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text: However, the difference in economic growth is offset by a difference in energy intensity. Some say these two opposite effects fully cancel, some say this is only partial. Overall, the effect of a switch from MER to PPP is likely to have a minimal effect on carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Castles and Henderson later accepted this and acknowledged that they were mistaken that future greenhouse gas emissions had been significantly overestimated.

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text: Fungi are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. This does not mean that light is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal to induce fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through spores. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a substrate. This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning.

entity_name: Fungus

text: Fungi

text: are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through

entity_name: Photosynthesis

text: photosynthesis

text: , a process that converts atmospheric

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: into

entity_name: Carbohydrate

text: carbohydrate

text: s, especially

entity_name: Cellulose

text: cellulose

text: . While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their

entity_name: Growth medium

text: growth medium

text: , through biochemical

entity_name: Decomposition

text: decomposition

text: processes. This does not mean that light is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal to induce fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through

entity_name: Spore

text: spore

text: s. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop.

entity_name: Mycelium

text: Mycelium

text: , or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a

entity_name: Substrate (biology)

text: substrate

text: . This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning.

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answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: NDQ_000914

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000915

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text: Kepler-26e is a Super-Earth 1573 light years away. It orbits a K or M type star. Its orbital period is 46.8279 days long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the habitable zone. Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably tidally locked. There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high radius, it probably also has high mass, making it more likely to possess a thick atmosphere, thus making more of the planet habitable due to the greenhouse effect. There are other planets in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

text: e is a

entity_name: Super‐Earth

text: Super-Earth

entity_name: Light-year

text: light years

text: away. It orbits a

entity_name: K-type main-sequence star

text: K

text: or

entity_name: Red dwarf

text: M

text: type

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: . Its

entity_name: Orbital period

text: orbital period

text: is 46.8279

entity_name: Day

text: day

text: s long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the

entity_name: Circumstellar habitable zone

text: habitable zone

text: . Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably

entity_name: Tidal locking

text: tidally locked

text: . There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high

entity_name: Radius

text: radius

text: , it probably also has high

entity_name: Mass

text: mass

text: , making it more likely to possess a thick

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: , thus making more of the planet habitable due to the

entity_name: Greenhouse effect

text: greenhouse effect

text: . There are other

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: s in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

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answers: Because of its proximity to its star

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answers: 1573 light years away

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answers: It orbits a K or M type star

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answers: It orbits a K or M type star

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answers: Because of its high radius, it probably also has high mass

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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text: Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they are also important factors in the precipitation regimes of areas they affect. They bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. Tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

text: Although

entity_name: Cyclone

text: cyclone

text: s take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they are also important factors in the precipitation regimes of areas they affect. They bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. Tropical cyclones can also relieve

entity_name: Drought

text: drought

text: conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward

entity_name: Temperate climate

text: temperate

entity_name: Latitude

text: latitudes

text: , which makes them an important part of the global

entity_name: Atmospheric circulation

text: atmospheric circulation

text: mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's

entity_name: Troposphere

text: troposphere

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answers: Conduction

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answers: carry heat and energy away from the tropics

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Earth's troposphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Tropical cyclones

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Tropical cyclones

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Tropical cyclones

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: transport it toward temperate latitudes

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: transport it toward temperate latitudes

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface.

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: carry heat and energy

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: heat and energy

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Tropical cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: troposphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: tropical cyclones

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: energy away from the tropics

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: tropical cyclones

text: The most common of these dating techniques is Cosmogenic radionuclide dating.Earth is constantly bombarded with primary cosmic rays, high energy charged particles — mostly protons and alpha particles. These particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases, producing a cascade of secondary particles that may in turn interact and reduce their energies in many reactions as they pass through the atmosphere. By the time the cosmic ray cascade reaches the surface of Earth it is primarily composed of neutrons. When one of these particles strikes an atom it can dislodge one or more protons and/or neutrons from that atom, producing a different element or a different isotope of the original element. In rock and other materials of similar density, most of the cosmic ray flux is absorbed within the first meter of exposed material in reactions that produce new isotopes called cosmogenic nuclides. At Earth's surface most of these nuclides are produced by neutron spallation. Using certain cosmogenic radionuclides, scientists can date how long a particular surface has been exposed, how long a certain piece of material has been buried, or how quickly a location or drainage basin is eroding. The basic principle is that these radionuclides are produced at a known rate, and also decay at a known rate. Accordingly, by measuring the concentration of these cosmogenic nuclides in a rock sample, and accounting for the flux of the cosmic rays and the half-life of the nuclide, it is possible to estimate how long the sample has been exposed to the cosmic rays.The cumulative flux of cosmic rays at a particular location can be affected by several factors, including elevation, geomagnetic latitude, the varying intensity of the Earth's magnetic field, solar winds, and atmospheric shielding due to air pressure variations.Rates of nuclide production must be estimated in order to date a rock sample. These rates are usually estimated empirically by comparing the concentration of nuclides produced in samples whose ages have been dated by other means, such as radiocarbon dating, thermoluminescence, or optically stimulated luminescence.

text: The most common of these dating techniques is Cosmogenic radionuclide dating.Earth is constantly bombarded with primary

entity_name: Cosmic ray

text: cosmic ray

text: s, high energy charged particles — mostly

entity_name: Proton

text: proton

text: s and

entity_name: Alpha particle

text: alpha particle

text: s. These particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases, producing a cascade of secondary particles that may in turn interact and reduce their energies in many reactions as they pass through the atmosphere. By the time the cosmic ray cascade reaches the surface of Earth it is primarily composed of neutrons. When one of these particles strikes an atom it can dislodge one or more protons and/or neutrons from that atom, producing a different element or a different

entity_name: Isotope

text: isotope

text: of the original element. In rock and other materials of similar density, most of the cosmic ray flux is absorbed within the first meter of exposed material in reactions that produce new isotopes called

entity_name: Cosmogenic nuclide

text: cosmogenic nuclide

text: s. At Earth's surface most of these nuclides are produced by neutron

entity_name: Cosmic ray spallation

text: spallation

text: . Using certain cosmogenic

entity_name: Radionuclide

text: radionuclide

text: s, scientists can date how long a particular surface has been exposed, how long a certain piece of material has been buried, or how quickly a location or

entity_name: Drainage basin

text: drainage basin

text: is eroding. The basic principle is that these radionuclides are produced at a known rate, and also decay at a known rate. Accordingly, by measuring the concentration of these cosmogenic nuclides in a rock sample, and accounting for the flux of the cosmic rays and the half-life of the nuclide, it is possible to estimate how long the sample has been exposed to the cosmic rays.The cumulative flux of cosmic rays at a particular location can be affected by several factors, including elevation, geomagnetic latitude, the varying intensity of the

entity_name: Earth's magnetic field

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , solar winds, and atmospheric shielding due to air pressure variations.Rates of nuclide production must be estimated in order to date a rock sample. These rates are usually estimated empirically by comparing the concentration of nuclides produced in samples whose ages have been dated by other means, such as

entity_name: Radiocarbon dating

text: radiocarbon dating

entity_name: Thermoluminescence

text: thermoluminescence

text: , or

entity_name: Optically stimulated luminescence

text: optically stimulated luminescence

method: UNH-qee

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: The particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: neutron spallation

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: atmospheric shielding

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: neutron spallation

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Earth is constantly bombarded with primary cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: neutrons

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Convection currents

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: These particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide and water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: proton

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: neutron spallation

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Solar radiation travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: electromagnetic waves

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: alpha particles

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: cosmic ray

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: neutron spallation

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: alpha particles

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: neutrons

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Radiocarbon dating is used to estimate how long a rock sample has been exposed to the cosmic rays.

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: solar winds

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: atmospheric gases

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: atmospheric gases

text: Solar power forecasting involves knowledge of the Sun´s path, the atmosphere's condition, the scattering processes and the characteristics of a solar energy plant which utilizes the Sun's energy to create solar power. Solar photovoltaic systems transform solar energy into electric power. The power output depends on the incoming radiation and on the solar panel characteristics. Photovoltaic power production is increasing nowadays. Forecast information is essential for an efficient use, the management of the electricity grid and for solar energy trading. Common solar forecasting method include stochastic learning method, local and remote sensing method, and hybrid method (Chu et al. 2016).

text: Solar power forecasting involves knowledge of the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: ´s path, the

text: atmosphere

text: 's condition, the scattering processes and the characteristics of a

entity_name: Solar energy

text: solar energy

text: plant which utilizes the Sun's energy to create

entity_name: Solar power

text: solar power

text: . Solar

entity_name: Photovoltaic system

text: photovoltaic system

text: s transform solar energy into electric power. The power output depends on the incoming radiation and on the solar panel characteristics. Photovoltaic power production is increasing nowadays. Forecast information is essential for an efficient use, the management of the electricity grid and for solar energy trading. Common solar forecasting method include stochastic learning method, local and remote sensing method, and hybrid method (Chu et al. 2016).

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answers: The scattering processes

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answers: Solar power

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answers: Essential for an efficient use, the management of the electricity grid

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answers: Carbon dioxide

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answers: Deep purple

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answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

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answers: the Sun's energy

text: |Tokai, Japan Kamioka, Japan|2011-||-| UNO| Underground Nucleon decay and neutrino Observatory| S, ATM, GSN, RSN| | | ES| Water ( HO)| Cherenkov| | Henderson Mine, Colorado| future| |-|} Accelerator neutrino (AC), Active galactic nuclei neutrino (AGN), Atmospheric neutrino (ATM), Cosmic ray neutrino (CR), Low-energy solar neutrino (LS), Low-energy supernova neutrino (LSN), Pulsar neutrino (PUL), Reactor neutrino (R), Solar neutrino (S), Supernova neutrino (SN), Terrestrial neutrino (T)<br> Double beta decay (BB), Charged current (CC), Elastic scattering (ES), Neutral current (NC)

entity_name: Tōkai, Ibaraki

text: Tokai, Japan Kamioka, Japan

text: UNO

text: | Underground Nucleon decay and neutrino Observatory| S, ATM, GSN, RSN| | | ES|

entity_name: Water

text: Water

text: ( HO)|

entity_name: Cherenkov detector

text: Cherenkov

text: Henderson Mine

entity_name: Colorado

text: Colorado

text: | future| |-|} Accelerator neutrino (AC), Active galactic nuclei neutrino (AGN), Atmospheric neutrino (ATM), Cosmic ray neutrino (CR), Low-energy solar neutrino (LS), Low-energy supernova neutrino (LSN), Pulsar neutrino (PUL), Reactor neutrino (R), Solar neutrino (S), Supernova neutrino (SN), Terrestrial neutrino (T)<br>

entity_name: Double beta decay

text: Double beta decay

text: (BB),

entity_name: Charged current

text: Charged current

text: (CC),

entity_name: Elastic scattering

text: Elastic scattering

text: (ES),

entity_name: Neutral current

text: Neutral current

text: (NC)

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answers: Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from one object to another.

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answers: br>br>br>br>

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answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

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answers: Earth's temperature rises

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answers: The greenhouse effect is caused by the increase in greenhouse gases.

text: An enhanced greenhouse effect is expected to cause cooling in higher parts of the atmosphere. Cooling of the lower stratosphere (about 49,000-79,500 ft.) since 1979 is shown by both satellite Microwave sounding unit and radiosonde data, but is larger in the radiosonde data likely due to uncorrected errors in the radiosonde data (see figure opposite).

text: An enhanced

text: greenhouse effect

text: is expected to cause cooling in higher parts of the atmosphere. Cooling of the lower

entity_name: Stratosphere

text: stratosphere

text: (about 49,000-79,500 ft.) since 1979 is shown by both satellite

entity_name: Microwave sounding unit

text: Microwave sounding unit

text: and

entity_name: Radiosonde

text: radiosonde

text: data, but is larger in the radiosonde data likely due to uncorrected errors in the radiosonde data (see figure opposite).

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

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text: Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations.

text: Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with

entity_name: Electromagnetic compatibility

text: electromagnetic compatibility

text: (EMC) regulations.

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text: Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider. One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration in Active galactic nuclei. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a  baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .

text: Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic

entity_name: Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: s (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the

entity_name: Large Hadron Collider

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: . One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the

entity_name: Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration

text: Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration

text: in

entity_name: Active galactic nucleus

text: Active galactic nuclei

text: . At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a  baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .

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text: Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.

entity_name: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with

entity_name: Wind power

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: , and

entity_name: Hydropower

text: hydropower

text: by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.

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text: N is the most abundant element within the atmosphere. However, nitrogen packed in this form is not usable for most biological processes. Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting inert atmospheric N into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as ammonium and nitrogen oxides. This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of ATP) in order to break the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms.

text: N is the most abundant element within the atmosphere. However, nitrogen packed in this form is not usable for most biological processes.

entity_name: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen fixation

text: is the process of converting inert atmospheric N into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as

entity_name: Ammonium

text: ammonium

text: and

text: nitrogen oxides

text: . This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of

text: ATP

text: ) in order to break the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms.

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text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

entity_name: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

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text: A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's center of momentum) may have various kinds of internal energy at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only. However all internal energies of all types contribute to body's mass, inertia, and total energy.

text: A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's

text: center of momentum

text: ) may have various kinds of

text: internal energy

text: at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only. However all internal energies of all types contribute to body's mass, inertia, and total energy.

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answers: all internal energies of all types

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answers: kinetic energy

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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answers: carbon dioxide

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answers: Light travels by conduction

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answers: internal energies of all types

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answers: the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only

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answers: A macroscopic body

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answers: internal energies of all types

text: The Lord was surrounded by His personal associates Nanda and Sunanda, and the personified Sudarsana disc was also standing by Him. As is stated in the Vedas, the Lord has innumerable energies, and they were also standing there personified. The most important among them were as follows: Pusti, the energy for nourishment, Sri, the energy of beauty, Kirti, the energy of reputation, and Aja, the energy of material creation. All these energies are invested in the administrators of the material world, namely Lord Brahma, Lord Siva and Lord Maha-Vishnu, and in the kings of the heavenly planets, Indra, Chandra, Varuna and Surya,the sun-god. In other words, all these demigods, being empowered by the Lord with certain energies, engage in the transcendental loving service of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. The Maha-Visnu feature is an expansion of Krsna's body. It is also confirmed in the Brahma-samhita that Lord Maha-Vishnu is a portion of a plenary expansion of Krsna. All such expansions are nondifferent from the Personality of Godhead, but since Krsna appeared within this material world to manifest His pastimes as a human being, He and Arjuna immediately offered their respects to Lord Maha-Vishnu by bowing down before Him. It is stated in the Srimad-Bhagavatam that Lord Krsna offered respect to Lord Maha-Vishnu; this means that He offered obeisances unto Him only because Lord Maha-Vishnu is nondifferent from He Himself. This offering of obeisances by Krsna to Maha-Visnu is not, however, the form of worship known as ahangraha-upasana, which is sometimes recommended for persons who are trying to elevate themselves to the spiritual world by performing the sacrifice of knowledge. This is also stated in the Bhagavad-gita: jnana-yajnena capy anye yajanto mam upasate.

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answers: Sri, the energy of beauty, Kirti, the energy of reputation, and Aja, the energy of material creation

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: Brahma-samhita

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: All such expansions are nondifferent from the Personality of Godhead

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: The Maha-Visnu feature

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Srimad-Bhagavatam

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: Sudarsana disc

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: Vedas

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: Srimad-Bhagavatam

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Vedas

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Sun-god

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Brahma-samhita

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Vedas, the Lord has innumerable energies

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Srimad-Bhagavatam

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The Lord was surrounded by His personal associates Nanda and Sunanda

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: Srimad-Bhagavatam

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy of material creation

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Srimad-Bhagavatam

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: Aja

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: All these energies are invested

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Sun-god

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: energies

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: The Maha-Visnu feature is an expansion of Krsna's body

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: It is stated in the Srimad-Bhagavatam that Lord Krsna offered respect to Lord Maha-Vishnu

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Vedas

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: Vedas

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: Aja, the energy of material creation

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: The Lord has innumerable energies, and they were also standing there personified.

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: All such expansions are nondifferent from the Personality of Godhead

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: planets

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: Suryathe sun-god

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: Vedas

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Sun-god

text: Because living systems involve net movement in terms of chemical movement or body movement, and lose energy in those movements through entropy, energy is required for a living system to exist. The main source of energy on Earth is the sun, but other sources of energy exist for life on Earth, such as hydrogen gas or methane, used in chemosynthesis.

text: Because living systems involve net movement in terms of chemical movement or body movement, and lose energy in those movements through

text: entropy

text: energy

text: is required for a living system to exist. The main source of energy on Earth is the sun, but other sources of energy exist for life on Earth, such as hydrogen gas or methane, used in

text: chemosynthesis

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text: Rapper Shyne recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

text: Rapper

text: Shyne

text: recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

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text: When the beam electrons (and scattered electrons from the sample) interact with bound electrons in the innermost electron shells of the atoms of the various elements in the sample, they can scatter the bound electrons from the electron shell producing a vacancy in that shell (ionization of the atom). This vacancy is unstable and must be filled by an electron from either a higher energy bound shell in the atom (producing another vacancy which is in turn filled by electrons from yet higher energy bound shells) or by unbound electrons of low energy. The difference in binding energy between the electron shell in which the vacancy was produced and the shell from which the electron comes to fill the vacancy is emitted as a photon. The energy of the photon is in the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As the electron structure of each element is unique, the series X-ray line energies produced by vacancies in the innermost shells is characteristic of that element, although lines from different elements may overlap. As the innermost shells are involved, the X-ray line energies are generally not affected by chemical effects produced by bonding between elements in compounds except in low atomic number (Z) elements ( B, C, N, O and F for K and Al to Cl for K) where line energies may be shifted as a result of the involvement of the electron shell from which vacancies are filled in chemical bonding.

text: When the beam electrons (and scattered electrons from the sample) interact with bound electrons in the innermost electron shells of the atoms of the various elements in the sample, they can scatter the bound electrons from the electron shell producing a vacancy in that shell (ionization of the atom). This vacancy is unstable and must be filled by an electron from either a higher energy bound shell in the atom (producing another vacancy which is in turn filled by electrons from yet higher energy bound shells) or by unbound electrons of low energy. The difference in binding energy between the electron shell in which the vacancy was produced and the shell from which the electron comes to fill the vacancy is emitted as a photon. The energy of the photon is in the X-ray region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . As the electron structure of each element is unique, the series X-ray line energies produced by vacancies in the innermost shells is characteristic of that element, although lines from different elements may overlap. As the innermost shells are involved, the X-ray line energies are generally not affected by chemical effects produced by bonding between elements in compounds except in low atomic number (Z) elements ( B, C, N, O and F for K and Al to Cl for K) where line energies may be shifted as a result of the involvement of the electron shell from which vacancies are filled in chemical bonding.

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text: Beryllium-10 (Be) is a radioactive isotope of beryllium. It is formed mainly by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen. Beryllium-10 has a half-life of 1.39 × 10 years, and decays by beta decay to stable boron-10 with a maximum energy of 556.2 keV. It decays through the reaction Be→B+e. Light elements in the atmosphere react with high energy galactic cosmic ray particles. The spallation of the reaction products is the source of Be (t, u particles like n or p):

text: Beryllium-10 (Be) is a

text: radioactive

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text: of

text: beryllium

text: . It is formed mainly by the

text: cosmic ray spallation

text: of oxygen. Beryllium-10 has a

text: half-life

text: of 1.39 × 10 years, and decays by

text: beta decay

text: to stable

text: with a maximum energy of 556.2 keV. It decays through the reaction Be→B+e. Light elements in the atmosphere react with high energy

text: galactic cosmic ray

text: particles. The

text: spallation

text: of the reaction products is the source of Be (t, u particles like n or p):

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text: Carbon dioxide () is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere currently constituting about 0.04%, i.e. 400 parts per million (ppm), of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small concentration,  is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect. Reconstructions show that concentrations of  in the atmosphere have varied, ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period  about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.

text: Carbon dioxide

text: () is an important trace gas in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: currently constituting about 0.04%, i.e. 400 parts per million (ppm), of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small concentration,  is a potent

text: greenhouse gas

text: and plays a vital role in regulating

text: Earth

text: 's surface temperature through

text: radiative forcing

text: and the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Reconstructions show that concentrations of  in the atmosphere have varied, ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the

text: Cambrian period

text: about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: of the last two million years.

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text: The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere is 100 to 1,000,000  nanometer (nm). This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:

text: The spectrum of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: striking the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is 100 to 1,000,000

text: nanometer (nm)

text: . This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of

text: wavelength

text: s:

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answers: 100 to 1,000,000 nanometer

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answers: The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere is 100 to 1,000,000 nanometer

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text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy. Atmospheric gravity waves and most of the atmospheric tides generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200 km height.

text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy.

text: Atmospheric gravity wave

text: s and most of the

text: atmospheric tides

text: generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the

text: ionospheric dynamo region

text: between about 100 and 200 km height.

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answers: It drives the electric Sq-current

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text: Umov was the first who introduced in physics such basic concepts as speed and direction of movement of energy, which are now associated with Umov-Poynting vector, and density of energy in a given point of space. During his work in Odessa in 1873—1874, Umov published first papers containing the major ideas of energy movement. In his first works of this period, Umov considered potential energy as kinetic energy of some environments "imperceptible for us". From this hypothesis, he made a conclusion: it is always possible to specify a place where the energy is in. Therefore, it is natural to raise the question about movement of energy. In his following works, Umov did not bind himself to this hypothesis about the nature of potential energy, but was guided by the principle of energy conservation only. After formulating the concept of density and movement of energy, he wrote differential equations for energy movement in the elastic media and in the fluid. The authoritative Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften states: "N. Umov in 1874 had already solved a problem of the movement of energy in liquid and elastic media in completely generalized view. However, the intense attention to this view has been attracted only after Poynting had presented a stream of electromagnetic energy based on Maxwell equations" ten years later than Umov's publications.

text: Umov was the first who introduced in physics such basic concepts as speed and direction of movement of

text: energy

text: , which are now associated with

text: Umov-Poynting vector

text: , and density of energy in a given point of space. During his work in

text: Odessa

text: in 1873—1874, Umov published first papers containing the major ideas of energy movement. In his first works of this period, Umov considered

text: potential energy

text: as

text: kinetic energy

text: of some environments "imperceptible for us". From this hypothesis, he made a conclusion: it is always possible to specify a place where the energy is in. Therefore, it is natural to raise the question about movement of energy. In his following works, Umov did not bind himself to this hypothesis about the nature of potential energy, but was guided by the principle of energy conservation only. After formulating the concept of density and movement of energy, he wrote differential equations for energy movement in the elastic media and in the fluid. The authoritative

text: Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften

text: states: "N. Umov in 1874 had already solved a problem of the movement of energy in liquid and elastic media in completely generalized view. However, the intense attention to this view has been attracted only after

text: Poynting

text: had presented a stream of electromagnetic energy based on

text: Maxwell equations

text: " ten years later than Umov's publications.

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answers: by the principle of energy conservation

text: Photovoltaics is a variable renewable energy (VRE), unlike hydroelectricity or geothermal, and much of the output must be buffered or stored for when it can be used. During an overcast day, the peak output never reaches a level close to what is reached on a clear day. On a partly cloudy day, output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array, and each time the sun shines through the output jumps up to what it would have been on a clear day. Latitude dramatically affects the annual output, with output dropping to zero in winter north and south of the arctic circles. At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter.

text: Photovoltaics

text: is a variable renewable energy (VRE), unlike hydroelectricity or geothermal, and much of the output must be buffered or stored for when it can be used. During an overcast day, the peak output never reaches a level close to what is reached on a clear day. On a partly cloudy day, output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array, and each time the sun shines through the output jumps up to what it would have been on a clear day. Latitude dramatically affects the annual output, with output dropping to zero in winter north and south of the arctic circles. At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter.

