, when it will happen and how much it will cost. It will guide the Source Protection Committee through the completion of the Assessment Report and the Source Protection Plan. The Terms of Reference is a work plan and budget that identifies:

text: The Source Water Protection Terms of Reference is the workplan for completing the

text: source protection plan

text: under the

text: Clean Water Act, 2006

text: in

text: Ontario, Canada

text: .  The Terms of Reference is the first of three steps in the process; it lays out who does what, when it will happen and how much it will cost. It will guide the Source Protection Committee through the completion of the Assessment Report and the Source Protection Plan. The Terms of Reference is a work plan and budget that identifies:

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text: In some wastewater treatment plants, small amounts of methanol, ethanol, acetate, glycerin, or proprietary products are added to the wastewater to provide a carbon source for the denitrification bacteria. Denitrification processes are also used in the treatment of industrial wastewater.

text: In some

text: wastewater treatment plants

text: , small amounts of

text: methanol

text: ethanol

text: acetate

text: glycerin

text: , or proprietary products are added to the wastewater to provide a carbon source for the denitrification bacteria. Denitrification processes are also used in the treatment of

text: industrial wastewater

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text: San Mateo Creek's source elevation is at almost 1,000 feet on Sweeney Ridge from which it flows southeasterly (in a valley east of Cahill Ridge and west of Sawyer Ridge) for 11.2 km (7 mi) before entering  the northwest arm of Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir. The northeast arm of Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir is formed by San Mateo Creek's tributary, San Andreas Creek which descends to the Reservoir southeast along the San Andreas Rift. Another tributary, Laguna Creek, flows northwards from Woodside with its source on Edgewood County Park and Natural Preserve, and historically fed Laguna Grande and then joined San Mateo Creek just upstream from Crystal Springs Canyon, where San Mateo Creek turned east to flow through the canyon. Laguna Grande was submerged when an earthen dam (this was the first Crystal Springs Dam) was constructed in 1877, forming Upper Crystal Springs Reservoir. The old earthen dam became a causeway between Upper and Lower Crystal Springs Reservoirs when the latter was formed by Herman Schussler's concrete Crystal Springs Dam, which dammed up San Mateo Creek in 1888 to form the lower reservoir. The causeway is now crossed by Highway 92. In addition to San Mateo Creek and its San Andreas Creek and Laguna Creek tributaries, the waters of Crystal Springs Reservoir consist of runoff from the eastern slopes of the Montara block of the Santa Cruz Mountains and imported Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct water deriving from the Sierra Nevada. The two Crystal Springs lakes and San Andreas Lake used to be known as Spring Valley Lakes for the Spring Valley Water Company which owned them. Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir now covers the town of Crystal Springs which grew up around a resort of the same name.

text: San Mateo Creek's source elevation is at almost 1,000 feet on Sweeney Ridge from which it flows southeasterly (in a valley east of Cahill Ridge and west of Sawyer Ridge) for 11.2 km (7 mi) before entering  the northwest arm of

text: Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir

text: . The northeast arm of Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir is formed by San Mateo Creek's tributary,

text: San Andreas Creek

text: which descends to the Reservoir southeast along the

text: San Andreas Rift

text: . Another tributary,

text: Laguna Creek

text: , flows northwards from

text: Woodside

text: with its source on Edgewood County Park and Natural Preserve, and historically fed Laguna Grande and then joined San Mateo Creek just upstream from Crystal Springs Canyon, where San Mateo Creek turned east to flow through the canyon. Laguna Grande was submerged when an earthen dam (this was the first Crystal Springs Dam) was constructed in 1877, forming Upper Crystal Springs Reservoir. The old earthen dam became a causeway between Upper and Lower Crystal Springs Reservoirs when the latter was formed by Herman Schussler's concrete Crystal Springs Dam, which dammed up San Mateo Creek in 1888 to form the lower reservoir. The causeway is now crossed by

text: Highway 92

text: . In addition to San Mateo Creek and its San Andreas Creek and Laguna Creek tributaries, the waters of Crystal Springs Reservoir consist of runoff from the eastern slopes of the Montara block of the

text: Santa Cruz Mountains

text: and imported

text: Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct

text: water deriving from the

text: Sierra Nevada

text: . The two Crystal Springs lakes and San Andreas Lake used to be known as Spring Valley Lakes for the Spring Valley Water Company which owned them. Lower Crystal Springs Reservoir now covers the town of Crystal Springs which grew up around a resort of the same name.