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answers: clouds cover the array

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answers: photovoltaics

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answers: Overcast

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answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: On a partly cloudy day, output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: clouds cover the array

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: On a partly cloudy day

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: stored for when it can be used

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answers: VRE

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answers: electricity

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answers: Conduction

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answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum

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answers: clouds

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answers: variable renewable energy

text: Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser gravity makes atmosphere retention difficult. Constituent molecules are more likely to reach escape velocity and be lost to space when buffeted by solar wind or stirred by collision. Planets without a thick atmosphere lack the matter necessary for primal biochemistry, have little insulation and poor heat transfer across their surfaces (for example, Mars, with its thin atmosphere, is colder than the Earth would be if it were at a similar distance from the Sun), and provide less protection against meteoroids and high-frequency radiation. Further, where an atmosphere is less dense than 0.006 Earth atmospheres, water cannot exist in liquid form as the required atmospheric pressure, 4.56 mm Hg (608 Pa) (0.18 inch Hg), does not occur. The temperature range at which water is liquid is smaller at low pressures generally.

text: Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser

text: gravity

text: makes

text: atmosphere

text: retention difficult. Constituent

text: molecule

text: s are more likely to reach

text: escape velocity

text: and be lost to space when buffeted by

text: solar wind

text: or stirred by collision. Planets without a thick atmosphere lack the matter necessary for primal

text: biochemistry

text: , have little insulation and poor

text: heat transfer

text: across their surfaces (for example,

text: Mars

text: , with its thin atmosphere, is colder than the Earth would be if it were at a similar distance from the Sun), and provide less protection against

text: meteoroid

text: s and high-frequency

text: radiation

text: . Further, where an atmosphere is less dense than 0.006 Earth atmospheres, water cannot exist in liquid form as the required

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , 4.56

text: mm Hg

text: (608 Pa) (0.18

text: inch Hg

text: ), does not occur. The temperature range at which water is liquid is smaller at low pressures generally.

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text: Allen Taflove is a full professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science of Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering, since 1988.  Since 1972, he has pioneered basic theoretical approaches, numerical algorithms, and applications of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) computational solutions of Maxwell's equations.  He coined the descriptors "finite difference time domain" and "FDTD" in the 1980 paper, "Application of the finite-difference time-domain method to sinusoidal steady-state electromagnetic penetration problems," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 22, pp. 191–202, Aug. 1980 .  In 1990, he was the first person to be named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in the FDTD area.  Prof. Taflove is the recipient of the 2014 IEEE Electromagnetics Award with the following citation: "For contributions to the development and application of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions of Maxwell's equations across the electromagnetic spectrum."

text: Allen Taflove is a full professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science of Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering, since 1988.  Since 1972, he has pioneered basic theoretical approaches, numerical algorithms, and applications of

text: finite-difference time-domain

text: FDTD

text: ) computational solutions of

text: Maxwell's equations

text: .  He coined the descriptors "finite difference time domain" and "FDTD" in the 1980 paper, "Application of the finite-difference time-domain method to sinusoidal steady-state electromagnetic penetration problems," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 22, pp. 191–202, Aug. 1980 .  In 1990, he was the first person to be named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (

entity_name: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: IEEE

text: ) in the FDTD area.  Prof. Taflove is the recipient of the 2014

text: IEEE Electromagnetics Award

text: with the following citation: "For contributions to the development and application of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions of Maxwell's equations across the electromagnetic spectrum."

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text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red gaur") is a sweetened, non-carbonated energy drink developed by Chaleo Yoovidhya. The drink is sold in Southeast Asia, China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the gaur (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild bovine of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world, Red Bull. When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-billionaire.

text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red

text: gaur

text: ") is a sweetened, non-

text: carbonated

text: energy drink

text: developed by

text: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: . The drink is sold in

text: Southeast Asia

text: , China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the

text: gaur

text: (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild

text: bovine

text: of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world,

text: Red Bull

text: . When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-

text: billionaire

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text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy

text: quanta

text: emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the

text: phonons

text: responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than

text: photons

text: invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

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text: Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Since the amount of carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of greenhouse gases.

text: Climate engineering

text: consists of

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Since the amount of

text: carbon dioxide

text: determines the

text: radiative balance

text: of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the

text: radiative forcing

text: . Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of

text: greenhouse gases

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text: The SNO experiment was also able to observe atmospheric neutrinos produced by cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere. Due to the limited size of the SNO detector in comparison with Super-K the low cosmic ray neutrino signal is not statistically significant at neutrino energies below 1 GeV.

text: The SNO experiment was also able to observe atmospheric neutrinos produced by

text: cosmic ray

text: interactions in the atmosphere. Due to the limited size of the SNO detector in comparison with Super-K the low cosmic ray neutrino signal is not statistically significant at neutrino energies below 1

text: GeV

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text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel – such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel – produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.Such fuels are produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in turn in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a

text: synthetic fuel

text: – such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: – produced from renewable or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: power plant flue-gas emissions

text: , recovered from automotive

text: exhaust gas

text: , or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: s, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to

text: carbon capture

text: at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: .Such fuels are produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in turn in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: to make traditional transportation or heating

text: fuel

text: s.

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answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

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answers: fossil fuels

text: HAWC detects electromagnetic radiation from air showers produced by high energy cosmic rays which hit the Earth's atmosphere. HAWC is sensitive to showers produced by primary cosmic rays with energies between 100 GeV and 50 TeV.

text: HAWC detects

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: from

text: air showers

text: produced by high energy cosmic rays which hit the Earth's atmosphere. HAWC is sensitive to showers produced by primary cosmic rays with energies between 100 GeV and 50 TeV.

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answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

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answers: high energy cosmic rays

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answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

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answers: HAWC

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answers: NDQ_000893

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answers: HAWC detects electromagnetic radiation from air showers produced by high energy cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000911

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text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: . A global movement towards the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

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text: One of the major issues that this engine encountered while being developed was that the efficiency of this model was extremely poor in real applications. Because the heat source is not contained to a specific area, only a small portion of the potential fuel is being consumed to power the engine. Because Engine efficiency is defined by the relationship between the amount of work done and the potential energy in the fuel consumed, it can be seen that in the vacuum engine only a small amount of the burning fuel is being used to power the engine. The rest of the fuel energy is lost to the surrounding atmosphere.

text: One of the major issues that this engine encountered while being developed was that the efficiency of this model was extremely poor in real applications. Because the heat source is not contained to a specific area, only a small portion of the potential fuel is being consumed to power the engine. Because

text: Engine efficiency

text: is defined by the relationship between the amount of work done and the potential energy in the fuel consumed, it can be seen that in the vacuum engine only a small amount of the burning fuel is being used to power the engine. The rest of the fuel energy is lost to the surrounding atmosphere.

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text: A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:

text: A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the

text: wavelength

text: . Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:

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text: Even though many studies have been undertaken in this area, neither position has yet claimed a consensus view in the academic literature. Recent studies have demonstrated that direct rebound effects are significant (about 30% for energy), but that there is not enough information about indirect effects to know whether or how often back-fire occurs. Economists tend to the first position, but most governments, businesses, and environmental groups adhere to the second. Governments and environmental groups often advocate further research into fuel efficiency and radical increases in the efficient use of energy as the primary means for reducing energy use and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (to alleviate the impacts of climate change). However, if the first position more accurately reflects economic reality, current efforts to invent fuel-efficient technologies may not much reduce energy use, and may in fact paradoxically increase oil and coal consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions, over the long run.

text: Even though many studies have been undertaken in this area, neither position has yet claimed a consensus view in the academic literature. Recent studies have demonstrated that direct rebound effects are significant (about 30% for energy), but that there is not enough information about indirect effects to know whether or how often back-fire occurs. Economists tend to the first position, but most governments, businesses, and environmental groups adhere to the second. Governments and environmental groups often advocate further research into fuel efficiency and radical increases in the efficient use of energy as the primary means for reducing energy use and reducing

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions (to alleviate the impacts of

text: climate change

text: ). However, if the first position more accurately reflects economic reality, current efforts to invent fuel-efficient technologies may not much reduce energy use, and may in fact paradoxically increase

text: oil

text: and

text: coal

text: consumption, and

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions, over the long run.

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text: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.

text: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.

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text: An Atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere, such as the Earth's.

text: An Atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates

text: radiative transfer

text: of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere, such as the Earth's.

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text: The major atmospheric constituents, nitrogen (), oxygen (), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because molecules containing two atoms of the same element such as  and  and monatomic molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate and hence are almost totally unaffected by infrared radiation. Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

text: The major atmospheric constituents,

text: nitrogen

text: oxygen

text: (), and

text: argon

text: (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because

text: molecules containing two atoms of the same element

text: such as  and  and

text: monatomic

text: molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the

text: distribution of their electrical charges

text: when they vibrate and hence are almost totally unaffected by

text: infrared radiation

text: . Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as

text: carbon monoxide

text: (CO) or

text: hydrogen chloride

text: (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

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text: When a high-energy (TeV) gamma photon or cosmic ray interacts with the Earth's atmosphere, it may produce an electron-positron pair with enormous velocities. The Cherenkov radiation emitted in the atmosphere by these charged particles is used to determine the direction and energy of the cosmic ray or gamma ray, which is used for example in the Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique (IACT), by experiments such as VERITAS, H.E.S.S., MAGIC. Cherenkov radiation emitted in tanks filled with water by those charged particles reaching earth is used for the same goal by the Extensive Air Shower experiment HAWC, the Pierre Auger Observatory and other projects. Similar methods are used in very large neutrino detectors, such as the Super-Kamiokande, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) and IceCube. Other projects operated in the past applying related techniques, such as STACEE, a former solar tower refurbished to work as a non-imaging Cherenkov observatory, which was located in New Mexico.

text: When a high-energy (

text: TeV

text: gamma photon

text: or

text: cosmic ray

text: interacts with the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , it may produce an electron-

text: positron

text: pair

text: with enormous velocities. The Cherenkov radiation emitted in the atmosphere by these charged particles is used to determine the direction and energy of the cosmic ray or gamma ray, which is used for example in the

text: Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique

text: IACT

text: ), by experiments such as

text: VERITAS

text: H.E.S.S.

text: MAGIC

text: . Cherenkov radiation emitted in tanks filled with water by those charged particles reaching earth is used for the same goal by the Extensive Air Shower experiment

entity_name: High Altitude Water Cherenkov Experiment

text: HAWC

text: , the

text: Pierre Auger Observatory

text: and other projects. Similar methods are used in very large

text: neutrino

text: detectors, such as the

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: , the

text: Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO)

text: and

text: IceCube

text: . Other projects operated in the past applying related techniques, such as

text: STACEE

text: , a former solar tower refurbished to work as a non-imaging Cherenkov observatory, which was located in

text: New Mexico

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text: The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes: "There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published.

text: The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by

text: George Simpson

text: in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes: "There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published.

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answers: Energy can not be created or destroyed

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answers: computers were not available

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answers: water vapor

text: The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. For more information on the health effects due to specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles:

text: The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. For more information on the health effects due to specific parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , see the following articles:

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answers: Conduction

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answers: Specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: The sun provides most of the energy on Earth.

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answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum

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answers: electromagnetic

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answers: electromagnetic fields

text: A Microwave radiometer (MWR) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths (at frequencies of 1–1000 GHz) known as microwaves. Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by material media like the atmosphere. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including weather forecasting, climate monitoring, radio astronomy and radio propagation studies.

text: A Microwave radiometer (MWR) is a

text: radiometer

text: that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths (at frequencies of 1–1000

text: GHz

text: ) known as

text: microwaves

text: . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by material media like the atmosphere. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including

text: weather forecasting

text: , climate monitoring,

text: radio astronomy

text: and radio propagation studies.

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text: Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from Columbus, Ohio. Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by Blueprint, Inkwel, and Manifest, it consists of Blueprint and Illogic.

text: Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from

text: Columbus, Ohio

text: . Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by

text: Blueprint

text: , Inkwel, and Manifest, it consists of Blueprint and

text: Illogic

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text: In contrast to the previously bleak picture for life, 1997 studies by Robert Haberle and Manoj Joshi of NASA's Ames Research Center in California have shown that a planet's atmosphere (assuming it included greenhouse gases CO and HO) need only be 100 millibar, or 10% of Earth's atmosphere, for the star's heat to be effectively carried to the night side, a figure well within the bounds of photosynthesis. Research two years later by Martin Heath of Greenwich Community College has shown that seawater, too, could effectively circulate without freezing solid if the ocean basins were deep enough to allow free flow beneath the night side's ice cap. Additionally, a 2010 study concluded that Earth-like water worlds tidally locked to their stars would still have temperatures above  on the night side. Climate models constructed in 2013 indicate that cloud formation on tidally locked planets would minimize the temperature difference between the day and the night side, greatly improving habitability prospects for red dwarf planets. Further research, including a consideration of the amount of photosynthetically active radiation, has suggested that tidally locked planets in red dwarf systems might at least be habitable for higher plants.

text: In contrast to the previously bleak picture for life, 1997 studies by Robert Haberle and Manoj Joshi of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Ames Research Center

text: in California have shown that a planet's atmosphere (assuming it included greenhouse gases

text: CO

text: and

text: HO

text: ) need only be 100 milli

text: bar

text: , or 10% of Earth's atmosphere, for the star's heat to be effectively carried to the night side, a figure well within the bounds of photosynthesis. Research two years later by Martin Heath of

text: Greenwich Community College

text: has shown that seawater, too, could effectively circulate without freezing solid if the ocean basins were deep enough to allow free flow beneath the night side's ice cap. Additionally, a 2010 study concluded that Earth-like

text: water worlds

text: tidally locked to their stars would still have temperatures above  on the night side. Climate models constructed in 2013 indicate that cloud formation on tidally locked planets would minimize the temperature difference between the day and the night side, greatly improving habitability prospects for red dwarf planets. Further research, including a consideration of the amount of photosynthetically active radiation, has suggested that tidally locked planets in red dwarf systems might at least be habitable for higher plants.

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text: Energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some service to society such  as heating, refrigeration, light, or performing mechanical energy to operate machines. For example, an internal combustion engine converts the potential chemical energy in gasoline and oxygen into thermal energy which, by causing pressure and performing work on the pistons, is transformed into the mechanical energy that accelerates the vehicle (increasing its kinetic energy). A thermal or heat energy converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy that can then be used in a party.

text: Energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some service to society such  as heating, refrigeration,

text: light

text: , or performing mechanical energy to operate machines. For example, an

text: internal combustion engine

text: converts the potential

text: chemical energy

text: in gasoline and oxygen into thermal energy which, by causing pressure and performing work on the pistons, is transformed into the mechanical energy that accelerates the vehicle (increasing its

text: kinetic energy

text: ). A

text: thermal or heat energy

text: converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy that can then be used in a party.

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text: Ice cap climates have only existed in ice ages. There have been at least five such ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is currently in an ice age, in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in

text: ice ages

text: . There have been at least five such ice ages in the

text: Earth

text: 's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is

text: currently in an ice age

text: , in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

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text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona), when the plasma medium is heated to tens of millions of Kelvin, while the cosmic-ray-like electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass ejections (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (

text: photosphere

text: chromosphere

text: , and

text: corona

text: ), when the

text: plasma

text: medium is heated to tens of millions of

text: Kelvin

text: , while the

text: cosmic-ray

text: -like

text: electron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s, and heavier

text: ion

text: s are accelerated to near the

text: speed of light

text: . They produce

text: radiation

text: across the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: at all

text: wavelength

text: s, from

text: radio waves

text: to

text: gamma ray

text: s, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around

text: sunspot

text: s, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the

text: photosphere

text: to link the

text: corona

text: to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce

text: coronal mass ejections

text: (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

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answers: plasma medium is heated to tens of millions of Kelvin

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady

text: loss of the atmosphere into space

text: . Because unfixed

text: hydrogen

text: has a low

text: molecular mass

text: , it can achieve

text: escape velocity

text: more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially

text: reducing

text: state to its current

text: oxidizing

text: one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

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text: is less than one, a greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of

text: is less than one, a greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of

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text: Energy in fluid is contained in four different forms: gravitational potential energy, thermodynamic pressure, kinetic energy from the velocity and finally thermal energy. Gravitational and thermal energy have a negligible effect on the energy extraction process. From a macroscopic point of view, the air flow about the wind turbine is at atmospheric pressure. If pressure is constant then only kinetic energy is extracted. However up close near the rotor itself the air velocity is constant as it passes through the rotor plane. This is because of conservation of mass. The air that passes through the rotor cannot slow down because it needs to stay out of the way of the air behind it. So at the rotor the energy is extracted by a pressure drop. The air directly behind the wind turbine is at sub-atmospheric pressure; the air in front is under greater than atmospheric pressure. It is this high pressure in front of the wind turbine that deflects some of the upstream air around the turbine.

text: Energy in fluid is contained in four different forms:

text: gravitational potential energy

text: thermodynamic pressure

text: kinetic energy

text: from the velocity and finally

text: thermal energy

text: . Gravitational and thermal energy have a negligible effect on the energy extraction process. From a macroscopic point of view, the air flow about the wind turbine is at atmospheric pressure. If pressure is constant then only kinetic energy is extracted. However up close near the rotor itself the air velocity is constant as it passes through the rotor plane. This is because of

text: conservation of mass

text: . The air that passes through the rotor cannot slow down because it needs to stay out of the way of the air behind it. So at the rotor the energy is extracted by a pressure drop. The air directly behind the wind turbine is at sub-

text: atmospheric pressure

text: ; the air in front is under greater than atmospheric pressure. It is this high pressure in front of the wind turbine that deflects some of the upstream air around the turbine.

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answers: It does not.

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text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years—a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes.

text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years—a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from

text: cryovolcanoes

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text: is latitude, and z is the geometric elevation. Thus geopotential is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass at that elevation h.

text: is latitude, and z is the geometric elevation. Thus geopotential is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass at that elevation h.

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text: Climate sensitivity is often evaluated in terms of the change in equilibrium temperature due to radiative forcing due to the greenhouse effect.  According to the Arrhenius relation, the radiative forcing (and hence the change in temperature) is proportional to the logarithm of the concentration of infrared-absorbing gasses in the atmosphere.  Thus, the sensitivity of temperature to gasses in the atmosphere (most notably carbon dioxide) is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

text: Climate sensitivity is often evaluated in terms of the change in equilibrium temperature due to radiative forcing due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: .  According to the

text: Arrhenius

text: relation, the radiative forcing (and hence the change in temperature) is proportional to the

text: logarithm

text: of the concentration of

text: infrared

text: -absorbing gasses in the atmosphere.  Thus, the sensitivity of temperature to gasses in the atmosphere (most notably

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

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text: The world's oceans are warming due to climate change. Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect, variation in the sun's energy that reaches Earth, and changes in reflectivity within Earth's atmosphere and its surface. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight. Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space. Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth. Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect.

text: The world's oceans are warming due to climate change. Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect, variation in the sun's energy that reaches Earth, and changes in reflectivity within Earth's atmosphere and its surface. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight. Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space. Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth. Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect.

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text: This low mass star has a stellar classification of M4 V, which places it among a category of stars known as red dwarfs. It has 15% of the mass of the Sun and 21% of the Sun's radius, but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.036% of the Sun's visible luminosity. However, most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the infrared band, with the bolometric luminosity being equal to 0.35% of solar. This energy is being radiated from the star's outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,180 K. This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an M-type star.

text: This low mass star has a

text: stellar classification

text: of M4 V, which places it among a category of stars known as

text: red dwarf

text: s. It has 15% of the mass of the Sun and 21% of the Sun's radius, but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.036% of the Sun's visible luminosity. However, most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the

text: infrared band

text: , with the

text: bolometric luminosity

text: being equal to 0.35% of solar. This energy is being radiated from the star's

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 3,180 K. This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an

text: M-type star

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answers: It has 15% of the mass of the Sun

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text: From outer space, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays reach Earth. These consist of single sub-atomic particles (protons or atomic nuclei), each with energy levels beyond 10 eV. When such a single particle reaches Earth atmosphere, it has its energy dissipated by creating billions of other particles: electrons, photons and muons, all near the speed of light. These particles spread longitudinal (perpendicular to the single particle incoming route), creating a forward moving plane of particles, with higher intensities near the axis. Such an incident is called an "air shower". Passing through the atmosphere, this plane of particles creates UV light, invisible to the human eye, called the fluorescing effect, more or less in the pattern of straight lightning traces. These traces can be photographed at high speed by specialised telescopes, called Fluorescence Detectors, overlooking an area with at a slight elevation. Then, when the particles reach the Earth surface, they can be detected when they arrive in a water tank, where they cause visible blue light due to the Cherenkov effect. A sensitive photoelectric tube can catch these impacts. Such a station is called a water Cherenkov Detector or 'tank'. The Auger Observatory has both types of detectors covering the same area, which allows for very precise measurements.

text: From outer space, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays reach Earth. These consist of single

text: sub-atomic particle

text: s (

text: proton

text: s or

text: atomic nuclei

text: ), each with energy levels beyond 10

text: eV

text: . When such a single particle reaches Earth atmosphere, it has its energy dissipated by creating billions of other particles:

text: electron

text: s,

text: photon

text: s and

text: muon

text: s, all near the speed of light. These particles spread longitudinal (perpendicular to the single particle incoming route), creating a forward moving plane of particles, with higher intensities near the axis. Such an incident is called an "

text: air shower

text: ". Passing through the atmosphere, this plane of particles creates UV light, invisible to the human eye, called the fluorescing effect, more or less in the pattern of straight lightning traces. These traces can be photographed at high speed by specialised telescopes, called Fluorescence Detectors, overlooking an area with at a slight elevation. Then, when the particles reach the Earth surface, they can be detected when they arrive in a water tank, where they cause visible blue light due to the

text: Cherenkov effect

text: . A sensitive photoelectric tube can catch these impacts. Such a station is called a water Cherenkov Detector or 'tank'. The Auger Observatory has both types of detectors covering the same area, which allows for very precise measurements.

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answers: higher intensities near the axis

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answers: These particles spread longitudinal

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answers: unanswerable

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answers: cosmic rays

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by neutrinos, must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active compost heap, and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's

text: heat

text: via

text: fusion

text: : the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by

text: neutrinos

text: , must travel through many successive layers to the

text: solar photosphere

text: before it escapes into space as

text: sunlight

text: or

text: kinetic energy

text: of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active

text: compost heap

text: , and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

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answers: The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: The energy produced by fusion in the core

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: photosphere

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answers: sunlight

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answers: photosphere

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: energy produced by fusion in the core

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: metabolism

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: neutrinos

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: fusion

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answers: kinetic energy

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answers: The energy produced by fusion in the core

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answers: the Sun is much hotter than a compost heap

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: the solar photosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: power of fusion in the core

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: the Sun's enormous volume

text: In the video game Chrono Trigger (1995), the giant alien creature Lavos collides with the earth in prehistoric times, subsequently hibernating beneath the earth. As millions of years pass, the monster feeds on the energy of the earth, eventually surfacing in 1999 to wreak complete destruction of the human race, atmosphere, and general life on the planet in the form of a rain of destruction fired from its outer shell, known as the 'Day of Lavos'.

text: In the video game

text: Chrono Trigger

text: (1995), the giant alien creature Lavos collides with the earth in prehistoric times, subsequently hibernating beneath the earth. As millions of years pass, the monster feeds on the energy of the earth, eventually surfacing in 1999 to wreak complete destruction of the human race, atmosphere, and general life on the planet in the form of a rain of destruction fired from its outer shell, known as the 'Day of Lavos'.

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text: Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about −18 °C (-0.4 °F) . The surface temperature would be 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).

text: Earth’s natural

text: greenhouse effect

text: makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about −18 °C (-0.4 °F) . The surface temperature would be 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).

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answers: Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about  18 °C (-0.4 °F).

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text: Because the energy levels of molecular vibration and rotation are similar, the photons emitted due to transition between these levels have comparatively low energy, and longer wavelength, than visible and near-infrared light. The 9-12 μm wavelength of CO lasers is useful because it falls into an important window for atmospheric transmission (up to 80% atmospheric transmission at this wavelength), and because many natural and synthetic materials have strong characteristic absorptions in this range.

text: Because the energy levels of molecular vibration and rotation are similar, the photons emitted due to transition between these levels have comparatively low energy, and longer wavelength, than visible and near-infrared light. The 9-12 μm wavelength of CO lasers is useful because it falls into an important window for atmospheric transmission (up to 80% atmospheric transmission at this wavelength), and because many natural and synthetic materials have strong characteristic absorptions in this range.

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answers: up to 80% atmospheric transmission at this wavelength

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text: When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with altitude, and at roughly 5–6 kilometres, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.

text: When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with

text: altitude

text: , and at roughly 5–6

text: kilometre

text: s, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.

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text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its kinetic energy density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that energy is conserved.

text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its

text: kinetic energy

text: density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that

text: energy is conserved

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text: A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It mainly warms up because the sun warms the ground and contents inside, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.

text: A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It mainly warms up because the sun warms the ground and contents inside, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (

text: R. W. Wood

text: , 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of

text: rock salt

text: (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing

text: convective

text: cooling.

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text: Many of these problems are related to failures in classical electrodynamics that were identified but unsolved in the 19th century, and they basically stem from the fact that many of the supposedly "intrinsic" properties of an electron are tied to the electromagnetic field that it carries around with it. The energy carried by a single electron—its self-energy—is not simply the bare value, but also includes the energy contained in its electromagnetic field, its attendant cloud of photons. The energy in a field of a spherical source diverges in both classical and quantum mechanics, but as discovered by Weisskopf with help from Furry, in quantum mechanics the divergence is much milder, going only as the logarithm of the radius of the sphere.

text: Many of these problems are related to failures in

text: classical electrodynamics

text: that were identified but unsolved in the 19th century, and they basically stem from the fact that many of the supposedly "intrinsic" properties of an electron are tied to the electromagnetic field that it carries around with it. The energy carried by a single electron—its

text: self-energy

text: —is not simply the bare value, but also includes the energy contained in its electromagnetic field, its attendant cloud of photons. The energy in a field of a spherical source diverges in both classical and quantum mechanics, but as discovered by

text: Weisskopf

text: with help from

text: Furry

text: , in quantum mechanics the divergence is much milder, going only as the logarithm of the radius of the sphere.

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text: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

text: Radiative cooling

text: is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation.

text: Outgoing

text: energy is an important effect in the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: . In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

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text: A vertical scan of the atmosphere was obtained by tracking the sun during occultation. The scan will measure the amount of solar energy absorbed by gases in the atmosphere.

text: A vertical scan of the atmosphere was obtained by tracking the sun during occultation. The scan will measure the amount of solar energy absorbed by gases in the atmosphere.

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text: The entire electromagnetic spectrum highlighting the infrared part located between the visible and the radio waves, is depicted in the figure. The IR spectrum can be subdivided into 5 regions, although this definition is somehow arbitrary and it differs from one author to another. The subdivision presented here is based on a combination of the atmospheric transmittance windows, i.e. the wavelengths regions in which infrared radiation is better transmitted through the atmosphere, the detector materials used to build the infrared sensors and the main applications. In this way, the Near Infrared (NIR) band is mostly used in fiber optic telecommunication systems since silica (SiO) provides a low attenuation losses medium for the infrared, whilst the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) band allows to work on long-distance telecommunications (remote sensing) using a combinations of detector materials. The Medium Wavelength Infrared (MWIR) and the Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) bands find applications in Infrared Thermography for military or civil applications, e.g. target signature identification, surveillance, NonDestructive Evaluation, etc. The Very Long Wavelength Infrared (VLIR) band is used in spectroscopy and astronomy.

text: The entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: highlighting the infrared part located between the visible and the radio waves, is depicted in the figure. The IR spectrum can be subdivided into 5 regions, although this definition is somehow arbitrary and it differs from one author to another. The subdivision presented here is based on a combination of the atmospheric transmittance windows, i.e. the wavelengths regions in which

text: infrared radiation

text: is better transmitted through the atmosphere, the detector materials used to build the infrared sensors and the main applications. In this way, the Near Infrared (NIR) band is mostly used in fiber optic telecommunication systems since silica (SiO) provides a low attenuation losses medium for the infrared, whilst the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) band allows to work on long-distance telecommunications (remote sensing) using a combinations of detector materials. The Medium Wavelength Infrared (MWIR) and the Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) bands find applications in Infrared Thermography for military or civil applications, e.g. target signature identification, surveillance, NonDestructive Evaluation, etc. The Very Long Wavelength Infrared (VLIR) band is used in spectroscopy and astronomy.

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text: The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.

text: The

text: Seawater greenhouse

text: uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a

text: greenhouse

text: powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.

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answers: The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation processes

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text: The 21 cm spectral line appears within the radio spectrum (in the L band of the UHF band of the microwave window to be exact). Electromagnetic energy in this range can easily pass through the Earth's atmosphere and be observed from the Earth with little interference.

text: The 21 cm spectral line appears within the

text: radio spectrum

text: (in the

text: L band

text: of the

text: UHF band

text: of the

text: microwave window

text: to be exact). Electromagnetic energy in this range can easily pass through the Earth's atmosphere and be observed from the Earth with little interference.

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text: This is a G-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of G1 V. In terms of composition it is similar to the Sun, while the mass and radius are slightly larger. It is 73% more luminous than the Sun and radiates this energy from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of . At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a G-type star. It has a low level of surface activity and is a candidate Maunder minimum analog.

text: This is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of G1 V. In terms of composition it is similar to the

text: Sun

text: , while the mass and radius are slightly larger. It is 73% more luminous than the Sun and radiates this energy from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of . At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a

text: G-type star

text: . It has a low level of surface activity and is a candidate

text: Maunder minimum

text: analog.

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text: CenterPoint Energy is a Fortune 500 electric and natural gas utility serving several markets in the U.S. states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas. It was formerly known as Reliant Energy (from which it is now separated), NorAm Energy, Houston Industries, and HL&P. The company is headquartered in the CenterPoint Energy Tower at 1111 Louisiana Street in Downtown Houston. Some of its notable subscribers include Retail Electric Providers (REPs), such as NRG Energy, Champion Energy, Dynowatt, Ambit Energy, Texas Power, Bounce Energy, MXenergy, Direct Energy, Stream Energy, First Texas Energy Corporation, Gexa Energy, Cirro Energy, and Kona Energy.

text: CenterPoint Energy is a Fortune 500

text: electric

text: and

text: natural gas utility

text: serving several markets in the

text: U.S. states

text: of

text: Arkansas

text: Louisiana

text: Minnesota

text: Mississippi

text: Oklahoma

text: , and

text: Texas

text: . It was formerly known as

text: Reliant Energy

text: (from which it is now separated), NorAm Energy, Houston Industries, and HL&P. The company is headquartered in the

text: CenterPoint Energy Tower

text: at 1111 Louisiana Street in

text: Downtown Houston

text: . Some of its notable subscribers include Retail Electric Providers (REPs), such as

text: NRG Energy

text: Champion Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: Ambit Energy

text: Texas Power

text: Bounce Energy

text: MXenergy

text: Direct Energy

text: Stream Energy

text: First Texas Energy Corporation

text: Gexa Energy

text: Cirro Energy

text: , and

text: Kona Energy

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text: It is not possible to determine delta-v requirements from conservation of energy by considering only the total energy of the vehicle in the initial and final orbits since energy is carried away in the exhaust (see also below). For example, most spacecraft are launched in an orbit with inclination fairly near to the latitude at the launch site, to take advantage of the Earth's rotational surface speed. If it is necessary, for mission-based reasons, to put the spacecraft in an orbit of different inclination, a substantial delta-v is required, though the specific kinetic and potential energies in the final orbit and the initial orbit are equal.

text: It is not possible to determine delta-v requirements from

text: conservation of energy

text: by considering only the total energy of the vehicle in the initial and final orbits since energy is carried away in the exhaust (see also below). For example, most spacecraft are launched in an orbit with inclination fairly near to the latitude at the launch site, to take advantage of the Earth's rotational surface speed. If it is necessary, for mission-based reasons, to put the spacecraft in an orbit of different

text: inclination

text: , a substantial delta-v is required, though the

text: specific kinetic

text: and potential energies in the final orbit and the initial orbit are equal.

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text: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies (see Structure and bonding above). This process causes carbon dioxide to warm the surface and lower atmosphere, while cooling the upper atmosphere. The increase in atmospheric concentration of , and thus in the -induced greenhouse effect, is the reason for the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century. Although carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas primarily responsible for the rise, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and various other long-lived greenhouse gases also contribute. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of those other gases combined, and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime.

text: Carbon dioxide is a

text: greenhouse gas

text: , absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies (see Structure and bonding above). This process causes carbon dioxide to warm the surface and lower atmosphere, while cooling the upper atmosphere. The increase in atmospheric concentration of , and thus in the -induced greenhouse effect, is the reason for the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century. Although carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas primarily responsible for the rise, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and various other long-lived greenhouse gases also contribute. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of those other gases combined, and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime.

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text: Atmospheric tides are global-scale periodic oscillations of the atmosphere. In many ways they are analogous to ocean tides. Atmospheric tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy input into the lower atmosphere from the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere.  Therefore, learning about atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere.

text: Atmospheric tide

text: s are global-scale periodic oscillations of the

text: atmosphere

text: . In many ways they are analogous to ocean

text: tides

text: . Atmospheric tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy input into the lower atmosphere from the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere.  Therefore, learning about atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere.

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text: of minus one is significant in the design of gliders because this indicates a perfect location for a "Total energy" port for supply of signal pressure to the Variometer, a special Vertical Speed Indicator which reacts to vertical movements of the atmosphere but does not react to vertical maneuvering of the glider.

text: of minus one is significant in the design of

text: gliders

text: because this indicates a perfect location for a "Total energy" port for supply of signal pressure to the

text: Variometer

text: , a special Vertical Speed Indicator which reacts to vertical movements of the atmosphere but does not react to vertical maneuvering of the glider.

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text: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling of the seasonal heat budget processes occurring through the Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere. The scope of the model was the column from below the ice pack through the top of the atmosphere. The scientists realized that key to the model was correctly characterizing the changing reflectivity or albedo of the ice surface, owing to changes in snow pack and ice melting. Cloud cover was key to describing how much energy reached or escaped the ocean surface.

text: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling of the seasonal heat budget processes occurring through the Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere. The scope of the model was the column from below the ice pack through the top of the atmosphere. The scientists realized that key to the model was correctly characterizing the changing reflectivity or

text: albedo

text: of the ice surface, owing to changes in snow pack and ice melting. Cloud cover was key to describing how much energy reached or escaped the ocean surface.

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: reflectivity

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: reflectivity or albedo

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: The sun

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: albedo

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: albedo

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: reflectivity or albedo

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: The Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: climate change

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: escaped

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: The Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: Cloud cover

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answers: The Arctic Ocean sea ice

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Cloud

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answers: Cloud cover

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: Cloud

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answers: heat

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answers: The Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: Arctic Ocean

answers: NDQ_000912

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text: A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection  of food chains and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community.  Another name for food web is a consumer-resource system. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow, develop, and to reproduce, autotrophs produce organic matter  from inorganic substances, including both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require energy, which mainly comes from the sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a very small amount comes from hydrothermal vents and hot springs.  A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous plants) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and complete heterotrophs that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly divided into herbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism. Some of the organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as sugars, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from microscopic to many tonnes - from cyanobacteria to giant redwoods, and from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales.

text: A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection  of

text: food chain

text: s and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an

text: ecological community

text: .  Another name for food web is a

text: consumer-resource system

text: . Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called

text: trophic level

text: s: 1) the

text: autotroph

text: s, and 2) the

text: heterotrophs

text: . To

text: maintain

text: their bodies, grow, develop, and to

text: reproduce

text: , autotrophs produce

text: organic

text: matter  from

text: inorganic

text: substances, including both

text: mineral

text: s and

text: gas

text: es such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: . These

text: chemical reaction

text: s require

text: energy

text: , which mainly comes from the

text: sun

text: and largely by

text: photosynthesis

text: , although a very small amount comes from

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s and

text: hot spring

text: s.  A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to

text: mixotrophs

text: (such as

text: carnivorous plants

text: ) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and complete

text: heterotrophs

text: that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly divided into

text: herbivory

text: carnivory

text: scavenging

text: and

text: parasitism

text: . Some of the organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as

text: sugar

text: s, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from

text: microscopic

text: to many

text: tonne

text: s - from

text: cyanobacteria

text: to

text: giant redwood

text: s, and from

text: virus

text: es and

text: bdellovibrio

text: to

text: blue whale

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000891

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000894

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answers: NDQ_000895

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answers: NDQ_000896

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answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: inorganic substances

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: gases such as carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: gradient

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Hydrothermal vents and hot springs

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: A gradient exists between trophic levels

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Hydrothermal vents and hot springs

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Hydrothermal vents

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Hydrothermal vents and hot springs

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: chemical reactions require energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: hydrothermal vents

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: hydrothermal vents and hot springs

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: heat travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: blue whales

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: autotrophs produce organic matter from inorganic substances, including both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Microscopically

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: parasitism

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: microscopic

answers: NDQ_000909

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answers: NDQ_000910

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answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: carbon dioxide

text: The Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine, or SMARTS for short, is a computer program designed to evaluate the surface solar irradiance components in the shortwave spectrum (spectral range 280 to 4000 nm) under cloudless conditions. The program, written in FORTRAN, relies on simplifications of the equation of radiative transfer to allow extremely fast calculations of the surface irradiance. The irradiance components can be incident on a horizontal, a fixed-tilt or a 2-axis tracking surface. SMARTS can be used for example to evaluate the energy production of solar panels under variable atmospheric conditions. Many other applications are possible.

text: The Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine, or SMARTS for short, is a computer program designed to evaluate the surface solar

text: irradiance

text: components in the shortwave spectrum (spectral range 280 to 4000 nm) under cloudless conditions. The program, written in

text: FORTRAN

text: , relies on simplifications of the equation of

text: radiative transfer

text: to allow extremely fast calculations of the surface irradiance. The irradiance components can be incident on a horizontal, a fixed-tilt or a 2-axis tracking surface. SMARTS can be used for example to evaluate the energy production of

text: solar panel

text: s under variable atmospheric conditions. Many other applications are possible.

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answers: Solar irradiance

text: Non-window radiation is by definition absorbed by the atmosphere, and its energy is thereby transduced into kinetic energy of atmospheric molecules. That kinetic energy is then transferred according to the usual dynamics of atmospheric energy transfer.

text: Non-window radiation is by definition absorbed by the atmosphere, and its energy is thereby transduced into kinetic energy of atmospheric molecules. That kinetic energy is then transferred according to the usual dynamics of atmospheric energy transfer.

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text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

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answers: This third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography

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text: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf, with approximately 77% of the mass of the Sun and about 72% of the Sun's diameter. While they are on the main sequence, lower mass stars like this generate energy much more slowly than the Sun. As a result, this star is radiating only 23% of the Sun's bolometric luminosity. HD 156668 is emitting this energy from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of around 4850 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a K-type star. It is slightly more enriched in iron compared to the Sun and is rotating at a leisurely rate of once every 51.5 days. Although much older than the Sun, this star is only middle-aged at about 8.6 billion years.

text: This star has the

text: stellar classification

text: of a

text: K2 dwarf

text: , with approximately 77% of the mass of the Sun and about 72% of the Sun's diameter. While they are on the

text: main sequence

text: , lower mass stars like this generate energy much more slowly than the Sun. As a result, this star is radiating only 23% of the Sun's bolometric luminosity. HD 156668 is emitting this energy from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of around 4850 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a

text: K-type star

text: . It is slightly more enriched in

text: iron

text: compared to the Sun and is rotating at a leisurely rate of once every 51.5 days. Although much older than the Sun, this star is only middle-aged at about 8.6 billion years.

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answers: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf

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answers: 77% of the Sun's mass

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answers: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf

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answers: lower mass stars like this

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answers: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf

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answers: HD 156668

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answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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answers: generate energy much more slowly than the Sun

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answers: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf

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answers: outer atmosphere

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answers: by its outer atmosphere

text: The dryness of the air around and above Mt. Graham is particularly vital for EHF (extremely short wavelength radio) and far-infrared observations - a region of the spectrum where the electromagnetic waves are strongly attenuated by any water vapor or clouds in the air.

text: The dryness of the air around and above Mt. Graham is particularly vital for

text: EHF

text: (extremely short wavelength radio) and far-

text: infrared

text: observations - a region of the

text: spectrum

text: where the

text: electromagnetic wave

text: s are strongly

text: attenuated

text: by any

text: water vapor

text: or clouds in the air.

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text: Bio-energy is derived from biomass which is a renewable energy source and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass combusted or processed re-releases the CO into the atmosphere. The process thus results in a net zero emission of CO, though this may be positively or negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations.  Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO into the atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations. CO with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fuelled power plants, but also during the production of pulp used to make paper and in the production of biofuels such as biogas and bioethanol. The BECCS technology can also be employed on such industrial processes.

text: Bio-energy is derived from biomass which is a

text: renewable energy source

text: and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass combusted or processed re-releases the CO into the atmosphere. The process thus results in a net zero emission of CO, though this may be positively or negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations.

text: Carbon capture and storage

text: (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO into the atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations. CO with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fuelled power plants, but also during the production of

text: pulp

text: used to make paper and in the production of biofuels such as

text: biogas

text: and

text: bioethanol

text: . The BECCS technology can also be employed on such industrial processes.

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text: Solar radiation management (SRM) projects (proposed and theoretical) are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming. Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols. Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active, their potential low financial cost, and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects. Solar radiation management projects could, for example, be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by greenhouse gas remediation techniques. They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide (CO). By comparison, other climate engineering techniques based on greenhouse gas remediation, such as ocean iron fertilization, need to sequester the anthropogenic carbon excess before any reversal of global warming would occur.

text: Solar radiation management (SRM) projects (proposed and theoretical) are a type of

text: climate engineering

text: which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce

text: global warming

text: . Proposed examples include the creation of

entity_name: Stratospheric sulfate aerosols (geoengineering)

text: stratospheric sulfate aerosols

text: . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active, their potential low financial cost, and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects. Solar radiation management projects could, for example, be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by greenhouse gas remediation techniques. They would not reduce

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations in the

text: atmosphere

text: , and thus do not address problems such as

text: ocean acidification

text: caused by excess

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO). By comparison, other climate engineering techniques based on

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: , such as ocean

text: iron fertilization

text: , need to

text: sequester

text: the anthropogenic carbon excess before any reversal of global warming would occur.

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answers: Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed

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text: The radiation is not the only mechanism of energy loss in the corona: since the plasma is highly ionized and the magnetic field is well organized, the thermal conduction is a competitive process.The energy losses due to the thermal conduction are of the same order of coronal radiative losses. The energy released in the corona which is not radiated externally is conducted back towards the chromosphere along the arcs.In the transition region where the temperature is about 10 -10 K, radiative losses are too high to be balanced by any form of mechanical heating.The very high temperature gradient observed in this range of temperatures increases the conductive flux in order to supply for the irradiated power.In other words, the transition region is so steep (the temperature increases from 10kK to 1MK in a distance of the order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous emission lines, which are formed from ionized atoms (oxygen, carbon, iron and so on).

text: The radiation is not the only mechanism of energy loss in the corona: since the

text: plasma

text: is highly ionized and the magnetic field is well organized, the thermal conduction is a competitive process.The energy losses due to the thermal conduction are of the same order of coronal radiative losses. The energy released in the corona which is not radiated externally is conducted back towards the

text: chromosphere

text: along the arcs.In the

text: transition region

text: where the temperature is about 10 -10 K, radiative losses are too high to be balanced by any form of mechanical heating.The very high temperature gradient observed in this range of temperatures increases the conductive flux in order to supply for the irradiated power.In other words, the transition region is so steep (the temperature increases from 10kK to 1MK in a distance of the order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous

text: emission lines

text: , which are formed from ionized atoms (oxygen, carbon, iron and so on).

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text: Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking.  There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.

text: Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its

text: periapsis

text: speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish

text: aerobraking

text: .  There have also been theoretical proposals to use

text: aerodynamic lift

text: as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an

text: aerogravity assist

text: , could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.

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text: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the earth's atmosphere, taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest, that lets some infrared radiation from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission, and thus without heating the atmosphere. It cannot be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions, such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature, and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all, and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally. A large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor, the main greenhouse gas, is most important in the dynamics of the window. Other gases, especially carbon dioxide and ozone, partly block transmission.

text: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the

text: earth's atmosphere

text: , taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest, that lets some

text: infrared radiation

text: from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission, and thus without heating the atmosphere. It cannot be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions, such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature, and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all, and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally. A large gap in the

text: absorption

text: spectrum of water vapor, the main greenhouse gas, is most important in the dynamics of the window. Other gases, especially

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: ozone

text: , partly block transmission.

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text: The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.

text: The

text: potential energy

text: liberated by moving down the Sun's

text: potential well

text: becomes

text: kinetic energy

text: ; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors.

text: Aerobraking

text: is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to

text: escape

text: the Solar System completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a

text: solar sail

text: to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.

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text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed electromagnetic energy (particularly of light) on matter by means of acoustic detection. The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates to 1880 when Alexander Graham Bell showed that thin discs emitted sound when exposed to a beam of sunlight that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The absorbed energy from the light causes local heating and through thermal expansion a pressure wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar spectrum (i.e., the infrared and the ultraviolet) can also produce sounds.

text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed

text: electromagnetic energy

text: (particularly of

text: light

text: ) on

text: matter

text: by means of

text: acoustic

text: detection. The discovery of the

text: photoacoustic effect

text: dates to 1880 when

text: Alexander Graham Bell

text: showed that thin discs emitted

text: sound

text: when exposed to a

text: beam

text: of

text: sunlight

text: that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The

text: absorbed

text: energy

text: from the light causes local

text: heat

text: ing and through

text: thermal expansion

text: a

text: pressure

text: wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar

text: spectrum

text: (i.e., the

text: infrared

text: and the

text: ultraviolet

text: ) can also produce sounds.

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text: World Energy Outlook 2008, mentioned above, also describes a "450 Policy Scenario", in which extra energy investments to 2030 amount to $9.3 trillion over the Reference Scenario. The scenario also features, after 2020, the participation of major economies such as China and India in a global cap-and-trade scheme initially operating in OECD and European Union countries. Also the less conservative 450 ppm scenario calls for extensive deployment of negative emissions, i.e. the removal of CO from the atmosphere. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) and OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS".

text: World Energy Outlook 2008, mentioned above, also describes a "450 Policy Scenario", in which extra energy investments to 2030 amount to

text: 9.3 trillion over the Reference Scenario. The scenario also features, after 2020, the participation of major economies such as

text: China

text: and

text: India

text: in a global cap-and-trade scheme initially operating in

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: OECD

text: and

text: European Union

text: countries. Also the less conservative 450 ppm scenario calls for extensive deployment of

text: negative emissions

text: , i.e. the removal of CO from the atmosphere. According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) and OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of

entity_name: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage

text: BECCS

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text: Hadley cells exist on either side of the equator. Each cell encircles the globe and acts to transport energy from the equator to 30th latitude. This is the result of the buoyancy of warm air rising from the equator to the tropopause; its movement as it is pushed poleward by air rising from below; its cooling as it moves poleward at high altitude; its sinking near subtropics (30th parallels); and finally its equatorward return near the surface, completing the loop. In higher latitudes, the energy transport is also accomplished by cyclones and anticyclones that cause relatively warm air to move polewards and cold air to move equatorwards. The large scale tropical overturning cell is referred to as the Hadley cell. Why it extends only to 30 degrees latitude and what determines its strength are questions addressed by dynamical meteorology.

text: Hadley cells exist on either side of the equator. Each cell encircles the globe and acts to transport energy from the equator to 30th latitude. This is the result of the buoyancy of warm air rising from the equator to the

text: tropopause

text: ; its movement as it is pushed poleward by air rising from below; its cooling as it moves poleward at high altitude; its sinking near subtropics (30th parallels); and finally its equatorward return near the surface, completing the loop. In higher latitudes, the energy transport is also accomplished by cyclones and anticyclones that cause relatively warm air to move polewards and cold air to move equatorwards. The large scale tropical overturning cell is referred to as the Hadley cell. Why it extends only to 30 degrees latitude and what determines its strength are questions addressed by dynamical

text: meteorology

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answers: What determines its strength

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answers: Warm air rising from the equator to the tropopause

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text: Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from  (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, where as wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

text: Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the

text: frequency

text: f,

text: wavelength

text: λ

text: , or

text: photon

text: energy

text: E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from  (1

text: GeV

text: gamma rays) down to the local

text: plasma frequency

text: of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of

text: atom

text: s, where as wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the

text: universe

text: Photon energy

text: is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion

text: electron volt

text: s), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a

text: femto

text: electronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

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answers: Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths

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answers: electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength  , or photon energy E

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answers: electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength  , or photon energy E

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answers: Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths

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answers: convection current

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answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

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answers: electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength  , or photon energy E

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answers: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas

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text: Worldwide there are broader packaging scoring systems that address the full environmental impact of packaging. Recycling being one factor, other vital considerations include the use of recycled materials in the package, avoidance of toxic substances, minimization of packaging, effects on atmosphere (greenhouse gas, VOC, etc.), use of renewable resources, etc.   Efforts involve methodologies such as life cycle assessment to inventory the all environmental impacts and factors.There are many Sustainability metrics and indices, some specifically for packaging.

text: Worldwide there are broader packaging scoring systems that address the full environmental impact of packaging. Recycling being one factor, other vital considerations include the use of recycled materials in the package, avoidance of toxic substances, minimization of packaging, effects on atmosphere (greenhouse gas, VOC, etc.), use of

text: renewable resource

text: s, etc.   Efforts involve methodologies such as

text: life cycle assessment

text: to inventory the all environmental impacts and factors.There are many

text: Sustainability metrics and indices

text: , some specifically for packaging.