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text: In Malaysia, the citizens have been experiencing harms from water pollutants in the river that have been accumulating over decades due to fast growing urbanization and industrialization. The planners of Malaysia have been trying to coming up with models that indicate the amount of pollutants has grown over time as cities became more industrialized and how these chemicals are distributed in various regions with the usage of econometrics and various scientific tools. Such an attempt is encourages in-depth researches because sources should be able to analyzed numerically and give economic evaluations while also evaluating the environment. With abundance of evidences provided by models which reveal the inadequacy of current policies, the Malaysian decisions-makers now recognize that appropriate treatments are necessary in regions that are industrialized to protect the residents from water pollutants. As a result, the government seeks to increase public awareness and provide affordable water services to residents by year 2020.

text: In Malaysia, the citizens have been experiencing harms from water pollutants in the river that have been accumulating over decades due to fast growing urbanization and industrialization. The planners of Malaysia have been trying to coming up with models that indicate the amount of pollutants has grown over time as cities became more industrialized and how these chemicals are distributed in various regions with the usage of econometrics and various scientific tools. Such an attempt is encourages in-depth researches because sources should be able to analyzed numerically and give economic evaluations while also evaluating the environment. With abundance of evidences provided by models which reveal the inadequacy of current policies, the Malaysian decisions-makers now recognize that appropriate treatments are necessary in regions that are industrialized to protect the residents from water pollutants. As a result, the government seeks to increase public awareness and provide affordable water services to residents by year 2020.

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text: To protect Griffy Lake's water sources, over 45 separate parcels of property have been acquired over the years, creating the present-day 1,180 acre Griffy Lake Nature Preserve surrounding the lake.

text: To protect Griffy Lake's water sources, over 45 separate parcels of property have been acquired over the years, creating the present-day 1,180 acre Griffy Lake Nature Preserve surrounding the lake.

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answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 0.1

text: Title IV: Bay-Delta Watershed Water Rights Preservation and Protection - Title IV would direct the Secretary of the Interior (notwithstanding the provisions of this Act, federal reclamation law, or the ESA), in the operation of CVP, to: (1) strictly adhere to state water rights law governing water rights priorities by honoring water rights senior to those belonging to CVP, regardless of the source of priority; and (2) strictly adhere to and honor water rights and other priorities that are obtained or that exist under the California Water Code. The bill would require any action taken by the Secretary or the Secretary of Commerce to protect any species listed under the ESA that affects the diversion of water or involves the release of water from any CVP water storage facility to be applied in a manner that is consistent with water rights priorities established by state law.

text: Title IV: Bay-Delta Watershed Water Rights Preservation and Protection - Title IV would direct the Secretary of the Interior (notwithstanding the provisions of this Act, federal reclamation law, or the ESA), in the operation of CVP, to: (1) strictly adhere to state water rights law governing water rights priorities by honoring water rights senior to those belonging to CVP, regardless of the source of priority; and (2) strictly adhere to and honor water rights and other priorities that are obtained or that exist under the California Water Code. The bill would require any action taken by the Secretary or the Secretary of Commerce to protect any species listed under the ESA that affects the diversion of water or involves the release of water from any CVP water storage facility to be applied in a manner that is consistent with water rights priorities established by state law.

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answers: CVP water storage facility

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: water rights priorities established by state law

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: CVP water storage facility

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: California Water Code

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Title IV

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: protect any species

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: Due to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms. Motor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.

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answers: Toxic effects of used oil

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answers: Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: urban street runoff

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: used motor oil

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answers: is considered a serious environmental problem

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: reduces soil productivity

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 40

text: 2004 Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, DenmarkThe Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, Denmark, received the award for its monitoring and analysis of the water environment and pollution discharge and long-term efforts that have laid the foundation for cost effective point and non-point source pollution prevention measures in pursuit of an improved Baltic Sea marine environment.

text: 2004 Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, DenmarkThe Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, Denmark, received the award for its monitoring and analysis of the water environment and pollution discharge and long-term efforts that have laid the foundation for cost effective point and non-point source pollution prevention measures in pursuit of an improved Baltic Sea marine environment.