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answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

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answers: Greenhouse gases

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answers: renewable resources, etc.

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answers: atmosphere

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answers: greenhouse gas

text: After the war many of the facilities continued to be utilized or were converted to different uses, for example the Denver Ordnance Plant was converted into the Denver Federal Center. More federal agencies began to come to the area which already had a large federal footprint and a well trained work force. The Atomic Energy Commission, National Center for Atmospheric Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and National Institute of Standards and Technology all opened offices in the Denver area. From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a Department of Energy nuclear weapon facility formerly located about  from Denver, produced fissile plutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. Studies have linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. With the large military and federal presence in the area the aerospace industry followed. Large corporations such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell, Ball Aerospace, and Lockheed-Martin came to Denver. These businesses brought jobs and money with them and began to influence the city displacing the wealthy entrepreneurs and pioneer families that had previously dominated political life.

text: After the war many of the facilities continued to be utilized or were converted to different uses, for example the Denver Ordnance Plant was converted into the

text: Denver Federal Center

text: . More federal agencies began to come to the area which already had a large federal footprint and a well trained work force. The

text: Atomic Energy Commission

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: , and

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: all opened offices in the Denver area. From 1953 to 1989, the

text: Rocky Flats Plant

text: , a

text: Department of Energy

text: nuclear weapon facility formerly located about  from Denver, produced

text: fissile

text: plutonium "

text: pits

text: " for

text: nuclear warhead

text: s. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from

text: nuclear waste

text: stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the

entity_name: Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant

text: contamination of some parts of Denver

text: , to varying degrees, with

text: , a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. Studies have linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. With the large military and federal presence in the area the aerospace industry followed. Large corporations such as

text: IBM

text: Hewlett-Packard

text: Honeywell

text: Ball Aerospace

text: , and

text: Lockheed-Martin

text: came to Denver. These businesses brought jobs and money with them and began to influence the city displacing the wealthy entrepreneurs and pioneer families that had previously dominated political life.

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answers: plutonium-239

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of solar radiation (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year, latitude is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of

text: solar radiation

text: (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year,

text: latitude

text: is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

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text: Very energetic gamma rays, with photon energies over ~30 GeV, can also be detected by ground based experiments. The extremely low photon fluxes at such high energies require detector effective areas that are impractically large for current space-based instruments. Fortunately, such high-energy photons produce extensive showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere that can be observed on the ground, both directly by radiation counters and optically via the Cherenkov light which the ultra-relativistic shower particles emit. The Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope technique currently achieves the highest sensitivity.

text: Very energetic gamma rays, with photon energies over ~30 GeV, can also be detected by ground based experiments. The extremely low photon fluxes at such high energies require detector effective areas that are impractically large for current space-based instruments. Fortunately, such high-energy photons produce extensive showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere that can be observed on the ground, both directly by radiation counters and optically via the

text: Cherenkov light

text: which the ultra-relativistic shower particles emit. The

text: Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope

text: technique currently achieves the highest sensitivity.

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text: Using the measured stellar luminosity of Gliese 581 is of 0.013 times that of our Sun, it is possible to calculate Gliese 581 c's effective temperature a.k.a. black body temperature. (note: this probably differs from its surface temperature). According to Udry's team, the effective temperature for Gliese 581 c, assuming an albedo (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be , and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be , a range of temperatures which overlaps with the range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of , but a surface temperature of  (mainly due to a 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere), a difference of about . Studies of the habitability (i.e. liquid water for extremophile forms of life) conclude that Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a runaway greenhouse effect similar to that found on Venus, as such, is highly unlikely to be habitable. Nevertheless, this runaway greenhouse effect could be prevented by the presence of sufficient reflective cloud cover on the planet's day side. Alternatively, if the surface were covered in ice, it would have a high albedo (reflectivity), and thus could reflect enough of the incident sunlight back into space to render the planet too cold for habitability, although this situation is expected to be very unstable except for very high albedos greater than about 0.95 (i.e. ice): release of carbon dioxide by volcanic activity or of water vapor due to heating at the substellar point would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: Using the measured stellar luminosity of Gliese 581 is of 0.013 times that of our Sun, it is possible to calculate Gliese 581 c's

text: effective temperature

text: a.k.a.

text: black body

text: temperature. (note: this probably differs from its

text: surface temperature

text: ). According to Udry's team, the effective temperature for Gliese 581 c, assuming an

text: albedo

text: (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be , and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be , a range of temperatures which overlaps with the

text: range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere

text: . However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of , but a surface temperature of  (mainly due to a 96.5%

text: carbon dioxide atmosphere

text: ), a difference of about . Studies of the habitability (i.e. liquid water for extremophile forms of life) conclude that Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: similar to that found on

text: Venus

text: , as such, is highly unlikely to be habitable. Nevertheless, this runaway greenhouse effect could be prevented by the presence of sufficient reflective cloud cover on the planet's day side. Alternatively, if the surface were covered in ice, it would have a high

text: albedo

text: (reflectivity), and thus could reflect enough of the incident sunlight back into space to render the planet too cold for habitability, although this situation is expected to be very unstable except for very high albedos greater than about 0.95 (i.e. ice): release of

text: carbon dioxide

text: by volcanic activity or of water vapor due to heating at the substellar point would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect.

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answers: 96.5% carbon dioxide

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answers: Gliese 581 c's effective temperature

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answers: greenhouse

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answers: Gliese 581 is of 0.013 times that of our Sun

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answers: Black body temperature

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answers: solar luminosity

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answers: runaway greenhouse effect

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answers: ultraviolet

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answers: electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: Gliese 581 c

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answers: runaway greenhouse effect

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answers: Gliese 581 c

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answers: surface temperature

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answers: Gliese 581 c

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answers: Gliese 581 c

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answers: runaway greenhouse effect

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answers: Gliese 581 c

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answers: habitability

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answers: Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a runaway greenhouse effect

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text: Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes.  Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space.

text: Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing

text: infrared

text: energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via

text: evapotranspiration

text: and

text: latent heat

text: fluxes or

text: conduction

text: convection

text: processes.  Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave

text: infrared radiation

text: back into space.

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answers: However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially

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text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy, electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz) to 1000000 nm (300 GHz) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy,

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with longer

text: wavelength

text: s than those of

text: visible light

text: , extending from the nominal

text: red

text: edge of the

text: visible spectrum

text: at 700

text: nanometers

text: frequency

text: THz

text: ) to 1000000 nm (300

text: GHz

text: ) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the

text: thermal radiation

text: emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

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text: Nitrogen directly affects soil respiration in several ways. Nitrogen must be taken in by roots in order to promote plant growth and life. Most available nitrogen is in the form of NO, which costs 0.4 units of CO to enter the root because energy must be used to move it up a concentration gradient. Once inside the root the NO must be reduced to NH. This step requires more energy, which equals 2 units of CO per molecule reduced. In plants with mycorrhizal symbionts, which fix atmospheric nitrogen, the energetic cost to the plant to acquire one molecule of  NH  from atmospheric N is 2.36 CO. It is essential that plants uptake nitrogen from the soil or rely on symbionts to fix it from the atmosphere in order to assure growth, reproduction and long-term survival.

text: Nitrogen

text: directly affects soil respiration in several ways. Nitrogen must be taken in by roots in order to promote plant growth and life. Most available nitrogen is in the form of NO, which costs 0.4 units of CO to enter the root because energy must be used to move it up a concentration gradient. Once inside the root the NO must be reduced to NH. This step requires more energy, which equals 2 units of CO per molecule reduced. In plants with

text: mycorrhiza

text: l symbionts, which fix atmospheric nitrogen, the energetic cost to the plant to acquire one molecule of  NH  from atmospheric N is 2.36 CO. It is essential that plants uptake nitrogen from the soil or rely on symbionts to fix it from the atmosphere in order to assure growth,

text: reproduction

text: and long-term survival.

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text: The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of Supreme Court justices' behavior, first proposed by Hoover Institution economist Thomas Sowell and popularized by D.C. Court of Appeals Senior Judge Laurence Silberman in a speech to The Federalist Society in 1992. Here, the word "Greenhouse" refers to Linda Greenhouse, a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the New York Times for 40 years. Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative Supreme Court Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage. He said "It seems that the primary objective of The Times's legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices."

text: The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of

text: Supreme Court

text: justices' behavior, first proposed by

text: Hoover Institution

text: economist

text: Thomas Sowell

text: and popularized by

entity_name: United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit

text: D.C. Court of Appeals

text: Senior Judge

text: Laurence Silberman

text: in a speech to

text: The Federalist Society

text: in 1992. Here, the word "Greenhouse" refers to

text: Linda Greenhouse

text: , a

text: Pulitzer Prize

text: winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the

text: New York Times

text: for 40 years. Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative

text: Supreme Court

text: Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage. He said "It seems that the primary objective of The Times's legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices."

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answers: Supreme Court justices

text: Anisotropic energy is energy that is directionally specific. The word anisotropy means "directionally dependent", hence the definition. The most common form of anisotropic energy is magnetocrystalline anisotropy, which is commonly studied in ferrimagnets. In ferrimagnets, there are islands or domains of atoms that are all coordinated in a certain direction; this spontaneous positioning is often called the "easy" direction, indicating that this is the lowest energy state for these atoms. In order to study magnetocrystalline anisotropy, energy (usually in the form of an electric current) is applied to the domain, which causes the crystals to deflect from the "easy" to "hard" positions. The energy required to do this is defined as the anisotropic energy. The easy and hard alignments and their relative energies are due to the interaction between spin magnetic moment of each atom and the crystal lattice of the compound being studied. One of the many projects currently researching this phenomenon is directed by Stefan Krause and Roland Wiesendanger of the University of Hamburg. Using spin-polarized scanning tunnelling microscopes they are observing the effect upon the macrospin states of domains by passing a spin-polarized current through the atoms, and observing their alignment and how long they maintain their spin state.

text: Anisotropic energy is energy that is directionally specific. The word

text: anisotropy

text: means "directionally dependent", hence the definition. The most common form of anisotropic energy is

text: magnetocrystalline anisotropy

text: , which is commonly studied in

text: ferrimagnets

text: . In ferrimagnets, there are islands or domains of atoms that are all coordinated in a certain direction; this spontaneous positioning is often called the "easy" direction, indicating that this is the lowest energy state for these atoms. In order to study magnetocrystalline anisotropy, energy (usually in the form of an

text: electric current

text: ) is applied to the domain, which causes the crystals to deflect from the "easy" to "hard" positions. The energy required to do this is defined as the anisotropic energy. The easy and hard alignments and their relative energies are due to the interaction between spin magnetic moment of each atom and the

text: crystal lattice

text: of the compound being studied. One of the many projects currently researching this phenomenon is directed by Stefan Krause and Roland Wiesendanger of the

text: University of Hamburg

text: . Using spin-polarized

text: scanning tunnelling microscope

text: s they are observing the effect upon the macrospin states of domains by passing a spin-polarized current through the atoms, and observing their alignment and how long they maintain their

text: spin state

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text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although DNA is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain molecular bonds to form thymine dimers. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause sunburn to unprotected skin, as a result of photoreactions in collagen and (in the UV-B range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of reactive oxygen species in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although

text: DNA

text: is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain

text: molecular bond

text: s to form

text: thymine dimer

text: s. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause

text: sunburn

text: to unprotected skin, as a result of

text: photoreactions

text: in

text: collagen

text: and (in the

text: UV-B

text: range) also damage in DNA (for example,

text: pyrimidine dimers

text: ). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of

text: reactive oxygen species

text: in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

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text: In 2002 Dwyer, along with colleagues from Florida Institute of Technology and the University of Florida, launched rockets during thunderstorms at a facility now known as the UF/Florida Tech International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida. Using a heavily shielded instrument containing a scintillation detector, built by Dwyer and his students, they found that lightning does indeed produce x-rays and that x-ray emission is common for lightning. This research was published in Science (journal) (Dwyer et al. 2003). Since that time, Dwyer and his collaborators have established many key properties of the x-ray emissions from lightning, including the fact that the x-ray emission is produced during the lightning stepping process, has energies up to approximately 1 MeV and the x-rays are produced in the high field regions generated by the leader as it propagates. In 2005 TERA (Thunderstorm Energetic Radiation Array), a 24 detector array, was built to continue measuring x-rays and gamma-rays from lightning and to further study the x-ray characteristics that are associated with thunderstorms. Also, in 2005, Dwyer and collaborators made the surprising discovery that long laboratory sparks in air also generate x-rays similar to lightning, which has since motivated many groups around the world to study the x-ray emissions from sparks.  Most recently, Dwyer and his team have built and deployed an x-ray camera at the ICLRT and have made the world’s first x-ray images of lightning. Dwyer also has made several important theoretical contributions to the newly developing field of High Energy Atmospheric Physics, including work on runaway electron or runaway breakdown physics, gamma-ray and radio frequency emissions or atmospheric noise, and lightning initiation. In 2003, he introduced the Relativistic Feedback Mechanism of relativistic-runaway-electron avalanches, a new discharge mechanism in air, which explains how thunderclouds may generate very large flashes of gamma-rays called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs).  This work also showed the importance of positrons (anti-electrons) for thundercloud electrodynamics.  Working with David Smith from UCSC he also helped establish that TGFs originate from deep within our atmosphere and not at high altitudes as had been previously assumed.  Indeed, Dwyer and his team observed a ground level TGF at Camp Blanding in 2004.  Finally, using BATSE data form the Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, Dwyer and collaborators discovered Terrestrial Electron Beams (TEBs)  in the inner magnetosphere, which are generated by the high energy emissions from thunderstorms.

text: In 2002 Dwyer, along with colleagues from Florida Institute of Technology and the

text: University of Florida

text: , launched rockets during thunderstorms at a facility now known as the UF/Florida Tech International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at

text: Camp Blanding, Florida

text: . Using a heavily shielded instrument containing a

text: scintillation detector

text: , built by Dwyer and his students, they found that lightning does indeed produce x-rays and that x-ray emission is common for lightning. This research was published in

text: Science (journal)

text: (Dwyer et al. 2003). Since that time, Dwyer and his collaborators have established many key properties of the x-ray emissions from lightning, including the fact that the x-ray emission is produced during the lightning stepping process, has energies up to approximately 1

text: MeV

text: and the x-rays are produced in the high field regions generated by the leader as it propagates. In 2005 TERA (Thunderstorm Energetic Radiation Array), a 24 detector array, was built to continue measuring x-rays and gamma-rays from lightning and to further study the x-ray characteristics that are associated with thunderstorms. Also, in 2005, Dwyer and collaborators made the surprising discovery that long laboratory sparks in air also generate x-rays similar to lightning, which has since motivated many groups around the world to study the x-ray emissions from sparks.  Most recently, Dwyer and his team have built and deployed an x-ray camera at the ICLRT and have made the world’s first x-ray images of lightning. Dwyer also has made several important theoretical contributions to the newly developing field of High Energy Atmospheric Physics, including work on runaway electron or

text: runaway breakdown

text: physics, gamma-ray and radio frequency emissions or atmospheric noise, and lightning initiation. In 2003, he introduced the Relativistic Feedback Mechanism of

text: relativistic-runaway-electron avalanche

text: s, a new discharge mechanism in air, which explains how thunderclouds may generate very large flashes of gamma-rays called

text: terrestrial gamma-ray flashes

text: (TGFs).  This work also showed the importance of

text: positrons

text: (anti-electrons) for thundercloud electrodynamics.  Working with David Smith from UCSC he also helped establish that TGFs originate from deep within our atmosphere and not at high altitudes as had been previously assumed.  Indeed, Dwyer and his team observed a ground level TGF at Camp Blanding in 2004.  Finally, using BATSE data form the Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, Dwyer and collaborators discovered Terrestrial Electron Beams (TEBs)  in the inner magnetosphere, which are generated by the high energy emissions from thunderstorms.

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text: Voltage drop describes how energy is supplied of a voltage source that is reduced as electric current moves through the passive elements (elements that do not supply voltage) of an electrical circuit. Voltage drops across internal resistances of the source, across conductors, across contacts, and across connectors are undesired as the supplied energy is lost (dissipated). Voltage drops across loads and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work.

text: Voltage drop describes how

text: energy

text: is supplied of a

text: voltage

text: source that is reduced as

text: electric current

text: moves through the passive elements (elements that do not supply voltage) of an

text: electrical

text: circuit

text: . Voltage drops across

text: internal resistance

text: s of the source, across

text: conductors

text: , across

text: contacts

text: , and across

text: connectors

text: are undesired as the supplied energy is lost (dissipated). Voltage drops across

text: loads

text: and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work.

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text: X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with photon energies above those of visible (and ultraviolet) light. X-rays are distinguished from gamma rays in that they are produced not by transitions within the atomic nucleus, but either by deceleration of a charged particle or by the transition of state of orbital electrons. Diagnostic X-rays are produced using X-ray tubes. The radio waves portion of the electromagnetic spectrum represents much lower energy/frequency photons than visible light. Thus, referring to the property of X-ray density as radiodensity appears contradictory by current knowledge, but is still used as a historical artifact.

text: X-rays are part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , with photon energies above those of

text: visible

text: (and

text: ultraviolet

text: ) light. X-rays are distinguished from

text: gamma ray

text: s in that they are produced not by transitions within the

text: atomic nucleus

text: , but either by deceleration of a

text: charged particle

text: or by the transition of state of

text: orbital

text: electron

text: s. Diagnostic X-rays are produced using

text: X-ray tube

text: s. The

text: radio waves

text: portion of the electromagnetic spectrum represents much lower energy/frequency photons than visible light. Thus, referring to the property of X-ray density as radiodensity appears contradictory by current knowledge, but is still used as a historical artifact.

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text: Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law. So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in astronomical units (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

text: Solar energy

text: in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an

text: inverse-square law

text: . So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

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text: Building upon John Tyndall's research on greenhouse gases, Hunt first proposed the theory which linked climate change from the Carboniferous to the modern age to concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in an 1863 submission to the American Journal of Science and Arts. He further explored at a meeting for the British Society for the Advancement of Science in the fall of 1878. This was well before Arrhenius established the theory of the greenhouse effect. Hunt later hypothesized that the high concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the geologic past was of cosmic, rather than volcanic, origin.

text: Building upon

text: John Tyndall

text: 's research on

text: greenhouse gases

text: , Hunt first proposed the theory which linked

text: climate change

text: from the

text: Carboniferous

text: to the modern age to concentrations of

text: carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

text: in an 1863 submission to the

text: American Journal of Science and Arts

text: . He further explored at a meeting for the British Society for the Advancement of Science in the fall of 1878. This was well before

text: Arrhenius

text: established the theory of the greenhouse effect. Hunt later hypothesized that the high concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the geologic past was of cosmic, rather than volcanic, origin.

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text: VIRTIS: The "Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer" (VIRTIS) is an imaging spectrometer that observes in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It analyzed all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction phenomena.

text: VIRTIS: The "Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer" (VIRTIS) is an imaging

text: spectrometer

text: that observes in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and

text: infrared

text: parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . It analyzed all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction phenomena.

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answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/da70b7e7142d375a53a7ecbddb02e877

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answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/1b7a70b15a8fb4b204a1ffc347f349a3

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answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/ebfe1924e132dd2c6002f808a3264f0d

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answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/aa57a47042e1fca9a1cf95a827f3d5a8

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answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/2ae78b32de94baea778f61e61cdce206

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/b69ba4a5228ad6c2f88e5b747460ac05

answers: 0

answers: tqa2:L_0022/T_0221/e739d5697706f0fdcaf1d90d897f6b1b

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: 5

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: thermal

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: thermal

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: visible

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: all layers of the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: (VIRTIS)

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: It analyzed all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: surface/atmosphere interaction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Infrared

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: surface temperature

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: all layers of the atmosphere

text:
|- style="background:#fcc;"| 1| October 29| @Portland| | Russell Westbrook (38)| Ibaka & Perkins (8)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Moda Center
19,411| 0–1|-style="background:#fcc;"|2|October 30| @ L.A.Clippers| | Perry Jones (32)| Steven Adams (7)| Sebastian Telfair (7)| Staples Center
19,060| 0–2|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1| Denver| | Jones & Ibaka (23)| Roberson & Thomas (8)| Sebastian Telfair (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 3| @ Brooklyn|  | Reggie Jackson (23)| Ibaka & Adams (9)| Sebastian Telfair (6)| Barclays Center
17,732| 1–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4| @ Toronto|  | Serge Ibaka (25)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Reggie Jackson (14)| Air Canada Centre
18,877| 1–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 7| Memphis| | Reggie Jackson (22)| Steven Adams (11)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 9| Sacramento|  | Reggie Jackson (22)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 11|  @Milwaukee| | Reggie Jackson (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center
12,390| 2–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 12| @ Boston| | Jackson & Morrow (28)| Lance Thomas (13)| Reggie Jackson (8)| TD Garden
17,043| 3–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 14| Detroit| | Jeremy Lamb (24)| Ibaka & Lamb (10)| Reggie Jackson (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–7|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16| Houston| | Thomas & Jackson (15)| Reggie Jackson (11)| Reggie Jackson (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 12| November 18| @ Utah| | Jeremy Lamb (19)| Thomas & Adams (8)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Energy Solutions Arena
17,190| 3–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 19| @ Denver| | Serge Ibaka (22)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Reggie Jackson (9)| Pepsi Center
14,140| 3–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 21| Brooklyn| | Reggie Jackson (21)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 23| Golden State| | Reggie Jackson (22)| Anthony Morrow (12)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 26| Utah|  | Reggie Jackson (22)| Steven Adams (11)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 4–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 28| New York| | Russell Westbrook (32)| Steven Adams (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| December 2| @ New Orleans|  | Kevin Durant (27)| Andre Roberson (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Smoothie King Center
13,903| 5–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| December 5| @ Philadelphia|  | Russell Westbrook (27)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Wells Fargo Center
15,092| 6–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 7| @ Detroit|  | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Palace of Auburn Hills
13,090| 7–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 9| Milwaukee|  | Russell Westbrook (28)| Durant & Perkins (9)| Durant & Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 11| Cleveland|  | Russell Westbrook (26)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 9–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 12| @ Minnesota|  | Russell Westbrook (34)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Target Center
13,557| 10–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 14| Phoenix|  | Russell Westbrook (28)| Kendrick Perkins (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16| @ Sacramento|  | Russell Westbrook (32)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Sleep Train Arena
17,317| 12–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 18| @ Golden State|  | Russell Westbrook (33)| Andre Roberson (12)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 12–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19| @ L.A.Lakers|  | Russell Westbrook (31)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
18,997| 13–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 21| New Orleans| | Russell Westbrook (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 29| December 23| Portland| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30| December 25| @ San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (34)| Steven Adams (15)| Russell Westbrook (11)| AT&T Center
18,581| 14–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 26| Charlotte|  | Russell Westbrook (29)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 15–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32| December 28| @Dallas|  | Serge Ibaka (26)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| American Airlines Center
20,417| 15–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31| Phoenix|  | Kevin Durant (44)| Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2| Washington| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kevin Durant (8)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 17–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 5| @Golden State| | Russell Westbrook (22)| Durant & Morrow(10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 17–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36| January 7| @ Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (24)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Westbrook & Jackson (4)| Sleep Train Arena
16,037| 17–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 9| Utah| | Kevin Durant (32)| Ibaka & Perkins (7)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 15| @ Houston|  | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Toyota Center
18,315| 18–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 16| Golden State|  | Kevin Durant (36)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 19–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 18| @ Orlando|  | Kevin Durant (21)| Kevin Durant (11)| Kevin Durant (8)| Amway Center
16,128| 20–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 20| @ Miami|  | Durant & Westbrook (19)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Kevin Durant (8)| American Airlines Arena
19,735| 21–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 21| @ Washington| | Kevin Durant (34)| Steven Adams (20)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Verizon Center
20,356| 22–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 43| January 23| @ Atlanta|  | Russell Westbrook (22)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Philips Arena
19,203| 22–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 44| January 25| @ Cleveland|  | Kevin Durant (32)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Quicken Loans Arena
20,562| 22–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 26| Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (18)| Serge Ibaka (19)| Westbrook & Waiters (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 23–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 28| @ New York| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Westbrook & Jackson (4)| Madison Square Garden
19,812|23–23|-style="background:#fcc;"|47|January 31|@ Memphis|| Kevin Durant (15)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| FedEx Forum
18,119|23–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48| February 2| Orlando| | Russell Westbrook (25)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 49| February 4| @ New Orleans| | Russell Westbrook (45)| Steven Adams (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Smoothie King Center
17,156| 25–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 50| February 6| New Orleans|  | Russell Westbrook (48)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 8| L.A.Clippers| | Kevin Durant (29)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Durant & Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 26–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 52| February 9| @ Denver|  | Kevin Durant (40)| Mitch McGary (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Pepsi Center
16,511| 27–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 11| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (26)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 28–25|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 19| Dallas|  | Russell Westbrook (34)| Serge Ibaka (22)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 29–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55| February 21| @ Charlotte| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Time Warner Cable Arena
19,303| 30–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 56| February 22| Denver|  | Russell Westbrook (21)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24| Indiana|  | Serge Ibaka (23)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 26| @ Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (39)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| US Airways Center
17,514| 32–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27| @ Portland|  | Russell Westbrook (40)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Moda Center
19,962| 32–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| March 1| @ L.A. Lakers| | Ibaka & Augustin (18)| Enes Kanter (15)| Kanter & Augustin (5)| Staples Center
18,997| 33–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61| March 4| Philadelphia| | Russell Westbrook (49)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 34–27|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 5| @ Chicago|  | Russell Westbrook (43)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| United Center
21,696| 34–28|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 8| Toronto| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35–28|- style="background:#fcc;"| 64| March 11| L.A. Clippers| | Anthony Morrow (26)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65| March 13| Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (29)| Enes Kanter (15)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 36–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 66| March 15| Chicago|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Enes Kanter (18)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 37–29|- style="background:#fcc;"| 67| March 16| @ Dallas|  | Russell Westbrook (24)| Kanter & McGary (13)| Russell Westbrook (12)| American Airlines Center
20,231| 37–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 18| Boston|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 38–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 20| Atlanta| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (16)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 39–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 22| Miami|  | Enes Kanter (27)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 24| L.A. Lakers|  | Russell Westbrook (27)| Enes Kanter (16)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41–30|- style="background:#fcc;"| 72| March 25| @ San Antonio| | Kanter, Westbrook (16)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| AT&T Center
18,581| 41–31|- style="background:#fcc;"| 73| March 28| @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (37)| Steven Adams (14)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Energy Solutions Arena
19,911| 41–32|-style="background:#cfc;"|74|March 29| @ Phoenix|| Russell Westbrook (33)| Steven Adams (16)| Russell Westbrook (7)| US Airways Center
17,538| 42–32|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| April 1| Dallas| | Anthony Morrow (32)| Enes Kanter (16)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–33|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76| April 3| @ Memphis|  | Enes Kanter (24)| Enes Kanter (17)| Russell Westbrook (7)| FedExForum
18,119| 42–34|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 5| Houston| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Enes Kanter (17)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–35|- style="background:#fcc;"| 78| April 7| San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (17)| Mitch McGary (9)| DJ Augustin (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–36|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79| April 10| Sacramento| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–36|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 12| @ Indiana|  | Russell Westbrook (54)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 43–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 13| Portland|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82| April 15| @ Minnesota|  | Russell Westbrook (37)| Enes Kanter (15)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Target Center
18,250| 45–37

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"| 1| October 29| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,411| 0–1|-style="background:#fcc;"|2|October 30| @

text: L.A.Clippers

text: Perry Jones

text: Steven Adams

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,060| 0–2|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1|

text: Denver

text: Jones

text: Ibaka

text: Roberson

text: Thomas

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 3| @

text: Brooklyn

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Ibaka

text: Adams

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Barclays Center

text: <br>17,732| 1–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4| @

text: Toronto

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>18,877| 1–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 7|

text: Memphis

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 9|

text: Sacramento

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Ibaka

text: Lamb

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 11|  @

text: Milwaukee

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>12,390| 2–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 12| @

text: Boston

text: Jackson

text: Morrow

text: Lance Thomas

text: Reggie Jackson

text: TD Garden

text: <br>17,043| 3–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 14|

text: Detroit

text: Jeremy Lamb

text: Ibaka

text: Lamb

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–7|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16|

text: Houston

text: Thomas

text: Jackson

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 12| November 18| @

text: Utah

text: Jeremy Lamb

text: Thomas

text: Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Energy Solutions Arena

text: <br>17,190| 3–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 19| @

text: Denver

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>14,140| 3–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 21|

text: Brooklyn

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 23|

text: Golden State

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 26|

text: Utah

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 4–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 28|

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| December 2| @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Andre Roberson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>13,903| 5–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| December 5| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>15,092| 6–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 7| @

text: Detroit

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>13,090| 7–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 9|

text: Milwaukee

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Perkins

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 11|

text: Cleveland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 9–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 12| @

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>13,557| 10–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 14|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16| @

text: Sacramento

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>17,317| 12–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 18| @

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Andre Roberson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 12–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19| @

text: L.A.Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 13–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 21|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 29| December 23|

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30| December 25| @

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 14–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 26|

text: Charlotte

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 15–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32| December 28| @

text: Dallas

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,417| 15–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31|

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2|

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 17–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 5| @

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Morrow

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 17–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36| January 7| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>16,037| 17–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 9|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 15| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,315| 18–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 16|

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 19–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 18| @

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Amway Center

text: <br>16,128| 20–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 20| @

text: Miami

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>19,735| 21–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 21| @

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>20,356| 22–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 43| January 23| @

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>19,203| 22–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 44| January 25| @

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Quicken Loans Arena

text: <br>20,562| 22–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 26|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Waiters

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 23–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 28| @

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,812|23–23|-style="background:#fcc;"|47|January 31|@

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>18,119|23–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48| February 2|

text: Orlando

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 49| February 4| @

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>17,156| 25–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 50| February 6|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 8|

text: L.A.Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 26–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 52| February 9| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Mitch McGary

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>16,511| 27–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 11|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 28–25|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 19|

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 29–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55| February 21| @

text: Charlotte

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>19,303| 30–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 56| February 22|

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24|

text: Indiana

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 26| @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>17,514| 32–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,962| 32–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| March 1| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Ibaka

text: Augustin

text: Enes Kanter

text: Kanter

text: Augustin

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 33–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61| March 4|

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 34–27|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 5| @

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: United Center

text: <br>21,696| 34–28|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 8|

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35–28|- style="background:#fcc;"| 64| March 11|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65| March 13|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 36–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 66| March 15|

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 37–29|- style="background:#fcc;"| 67| March 16| @

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kanter

text: McGary

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,231| 37–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 18|

text: Boston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 38–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 20|

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 39–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 22|

text: Miami

text: Enes Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 24|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41–30|- style="background:#fcc;"| 72| March 25| @

text: San Antonio

text: Kanter

text: Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 41–31|- style="background:#fcc;"| 73| March 28| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Energy Solutions Arena

text: <br>19,911| 41–32|-style="background:#cfc;"|74|March 29| @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>17,538| 42–32|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| April 1|

text: Dallas

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–33|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76| April 3| @

text: Memphis

text: Enes Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedExForum

text: <br>18,119| 42–34|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 5|

text: Houston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–35|- style="background:#fcc;"| 78| April 7|

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Mitch McGary

text: DJ Augustin

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–36|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79| April 10|

text: Sacramento

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–36|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 12| @

text: Indiana

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 43–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 13|

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82| April 15| @

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>18,250| 45–37

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answers: 3

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answers: 3

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answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena br>18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc"

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: Heat transfer

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center b

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: The sun is the source of all energy.

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: Staples Center

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: Wavelengths that are long and very high energy are B.

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of wavelengths of visible light

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Infrared light has the greatest energy.

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Incoming solar radiation may cause skin cancer.

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate the Earths atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (4)| Milwaukee

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Water vapor is a greenhouse gas.

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Conduction is the process by which heat travels from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: br>

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum.

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (4)| Milwaukee

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: Reggie Jackson (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center b

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Chesapeake Energy Arena br>18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc;"

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: Convection occurs in

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: rays

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: Latitude-related differences in solar energy can be explained by the fact that the sun is closer to the equator than the poles.

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: Greenhouse gases are released into the air by human activities.

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer

text: monsoon

text: conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of

text: sea breeze

text: s.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

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text: The movement of wind waves can be captured by wave energy devices. The energy density (per unit area) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water density

text: The movement of wind waves can be captured by

text: wave energy devices

text: . The energy density (per unit area) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water

text: density

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text: The  Cherenkov Array at Themis (CAT) imager is an atmospheric Cherenkov imaging telescope for detection of high-energy gamma rays (>200 GeV), sited in the French Pyrenees.

text: The  Cherenkov Array at Themis (CAT) imager is an atmospheric Cherenkov imaging

text: telescope

text: for detection of high-energy

text: gamma ray

text: s (>200 GeV), sited in the French Pyrenees.

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text: TXU continued to own transmission and distribution facilities, but was required to open retail sales to competition. Competitors during this time period included Champion Energy, Dynowatt, Texas Power, Reliant Energy, Bounce Energy, Direct Energy, Stream Energy, Gexa Energy, Green Mountain Energy, Cirro Energy, and Commerce Energy. Surprisingly, many utility customers opted to remain with TXU despite active retail competition. [See "Power to Choose: An Analysis of Consumer Behavior in the Texas Retail Electricity Market" with Ali Hortacsu and Seyed Ali Madanizadeh]

text: TXU continued to own transmission and distribution facilities, but was required to open retail sales to competition. Competitors during this time period included

text: Champion Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: Texas Power

text: Reliant Energy

text: Bounce Energy

text: Direct Energy

text: Stream Energy

text: Gexa Energy

text: Green Mountain Energy

text: Cirro Energy

text: , and

text: Commerce Energy

text: . Surprisingly, many utility customers opted to remain with TXU despite active retail competition. [See "Power to Choose: An Analysis of Consumer Behavior in the Texas Retail Electricity Market" with Ali Hortacsu and Seyed Ali Madanizadeh]

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text: Singlet oxygen is a high energy form of oxygen.  A gas with the formula O, its physical properties differ only subtly from those of the more prevalent triplet ground state of O.  In terms of its chemical reactivity, however, singlet oxygen is far more reactive toward organic compounds.  It is responsible for the photodegradation of many materials but can be put to constructive use in preparative organic chemistry and photodynamic therapy. Trace amounts of singlet oxygen are found in the upper atmosphere and also in polluted urban atmospheres where it contributes to the formation of lung damaging nitrogen dioxide. It often appears and coexists confounded in environments that also generate ozone, such as pine forests with photodegradation of turpentine.

text: Singlet oxygen is a high energy form of oxygen.  A gas with the formula O, its physical properties differ only subtly from those of the more prevalent

text: triplet

text: ground state

text: of O.  In terms of its chemical reactivity, however, singlet oxygen is far more reactive toward organic compounds.  It is responsible for the

text: photodegradation

text: of many materials but can be put to constructive use in

text: preparative organic chemistry

text: and

text: photodynamic therapy

text: . Trace amounts of singlet oxygen are found in the upper atmosphere and also in polluted urban atmospheres where it contributes to the formation of lung damaging

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: . It often appears and coexists confounded in environments that also generate

text: ozone

text: , such as pine forests with photodegradation of

text: turpentine

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text: Abdussamatov holds that Earth's atmosphere does not produce a greenhouse effect, stating "Ascribing 'greenhouse' effect properties to the Earth's atmosphere is not scientifically substantiated." He further states that  "Heated greenhouse gases, which become lighter as a result of expansion, ascend to the atmosphere only to give the absorbed heat away."  However, this effect cannot happen because the mean free path of molecules in the atmosphere is very short, transferring energy by collisions and preventing greenhouse gases from retaining the excess energy they absorb.

text: Abdussamatov holds that Earth's atmosphere does not produce a

text: greenhouse effect

text: , stating "Ascribing 'greenhouse' effect properties to the Earth's atmosphere is not scientifically substantiated." He further states that  "Heated greenhouse gases, which become lighter as a result of expansion, ascend to the atmosphere only to give the absorbed heat away."  However, this effect cannot happen because the

text: mean free path

text: of molecules in the atmosphere is very short, transferring energy by collisions and preventing greenhouse gases from retaining the excess energy they absorb.

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text: With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core freezes due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of ~420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out. This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event. Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, such will cause the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event).

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answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: 420 K

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answers: increase the Earth's temperature

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answers: Gamma rays

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answers: Warmer molecules have more energy than cooler ones.

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answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: With all photosynthetic organisms gone

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: aerobic life

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answers: Carbon dioxide

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answers: oxygen

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answers: Earth's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Earth's magnetic field

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answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum

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answers: Chemical reactions in the atmosphere

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answers: chemical reactions

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answers: With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: volcanic eruptions

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answers: climate-caused extinction event

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answers: Sun

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answers: Sun becomes 10% brighter

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.<ref name="kiehl197">{{cite journal| url=http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| title=Earth's annual global mean energy budget| first=J.T.| last=Kiehl|author2=Kevin E. Trenberth| format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages=197–208| volume=78| issue=2| year=1997| accessdate=1 May 2006| doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect,

text: clouds

text: , also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or

text: ice crystal

text: s suspended in the atmosphere.<ref name="kiehl197">{{cite journal| url=http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| title=Earth's annual global mean energy budget| first=J.T.| last=Kiehl|author2=Kevin E. Trenberth| format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages=197–208| volume=78| issue=2| year=1997| accessdate=1 May 2006| doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

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answers: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Earth's annual global mean energy budget

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: Greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: Infrared radiation is the electromagnetic spectrum.

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect is clouds.

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Earth's greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy than cooler ones.

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface in a convection current.

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: infrared radiation

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answers: Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: Infrared radiation

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: Radiation

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answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum.

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: infrared

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answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: infrared

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answers: infrared radiation

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answers: Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: the atmosphere

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answers: Radiation

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answers: Earth's greenhouse effect

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answers: Earth's greenhouse effect

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answers: greenhouse gases

text: Infrared absorption bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located in the spectral region 7.8–15.3 µm  – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region. The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFCs' "super" greenhouse effect. Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO is close to saturation with high concentrations, it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass.

text: Infrared absorption bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located in the spectral region 7.8–15.3

text: µm

text: – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region. The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFCs' "super" greenhouse effect. Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO is close to saturation with high concentrations, it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass.

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text: The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms.  For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top.  The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill.  Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent.  The bicycle would be traveling slower at the bottom of the hill than without the generator because some of the energy has been diverted into electrical energy.  Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as heat.

text: The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms.  For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top.  The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill.  Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively the cyclist could connect a

text: dynamo

text: to one of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent.  The bicycle would be traveling slower at the bottom of the hill than without the generator because some of the energy has been diverted into electrical energy.  Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as

text: heat

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text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. Although individual CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the industrial revolution, the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global climate. Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Although individual CO molecules have a short

text: residence time

text: in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: , the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global

text: climate

text: . Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Carbon dioxide

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answers: greenhouse effect

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answers: CO molecules have a short residence time

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Carbon dioxide

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answers: Earth's other carbon reservoirs

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answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: global temperatures

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answers: It takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: It takes an extremely long time

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: greenhouse effect

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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answers: human activity

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answers: carbon dioxide

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answers: CO molecules

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Earth's other carbon reservoirs

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answers: The greenhouse effect

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answers: Carbon dioxide

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answers: Deforestation

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answers: global temperatures

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Carbon dioxide

text: The game's environment is displayed in first person view with the player seeing the world through the suit's helmet. A targeting crosshair displayed in the helmet's HUD allowing the player to fire the suit's weapon at specific locations. The player can move in all directions by walking or activating the jetpack. The suit is powered by an energy source that gets depleted with every movement and it is allocated between "shields" and "fuel". When the shields charge is depleted, the player is vulnerable to enemy fire and simply bumping into walls can end the game. Fuel is vital for horizontal and vertical movement and the game ends as soon as its depleted. There are a number of "recharge" points (in the form of columns) hidden in the game where the player can replenish the suit's energy supply. There are also a number of energy conversion devices that allow transforming shield energy to fuel and vice versa.

text: The game's environment is displayed in

text: first person view

text: with the player seeing the world through the suit's helmet. A targeting crosshair displayed in the helmet's

text: HUD

text: allowing the player to fire the suit's weapon at specific locations. The player can move in all directions by walking or activating the jetpack. The suit is powered by an energy source that gets depleted with every movement and it is allocated between "shields" and "fuel". When the shields charge is depleted, the player is vulnerable to enemy fire and simply bumping into walls can end the game. Fuel is vital for horizontal and vertical movement and the game ends as soon as its depleted. There are a number of "recharge" points (in the form of columns) hidden in the game where the player can replenish the suit's energy supply. There are also a number of energy conversion devices that allow transforming shield energy to fuel and vice versa.

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answers: The suit is powered by an energy source

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answers: The suit is powered by an energy source

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answers: Targeting

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Fuel is vital for horizontal and vertical movement

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: end the game

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Fuel

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

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text: After Inkwel's leaving the group, Blueprint and Manifest released the album, Columbus or Bust, in 2005. In 2009, it was announced that Illogic replaced Manifest and that Greenhouse Effect changed the name to Greenhouse.

text: After Inkwel's leaving the group, Blueprint and Manifest released the album, Columbus or Bust, in 2005. In 2009, it was announced that

text: Illogic

text: replaced Manifest and that Greenhouse Effect changed the name to Greenhouse.

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text: Furthermore, electromagnetic energy is light energy, but only a small part of it is visible light. This energy travels in waves. Shorter wavelengths, such as visible light and infrared, carry more energy per photon than longer waves, such as microwaves and radio waves. For the sciences, the light spectrum is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Furthermore, electromagnetic energy is light energy, but only a small part of it is

text: visible light

text: . This energy travels in waves. Shorter wavelengths, such as visible light and

text: infrared

text: , carry more energy per

text: photon

text: than longer waves, such as

text: microwave

text: s and

text: radio waves

text: . For the

text: science

text: s, the light spectrum is known as the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: electromagnetic energy

text: The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1 amu protons (about 85% of it) to 26 amu iron nuclei and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called HZE ions.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest particle accelerators (see ultra-high-energy cosmic ray). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, muons, protons, antiprotons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, positrons, and neutrons.

text: The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1

text: amu

text: proton

text: s (about 85% of it) to 26 amu

text: iron

text: nuclei

text: and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called

text: HZE ions

text: .) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest

text: particle accelerator

text: s (see

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: ). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including

text: x-rays

text: muon

text: s,

text: proton

text: s,

text: antiproton

text: s,

text: alpha particle

text: s,

text: pion

text: s,

text: electron

text: s,

text: positron

text: s, and

text: neutron

text: s.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: about 85% of it

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: rain

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: iron nuclei

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: create secondary radiation that rains down

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy than cooler ones.

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: This radiation interacts in the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: humans can create

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: amu

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electrons

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Secondary radiation that rains down

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: electrons

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: x-rays

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: humans can't create energy

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: cosmic radiation

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: secondary radiation

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: The Earth

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: in the atmosphere

text: The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere is through electric force field acceleration. As electrons are less massive than other particles, they are more likely to escape from the top of Venus's ionosphere. As a result, a minor net positive charge develops. That net positive charge, in turn, creates an electric field that can accelerate other positive charges out of the atmosphere. As a result, H ions are accelerated beyond escape velocity. Other important loss processes on Venus are photochemical reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun. Photochemical reactions rely on the splitting of molecules into constituent atoms, often with a significant portion of the kinetic energy carried off in the less massive particle with sufficiently high kinetic energy to escape. Oxygen, relative to hydrogen, is not of sufficiently low mass to escape through this mechanism.

text: The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere is through electric force field acceleration. As electrons are less massive than other particles, they are more likely to escape from the top of Venus's ionosphere. As a result, a minor net positive charge develops. That net positive charge, in turn, creates an electric field that can accelerate other positive charges out of the atmosphere. As a result, H ions are accelerated beyond escape velocity. Other important loss processes on Venus are

text: photochemical

text: reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun. Photochemical reactions rely on the splitting of molecules into constituent atoms, often with a significant portion of the kinetic energy carried off in the less massive particle with sufficiently high kinetic energy to escape. Oxygen, relative to hydrogen, is not of sufficiently low mass to escape through this mechanism.

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: electric force field acceleration

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: photochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: kinetic energy

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: ionosphere

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Venus's proximity to the Sun

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: escape velocity

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: Photochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Photochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Photochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Venus's ionosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: ionosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Venus's ionosphere

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: photochemical reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: The dominant loss process

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: kinetic energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: H ions

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: creates an electric field

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Venus's ionosphere

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: kinetic energy

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: photochemical reactions

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Photochemical reactions

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text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune. Adaptive optics technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable atmospheric absorption, in particular of high energy waves.

text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune.

text: Adaptive optics

text: technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable

text: atmospheric absorption

text: , in particular of high energy waves.

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text: As the hot gases that comprise Jupiter's atmosphere rise from lower levels to higher levels, eddies form and converge. As cooler gas falls back, the Coriolis force causes swirling motion across a region that may be many kilometers in diameter. These eddies can last for a long time, because there is no solid surface to provide friction and because colder cloud tops above the eddy allow little energy to escape by radiation. Once formed, such eddies are free to move, merging with or affecting the behavior of other storm systems in the atmosphere. It is theorized that this mechanism formed the Great Red Spot. According to this theory, many adjacent eddies are engulfed and merge with the spot, adding to the energy of the storm and contributing to its longevity.

text: As the hot gases that comprise Jupiter's

text: atmosphere

text: rise from lower levels to higher levels,

text: eddies

text: form and converge. As cooler gas falls back, the

text: Coriolis force

text: causes swirling motion across a region that may be many kilometers in diameter. These eddies can last for a long time, because there is no solid surface to provide

text: friction

text: and because colder cloud tops above the eddy allow little energy to escape by

text: radiation

text: . Once formed, such eddies are free to move, merging with or affecting the behavior of other storm systems in the atmosphere. It is theorized that this mechanism formed the Great Red Spot. According to this theory, many adjacent eddies are engulfed and merge with the spot, adding to the energy of the storm and contributing to its longevity.