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answers: The Baltic Sea

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answers: point source

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Water

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: cost effective

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: S. corneum are sensitive to high pollution levels, particularly organic pollutants which foul the water, preventing the clams from effective feeding. As such, they are a bioindicator species whose presence may demonstrate that the water is relatively unpolluted. They are tolerant of anoxic locations however and can survive up to 400 days at  and 9 days at  without oxygen. This allows them to burrow down into sand, mud, gravel and other inorganic substrates where oxygen levels are low to avoid predation and to explore other food sources. Their anoxic tolerance also allows them to survive at times where low water levels lead to a quick depletion of oxygen, but as they are sensitive to desiccation, or drying out, they cannot survive for extended periods without water.

text: S. corneum are sensitive to high pollution levels, particularly organic pollutants which foul the water, preventing the clams from effective feeding. As such, they are a

text: bioindicator species

text: whose presence may demonstrate that the water is relatively unpolluted. They are tolerant of

text: anoxic locations

text: however and can survive up to 400 days at  and 9 days at  without oxygen. This allows them to burrow down into sand, mud, gravel and other inorganic

text: substrates

text: where oxygen levels are low to avoid

text: predation

text: and to explore other food sources. Their anoxic tolerance also allows them to survive at times where low water levels lead to a quick depletion of oxygen, but as they are sensitive to

text: desiccation

text: , or drying out, they cannot survive for extended periods without water.

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answers: 3

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_011870

answers: desiccation

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: S. corneum are sensitive to high pollution levels

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: organic pollutants

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: relatively unpolluted

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: S. corneum

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: their presence may demonstrate that the water is relatively unpolluted

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: anoxic

text: Point source wastewater treatment

text: Point source wastewater treatment

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

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answers: 3: The answer has limited relevance and completeness, with noticeable gaps or inaccuracies.

answers: tqa2:L_0641/T_3290/04e3a2b55abcdf88b6148da291edc3a5

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answers: 1

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: The supply of fresh water could run out.

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: Drinkable water shortages

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Point source

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: Point source wastewater treatment

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: The Clean Water Act

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: Reducing the amount of pollutants

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 1

text: Other aspects of service quality. In 2010, 20 percent of rural water systems were malfunctioning, down from 25% in 2007. About 35 percent of the estimated 30,000 hand pumps in Ethiopia, serving an estimated 2 million people, were non-functioning in the mid-2000s. In piped water systems rationing and service interruptions are frequent. There are no wastewater treatment plants in Ethiopia, so all wastewater collected in sewers is discharged without any treatment to the environment.

text: Other aspects of service quality. In 2010, 20 percent of rural water systems were malfunctioning, down from 25% in 2007. About 35 percent of the estimated 30,000 hand pumps in Ethiopia, serving an estimated 2 million people, were non-functioning in the mid-2000s. In piped water systems rationing and service interruptions are frequent. There are no wastewater treatment plants in Ethiopia, so all wastewater collected in sewers is discharged without any treatment to the environment.

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answers: rationing and service interruptions are frequent

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: rationing and service interruptions are frequent

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: rural water systems

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: rural water systems

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: 2010 20 percent of rural water systems were malfunctioning

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: treatment

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 25

text: In 2007 Mekorot inaugurated its advanced Central Filtration Plant at the company's Eshkol facility. Built at a cost of more than $100 million, the sophisticated plant has annual filtering capacity in excess of 500 million cubic meters per year. It is the largest plant of its type in Israel and one of the largest in the world. In 2008 Mekorot lay a fifth pipeline to Jerusalem to double the quantity of water and provide 150 million cubic meters annually, including desalinated water. In March 2008 National Infrastructures Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer and Water Authority head Uri Shani began to explore options for new wastewater treatment plants and reservoirs.  Another alternative considered was more expensive but less land-intensive membrane bioreactors. In 2006 the Dan Regional Wastewater Board was criticized for plans to incinerate sludge to replace the practice of dumping it into the sea. Critics said  the sludge should be used as fertilizer in agriculture.

text: In 2007 Mekorot inaugurated its advanced Central Filtration Plant at the company's

text: Eshkol

text: facility. Built at a cost of more than $100 million, the sophisticated plant has annual filtering capacity in excess of 500 million cubic meters per year. It is the largest plant of its type in Israel and one of the largest in the world. In 2008 Mekorot lay a fifth pipeline to Jerusalem to double the quantity of water and provide 150 million cubic meters annually, including desalinated water. In March 2008 National Infrastructures Minister

text: Benjamin Ben-Eliezer

text: and Water Authority head Uri Shani began to explore options for new wastewater treatment plants and reservoirs.  Another alternative considered was more expensive but less land-intensive

text: membrane bioreactor

text: s. In 2006 the Dan Regional Wastewater Board was criticized for plans to incinerate sludge to replace the practice of dumping it into the sea. Critics said  the sludge should be used as fertilizer in agriculture.