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text: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.  Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, or include waves of any lower frequency. At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is , and at 3 kHz is . Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed  of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects.

text: Radio waves are a type of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with

text: wavelength

text: s in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: longer than

text: infrared

text: light.  Radio waves have

text: frequencies

text: as high as 300

text: GHz

text: to as low as 3

text: kHz

text: , though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as

text: microwaves

text: , or include waves of any lower frequency. At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is , and at 3 kHz is . Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the

text: speed  of light

text: . Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by

text: lightning

text: , or by

text: astronomical objects

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text: The loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by solar wind, which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

text: The loss of the Martian

text: magnetic field

text: strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by

text: solar wind

text: , which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

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answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: When there was a magnetic field the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by solar wind

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: solar wind

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: decreasing temperatures

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: decreased temperatures

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: loss of the atmosphere

text: The Q band is a range of frequencies contained in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Common usage places this range between 33 to 50 GHz, but may vary depending on the source using the term. The foregoing range corresponds to the recommended frequency band of operation of WR22 waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to wavelengths between 9 mm and 6 mm. The Q band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.

text: The Q band is a range of frequencies contained in the

text: microwave

text: region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Common usage places this range between 33 to 50

text: GHz

text: , but may vary depending on the source using the term. The foregoing range corresponds to the recommended frequency band of operation of

text: waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to

text: wavelength

text: s between 9 mm and 6 mm. The Q band is in the

text: EHF

text: range of the

text: radio spectrum

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answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: microwave

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Waveguides

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000874

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answers: Waveguides

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answers: NDQ_000877

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answers: NDQ_000878

answers: 50 GHz

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: vary

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000890

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answers: NDQ_000891

answers: frequency band of operation

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide and water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: microwave

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: The Q band

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Wood burning releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000900

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answers: NDQ_000909

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

text: The ability of the Nimbus satellites to detect electromagnetic energy in multiple wavelengths (multi-spectral data), in particular the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, made it possible for scientists to look into the atmosphere and tell the difference between water vapor and liquid water in clouds. In addition, they were able to measure atmospheric temperature even in the presence of clouds, a capability that allowed scientists to take the temperature in the "warm core" of hurricanes.

text: The ability of the Nimbus satellites to detect

text: electromagnetic energy

text: in multiple

text: wavelength

text: s (multi-spectral data), in particular the

text: microwave

text: region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , made it possible for scientists to look into the atmosphere and tell the difference between

text: water vapor

text: and liquid water in clouds. In addition, they were able to measure atmospheric temperature even in the presence of clouds, a capability that allowed scientists to take the temperature in the "warm core" of

text: hurricane

text: s.

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answers: NDQ_000871

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answers: NDQ_000872

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answers: NDQ_000873

answers: the microwave region

answers: NDQ_000874

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answers: NDQ_000875

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answers: electromagnetic energy

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answers: NDQ_000882

answers: "warm core"

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: "warm core" of hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: "warm core" of hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: capability

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: electromagnetic energy

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electromagnetic energy

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: electromagnetic energy in multiple wavelengths

answers: NDQ_000896

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answers: Wood burning releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000901

answers: microwave

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Warm core" of hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: satellites

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: hurricanes

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: water vapor

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: water vapor and liquid water

text: The situation in which convective inhibition is measured is when layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air. The effect of having warm air above a cooler air parcel is to prevent the cooler air parcel from rising into the atmosphere. This creates a stable region of air. Convective inhibition indicates the amount of energy that will be required to force the cooler packet of air to rise. This energy comes from fronts, heating, moistening, or mesoscale convergence boundaries such as outflow and sea breeze boundaries, or orographic lift.

text: The situation in which convective inhibition is measured is when layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air. The effect of having warm air above a cooler air parcel is to prevent the cooler air parcel from rising into the atmosphere. This creates a stable region of air. Convective inhibition indicates the amount of energy that will be required to force the cooler packet of air to rise. This energy comes from

text: fronts

text: , heating, moistening, or

text: mesoscale

text: convergence boundaries such as outflow and sea breeze boundaries, or

text: orographic lift

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answers: NDQ_000882

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000884

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answers: NDQ_000887

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answers: NDQ_000889

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answers: NDQ_000897

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answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000900

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answers: NDQ_000901

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: heating

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: convective

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: convective

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy than cooler ones.

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: air parcel

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: Sea breeze

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum.

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: moistening

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: fronts

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: fronts, heating

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: This energy comes from fronts, heating, moistening, or mesoscale convergence boundaries

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: air

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: layers of warmer air

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: convective inhibition

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: warmer air are above a particular region of air

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: warm air above a cooler air parcel

text: The magnetic field of a star can be measured by means of the Zeeman effect. Normally the atoms in a star's atmosphere will absorb certain frequencies of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum, producing characteristic dark absorption lines in the spectrum. When the atoms are within a magnetic field, however, these lines become split into multiple, closely spaced lines. The energy also becomes polarized with an orientation that depends on orientation of the magnetic field. Thus the strength and direction of the star's magnetic field can be determined by examination of the Zeeman effect lines.

text: The magnetic field of a star can be measured by means of the

text: Zeeman effect

text: . Normally the atoms in a star's atmosphere will absorb certain frequencies of energy in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , producing characteristic dark

text: absorption line

text: s in the spectrum. When the atoms are within a magnetic field, however, these lines become split into multiple, closely spaced lines. The energy also becomes

text: polarized

text: with an orientation that depends on orientation of the magnetic field. Thus the strength and direction of the star's magnetic field can be determined by examination of the Zeeman effect lines.

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: atoms

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: frequencies of energy

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Stars

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: polarized

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: frequencies

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: absorb certain frequencies of energy

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: The energy also becomes polarized

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: The energy also becomes polarized with an orientation that depends on orientation of the magnetic field

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The energy also becomes polarized

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: strength and direction of the star's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: frequencies

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: polarized

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: The magnetic field of a star

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: atoms in a star's atmosphere will absorb certain frequencies of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: a star

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: strength and direction of the star's magnetic field

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: atoms in a star's atmosphere

text: Solar energy is absorbed throughout the atmosphere some of the most significant in this context are water vapor at (~0–15 km) in the troposphere, ozone at (~30 to 60 km) in the stratosphere and molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen at (~120 to 170 km) in the thermosphere. Variations in the global distribution and density of these species result in changes in the amplitude of the solar tides. The tides are also affected by the environment through which they travel.

text: Solar energy is absorbed throughout the atmosphere some of the most significant in this context are

text: water vapor

text: at (~0–15 km) in the

text: troposphere

text: ozone

text: at (~30 to 60 km) in the

text: stratosphere

text: and molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen at (~120 to 170 km) in the

text: thermosphere

text: . Variations in the global distribution and density of these species result in changes in the amplitude of the solar tides. The tides are also affected by the environment through which they travel.

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answers: Conduction

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answers: NDQ_000872

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answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: stratosphere

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: troposphere

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Thermosphere

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: ozone

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: The troposphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Thermosphere

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Thermosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: changes in the amplitude of the solar tides

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: changes in the amplitude

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Solar energy is absorbed

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: solar tides

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: ( 30 to 60 km)

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000900

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answers: NDQ_000901

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answers: NDQ_000909

answers: Solar

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Solar energy is absorbed throughout the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: troposphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: Solar energy

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: changes in the amplitude

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: troposphere

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Solar energy is absorbed

text: Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to astronomical seeing.

text: Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to

text: astronomical seeing

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answers: The atmosphere is opaque for most of the

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answers: far-infrared

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answers: The atmosphere is opaque

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answers: atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: Earth's surface

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answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

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answers: electromagnetic

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answers: The atmosphere is opaque

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answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

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answers: X-ray

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answers: NDQ_000910

answers: X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit

answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: NDQ_000915

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text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

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text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the gas giants, as well as Mars, Venus, and Pluto. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun. There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect, aerosol and cloud physics, and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other

text: astronomical object

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: have

text: atmosphere

text: s. These include all the

text: gas giants

text: , as well as

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Pluto

text: . Several

text: moons

text: and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do

text: comet

text: s and the

text: Sun

text: . There is evidence that

text: extrasolar planet

text: s can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: aerosol

text: and cloud physics, and

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and dynamics.

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answers: greenhouse effect

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answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Earth's

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation. When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: , and

text: lithosphere

text: , and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and

text: ocean circulation

text: . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in

text: radiative equilibrium

text: and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Energy is absorbed

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Received radiation

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: incoming solar energy

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: convection

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: received radiation

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: Received radiation

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Earth's heat engine

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: heats equatorial regions more

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: radiative equilibrium

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: convection

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: equatorial regions

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy is absorbed

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: heat engine

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: incoming solar energy

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: radiative equilibrium

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: winds

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Earth's heat engine

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: Radiation

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Global temperatures will be stable

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: ocean circulation

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: global temperatures will be stable

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: the Sun

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Sun heats equatorial regions more

text: When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes the surrounding air outward, transferring energy in the form of work from that parcel to the atmosphere. As energy transfer to a parcel of air by way of heat is very slow, it is assumed to not exchange energy by way of heat with the environment. Such a process is called an adiabatic process (no energy transfer by way of heat). Since the rising parcel of air is losing energy as it does work on the surrounding atmosphere and no energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss, the parcel of air is losing energy, which manifests itself as a decrease in the temperature of the air parcel. The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking and is being compressed.

text: When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes the surrounding air outward, transferring energy in the form of

text: work

text: from that parcel to the atmosphere. As energy transfer to a parcel of air by way of heat is very slow, it is assumed to not exchange energy by way of

text: heat

text: with the environment. Such a process is called an

text: adiabatic

text: process (no energy transfer by way of heat). Since the rising parcel of air is losing energy as it does work on the surrounding atmosphere and no energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss, the parcel of air is losing energy, which manifests itself as a decrease in the temperature of the air parcel. The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking and is being compressed.

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: adiabatic process

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: No energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: What is the electromagnetic spectrum?

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: It does work on the surrounding atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: altitudes

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: electromagnetic waves

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: decrease in the temperature of the air parcel

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: decrease in the temperature

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: It pushes the surrounding air outward

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy can not be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy in the form of work

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: parcel

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: no energy transfer by way of heat

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Solar radiation travels by conduction back into the atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: No energy transfer

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: a decrease in the temperature

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: adiabatic process

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: isochronous

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: work

answers: NDQ_000910

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text: This is a massive supergiant star with a stellar classification of M0 I. It is a slow irregular variable of the LC type, with its brightness varying in magnitude by 0.44. The star is more than 14 times as massive as the Sun and is blazing with 63,579 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,750 K, giving it the orange-red hue of a cool M-type star.

text: This is a massive

text: supergiant

text: star with a

text: stellar classification

text: of M0 I. It is a

text: slow irregular variable

text: of the LC type, with its brightness varying in magnitude by 0.44. The star is more than 14 times as massive as the Sun and is blazing with 63,579 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 3,750 K, giving it the orange-red hue of a cool

text: M-type star

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text: The conglomerate operates with considerable latitude which the Irving family's wealth permits—operating somewhat as a maverick to the consternation of many of Central and Western Canada's business leaders. Irving Oil, J.D. Irving and all subsidiary companies are actively supporting Canada's ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, since the family has invested considerable funds into environmental controls and alternative energy for its operations and wishes to capitalize on these investments at the expense of its slow-to-respond publicly traded competitors.  J.D. Irving's food processing plants in Prince Edward Island are looking to build one of the largest wind farms in Canada in that province to completely power their operations, and many Irving-owned sawmills and factories in the rest of northeastern North America are rapidly adopting co-generation, bio-gas and solar/wind power to complement current energy usage.

text: The conglomerate operates with considerable latitude which the Irving family's wealth permits—operating somewhat as a maverick to the consternation of many of Central and Western Canada's business leaders. Irving Oil, J.D. Irving and all subsidiary companies are actively supporting Canada's ratification and implementation of the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , since the family has invested considerable funds into environmental controls and alternative energy for its operations and wishes to capitalize on these investments at the expense of its slow-to-respond publicly traded competitors.  J.D. Irving's food processing plants in

text: Prince Edward Island

text: are looking to build one of the largest

text: wind farm

text: s in Canada in that province to completely power their operations, and many Irving-owned sawmills and factories in the rest of northeastern North America are rapidly adopting co-generation, bio-gas and solar/wind power to complement current energy usage.

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text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, following his Ph.D. dissertation, Hansen published several papers on the planet Venus. Venus has a high brightness temperature in the radio frequencies compared to the infrared. Hansen proposed that the hot surface was the result of aerosols trapping the internal energy of the planet. More recent studies have suggested that several billion years ago, Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there were probably substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere.

text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, following his Ph.D. dissertation, Hansen published several papers on the planet

text: Venus

text: . Venus has a high

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text: in the radio frequencies compared to the infrared. Hansen proposed that the hot surface was the result of aerosols trapping the internal energy of the planet. More recent studies have suggested that several billion years ago,

text: Venus's atmosphere

text: was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there were probably substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but a

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text: was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es in its atmosphere.

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text: Schaefer helped found ASRC in 1960 and served as its Director of Research until 1966 when he became Director. Schaefer brought highly qualified atmospheric science researchers to ASRC, many of whom he had met through his work at GE and Munitalp. Bernard Vonnegut, Raymond Falconer and Duncan Blanchard were all veterans of Project Cirrus who joined Schaefer at ASRC. During his years at ASRC, in addition to the NSI summer programs, Schaefer led annual research expeditions to Yellowstone National Park for atmospheric scientists to work in the outdoor laboratory it provided each January. In the 1970s Schaefer's own research interests focused on solar energy, aerosols, gases, air quality, and pollution particles in the atmosphere. His work in some of these areas culminated in a three-part report on Air Quality on the Global Scale in 1978. In addition, during the 1970s Schaefer was an instructor in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Chautauqua short courses for science teachers.

text: Schaefer helped found ASRC in 1960 and served as its Director of Research until 1966 when he became Director. Schaefer brought highly qualified atmospheric science researchers to ASRC, many of whom he had met through his work at GE and Munitalp.

text: Bernard Vonnegut

text: , Raymond Falconer and Duncan Blanchard were all veterans of Project Cirrus who joined Schaefer at ASRC. During his years at ASRC, in addition to the NSI summer programs, Schaefer led annual research expeditions to Yellowstone National Park for atmospheric scientists to work in the outdoor laboratory it provided each January. In the 1970s Schaefer's own research interests focused on

text: solar energy

text: , aerosols, gases, air quality, and pollution particles in the atmosphere. His work in some of these areas culminated in a three-part report on Air Quality on the Global Scale in 1978. In addition, during the 1970s Schaefer was an instructor in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Chautauqua short courses for science teachers.

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text: A simple general circulation model (SGCM) consists of a dynamic core that relates properties such as temperature to others such as pressure and velocity. Examples are programs that solve the primitive equations, given energy input and energy dissipation in the form of scale-dependent friction, so that atmospheric waves with the highest wavenumbers are most attenuated. Such models may be used to study atmospheric processes, but are not suitable for climate projections.

text: A simple general circulation model (SGCM) consists of a dynamic core that relates properties such as temperature to others such as pressure and velocity. Examples are programs that solve the

text: primitive equations

text: , given energy input and energy

text: dissipation

text: in the form of scale-dependent

text: friction

text: , so that

text: atmospheric wave

text: s with the highest

text: wavenumber

text: s are most attenuated. Such models may be used to study atmospheric processes, but are not suitable for climate projections.

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text: An emissions tax on greenhouse gas emissions requires individual emitters to pay a fee, charge or tax for every tonne of greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere. Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles, rather than on CO emissions directly.

text: An emissions tax on greenhouse gas emissions requires individual emitters to pay a fee, charge or tax for every tonne of greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere. Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles, rather than on CO emissions directly.

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text: The table below shows the total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.

text: The table below shows the total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW. This varies by geographic region because the average

text: insolation

text: depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar

text: declination

text: Solar tracking

text: can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.

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answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: kWh

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: kilowatt

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Solar declination

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: declination

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: perpendicular

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Solar tracking can also be utilized

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: the average insolation

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Solar declination

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: solar declination

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface.

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: kWh

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Solar radiation travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: kilowatt

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: deep purple

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Wood burning releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: kWh

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: sunlight

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: electricity

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: path of the sun

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: solar declination

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: photovoltaic

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: average insolation

text: Since a high-angle boundary is imperfectly packed compared to the normal lattice it has some amount of free space or free volume where solute atoms may possess a lower energy. As a result, a boundary may be associated with a solute atmosphere that will retard its movement. Only at higher velocities will the boundary be able to break free of its atmosphere and resume normal motion.

text: Since a high-angle boundary is imperfectly packed compared to the normal lattice it has some amount of free space or free volume where solute atoms may possess a lower energy. As a result, a boundary may be associated with a solute atmosphere that will retard its movement. Only at higher velocities will the boundary be able to break free of its atmosphere and resume normal motion.

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answers: NDQ_000879

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answers: NDQ_000881

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answers: NDQ_000882

answers: 4

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answers: NDQ_000889

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answers: NDQ_000890

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answers: NDQ_000891

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answers: NDQ_000893

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answers: NDQ_000895

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answers: NDQ_000896

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answers: NDQ_000897

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answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000900

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answers: NDQ_000910

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answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: NDQ_000912

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: None of the above choices.

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: solute atoms

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: is imperfectly packed

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: retard its movement

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Solute atoms may possess a lower energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: At higher velocities

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: At higher velocities

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: atmosphere that will retard its movement

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: lower energy

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: normal motion

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: lower energy

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: lower energy

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Heat travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: free space

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Solute atoms possess a lower energy

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: boundary may be associated with a solute atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: high-angle boundary

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: lower energy

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: The boundary is able to break free of its atmosphere and resume normal motion

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: at higher velocities

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: solute atoms

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: solute atoms may possess a lower energy

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text: Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations, chemical models, radiation budget, and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere (as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans). In order to model weather systems, atmospheric physicists employ elements of scattering theory, wave propagation models, cloud physics, statistical mechanics and spatial statistics which are highly mathematical and related to physics. It has close links to meteorology and climatology and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including remote sensing instruments. At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets, aeronomy became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important.

text: Atmospheric physics is the application of

text: physics

text: to the study of the

text: atmosphere

text: . Atmospheric physicists attempt to model

text: Earth's atmosphere

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text: planet

text: s using

text: fluid flow

text: equations,

text: chemical

text: models,

text: radiation budget

text: , and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere (as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans). In order to model weather systems, atmospheric physicists employ elements of

text: scattering theory

text: , wave propagation models,

text: cloud physics

text: statistical mechanics

text: and

text: spatial statistics

text: which are highly mathematical and related to physics. It has close links to

text: meteorology

text: and

text: climatology

text: and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including

text: remote sensing

text: instruments. At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets,

text: aeronomy

text: became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important.

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text: Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar gain control solution.

text: Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar gain control solution.

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answers: heating and cooling requirements

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: Earth's surface

answers: NDQ_000915

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text: The puma model was proposed by Diaz and Kostelecky in 2010 as a three-parameter model that exhibits consistency with all the established neutrino data (accelerator, atmospheric, reactor, and solar) and naturally describes the anomalous low-energy excess observed in MiniBooNE that is inconsistent with the conventional massive model. This is a hybrid model that includes Lorentz violation and neutrino masses. One of the main differences between this model and the bicycle and tandem models described above is the incorporation of nonrenormalizable terms in the theory, which lead to powers of the energy greater than one. Nonetheless, all these models share the characteristic of having a mixed energy dependence that leads to energy-dependent mixing angles, a feature absent in the conventional massive model. At low energies, the mass term dominates and the mixing takes the tribimaximal form, a widely used matrix postulated to describe neutrino mixing. This mixing added to the 1/E dependence of the mass term guarantees agreement with solar and KamLAND data. At high energies, Lorentz-violating contributions take over making the contribution of neutrino masses negligible. A seesaw mechanism is triggered, similar to that in the bicycle model, making one of the eigenvalues proportional to 1/E, which usually come with neutrino masses. This feature lets the model mimic the effects of a mass term at high energies despite the fact that there are only non-negative powers of the energy. The energy dependence of the Lorentz-violating terms produce maximal

text: The puma model was proposed by Diaz and Kostelecky in 2010 as a three-parameter model that exhibits consistency with all the established neutrino data (accelerator, atmospheric, reactor, and solar) and naturally describes the anomalous low-energy excess observed in

text: MiniBooNE

text: that is inconsistent with the conventional massive model. This is a hybrid model that includes Lorentz violation and neutrino masses. One of the main differences between this model and the bicycle and tandem models described above is the incorporation of nonrenormalizable terms in the theory, which lead to powers of the energy greater than one. Nonetheless, all these models share the characteristic of having a mixed energy dependence that leads to energy-dependent mixing angles, a feature absent in the conventional massive model. At low energies, the mass term dominates and the mixing takes the

text: tribimaximal

text: form, a widely used matrix postulated to describe neutrino mixing. This mixing added to the 1/E dependence of the mass term guarantees agreement with

text: solar

text: and

entity_name: Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Antineutrino Detector

text: KamLAND

text: data. At high energies, Lorentz-violating contributions take over making the contribution of neutrino masses negligible. A seesaw mechanism is triggered, similar to that in the bicycle model, making one of the eigenvalues proportional to 1/E, which usually come with neutrino masses. This feature lets the model mimic the effects of a mass term at high energies despite the fact that there are only non-negative powers of the energy. The energy dependence of the Lorentz-violating terms produce maximal

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answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000875

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answers: NDQ_000877

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answers: NDQ_000878

answers: energy

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answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: At low energies, the mass term dominates

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection currents

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: energy-dependent mixing angles

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy-dependent mixing angles

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: energy-dependent mixing angles

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000894

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answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Solar radiation

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answers: mixing angles

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: deep purple

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: solar

answers: NDQ_000900

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answers: NDQ_000901

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answers: NDQ_000909

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answers: NDQ_000910

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answers: NDQ_000911

answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: neutrino masses

answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: low-energy excess

text: Exposure to energy from the star Vega granted Doctor Light photokinesis: control over all forms of light sources, without relying on equipment. She can absorb all forms of illumination as energy, which allowed her to survive Starbreaker's attack, as well as absorb the energy of the sun to attack the Anti-Monitor. She can project energy, allowing her to shoot destructive laser beams and other blasts of destructive energy, blind her opponents with blinding flashes of light (capable of dispersing Shadow Thief's shadow constructs), and create protective barriers. She can focus photons into "hard light" (a fictional form of energy which acts like a solid object). She can refract lightwaves to create holographic images. She can turn into light, rendering her invisible to the naked eye. Her abilities also allow her to disperse radiation and holographic illusions, scan and "see" the electromagnetic spectrum, track ionized molecules, and convert her body to near light to minimize her mass and escape gravitational pull. She can sense the light around her, which she describes as a "sixth sense" allowing her to know when somebody enters the room. She can ride lightwaves in order to fly, capable of reaching the speed of light, and outrunning the Superman of Earth-1. She has used her powers to generate sunlight from a yellow sun to heal injured Kryptonians and Daxamites. Her light abilities appear to have granted her enhanced durability, as she has survived attacks that have knocked out Power Girl and other enhanced metahumans. She can also teleport, from Earth to the Watchtower.

text: Exposure to energy from the star Vega granted Doctor Light photokinesis: control over all forms of light sources, without relying on equipment. She can absorb all forms of illumination as energy, which allowed her to survive Starbreaker's attack, as well as absorb the energy of the sun to attack the Anti-Monitor. She can project energy, allowing her to shoot destructive laser beams and other blasts of destructive energy, blind her opponents with blinding flashes of light (capable of dispersing Shadow Thief's shadow constructs), and create protective barriers. She can focus photons into "hard light" (a fictional form of energy which acts like a solid object). She can refract lightwaves to create

text: holograph

text: ic images. She can turn into light, rendering her invisible to the naked eye. Her abilities also allow her to disperse radiation and holographic illusions, scan and "see" the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , track ionized molecules, and convert her body to near light to minimize her mass and escape gravitational pull. She can sense the light around her, which she describes as a "

text: sixth sense

text: " allowing her to know when somebody enters the room. She can ride lightwaves in order to fly, capable of reaching the speed of light, and outrunning the Superman of Earth-1. She has used her powers to generate sunlight from a yellow sun to heal injured Kryptonians and

text: Daxamites

text: . Her light abilities appear to have granted her enhanced durability, as she has survived attacks that have knocked out

text: Power Girl

text: and other enhanced metahumans. She can also teleport, from Earth to the Watchtower.

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answers: Her light abilities appear to have granted her enhanced durability

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text: The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.

text: The Sun is the Solar System's

text: star

text: and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its

text: core

text: high enough to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: , making it a

text: main-sequence

text: star. This releases an enormous amount of

text: energy

text: , mostly

text: radiated

text: into

text: space

text: as

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: peaking in

text: visible light

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text: In meteorology, convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. CAPE is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability, which makes it very valuable in predicting severe weather. It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one. As explained below, when an air mass is unstable, the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the (higher) altitude to which it was displaced. This usually creates vertically developed clouds from convection, due to the rising motion, which can eventually lead to thunderstorms. It could also be created by other phenomena, such as a cold front. Even if the air is cooler on the surface, there is still warmer air in the mid-levels, that can rise into the upper-levels. However, if there is not enough water vapor present, there is no ability for condensation, thus storms, clouds, and rain will not form.

text: In

text: meteorology

text: , convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of

text: energy

text: a

text: parcel

text: of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. CAPE is effectively the positive

text: buoyancy

text: of an air parcel and is an indicator of

text: atmospheric instability

text: , which makes it very valuable in predicting

text: severe weather

text: . It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one. As explained below, when an air mass is unstable, the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the (higher) altitude to which it was displaced. This usually creates vertically developed clouds from

text: convection

text: , due to the rising motion, which can eventually lead to thunderstorms. It could also be created by other phenomena, such as a cold front. Even if the air is cooler on the surface, there is still warmer air in the mid-levels, that can rise into the upper-levels. However, if there is not enough water vapor present, there is no ability for condensation, thus storms, clouds, and rain will not form.

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answers: It is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel

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answers: It is a form of fluid

answers: NDQ_000873

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answers: create vertically developed clouds

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answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: This usually creates vertically developed clouds from convection, due to the rising motion

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: colder fluid overlies a warmer one

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

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answers: Convection

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answers: (APE)

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answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

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answers: There is no ability for condensation, thus storms, clouds, and rain will not form

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answers: thermally stratified atmospheres

text: Depending on the method of electricity generation used, regular greenhouse produce can create more greenhouse gases than field produce, largely due to higher energy use per kilogram of produce. With vertical farms requiring much greater energy per kilogram of produce, mainly through increased lighting, than regular greenhouses, the amount of pollution created will be much higher than that from field produce. The amount of pollution produced is dependent on how the energy used in the process is generated.

text: Depending on the method of electricity generation used, regular greenhouse

text: produce

text: can create more greenhouse gases than field produce, largely due to higher energy use per kilogram of produce. With vertical farms requiring much greater energy per kilogram of produce, mainly through increased lighting, than regular greenhouses, the amount of pollution created will be much higher than that from field produce. The amount of pollution produced is dependent on how the energy used in the process is generated.

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answers: Heat travels by conduction back into the atmosphere.

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text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700 nm), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1

text: astronomical unit

text: ), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the

text: zenith

text: is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700

text: nm

text: ), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8%

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

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text: Like other molecules, the CrH molecule can store energy in several ways. Firstly, the molecule can spin with the hydrogen atom seeming to orbit the chromium atom. Secondly, it can vibrate with the two atoms bouncing towards and away from each other. Thirdly, electrons can change from one atomic orbital to another in the chromium atom. All of these can happen at the same time.  All the numerous combinations of changes result in many different possible energy changes. Each of these changes will match a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum which is absorbed. When many of these frequencies cluster together in a group, an absorption band results.

text: Like other molecules, the CrH molecule can store energy in several ways. Firstly, the molecule can spin with the hydrogen atom seeming to orbit the chromium atom. Secondly, it can vibrate with the two atoms bouncing towards and away from each other. Thirdly, electrons can change from one

text: atomic orbital

text: to another in the chromium atom. All of these can happen at the same time.  All the numerous combinations of changes result in many different possible energy changes. Each of these changes will match a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum which is absorbed. When many of these frequencies cluster together in a group, an absorption band results.

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text: Climate engineering is a technogaian method that uses two categories of technologies- carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses a cause of climate change by removing one of the greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation.

text: Climate engineering is a technogaian method that uses two categories of technologies-

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Carbon dioxide removal addresses a cause of climate change by removing one of the

text: greenhouse gases

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the

text: Earth

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text: solar radiation

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text: Beneath the sun's photosphere lies the convection zone. The rotation of the sun, as well as varying pressure gradients beneath the surface, produces the periodic electromagnetism in the convection zone which can be observed on the sun's surface. This random motion of the surface gives rise to Alfvén waves.  The waves travel through the chromosphere and transition zone and interact with much of the ionized plasma. The wave itself carries energy as well as some of the electrically charged plasma.  De Pontieu  and Haerendel  suggested in the early 1990s that Alfven waves may also be associated with the plasma jets known as spicules. It was theorized these brief spurts of superheated gas were carried by the combined energy and momentum of their own upward velocity, as well as the oscillating transverse motion of the Alfven waves. In 2007, Alfven waves were reportedly observed for the first time traveling towards the corona by Tomcyzk et al., but their predictions could not conclude that the energy carried by the Alfven waves were sufficient to heat the corona to its enormous temperatures, for the observed amplitudes of the waves were not high enough. However, in 2011, McIntosh et al. reported the observation of highly energetic Alfven waves combined with energetic spicules which could sustain heating the corona to its million Kelvin temperature.  These observed amplitudes (20.0 km/s against 2007's observed 0.5 km/s) contained over one hundred times more energy than the ones observed in 2007. The short period of the waves also allowed more energy transfer into the coronal atmosphere. The 50,000 km long spicules may also play a part in accelerating the solar wind past the corona.

text: Beneath the sun's photosphere lies the convection zone. The rotation of the sun, as well as varying pressure gradients beneath the surface, produces the periodic electromagnetism in the convection zone which can be observed on the sun's surface. This random motion of the surface gives rise to Alfvén waves.  The waves travel through the chromosphere and transition zone and interact with much of the ionized plasma. The wave itself carries energy as well as some of the electrically charged plasma.  De Pontieu  and Haerendel  suggested in the early 1990s that Alfven waves may also be associated with the plasma jets known as

text: spicule

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text: Spherical energy shields were first seen on film within atmospheric conditions in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. A main distinguishable feature of one of the energy shields used in the Star Wars prequel trilogy is their ability to deflect energy bolts on their external side, while passing through lasers from their internal side as seen on the Droideka which was also introduced in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Such energy shields are possibly implied as vector or tensor effect and/or other possibilities.

text: Spherical energy shields were first seen on film within atmospheric conditions in

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

text: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

text: . A main distinguishable feature of one of the energy shields used in the

text: Star Wars prequel trilogy

text: is their ability to deflect energy bolts on their external side, while passing through lasers from their internal side as seen on the

text: Droideka

text: which was also introduced in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Such energy shields are possibly implied as vector or tensor effect and/or other possibilities.

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text: Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last Ice Age a c.  ice sheet covered the plateau. Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of radiative forcing. With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes. Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.

text: Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last

text: Ice Age

text: a c.  ice sheet covered the plateau. Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of

text: radiative forcing

text: . With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher

text: latitude

text: s. Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.

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text: Recently, the term "Atkinson cycle" has been used to describe a modified Otto-cycle engine in which the intake valve is held open longer than normal to allow a reverse flow of intake air into the intake manifold, this simulated Atkinson cycle is most notably used in the widespread Toyota 1NZ-FXE engine. The effective compression ratio is reduced (for a time the air is escaping the cylinder freely rather than being compressed), but the expansion ratio is unchanged. This means the compression ratio is smaller than the expansion ratio. Heat gained from burning fuel increases the pressure, thereby forcing the piston to move, expanding the air volume beyond the volume when compression began. The goal of the modern Atkinson cycle is to allow the pressure in the combustion chamber at the end of the power stroke to be equal to atmospheric pressure; when this occurs, all the available energy has been obtained from the combustion process. For any given portion of air, the greater expansion ratio allows more energy to be converted from heat to useful mechanical energy, meaning the engine is more efficient.

text: Recently, the term "Atkinson cycle" has been used to describe a modified

text: Otto-cycle

text: engine in which the intake valve is held open longer than normal to allow a reverse flow of intake air into the intake manifold, this simulated Atkinson cycle is most notably used in the widespread

text: Toyota 1NZ-FXE

text: engine. The effective compression ratio is reduced (for a time the air is escaping the cylinder freely rather than being compressed), but the expansion ratio is unchanged. This means the compression ratio is smaller than the expansion ratio. Heat gained from burning fuel increases the pressure, thereby forcing the piston to move, expanding the air volume beyond the volume when compression began. The goal of the modern Atkinson cycle is to allow the pressure in the combustion chamber at the end of the power stroke to be equal to atmospheric pressure; when this occurs, all the available energy has been obtained from the combustion process. For any given portion of air, the greater expansion ratio allows more energy to be converted from heat to useful mechanical energy, meaning the engine is more efficient.

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text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a

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text: . Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

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text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less carbon fixation. Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less

text: carbon fixation

text: . Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

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text: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

text: Solar

text: radiation

text: (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the

text: Sun

text: . Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

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text: Drastic increases in atmospheric CO2 caused by the burning of fossil fuels, has led to the search for alternative energy sources like biofuels and renewable energy sources. To analyze whether or not these alternative sources have overall less environmental impact then conventional energy sources, life-cycle analysis is needed. Life-cycle thinking is an intricate part of finding new energy sources that have an overall smaller impact on the environment.

text: Drastic increases in atmospheric CO2 caused by the burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: , has led to the search for alternative energy sources like

text: biofuels

text: and

text: renewable energy sources

text: . To analyze whether or not these alternative sources have overall less environmental impact then conventional energy sources, life-cycle analysis is needed. Life-cycle thinking is an intricate part of finding new energy sources that have an overall smaller impact on the environment.

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answers: infrared

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answers: increase atmospheric CO2

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answers: Drastic increases in atmospheric CO2

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answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

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answers: to analyze whether or not these alternative sources have overall less environmental impact

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answers: conventional energy sources have an overall smaller impact on the environment

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answers: burning

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text: Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon.  The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.

text: Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon.  The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.

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answers: Solar radiation

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answers: The amount of sunlight absorbed

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answers: The amount of sunlight absorbed

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: fluid motion

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answers: greater at the equator than at the poles

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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answers: energy

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answers: heat travels by conduction

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answers: fluid motion

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answers: The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude

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answers: solar radiation

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answers: the equator

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answers: the amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface

text: Public sentiment toward the suffrage movement improved dramatically during this period. Working for suffrage came to be seen as a respectable activity for middle class women. By 1910, NAWSA membership had jumped to 117,000.The NAWSA established its first permanent headquarters that year in New York City, previously having operated mainly out of the homes of its officers.Maud Wood Park, who had been away in Europe for two years, received a letter that year from one of her co-workers in the College Equal Suffrage League who described the new atmosphere by saying, "the movement which when we got into it had about as much energy as a dying kitten, is now a big, virile, threatening thing" and is "actually fashionable now".

text: Public sentiment toward the suffrage movement improved dramatically during this period. Working for suffrage came to be seen as a respectable activity for middle class women. By 1910, NAWSA membership had jumped to 117,000.The NAWSA established its first permanent headquarters that year in New York City, previously having operated mainly out of the homes of its officers.Maud Wood Park, who had been away in Europe for two years, received a letter that year from one of her co-workers in the College Equal Suffrage League who described the new atmosphere by saying, "the movement which when we got into it had about as much energy as a dying kitten, is now a big, virile, threatening thing" and is "actually fashionable now".

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text: The retailers are: Contact Energy, Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi, Energy Direct, Energy Online, Flick Electric, Genesis Energy, Giving Energy, GLOBUG, King Country Energy, megaEnergy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, Nova Energy, Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy, Powershop, Pulse Energy, Tiny Mighty Power and Trustpower.

text: The retailers are:

text: Contact Energy

text: , Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi,

text: Energy Direct

text: Energy Online

text: , Flick Electric,

text: Genesis Energy

text: , Giving Energy,

text: GLOBUG

text: King Country Energy

text: , megaEnergy,

text: Mercury Energy

text: Meridian Energy

text: Nova Energy

text: , Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy,

text: Powershop

text: , Pulse Energy,

text: Tiny Mighty Power

text: and

text: Trustpower

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text: Direct solar radiation has a value, for the studied territory, of 110-115 kcal/cm²/year, characteristic to the latitude, covering energy needs.

text: Direct solar radiation has a value, for the studied territory, of 110-115 kcal/cm²/year, characteristic to the latitude, covering energy needs.

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answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: kcal/cm2/year

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: Direct solar radiation

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: Direct solar radiation

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answers: Direct solar radiation

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answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: Direct solar radiation

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: Direct solar radiation

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answers: Direct solar radiation

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Direct solar radiation has a value of 110-115 kcal/cm2/year

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: latitude

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: Direct solar radiation

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: latitude, covering energy needs

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: energy needs

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Direct solar radiation

text: The pulsations result from a process called the κ-mechanism. A part of the star's outer atmosphere becomes optically thick due to partial ionization of certain elements. When these atoms lose an electron, the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases. This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand. The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy, causing it to cool and shrink back down again. The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity.

text: The pulsations result from a process called the

text: κ-mechanism

text: . A part of the star's outer

text: atmosphere

text: becomes

text: optically thick

text: due to partial

text: ionization

text: of certain elements. When these atoms lose an

text: electron

text: , the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases. This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand. The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy, causing it to cool and shrink back down again. The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity.

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answers: This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: A part of the star's outer atmosphere

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answers: luminosity

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answers: The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand

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answers: The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: likelihood that they will absorb energy increases

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide and water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: electron

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answers: atoms lose an electron

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: This results in an increase in temperature

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answers: electromagnetic

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answers: The  -mechanism

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: NDQ_000915

answers: partial ionization of certain elements

text: The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.

text: The total amount of energy received per second at the top of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: (TOA) is measured in

text: watt

text: s and is given by the

text: solar constant

text: times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.

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answers: Earth's atmosphere

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answers: 340 W/m2

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answers: the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth

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answers: absorption

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answers: watts

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answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

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answers: the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

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answers: energy

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answers: water vapor

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answers: watts

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answers: energy received per second

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answers: The total amount of energy received per second

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answers: energy received

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: 340 W/m2

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Wood burning releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: solar

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answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: solar

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answers: solar

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answers: the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m2

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: top of Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: satellite

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answers: long-term averages

answers: NDQ_000914

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text: Based upon the spectrum of light emitted by the primary, it has a stellar classification of G2 V. This indicates that it is a G-type main sequence star that is generating energy through the process of thermonuclear fusion in its core region. It has an estimated mass of 1.097 times the mass of the Sun, but a measured radius that is 1.867 times as large. As a result, it shines with 2.705 times the luminosity of the Sun. The abundance of elements in this star is similar to that in the Sun, although it is an older star with an age of around 8.2 billion years. The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is 5,421 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow of an ordinary K-type star.

text: Based upon the

text: spectrum

text: of light emitted by the primary, it has a

text: stellar classification

text: of G2 V. This indicates that it is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: that is generating energy through the process of

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: in its core region. It has an estimated mass of 1.097 times the mass of the Sun, but a measured radius that is 1.867 times as large. As a result, it shines with 2.705 times the luminosity of the Sun. The abundance of elements in this star is similar to that in the Sun, although it is an older star with an age of around 8.2 billion years. The

text: effective temperature

text: of the

text: stellar atmosphere

text: is 5,421 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow of an ordinary

text: K-type star

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answers: The abundance of elements in this star is similar to that in the Sun

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: luminosity

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: thermonuclear fusion

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answers: light

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answers: G-type main sequence star

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answers: atmosphere

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answers: electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: emitted

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is 5,421 K

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: the process of thermonuclear fusion

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answers: core region

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is 5,421 K

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: generating energy

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answers: Heat travels by conduction back into the atmosphere

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answers: it shines with 2.705 times the luminosity of the Sun

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answers: thermonuclear fusion

text: A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor is thought to have occurred on Venus.

text: A

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: occurs if

text: positive feedback

text: s lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor is thought to have occurred on Venus.

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answers: Conduction

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text: Decorative fountain systems employ fluid amplifiers to generate their decorative displays and effects. Fluid amplifiers rely on a fluid control stream to switch a fluid power stream. Fluid amplifiers are so named because a low-energy fluid control signal can control and switch a high-energy fluid power stream to produce an output signal of higher energy level than the fluid control signal. In fluid amplifiers, a fluid power stream, after leaving a nozzle, is switched selectively to one or more of a plurality of outlet passages. This may be done by supplying fluid control pressure continuously, or as a pulse, to one of the control ports at the exit end of the nozzle until the high-energy power stream is diverted. Alternatively, switching may be effected by closing the other control port so that the fluid that is flowing in through one control port from the atmosphere or some other source will create a sufficient fluid pressure imbalance adjacent the exit end of the nozzle to effect switching of the fluid power stream.

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text: He has also investigated the role played by water vapour in the Earth's energy budget, which considers the energy flows both into and away from the Earth in the form of shortwave radiation from the Sun and outgoing longwave radiation from the Earth and its atmosphere, respectively.

text: He has also investigated the role played by

text: water vapour

text: in the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: , which considers the energy flows both into and away from the

text: Earth

text: in the form of

text: shortwave radiation

text: from the

text: Sun

text: and

text: outgoing longwave radiation

text: from the Earth and its

text: atmosphere

text: , respectively.

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text: Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the inelastic collisions of the high speed fission and fusion products.  It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy.  This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of blackbody radiation emitting in the soft X-ray region. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to kinetic energy.

text: Gamma rays

text: from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft

text: X-ray

text: region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the

text: inelastic collisions

text: of the high speed fission and fusion products.  It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of

text: kinetic energy

text: .  This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of

text: blackbody radiation

text: kinetic energy

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion products is converted into internal and then radiation energy

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: particles in a certain volume

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: soft X-ray region

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: It is these reaction products

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: blackbody radiation

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: Gamma ray

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: thermal radiation

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: superheat nearby air

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: air and/or other material

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: internal energy/heat

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: superheat nearby air and/or other material

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: microsecond

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: fusion

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: electromagnetic

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: collisions

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: X-rays

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: kinetic energy

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: air and/or other material

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: particles

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: air and/or other material

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: Gamma rays

text: Second, the atmosphere may cause an otherwise tightly collimated energy beam to spread.

text: Second, the atmosphere may cause an otherwise tightly collimated energy beam to spread.

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answers: The atmosphere

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answers: NDQ_000874

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answers: collimated

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answers: The atmosphere

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answers: The atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: the atmosphere causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: collimated

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answers: carbon dioxide

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answers: energy beam

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: energy beam

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Heat travels back into the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: energy beam

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: collimated

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: collimated

answers: NDQ_000901

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answers: NDQ_000909

answers: energy beam

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answers: the atmosphere may cause an otherwise tightly collimated energy beam to spread

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: the atmosphere

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answers: collimating

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: collimated energy beam

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: the atmosphere

text: The IPCC defines "climate change" as "a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity." In its latest assessment on climate change, the IPCC found that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal" and that the anthropogenic component of this warming over the last thirty years has likely had a discernible influence on observed changes in many physical and biological systems. The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat in the atmosphere, which would otherwise escape to space. GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere when they are emitted faster than they can be naturally removed, and that accumulation prompts changes in the climate system. Once emitted into the atmosphere, GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries. Consistent with their long-lasting impacts, the IPCC found that even if the concentrations of all GHGs had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of approximately 0.1C per decade would be expected. The fact that GHGs are long-lived in the atmosphere also means that they become well mixed across the globe – hence the global nature of the problem.

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: well mixed

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: escape to space

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat in the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Conduction happens mainly in the upper atmosphere.

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere when they are emitted faster than they can be naturally removed

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: e.g. using statistical tests

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: once emitted into the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat in the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: energy balance

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: GHGs

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: space

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: energy balance

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: space

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: greenhouse gases

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: Earth's atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: heat

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: natural variability

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: would otherwise escape to space

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: GHGs

text: This Building is going to be constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, a byproduct of blast furnaces. The mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment by decreasing the amount of cement needed for the building, which in turn lowers the amount of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced through the normal cement manufacturing process. Each ton of regular cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in an environmentally friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency. Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver  air into a raised access floor plenum. This underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste. The cooling system produces and stores ice during off-peak hours, and allows the ice to melt to help cool the building during peak load, similar to the ice batteries in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.

text: Hotel New Otani Tokyo

text: in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.

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answers: NDQ_000870

answers: The use of slag cement

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: thermal loss

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Energy can only travel through matter

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Light bulb

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Temperature control and the production of some of its energy

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: building churn

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: Light

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: The electric light bulb

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: thermal loss

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: Carbon dioxide greenhouse gas

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Temperature control and the production of some of its energy

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: electric light bulb

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: absorption

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: absorption chillers

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answers: thermal loss

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answers: Light bulbs

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answers: slag

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answers: Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: building churn

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answers: thermal loss

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: Temperature control

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: carbon dioxide greenhouse gas

text: All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation, chiefly visible and short-wave (near) infrared, as well as outgoing long wave (far) infrared electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

text: All climate models take account of incoming

text: energy

text: from the sun as short wave

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , chiefly

text: visible

text: and short-wave (near)

text: infrared

text: , as well as outgoing long wave (far)

text: infrared

text: electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a

text: change in temperature

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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answers: Conduction

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answers: climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation

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answers: NDQ_000914

answers: from the sun

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answers: imbalance

text: Neutron monitors on the ground indirectly monitor cosmic rays from the Sun and galactic sources. When cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere, atomic interactions occur that cause a shower of lower energy particles to descend into the atmosphere and to ground level. The presence of cosmic rays in the near-Earth space environment can be detected by monitoring high energy neutrons at ground level. Small fluxes of cosmic rays are present continuously. Large fluxes are produced by the Sun during events related to energetic solar flares.

text: Neutron monitor

text: s on the ground indirectly monitor cosmic rays from the Sun and galactic sources. When cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere, atomic interactions occur that cause a shower of lower energy particles to descend into the atmosphere and to ground level. The presence of cosmic rays in the near-Earth space environment can be detected by monitoring high energy neutrons at ground level. Small fluxes of cosmic rays are present continuously. Large fluxes are produced by the Sun during events related to energetic solar flares.

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answers: cosmic rays

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answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Large fluxes are produced by the Sun during events related to energetic solar flares

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: When cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere, atomic interactions occur

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: The presence of cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide and water vapor

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: cosmic ray

answers: NDQ_000894

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answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Conduction

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answers: neutrons

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answers: cosmic rays

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answers: Large fluxes of cosmic rays are present continuously

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answers: the atmosphere

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answers: neutrons

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: cosmic rays

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: Earth

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: cosmic rays

text: Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called spectrograph or spectrometer. The visible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 390 to 700 nm. The absorption spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation. The emission spectrum refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a higher to a lower energy state.

text: Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called

text: spectrograph

text: or

text: spectrometer

text: . The

text: visible spectrum

text: is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the

text: human eye

text: . The wavelength of visible light ranges from

text: 390 to 700 nm

text: . The

text: absorption spectrum

text: of a

text: chemical element

text: or

text: chemical compound

text: is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation. The

text: emission spectrum

text: refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a

text: transition

text: from a higher to a lower energy state.