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answers: NDQ_011870

answers: The sophisticated plant has annual filtering capacity in excess of 500 million cubic meters per year

answers: NDQ_011871

answers: It is the largest plant of its type in Israel and one of the largest in the world

answers: NDQ_011875

answers: Central Filtration Plant

answers: NDQ_011876

answers: sea

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: National Infrastructures Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: land-intensive membrane bioreactors

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: 100

text: IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater exists in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.A well-known and frequently quoted success story on water reuse (IPR) is Singapore (Singapore). At the end of 2002, the programme - successfully branded as NEWater - had garnered a 98 per cent acceptance rate, with 82% of respondents indicating that they would drink the reused water directly, another 16% only when mixed with reservoir water. MF/RO and UV are used for the wastewater treatment by the PUB-Singapore's National Water Agency. The produced NEWater after stabilization (addition of alkaline chemicals) is in compliance with the WHO requirements and can be piped off to its wide range of applications (e.g. reuse in industry, discharge to a drinking water reservoir). NEWater now makes up around 30% of Singapore’s total use, by 2060 Singapore’s National Water Agency plans to triple the current NEWater capacity as to meet 50% of Singapore’s future water demand. Today, the water is mostly used by industry, including high-tech industries requiring ultra-pure water (Growing Blue, 2011), and only a very small percentage of NEWater is blended with reservoir water used to produce drinking water.

text: IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater exists in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back

text: saline intrusion

text: in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.A well-known and frequently quoted success story on water reuse (IPR) is Singapore (Singapore). At the end of 2002, the programme - successfully branded as NEWater - had garnered a 98 per cent acceptance rate, with 82% of respondents indicating that they would drink the reused water directly, another 16% only when mixed with reservoir water. MF/RO and UV are used for the wastewater treatment by the PUB-Singapore's National Water Agency. The produced NEWater after stabilization (addition of alkaline chemicals) is in compliance with the WHO requirements and can be piped off to its wide range of applications (e.g. reuse in industry, discharge to a drinking water reservoir).

text: NEWater

text: now makes up around 30% of Singapore’s total use, by 2060 Singapore’s National Water Agency plans to triple the current NEWater capacity as to meet 50% of Singapore’s future water demand. Today, the water is mostly used by industry, including high-tech industries requiring ultra-pure water (Growing Blue, 2011), and only a very small percentage of NEWater is blended with reservoir water used to produce drinking water.

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answers: saline intrusion in coastal aquifers

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answers: reclaimed wastewater exists in many countries

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answers: is mostly used by industry

answers: NDQ_011877

answers: Singapore's National Water Agency

answers: NDQ_011878

answers: can be piped off to its wide range of applications

answers: NDQ_011879

answers: very small percentage

text: The government has not taken many measures, political or regulatory to prevent further pollution of water sources other than educating the public on how to identify polluted water sources. This neglects the systematic issues that are associated with water pollution. The environmental protection agency of Kuwait was created with the purpose of addressing these domestic environmental problems; however, there has been little progress in this area.

text: The government has not taken many measures, political or regulatory to prevent further pollution of water sources other than educating the public on how to identify polluted water sources. This neglects the systematic issues that are associated with water pollution. The environmental protection agency of Kuwait was created with the purpose of addressing these domestic environmental problems; however, there has been little progress in this area.

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answers: Kuwait

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answers: domestic environmental problems

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answers: polluted

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answers: domestic

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answers: was created with the purpose of addressing these domestic environmental problems

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answers: prevent further pollution of water sources

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answers: 9

text: Members of the Variable Media Network and CIAO subsequently joined forces with other organizations, including Rhizome.org, an affiliate of New York's New Museum of Contemporary Art, for collective preservation endeavors such as Archiving the Avant Garde. This broader coalition, operating under the rubric Forging the Future, is managed by the Still Water lab at the University of Maine and offers free, open-source tools for new media preservation, including the 3rd-generation Variable Media Questionnaire.

text: Members of the Variable Media Network and CIAO subsequently joined forces with other organizations, including

text: Rhizome.org

text: , an affiliate of New York's

text: New Museum of Contemporary Art

text: , for collective preservation endeavors such as Archiving the Avant Garde. This broader coalition, operating under the rubric Forging the Future, is managed by the

text: Still Water

text: lab at the University of Maine and offers free, open-source tools for new media preservation, including the 3rd-generation Variable Media Questionnaire.

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