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answers: The visible spectrum

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

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answers: Absorb

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answers: The visible spectrum

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answers: The emission spectrum

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answers: The emission spectrum

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answers: NDQ_000910

answers: The visible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye

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answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: electromagnetic radiation

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: electromagnetic radiation

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of magnetic reconnection, the physical process that drives solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field. Reconnection reconfigures the local magnetic field surrounding the flare site from a higher-energy (non-potential, stressed) state to a lower-energy (potential) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a current sheet, often preceded by or in tandem with a coronal mass ejection. As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed magnetic field lines are swept away from the reconnection site, producing outflows both toward and away from the solar surface, respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to reconnection downflows that perturb the hot, dense plasma that collects above flare arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: , the physical process that drives

text: solar flare

text: s by releasing energy stored in the

text: Sun’s magnetic field

text: Reconnection

text: reconfigures the local

text: magnetic field

text: surrounding the

text: flare

text: site from a higher-energy (non-potential,

text: stressed

text: ) state to a lower-energy (

text: potential

text: ) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a

text: current sheet

text: , often preceded by or in tandem with a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed

text: magnetic field lines

text: are swept away from the

text: reconnection

text: site, producing outflows both toward and away from the

text: solar surface

text: , respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to

text: reconnection

text: downflows that perturb the hot, dense

text: plasma

text: that collects above

text: flare

text: arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

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answers: Reconnection reconfigures the local magnetic field surrounding the flare site

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answers: Sun’s magnetic field

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answers: This process is facilitated by the development of a current sheet

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answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

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answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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text: Using a Peltier electrometer, Luigi Palmieri researched atmospheric electricity. Nikola Tesla and Hermann Plauson investigated the production of energy and power via atmospheric electricity. Tesla also proposed to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large distances.  The Polish Polar Station, Hornsund, has researched the magnitude of the Earth's electric field and recorded its vertical component. Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how the Earth’s negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century. Whilst a certain amount of observational work has been done in the branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has not developed to a considerable extent. Up to the contemporary day, apparatus which extract industrial energy from atmospheric electricity have not been built and maintained.

text: Using a Peltier

text: electrometer

text: Luigi Palmieri

text: researched atmospheric electricity.

text: Nikola Tesla

text: and

text: Hermann Plauson

text: investigated the production of

text: energy

text: and

text: power

text: via atmospheric electricity. Tesla also proposed to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large distances.  The

text: Polish Polar Station, Hornsund

text: , has researched the

text: magnitude

text: of the Earth's

text: electric field

text: and recorded its vertical component. Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how the Earth’s negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century. Whilst a certain amount of observational work has been done in the branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has not developed to a considerable extent. Up to the contemporary day, apparatus which extract industrial energy from atmospheric electricity have not been built and maintained.

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text: French environmentalist Bruno Comby started the group Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well-managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect".

text: French environmentalist

text: Bruno Comby

text: started the group

text: Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy

text: in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well-managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect".

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text: Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a spectroscope gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.

text: Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a

text: spectroscope

text: gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.

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text: The emission spectra of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The photon energy of the emitted photon is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated wavelengths, make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore, spectroscopy can be used to identify the elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.

text: The emission spectra of a

text: chemical element

text: or

text: chemical compound

text: is the spectrum of

text: frequencies

text: of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: emitted due to an

text: atom

text: or molecule making a

text: transition

text: from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The

text: photon energy

text: of the emitted

text: photon

text: is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated

text: wavelengths

text: , make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore,

text: spectroscopy

text: can be used to identify the elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.

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text: If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.

text: If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e.,

text: greenhouse gas

text: es) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.

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text: The coronal heating problem is a longstanding question in heliophysics. It is unknown why the sun's corona lives in a temperature range higher than one million degrees while the sun's surface (photosphere) is only a few thousand degrees in temperature. Natural intuition would predict a decrease in temperature while getting farther away from a heat source, but it is theorized that the photosphere, influenced by the sun's magnetic fields, emits certain waves which carry energy (i.e. heat) to the corona and solar wind. It is important to note that because the density of the corona is quite a bit smaller than the photosphere, the heat and energy level of the photosphere is much higher than the corona. Temperature depends only on the average speed of a species, and less energy is required to heat fewer particles to higher temperatures in the coronal atmosphere. Alfvén first proposed the existence of an electromagnetic-hydrodynamic wave in 1942 in Nature. He claimed the sun had all necessary criteria to support these waves and that they may in turn be responsible for sun spots. From his paper:

text: The

text: coronal heating problem

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text: Asimov described how energy flows through a life-support system from a low entropic state from which it moves all material resources, such as air, water, and food with the rejection of low-grade heat as the final energy output.  The concept reflects the dynamics of ecosystem ecology as described by Howard T. Odum.

text: Asimov described how energy flows through a life-support system from a low

text: entropic

text: state from which it moves all material resources, such as air, water, and food with the rejection of low-grade heat as the final energy output.  The concept reflects the dynamics of

text: ecosystem ecology

text: as described by

text: Howard T. Odum

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text: Since 2007, Cool the Earth has been responsible for motivating over 45,000 energy-saving actions to be taken by over 27,000 school children and family members—eliminating 37 million pounds of carbon from the atmosphere—with positive environmental benefits for the region.

text: Since 2007, Cool the Earth has been responsible for motivating over 45,000 energy-saving actions to be taken by over 27,000 school children and family members—eliminating 37 million pounds of carbon from the atmosphere—with positive environmental benefits for the region.

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text: The retirement life of the wing spar of a transport category aeroplane type-certificated to the safe-life principle is based on a safety factor applied to data obtained from flight tests and information about properties of the spar material.  The life of 11,400 flights for the Viscount inner lower boom was based on safety factors of 3.5 for the ground-air-ground cycle and 5.0 for fatigue damage due to atmospheric gusts. These safety factors were typical for this class of aeroplane.  A 50% reduction of mean time to failure does not adequately explain why the inner lower boom in VH-RMQ should have failed before reaching its retirement life. In anticipation that the atmospheric gust spectrum in Australia may be more severe on the Viscount than the spectrum in some other climatic zones the gust spectrum was measured during 14,000 Viscount flights in Australia before 1961.  The Department of Civil Aviation accepted the Viscount retirement lives as compatible with the atmospheric gust spectrum these aircraft would encounter during operations in Australia.

text: The retirement life of the wing spar of a

text: transport category

text: aeroplane type-certificated to the safe-life principle is based on a

text: safety factor

text: applied to data obtained from flight tests and information about properties of the spar material.  The life of 11,400 flights for the Viscount inner lower boom was based on safety factors of 3.5 for the ground-air-ground cycle and 5.0 for fatigue damage due to atmospheric gusts. These safety factors were typical for this class of aeroplane.  A 50% reduction of mean time to failure does not adequately explain why the inner lower boom in VH-RMQ should have failed before reaching its retirement life. In anticipation that the atmospheric gust spectrum in Australia may be more severe on the Viscount than the spectrum in some other

text: climatic zone

text: s the gust spectrum was measured during 14,000 Viscount flights in Australia before 1961.  The Department of Civil Aviation accepted the Viscount retirement lives as compatible with the atmospheric gust spectrum these aircraft would encounter during operations in Australia.

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answers: NDQ_000872

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answers: NDQ_000873

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answers: NDQ_000874

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answers: NDQ_000875

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answers: NDQ_000876

answers: atmospheric gust

answers: NDQ_000877

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answers: NDQ_000878

answers: ground-air-ground

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: Australia may be more severe

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: 5.0 for fatigue damage due to atmospheric gusts

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: atmospheric gusts

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Ground-air-ground cycle

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: The Department of Civil Aviation

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: greenhouse effect

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: The life of 11,400 flights

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

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answers: NDQ_000894

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answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Ground-air-ground cycle

answers: NDQ_000896

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answers: ultraviolet

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy.

answers: NDQ_000899

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answers: NDQ_000900

answers: Fatigue

answers: NDQ_000901

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answers: NDQ_000910

answers: A 50% reduction of mean time to failure does not adequately explain why the inner lower boom in VH-RMQ should have failed before reaching its retirement life

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: Australia

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: flight

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: atmospheric gust spectrum

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: Australia

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: atmospheric gusts

text: Discovering that the amplification caused a build-up of energy in his body that is reaching a critical - and potentially fatal - level, the Laser seeks the aid of East German scientists, who offer to help by draining off the excess energy and using it to power a network of weapons satellites. The plan, however, is stopped by Iron Man and in battle with the hero, the Laser's energy levels build to critical mass. Although the Laser begs for help, Iron Man has no choice but to hurl the character into the atmosphere where he detonates and apparently dies. Eventually revived, the Laser battles Iron Man once again; and during the    Acts of Vengeance storyline battles the hero Quasar.

text: Discovering that the amplification caused a build-up of energy in his body that is reaching a critical - and potentially fatal - level, the Laser seeks the aid of

text: East German

text: scientists, who offer to help by draining off the excess energy and using it to power a network of weapons

text: satellite

text: s. The plan, however, is stopped by

text: Iron Man

text: and in battle with the hero, the Laser's energy levels build to critical mass. Although the Laser begs for help, Iron Man has no choice but to hurl the character into the

text: atmosphere

text: where he

text: detonate

text: s and apparently dies. Eventually revived, the Laser battles Iron Man once again; and during the

text: Acts of Vengeance

text: storyline battles the hero

text: Quasar

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answers: Heat travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple

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answers: burning wood

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Laser

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answers: NDQ_000901

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answers: NDQ_000910

answers: the Laser's energy levels build to critical mass

answers: NDQ_000911

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answers: NDQ_000913

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answers: NDQ_000914

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answers: the amplification

text: Atomic line filters may operate in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are used then the "output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed photocathodes possess their highest sensitivity".

text: Atomic line filters may operate in the

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: and infrared regions of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If

text: photomultiplier tubes

text: (PMTs) are used then the "output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed

text: photocathode

text: s possess their highest sensitivity".

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answers: Warm air always sinks to the surface

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answers: active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed photocathodes possess their highest sensitivity".

answers: NDQ_000911

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text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy from the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top temperature, and ozone distribution.

text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared

text: radiant energy

text: and visible

text: reflected solar energy

text: from the Earth's surface and

text: atmosphere

text: . The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles,

text: surface

text: and cloud top temperature, and

text: ozone

text: distribution.

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answers: Burning wood

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: radiant energy

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: infrared

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: solar energy

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: radiant energy

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: temperature

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: solar energy

text: Waves or oscillations, lose energy over time, typically from friction or turbulence. In many cases the "lost" energy raises the temperature of the system. For example, a wave that loses amplitude is said to dissipate. The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave: an atmospheric wave, for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to friction with the land mass, and at higher levels due to radiative cooling.

text: Wave

text: s or

text: oscillation

text: s, lose

text: energy

text: over

text: time

text: , typically from

text: friction

text: or

text: turbulence

text: . In many cases the "lost" energy raises the

text: temperature

text: of the system. For example, a

text: wave

text: that loses

text: amplitude

text: is said to dissipate. The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave: an

text: atmospheric wave

text: , for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to

text: friction

text: with the land mass, and at higher levels due to

text: radiative cooling

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answers: NDQ_000913

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: 0

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: radiation

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Friction or turbulence

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Waves

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: Waves or oscillations

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: Friction

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: turbulence

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: electromagnetic spectrum

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: Radiative cooling

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: raises the temperature

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: surface

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Warmer molecules have more energy than cooler ones.

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Friction

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: Friction with the land mass

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: Carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Heat travels by conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: dissipate

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: Deep purple is part of the ultraviolet spectrum

answers: NDQ_000898

answers: Burning wood releases chemical energy

answers: NDQ_000899

answers: Waves

answers: NDQ_000900

answers: Friction

answers: NDQ_000901

answers: wavelengths

answers: NDQ_000909

answers: Waves

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: Waves or oscillations, lose energy over time

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: a system

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: Waves

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: turbulence

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: "lost" energy

text: The Sun's energy, stored by plants (primary producers) during photosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes. Since the industrial revolution the concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossil fuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been the source of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use. Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries to reduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO levels at 450–650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level, temperatures could rise by more than 2 °C to produce “catastrophic” climate change. Reduction of current CO levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.

text: The Sun's energy, stored by plants (

text: primary producer

text: s) during

text: photosynthesis

text: , passes through the

text: food chain

text: to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes. Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: the concentrated energy of the

text: Sun

text: stored in fossilized plants as

text: fossil fuel

text: s has been a major driver of

text: technology

text: which, in turn, has been the source of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientists of the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: IPCC

text: concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use. Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries to reduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO levels at 450–650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level, temperatures could rise by more than 2 °C to produce “catastrophic”

text: climate change

text: . Reduction of current CO levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.

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answers: 4

answers: NDQ_000870

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000871

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: Passes through the food chain

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: fossil fuels

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: Atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000876

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000877

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000878

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: human-induced

answers: NDQ_000881

answers: Gamma rays

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: Temperatures

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: 450–650 ppm

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: 450–650 ppm

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Sun's energy, stored by plants

answers: NDQ_000891

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answers: NDQ_000892

answers: CO

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: ppm

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answers: power all living processes

answers: NDQ_000895

answers: Conduction

answers: NDQ_000896

answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000897

answers: The Sun's energy

answers: NDQ_000898

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answers: fossil fuels

answers: NDQ_000910

answers: fossil fuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been the source of both economic and political power

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: Atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000912

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answers: NDQ_000913

answers: Temperatures

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: temperatures

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: human-induced

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their declination or motion; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries, planetary hours, body and character types, and so on.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their

text: declination

text: or

text: motion

text: planetary hours

text: , body and character types, and so on.

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answers: NDQ_000892

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answers: Diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs

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answers: The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: retrograde motion

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: planets

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answers: retrograde motion of the planets

text: This is an evolved K-type giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III. It is a red clump giant on the horizontal branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, indicating that is it now generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core. The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 10 times the Sun's radius. As such, it is radiating nearly 47 times the solar luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,710 K.

text: This is an

text: evolved

text: K-type

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III. It is a

text: red clump

text: giant on the

text: horizontal branch

text: of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , indicating that is it now generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of helium at its core. The star has more than twice the

text: mass of the Sun

text: and has expanded to 10 times the

text: Sun's radius

text: . As such, it is radiating nearly 47 times the

text: solar luminosity

text: from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,710 K.

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answers: radiating nearly 47 times the solar luminosity

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answers: The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: It is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: radiating nearly 47 times the solar luminosity

answers: NDQ_000887

answers: convection current

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: The greenhouse effect causes more solar energy to reach Earths surface

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: generating energy

answers: NDQ_000892

answers: carbon dioxide

answers: NDQ_000893

answers: helium

answers: NDQ_000894

answers: thermonuclear fusion

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answers: The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun

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answers: radiating

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answers: red

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answers: The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun

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answers: solar luminosity

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answers: thermonuclear fusion

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answers: solar luminosity

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answers: thermonuclear fusion

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answers: The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 10 times the Sun's radius

answers: NDQ_000911

answers: stars

answers: NDQ_000912

answers: radiating

answers: NDQ_000913

answers: horizontal branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: radiates

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answers: thermonuclear fusion

text: Specific energy is energy per unit mass. (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means energy per unit volume.) It is used to quantify, for example, stored heat or other thermodynamic properties of substances such as specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, specific Gibbs free energy, and specific Helmholtz free energy.  It may also be used for the kinetic energy or potential energy of a body.  Specific energy is an intensive property, whereas energy and mass are extensive properties.

text: Specific energy is

text: energy

text: per unit

text: mass

text: . (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means

text: energy per unit volume

text: .) It is used to quantify, for example, stored

text: heat

text: or other

text: thermodynamic properties

text: of substances such as

text: specific internal energy

text: specific enthalpy

text: , specific

text: Gibbs free energy

text: , and specific

text: Helmholtz free energy

text: .  It may also be used for the

text: kinetic energy

text: or

text: potential energy

text: of a body.  Specific energy is an

text: intensive property

text: , whereas energy and mass are

text: extensive properties

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answers: The electromagnetic spectrum

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answers: Specific energy is energy per unit mass

answers: NDQ_000879

answers: heat

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answers: Specific energy is energy per unit mass

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: specific Gibbs free energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: The upper atmosphere

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answers: Specific energy is energy per unit mass

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: specific Gibbs free energy

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

answers: NDQ_000891

answers: kinetic energy

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answers: specific Gibbs free energy

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text: Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate.  A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum.  In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics.  Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).

text: Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some

text: synchronous digital systems

text: , especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the

text: electromagnetic interference

text: (EMI) that these systems generate.  A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a

text: clock signal

text: and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum.  In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics.  Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the

text: FCC

text: in the United States,

entity_name: Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association

text: JEITA

text: in Japan and the

text: IEC

text: in Europe).

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text: Research on the effect of  on the climate began in the 19th century; Joseph Fourier discovered the atmospheric "greenhouse effect" in 1824, and in 1860 John Tyndall quantified the effect of each gas. This potential explanation of ice ages was investigated by Svante Arrhenius, who published research in 1896 showing that a geometric increase in  would cause an arithmetical increase in temperatures. He suggested that coal burning could cause the effect, and in a 1938 article Guy Stewart Callendar presented evidence that it was already happening. Both viewed this as a benign possibility.

text: Research on the effect of  on the climate began in the 19th century;

text: Joseph Fourier

text: discovered the atmospheric "

text: greenhouse effect

text: " in 1824, and in 1860

text: John Tyndall

text: quantified the effect of each gas. This potential explanation of

text: ice age

text: s was investigated by

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: , who published research in 1896 showing that a

text: geometric increase

text: in  would cause an

text: arithmetical increase

text: in temperatures. He suggested that coal burning could cause the effect, and in a 1938 article

text: Guy Stewart Callendar

text: presented evidence that it was already happening. Both viewed this as a benign possibility.

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text: The Sun's electromagnetic radiation which is received at the Earth's surface is predominantly light that falls within the range of wavelengths to which the visual systems of the animals that inhabit Earth's surface are sensitive. The Sun may therefore be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an equal-energy illuminant for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths.

text: The Sun's electromagnetic radiation which is received at the Earth's surface is predominantly light that falls within the range of wavelengths to which the visual systems of the animals that inhabit Earth's surface are sensitive. The Sun may therefore be said to

text: illuminate

text: , which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an

text: equal-energy illuminant

text: for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect,

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths.

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text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called ozone layer, starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called

text: ozone layer

text: , starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of

text: pyrimidine dimer

text: s in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

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text: International energy statistics are typically broken down by carrier, sector and sub-sector, and country.  Energy carriers ( energy products) are further classified as primary energy and secondary (or intermediate) energy and sometimes final (or end-use) energy.  Published energy datasets are normally adjusted so that they are internally consistent, meaning that all energy stocks and flows must balance.  The IEA regularly publishes energy statistics and energy balances with varying levels of detail and cost and also offers mid-term projections based on this data.  The notion of an energy carrier, as used in energy economics, is distinct and different from the definition of energy used in physics.

text: International

text: energy statistics

text: are typically broken down by carrier, sector and sub-sector, and country.  Energy carriers ( energy products) are further classified as

text: primary energy

text: and

entity_section: Conversion to energy carriers (or secondary energy)

text: secondary

text: (or intermediate) energy and sometimes final (or end-use) energy.  Published energy datasets are normally adjusted so that they are internally consistent, meaning that all energy stocks and flows must

text: balance

text: .  The IEA regularly publishes energy statistics and energy balances with varying levels of detail and cost and also offers mid-term projections based on this data.  The notion of an energy carrier, as used in

text: energy economics

text: , is distinct and different from the definition of

text: energy

text: used in physics.

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text: The waterhole, or water hole, is an especially quiet band of the electromagnetic spectrum between 1,420 and 1,666 megahertz, corresponding to wavelengths of 21 and 18 centimeters respectively.  It is a popular observing frequency used by radio telescopes in radio astronomy.   The term was coined by Bernard Oliver in 1971. The strongest hydroxyl radical spectral line radiates at 18 centimeters, and hydrogen at 21 centimeters. These two molecules, which combined form water, are widespread in interstellar gas, and their presence radiates radio noise at these frequencies.  Therefore, the spectrum between these frequencies form a "quiet" channel in the interstellar radio noise background.  Bernard M. Oliver theorized that the waterhole would be an obvious band for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence, hence the name, which is a form of pun: in English, a watering hole is a vernacular reference to a common place to meet and talk. Several programs involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, including SETI@home, search in the waterhole radio frequencies.

text: The waterhole, or water hole, is an especially quiet

text: band

text: of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: between 1,420 and 1,666

text: megahertz

text: , corresponding to wavelengths of 21 and 18 centimeters respectively.  It is a popular observing frequency used by

text: radio telescope

text: s in

text: radio astronomy

text: .   The term was coined by

text: Bernard Oliver

text: in 1971. The strongest

text: hydroxyl radical

text: spectral line

text: radiates at 18 centimeters, and

text: hydrogen

text: at 21 centimeters. These two molecules, which combined form

text: water

text: , are widespread in interstellar gas, and their presence radiates radio noise at these frequencies.  Therefore, the spectrum between these frequencies form a "quiet" channel in the interstellar

text: radio noise

text: background.  Bernard M. Oliver theorized that the waterhole would be an obvious band for

entity_name: Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence

text: communication with extraterrestrial intelligence

text: , hence the name, which is a form of pun: in English, a watering hole is a

text: vernacular

text: reference to a common place to meet and talk. Several programs involved in the

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: , including

text: SETI@home

text: , search in the waterhole radio frequencies.

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text: Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: non-renewable resources

text: because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: .Fuels are a source of energy.

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text: Austrian-American psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich designed a "cloudbuster" in the United States with which he said he could manipulate streams of "orgone energy" (which he claimed was a primordial cosmic energy) in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. It was a set of hollow metal pipes and cables inserted into water, which Reich argued created a stronger orgone energy field than was in the atmosphere, the water drawing the atmospheric orgone through the pipes. Reich called his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering".

text: Austrian-American psychoanalyst

text: Wilhelm Reich

text: designed a "

text: cloudbuster

text: " in the

text: United States

text: with which he said he could manipulate streams of "

text: orgone energy

text: " (which he claimed was a primordial cosmic energy) in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. It was a set of hollow metal pipes and cables inserted into water, which Reich argued created a stronger orgone energy field than was in the atmosphere, the water drawing the atmospheric orgone through the pipes. Reich called his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering".

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text: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes.

text: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: carbon dioxide

text: by biological processes.

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answers: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas CO2.

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text: As astronomer Phil Plait has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

text: As astronomer

text: Phil Plait

text: has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

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text: Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

text: Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through

text: photosynthesis

text: , a process that also captures

text: carbon

text: from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another,

text: animal

text: s play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and

text: microbial

text: biomass

text: present. By breaking down dead organic matter,

text: decomposer

text: s release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate

text: nutrient cycling

text: by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

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answers: Conduction

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answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000872

answers: By feeding on plants

answers: NDQ_000873

answers: Sun

answers: NDQ_000874

answers: energy that flows through ecosystems

answers: NDQ_000875

answers: the atmosphere

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answers: photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000877

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answers: energy

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answers: captures carbon

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answers: Gamma rays do not penetrate Earths atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000882

answers: energy

answers: NDQ_000884

answers: Carbon

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answers: It generally enters the system through photosynthesis

answers: NDQ_000889

answers: carbon from the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000890

answers: abiotic components of an ecosystem

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answers: animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system

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answers: carbon dioxide

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answers: Carbon from the atmosphere

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answers: By breaking down dead organic matter

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answers: decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere

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answers: carbon from the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000914

answers: the atmosphere

answers: NDQ_000915

answers: carbon from the atmosphere

text: LOFAR offers a unique possibility in particle physics for studying the origin of high-energy and ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (HECRs and UHECRs) at energies between } eV. Both the sites and processes for accelerating particles are unknown. Possible candidate sources of these HECRs are shocks in radio lobes of powerful radio galaxies, intergalactic shocks created during the epoch of galaxy formation, so-called Hyper-novae, gamma-ray bursts, or decay products of super-massive particles from topological defects, left over from phase transitions in the early Universe. The primary observable is the intense radio pulse that is produced when a primary CR hits the atmosphere and produces an extensive air shower (EAS). An EAS is aligned along the direction of motion of the primary particle, and a substantial part of its component consists of electron-positron pairs which emit radio emission in the terrestrial magnetosphere (e.g., geo-synchrotron emission).

text: LOFAR offers a unique possibility in

text: particle physics

text: for studying the origin of high-energy and

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: s (HECRs and UHECRs) at energies between } eV. Both the sites and processes for accelerating particles are unknown. Possible candidate sources of these HECRs are shocks in radio lobes of powerful radio galaxies, intergalactic shocks created during the epoch of galaxy formation, so-called Hyper-novae,

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s, or decay products of super-massive particles from topological defects, left over from phase transitions in the early Universe. The primary observable is the intense radio pulse that is produced when a primary CR hits the atmosphere and produces an extensive air shower (EAS). An EAS is aligned along the direction of motion of the primary particle, and a substantial part of its component consists of

text: electron-positron pairs

text: which emit radio emission in the terrestrial magnetosphere (e.g., geo-synchrotron emission).

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